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    A First Course in Continuum Mechanics (Fung) PDF

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    Lorena Galm

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    A FIRST COURSE IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS Third Edition A FIRST COURSE IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS for Physical and Biological Engineers and Scientists —— { Y. C. Fung Profesor of Applied Mechaxcs end Bening University of California, San Diego PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Clits, New Jersey 07632 vary of Congres Catia Polain Dita Fang, ¥.C.(Yumeben) "Af coue in conn means: for py nd ‘loop eens en engineers Y.C. Fang, 3 Bom ies ibogrpi! efeenes a ind. ISBN Orsa6Is02 1. Coninoom metas, 1. Tie (anata 1551 sia nsei0 Acquistion tr Dou Haspey Prodcion er Bayi Mentor Lzon Cove deg: oe DiDomenio (Copy ed: Bran Baker Pras Byer Linda Berens Marafcarig bayer: Dave Dickey ‘Silene er les Dworkin Bala asst Sin Hai SE 019,197,180 by Prentice t,t, A Sion &Sehuser Company Englewood Cit, New Je 165. Allright revere No part of his oak my be repro in any foro bya eas, ‘tot perio in wig the pois Print inthe Unie States of Anes ISBN O-13-Ob1524-2 woeTésaszi 15264 ISBN O-13-Ob1524-2 straots Pre Hal Intron (UI) Limited, Landon Pree Hal of Asal Py Line, Syne Prentice Hal Cina ae, Toone Pron Hal Hipananericn, SA. Meso Prentice al fea Pvt int, Nor Deli rence Halo Jpe, Ine, Tojo Sinan & Shar Ass ei, Singapore "Bora Prete Hal do Bis a, Ro de onto a Dedicated to students who would share my enthusiasm {for the application of mechanics, and t0 ‘Luna, Conrad, and Brenda. oe ———— Contents a Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the First Elton 41 Introduetion 1 The objective ofthis course 1 1.2 Applications to seience and technology 2 13. What is mechanics? 2 {14 Aprototye ofa continuum: The casal deiiton 2 15 Our definition ofa continuum 3 116 The concep of tres in our defiton ofa coninuum 4 4.7 Abstract copy of a1ealcontinoum 5 18 What ie continnum mechanics atout? 6 19 Axioms of continoum mechanict 7 1.10 A biological example of hier of continua depending on dhe size ofthe object involed in scent inquiry 7 1.11 lemeatary topic through whic basi ideas evohed 22 cl Contents Vectors and Tensors. 39 21 esas 22 Vetorosis 4 23 Thesumtonconenion 24 Tindaon ation wordnass 25 Comte tannin ine 5 2 Anda esto ec et, Cates 27 Repiianeot oars aos ts an ess Balle orn? 29 Quotient rule 59. * * 20 Paral dvs @ ‘Stress oa MI Titastanes 4 32 Tectia 8 23 Guiysomin 6 34. Egutinsel tron 2 35 Chgeestes competi barman a 36 Ss copes ion cue ort ‘3.7 Stress boundary conditions. © 78 * Principal Stresses and Principal Axes 88 41 Introduction 88 42 Plane state of stress 89 43° Mol’s circle fr plane stress 92 44 Mohr’ citls for thnee-dimensional stress states 94 45, Principal stresses 94 46° Shearing stresses 97 47 Suress-deviation tensor 99 48° Lamé’s stress elipsoid 102 Analysie of Deformation 12 541 Deformation 112 52 Thestrain 115 53 Strain components in terms of displacements 117 54 Geometric interpretation of infiuitesimal strain components 119 55. Infinitesimal rotation 124 5.6 Finite strain components 122 5.7 Principal strains: Mobr’s cielo 124 Contents ‘58 Infntesimal strain components in polar coordinates 125, ‘39 Direct derivation of the strain-dsplacement relations in polar coordinates 128 5.10 Other strain measures 131 Velocity Fields and Compatibility Conditions 145 6.1 Velocity fields 145 62. The compatibility contition 146 63. Compaiblity of strain components in three dimensions 148 Constitutive Equations 154 ‘TA. Specifiction of the properties of materials 154 72 ‘The noniseous uid 155 73 Newtonian uid 156 74 Hlookean elastic solid 157 75 Bfect of temperature 161 71 Materials with more complex mechanical behavior 161 Isotropy 165 8.1 The concept of material isotropy 165 82 Isotropic tensor 165, 83 Isotropic tensors of rank 3 169 84 Isotropic tensors of rank 4170 85. sotropic materials 172 86 Coincidence of principal axes of stress and of strain 172 87 Other methods of characterizing isotropy 173 88 Can we recognize a materia’ isotropy from the nicrostructure? 173 Mechanical Properties of Real Fiuids and Solids 181 94° Fluids 181 92. Viscosity 183 93 Plasticity of metals — 186 ‘94 Materials with nonlinear elasticity 188 9.5 Nonlinear stress strain relationships of rubber and biological tissues 19 9.6 Linear viscoelastic bodies 193 9:7 Quasitinear viscoelasticity of biological tissues 197 98 Not-Newonian fuids 201 9.9 Viscoplastic materials 202 9.10 Sol-gel transformation and thixotropy 204 1 2 B Derivation of Field Equations 10.1 Gauss’s theorem 209 10.2. Material description ofthe motion of acontinoum 212 10.3. Spatial description ofthe motion of a continuum 214 10.4 The material derivative of a velume integral 215 10.5 The equation of continuity 217 10.6 The equations of motion 218 10.7 Moment of momentum 219 108 The balance of energy 220 10.9 The equations of motion and continuity in polar coordinates 223, Field Equations and Boundary Conditions in Fluid Mechanics ILL The Navier-Stokes equations 231 11.2. Boundary condition ata solid‘luid interface 233, 113 Surface tension and the boundary conditions at an interface between two fids 235 14 Dynamic similarity and Reynods number 238 115 Laminar Pow in a horizontal cannel or tube 240 11.6 Boundary layer 244 11.7 Laminar boundary layer over «flat plate 247 118 Nonviscous fuid 249 11.9. Vortcity and circulation 251 11,10 Irotational ow 253, LIL Compressible noaviscous fis 254 11.12 Subsonic and supersonic low 257 11.13 Applications to biology 265 Some Simple Problems in Etesticity 12.1. Basie equations of elasticity for homogencous, isotropic bodies 270 122 Plane elastic waves 272 123. Simplifications 274 124 Torsion ofa circular ylindtial shaft 274 25 Beas 218 12.6 Biomechanics 281 Stress, Strain, and Active Remodeling of Structures 13. Introduction 285, 182 How to discover the zero-strest state of material in a solid body 285 Contents 231 270 Contents 23 B4 BS B6 BI BR ‘Remodeling the zerostres state of structure: A biological example of active remodeling due to change ia stress 288 ‘Change of zero-stress state with temperature: Material that “remem ber” their shapes 290 Morphological and strctural modi of blood vessel due to change in blood pressure 292 Remodeling of mechanical propertis 294. Sires analysis wth the zoro-stes sate taken into acount 296 Stese-rowth relationship 259 302 -Theobentve of tisedion the same ath ofthe ai AS To emphasize cae maton of problems in mechanics, to reduce vague HT precise wre ematical statements, and to cla a habit of queso analyzing, design ing and inventing in engineering and sec. 1 ave stressed applications even ins aongy inthis eto. Ths, ate very Penn continua are defined With regard 1o real materia. Thoughcst the boa, no discrimination was made Again biological materials, Biology included in Soe» bioengineering is ariel in engnoeing, Mechanics ot Kite to physic. Tr hs book, [often ask the rae to formulate equations regardless of ats Peon ec solve them ort. Tv knowe many Sader ‘wo ave i erable exercises wouter formulating problem theie own. 1 op that they wir things the ter way f Enews mS problems oftheir ne ihe aie to dzver the netbods of soon 28 subtleties of the oon and they are encouraged to serve nar and 10 Ck of problems in > ‘Acourse incakydom mechanics then provides 2 foundation for suis ‘uid and solid in ry materl scenes, and ote branches of seen a SENET risa opiion ta, for a egies the approach sould Pe physical rather than mathematical, To engineers and physics who tse coninnurt mechanics ‘oat ly, the primary attraction fhe subj is in its iy cof conception cot apeteness in applications, Therefore the stuns shoud introduced to the applications as soon as possible. Poni ox egier, he important questions he must Gin ante to ae How shal [formulate the problem? How shell state = ‘governing field equations and boundary conditions? How hall choose alternate hypotheses? What aati iments woud july or deny improve my hypotiese How exaus: Xin the ivesigalion be? Whee might eos appear? How mich time is feud to obtain a easonale soon? At what co? hes qoestions which re ae investigator, and are questions of sates, which sr analyses ome “Gpmlte anne 1 these question ate peyon th pe fe “Gest wo ate ean male a god began, In this ook, ten a the reader ‘erate problems, regardless of heer he can solve is aor and under- {oor material xls, have known many students who Be read smaay books and worked innumerable exerises without ever formulating problem sree own, 1 hope they wil Iam the other way, to generale mony problems of sean ard the sive to discover the methods andsbdeties of sation ‘They wi Profaco tothe Fis Elton should be encouraged to observe nature an to think of problems in engineering and then to take the first step to write down a posible set of governing equations 1nd boundary conditions. This “first step”—to derive the basic governing equa- tions—is the object of this book. Pethaps it sjustiiabe for a “fist course” to be concerned only with this first step. But the preparation required for taking tis step is extensive, For such a step to be firm, one would have to understand the basic concops of mechanis and their mathematical expressions. To be able to use these basic equations with confidence one must know their origin and their der ivations. Therefore, the discussions of basic ideas must he thorough. Its for this. reason thatthe first ten chapters of this book ae rather comprehensive and detailed. {As forthe organization ofthe book: At the outst, the concept of continua isexpleined. Then a thorough treatment of the canceps of stress and strain follows. ‘The practical technigues of determining the principal stress and strain, and the concept of compatibility, ere given emphasis in two separate chapters. The descrip- tion of motion is considered. In Chapter 7, cn idealized specification of fuids and Solis is presented, The important concept of isotropy is described in detail in (Chapter 8, Data onthe mechanical propertts of common Mud and solids appear in Chapter 9. In Chapter 10, a thorough testment ofthe basic conservation laws of physics is given, Boginning with Chapter 11, some features of perfect fuids, viscous flow, boundary layer theory, lineaized theory of elasticity, theories of bending and torsion, and elastic waves are described briefly. The last two chapters provide a glimpse into the rch fields of fd and solid mechanics; to teat them comprehensively would require many volures at @ more advanced mathematical level. Te introduction given here should prepa the student to enter thes fields with greater eas. If the reader obtains clear ideas about the stress, stn, and constitutive ‘equations from this book, I would consider tis introductory text a success. Beyond this, only sketch of some classical problems is provided. Many discussions are sven inthe exercises, which should be regarded as an integra part of the txt. T have quoted frequently and borrowed heavily from my previous book, Foundations of Solid Mechanics, which can be used for a eourse following the present one. The material fr this “first couse” was organized for my clas t the University of California, San Diego, where the curriculum offers emphasis on ‘general sciences before specialization. The book shouldbe useful for undergrad: ‘ates and younger graduate students who hove a reasonable background in math- ‘ematies andl physics ‘Tho writing ofthis book wasa pleasant experience. My wie, Luna, cooperated throughout the task. A mathematician, she gave up her teaching career when T ‘came to La Jolla. Wiling to learn some meckanis, she worked through the man- script very thoroughly. Many passages are clearer because of her decaration that she did not understand. My friend, Chi-Shun Yih, Timoshenko Professor at the ‘University of Michigan, reed through the manuscript and gave me many valuable ‘comments. Iam alo grateful to Drs. Pin Tong ofthe Massachusetts Institute of ‘Technology and Gilbert Hegemir ofthe University of California, San Diego, for tc tet ton Pra to Nicholas Romanelli of ter my thanks 1 wish to eter ating the index, Sie comments Fi ee ine Li or prep Soa fox otra = Pri Hl eo peg et ENN Sine woke pease 6 fig La Jolla, California A FIRST COURSE IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS 1 INTRODUCTION INIkop Ses Te defntion of conn or edn mater i peed eee ey examples trough which basi idea of mechanics evolve. 1.4 THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS COURSE ‘our objective is wo lean how 1 formate problems in mechanis and how to oa questions and ideas into pee material tatemen' a Woh res ae aio questing, anayng, desing, and iveting in ear neering and science. Te ora few questions. Sppose a panes ying above 8. The wing mst be under stain in nr to support he Pang 00 freight. How wigs Te are the wings subjected of you were Shing lier, m= anvil sy appeared, the thermal coment woud cry the eat Higher, Dove fly la arsed Have the wings sufcent sng? Acad yu se the Gated it ge cables suppor treendovs lod. How Goes one es such ote cloud contain wate andthe ouside needs that water, Ne cloud ee oul hat produce ran? And would the in fl where ned? Me pe aount of anal be adequte and not produce fod Inte ine, Pe gla eactr power station. How isthe est anspor ip the reactor? ‘ins ind of thermal reses are ther inthe reactor? How does ope SS the Wty ofthe power aon agin eariuakes What happens 2 arth in an sa) ake? Thinking aout he lobe. you may wonder pow ths pene float, carte apart. Ant how about oss: How dowe breathe? Wha hanes {ave place in ur hngs if we do yogt exerci and stand or 99° heads? Pe Manly, al these questions ae concerned with fre, moon, 0%, deformation, energy, propertis of mater, external inteacion Datwesy bodies, oF Seton between on part ody and anther part, nd chase aren tamporerly or permanent, reversibly ot ever. Ts changes, toga withthe axioms of coatinuum mechanics ca Be reduced to certain dif- rasa equations and boundary conditions. By solving such equatiTs obtain presi quantitative information. In hs book, we del wth he fundamental prin 1 2 Introduction Chop. ciples that underlie these differential equations and boundary conditions. Although it would be nice to solve these equations once they are formulated, we shall not ‘become involved in discussing their solutionsin detail, Our objective is formulation: the formal reduction of general ideas to a mathematical form. ‘12 APPLICATIONS TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY “The mathematical approach taken inthis book willbe aimed at serving science and technology. I want the applications to be apparent tothe student; hence, the examples and the problems to be solved are often stated in terms of scientific research or engineering design, A person’ frame of mind with regard to designing ‘and inventing things, devices, methods theories, and experiments can be strength ceed by constant practce—by forming a bit. 13 WHAT IS MECHANICS? “Mechanics isthe study of the motor. (or equilibrium) of matter and the fores that cause such motion (or equilibrium) Mechanics is based on the concepts of time, space, force, energy, and matter. A knowledge of mechanics is needed for the study of all branches of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering. 14 A PROTOTYPE OF A CONTINUUM: THE CLASSICAL DEFINITION. ‘The classical concept ofa continuum is derived from mathematics. We say that the real number system isa continuum. Between any two distinct real numbers there is another distinct real number, and therefore, there are ininitely many real rnumiers between any two distinct eal numbers. Intuitively, we fee that time can be represented by a real number sstem ¢ and that athree-dimensional space can be represented by three rel number systems x,y, 2. Thus, we identity de and space together as a four-dimensional continuum. Extending the concept of a continuum to matter, we speak ofa continuous distibution of matter in epace. This may be best listrated hy considering the concept of density. Let the amount of matter be measured by its mas, and let us sssume that a certain mater permeates a certain space Ve, asin Fig. 1.1. Let us consider a point P in Ys and a sequence of subspaces Y, Vo, .. converging on P: CVn FET, (012-0), aH) Let the volume of Y. be V, and the mass of the matter contained in Y, be M. We form the ratio M/W. Then ifthe limit of MJ/V, exists as n> & and V, > 0, the Se. 15 Our Definition of @ Continuum LAA sequence of spatial omtias converging on ing valu is detind asthe deny of he mas dsbucon ate pin P and is denoted by p(P): ay) ti a crc “cr in ig Stiga a oer at nm fe en ce a ep no cell aggregate can either. 115 OUR DEFINITION OF A CONTINUUM ch dea mae acpinnin sro cal rs eg nee ioe pee te tered ot oo SOG see stl i Tp ube tad ve mihi lnm mt lr ey fe mnt oer iP sec fen Fo uscpaneet bcs on. Yaw in To chat none nal eng ‘ Introduction Chap. t P. As n— «the lini of V, tends ta finite postive number w, Let the mass of the material enclose in be My. The sequence of the ratios My; i said to have a limit p with an acceptable variability «if as n> «, The quantity pis then said to be the density ofthe material at P with an ‘acceptable variability ¢ ina defining lit volume ‘We define the momentum of th: material particles per unit volume and the nergy per unit volume similarly, cach asorated with an acceptable variability and a defining volume. Later (See Sec. 1.6), we shall deal with the free acting on surface ofa material body, and it would be necessary to consider whether a limit ‘of force per unit area exists at any point onthe surface with an acceptable variability ina defining limit ara, Ifit does exis, then the limits called the traction or ste, and the collective entity of traction in every orientation ofthe susface i called the ses tensor. Further, in Chap 5 weshall consider the change of spacing between particles and define the strain tensor. The existence of strain components willbe ‘associated with an acceptable variabilty and a defining Limit length If, with a clear understanding cf acceptable variables and defining limit lengths, areas, and volumes, the density, momentum, energy, stress, and strain ‘ean be defined at every point nthe space, andi they are all continuovs functions ‘of spatial coordinates in Vo, then we say thatthe material in Vs isa continuum, fa material is a continuum in the classical sense, then it aso a continuum {in our sense. Fora classical continuum the acceptable variability andthe defining ‘init length, area, and volume are zo. In other books on continuum mechanics, the authors say or imply that to decide whether continuum mechanics is applicable to science and technology is a ‘matter forthe experimenters in each dscipne to decide. I say instead tht every experimenter knows that the classical taeory does not apply hence its the respon- sibility of the theorist o refine the theay to ft the real world. Our approach does fitmany field of scence and technology; the need to specify ecceptablevarabilites and defining dimensions isthe price we pay. ‘U6 THE CONCEPT OF STRESS IN OUR DEFINITION OF A CONTINUUM Consider a materat B occupying a spatial region V (Fg. 1.2) Imagine a closed surface $ within B, and consider the interaction between the material outside $ and that inthe interior. Let AS be a sal surface element on S. Let us draw, fom 4 point on AS, a unit vector v normal to AS, wih its direction pointing outward ‘rom the interior of S. Then we can cistinguish the two sides of AS according to the direction of v. Let the side to which this normal vetor points be called the Positive side, Consider the part of material lying on the positive side. This part exerts a foree AF on the other part, which is situated on the negative side ofthe Sec. 1.7 Abstract Copy ofa Real Contintum 5 igure 1.2 Stress principle sm The es AP depen on aon ni he eh Mt of te somal Welnds than ho 85 en oma ‘athe ea eat AS tdsos dfn RUS thon ple vty on he monet of eo go ene Sabet any Pt nts he ofa bt nel ean pl aly. The ning eri ten ire he supervising ode the dest of he normal» i Ting er sl ie rain ot oer et res eee et ei ra ting cot is "=P erin tat here dened pon ay imged ced sua Sin the indir ofseomnum ase vets Bk whose etn on tena o=cuPyig thse nr Segoe oe acon teeter mately tune pnp of Ele ond avy. We ep his pine 8 0 fovevert eno morta bssnpifeaton,Forezamp, hes pra ttestn ny th meacon ofthe net o he vo sie fhe sae AAS eu be manent Inet ome people we dost isthe ese then hat th monet oh floes gon these AS aba a pit inthe ee he i ave propo een of the Ss np Er anf Cay, ume cosy sl sue ema na vr te aon of he ete mae upon the nor equipolet 1 stand couple Te eu they seth ot of ope srs a 1 mre cml tn te cmentna they. 80 ft 0 elation fare fud fore couplets tea, hes, we hallo eos ut ints boot 117 ABSTRACT COPY OF A REAL CONTINUUM Cnc is desded that mati bdy canbe ead conus, oe cn tat hat copy fhe el mati according oh si tion ‘atopy opi wi hel umber ns es ab alton 6 Introduction Chap. 1 ofthe rel material, The rues ofiealiztion areas follows: The mass densiy of thedeaized systems the same a the real one in the range ofits definition. When tet of forse applied to both the real material and the abstract copy, the stress fndstrain ofthe two stems are e same, excep tha the calel ofthe deaized Som ean be cred out goo}, wheeas hat of he eel material would have 2 limitation onthe lower bound of sizes anda statistical variability that mus be ualuted. The constitutive eqution ofthe real materi used to dserie the fechaieal properties ofthe idedized copy. The real tem sais the equations hates (ecoqalbrom),coaticty and blanc of energy ofthe idealized system with eros whose Bounds can be calculated. Often, library fll of results con- Teming the abstract copy exits and can be borowed. The known, acceptable “rnb and defining dmensixs wl allow sto evaluate the ference between the real material and the abstraction and let ws know something bout the real system, “The constutve equation of an abstract copy ofa ral materi in a certain range of ses may difr from the consiutive equation of another copy of the ‘am material ina diffrent range of sizes. Ihe constitutive equations of the real tateril were the same for conscuie ranges of sis, then the abstract copy has tne constitutive equation inthe total range. If the consttative equations of the eal mattal ae diferent n diferent ranges of size, then the abstract copies ia Trotsive ranges of sizes have diferent constitutive equations. This is indeed a tsefu feature of our system, because it allows us to recognize diferent structures ofan object at diferent dimensions of observation, to ask diffrent questions at itferent levels of sizes, and to ain a better understanding ofthe whole “The hierarchy ofthe consittve equations at diferent dimensions of obser- vation ofa material is related tthe sinrity or dsimiary ofthe structure of the material at diferent dimensions, The structure of « material may be fac, ie selesimilas in successive rages of sizes; ort may nt be facial, For example, the geomet pattem of the aivays of the lung, (rom the largest bronei tothe Smallest bronchiole, is fractal in structure, so the bronchi in this rane of sizes fan be expested to bey the sane constitutive equation, The structural patter of the alveolar ducts, from the respiratory bronco othe alveolar sacs, is another fractal; hence, different consitutive equation is expected to hold inthis range. “Te pulmonary alveolthe areolar wall—are not fatal at al nether are the callagen and elastin fiber in th abvenar walls. Hene, their mechanical properties ood ently diferent desciptos 1.8 WHAT IS CONTINUUM MECHANICS ABOUT? ‘We shall calla continuum endosed ina closed surface @ body. The surface my be real, like the skin of a man or the shell of an airplane, But it may also be imaginary, visualized to enclose a bt of space Roel woxld material objets are subjected to forees acting on their bodies (euchs gravitational and electromagnet ores nd forces acing on ther surfaces SSec,1.10 A Blologcal Example of aHierarchy of Continua 7 (euch as atmospheric prestue, wind and ai, burdens tobe carted, and oad 0 be transmitted to a remote place), I the body isa continuum in the sense described in the preceding section, then we woald want to know how the materi inthe brody racist the exteral force, The detemination ofthe internal condition of 2 body in response to external fore 's whet continuum mechanics about 119 AXIOMS OF CONTINUUM MECHANICS “The anious of physics are taken as th axioms of continuum mechanics. In pa- ticalar, we use Newton's lavs of moion and the frst and second laws of ther- rmodyniamics inthis book. "There are thee additional axioms of continuum mechanics. First, « material continu remains a continuum under the action of forces. Hence, two particles that are neighbors at one time remain neighbors a all imes. We do allow bodies to be breakable (ce. they can be fractured); but the surfaces of fracture must be identified as nowly created enteral surfaces. In ving bodies, we allow new growth (ee. cellar or extracellular mes increased, new cells migrated into an are of the body, or proliferated from existing cels by division) and resorption (cellar fr extracellular mass reduced, eels migrated out of an area of the body, or cell ‘ied and subsequently washed away by blood, or absorbed in issue), Each newly aulded or resorbed call ereates a new surface inthe body. “The second axiom of contingum mechanics is that tress, as described in Sec. 1.6, and stain, as described in Chap. 5, can be defined everywhere in the body. ‘The third axiom of continuum mechanics i tat the stress at & point is related to the stain andthe rate of change of train with respect to time at the same point. ‘This axiom i a great simplijing assumption. I asserts thatthe stress at any point in the body depends only on the deformation in the immediate neighborhood of that poin."This stessstrain relationship may be influenced by other parameters, toch a fomperature, electric charges, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, fon transport, e., but these influences san be studied separately. 1:10 A BIOLOGICAL EXAMPLE OF A HIERARCHY OF CONTINUA. DEPENDING ON THE SIZE OF THE OBJECT INVOLVED IN A SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY We ave familiar with telescopic views of the sky and microscopic views of eels tissues, metals, and ceramics. As scales of observation change, the object appears diferent. An example is the humax lung. Figure 1.3 shows that the lung may be considered to be composed ofthec trees: an airway tee, an arterial tres, and a enous tee, The airway te fr ventilation. The trachea is divided into bronchi, “Which enter the lang and subdivide repeatedly (in humans, 23 times, statistically Speaking) into miller and smaller branches and, ally, nto the smallest nits, felled pulmonary alveoli, Figure 14 shows a photograph of human alveob, 3 seem 8 Introduction Chap. 1 he igure 1.3 A conceptual sketch showing the ung as composed of thre tres: the airway te» (raches-bronchi-bronchioleralveoer ducs-lvel), shown on te lf; the palmonary arterial ree (atres— artrioles-capilaies), shown at the eeater, andthe pulmonary venous tue (venles-sens-eft atu), shown onthe ight. Taal hight on the order of 40cm. in a microscope. The photo covers a small area within the fitle cre on the left border of the leftmost drawing in Fig. 1.3. The wall of the alveoli are capillary blood vessels. Every wall of each alveolus is exposed to ges on both sides. The pulmonary artery aso bifurcates again and again uni it becomes capillary blood vessels that lie in the alveolar wall. The venous tree begins with the capillaries in the alveolar wall. The veins converge repeatedly until they become pulmonary ‘eins, which enter the left atrium ofthe heart. The main function of the lang takes place in the alveoli. The venous lood takes up oxygea from the ga in the alveoli and releases carbon dioxide tothe alveolar gas. The gas exchange takes place across ‘the alveolar wall. Figure 1.5 shows a micrograph of the alveolar walls enclosed in 4 small circle on the lft border of Fig. 1.4. Figure 1.6 shows the collagen fibers inthe alveolar walls. The collagen fibers were stained wit silver and appear as black bundles. The collagen fibers are formed by ibis. Fibils are formed by collagen molecules. One could goon to smaller hierarchies consisting of molecules, ‘atoms, nucle, and quarks. Depending on what prope-ty of the lung we wish to investigate, we may consider the lung a a continuum at sucessve hiorarcies. For example, if one is interested in comparing the diference in strain in the upper part of the human hung from that in the lower par, then the individual alveoli can be considered infinitesimal and one can speak of deformation averaged over volumes that are large compared with the volume af a single alveolus, but small compared with the ‘whole lung Such an approximation would be appropriate in studying the interaction jag. Silver-stsined, thick ing sketched in Fig. 1.3 re on the left border fon of ling tissue, Black lines, Aiveclar walls: From Matsuda, M., Fong, ¥- ‘Bhstin Fibers in Fluman Puleionsty Alveolar Mouths snd Due Phynistogy 63): 1185-1194, 1987, Reproduced by permission. Figure 1.4 A magnified view of a tle tip of the rE within the smal G36 pt) se 0 Introduction Chap. 1 Figure 5 A magnified view of the alveolar walls enclose in a small cle on the left border of ig. 1.4 showing the capillary blood vessels in he walls as called he iateralveolar septa) A = aleoir gas space. between the lung and the ches wal, the distribution of pleural pressure, or the distribution of ventilation inthe whole lng (because ventilation is elated toalveo- lar siz, which s proportional ty the strin) For these problems, a hierarchy with minimum dimension on the order of 1m wll suffice. On the other hand, if one is interested inthe blood flow in the large pulmonary artery, then the blood can be regarded asa homogeneous fd and the biood vessel wall canbe regarded as ‘continuum, witha minimum dimension forthe definition of tress and strain on the order of 10 um. If oe is iteested insted inthe stres in a single alveolar wall (with 9 plane area onthe order of 100 x 100 pom anda thickness of about 10 um), then even the icv eollagen and eatin fhers inthe wall exmnot he ignored, and the wall must be considered a compost structure made of several diffrent materials and constnte in a special way. What kinds of averages are _seful depend on what the purpose of one's investigation is. Engineer, biologists, and physicists are concerned about these questions. We bend the casicalcontn- ‘uum mechanics in this directon to make it useful for dealing with practical problems, ‘See, 1.10 A Biological Example ofa Hierarchy of Continua Wee eae te Ve TS i be ‘igure 1.6. Collagen fibers ina pulmonary alveolar wall of human Fung inflated to a transplmonay pressure (alveoli ges pressure mis pleurl pressure) of 1 cm 10. Seal is marked on Border, 60 piels re equal to 200 um in sue, O50, fied. Sve tained, Black fe collagen ber. Larger ones te about 1 un wide. From Sobin, SS, Fung, Y.C, and Trener, 4.M.,“Collageo and Eastin bers ism Poimonaty Alvelr Wale,” App. Pysilogy 648): 1659- 1675, 1988, Reproduced by permission 2 Introduction Chap. 1 4.11 ELEMENTARY TOPICS THROUGH WHICH BASIC IDEAS EVOLVED ‘Asan introduction fo the ret ofthe book, let us consider some elementary topics that re simple and useful end that have been fundamental inthe history of mechan- ics. These include Newton's laws of motion, the equations of equilibrium, the use of reebody diagrams, the analyses of a truss, a beam, a block, a plate, and a shell, nd the classical beam theory, Ifyou ae familiar with these topics, you can 0 over them quickly. If some poins are new to you, Tean assure you tha learning hem would not be a waste of you ime, Newton's Laws of Motion Newton’ laws are stated with respect to material particles in athree-dimensional space that obeys Euclidean geometry. A material particle has a unique, positive measure, the mass of the particle. The location of the particle can be described with respect to e rectangular Cartesian frame of reference. Its assumed that an inertial frame of reference exists, vit respect to which the Newtonian equations of motion are valid. It ean be shown that any frame of reference moving with a uniform velocity with respect to an inertial frame is again inertial. Consider a particle of mass m. Let the position, velocity, and acceleration of this particle be denoted by the vector x, v, and a, respectively, all defined in an inertial frame of reference, By definition, 8 au Let Fb the tot fore sting onthe patie IF = 0, then New’ fa aw slates that = constant ar) IEF #0 then Novo’ second lav stats tat favs, or B= ma (ita) When Fag (1.11-3) is writer as F + (-ma) = 0, (1K) it appears as an equation of equilibrium of two forces. The term —ma i called the inertia fore. Equation (11-4 states that the sum ofthe extemal force acting ‘on a particle and the inertial free vanishes; i. the inertial force balanes the ‘extemal foree. The Newtonian equation of motion stated inthis way is called D’Alemibert' principle. ‘Now, consider a sytem of parties that interact with each other. Byery particle i influenced by ll the othr particles inthe system. Let an index I denote seo.1:11 Elementary Ties through Which Basic Ideas Evolved 8 tion exerted by pare numer hea pie Let denote tfc ofitencon xe : te ean ttt tie on parle. The Neos third inp sites tt Fy or Pot y= ass) ef in ageemet wih Ea (L319) Er = J then ve wt Fy ~ 0 ([ 20 se) in geomet » ae ter farts i en. Te fore hat ac 0 and an inert force ofan eteral loc uch svi, and am ints 1 patie on ron een pre. TS, H+ De utes) fy i ‘The equation of motion of the th patil is, therefore, ras Ang =H + To iz y quae te Each partie is deseied by such an equation, The totality of K equations sis the motion ofthe system. ert ye mast gst te foes fines Fi can be ecmpated. Sock spedeatn isa statement of the materi property of aca pies und lone os 2 conta equton ofthe ater system. Equilibrium ‘Aspecial motions eur, i, onein which there sno aoeeraton fr any particles of the system. ‘At equilibrium, Eq. (1.11-7) becomes adhe Cen OO ‘Summing over I from 1 to K, we obtain fers bdn de a ne de 2H “Thats, for a body in equiru, the zammaton of el eternal forces acing on (ars) (111-10) “ Introduction Chap. 1 Next, let us consider the tendency ofa body to rotate. Ifa body is pivoted ata point O andi acted on by afore F,, then the moment of the force about O that tends to cause the body to rotate about Oi given by the vetor product x 5, where it a rads vector from Oo any point on the ln faction of the force F,, Forming a veetor product oft with Eg (.11-8),i., with every term of that equation, seting J = 1,2... K,ading the results together, ., summing over rom 1 to K, snd wsing Bq, (.11-5) to simplify the grand total, we obtain (ut) ‘The choice ofthe point O is arbitrary. Hence, we obtain the second conition of cequilbcium ofthe body: The summaion of the moments of all the exteral forces ‘acting nthe body about any point is ero. Use of Free-Body Diagram in the Analysis of Problems ‘The word body othe phrase ass: of particles used inthe previous section can ‘be interpreted in the most general wey. Ifa machin sin equim, every part of tis in equim, By a proper ston ofthe pat tobe examined a varey of information canbe obtained. This method is ike a surgeon's exploration of a

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