11479923 Book Quantum الكوانتم PDF

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THE LIMITS OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS
The Dawn of the Quantum Theory

.
Newton
J. LaGrange and W.
.Hamilton
elasticity theory
hydrodynamic
Carnot
J. Gibbs
.
)
(optics and electromagnetic theory .
J. Maxwell
""

H. Hertz 1887 .
--
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Classical physics

quantum theory

.
:
the particle properties of radiation the
wave properties of matter the quantization of
.physical quantities .
.1-1 ""
1-1 Blackbody Radiation
-
- Blackbody Radiation could not be explained by classical physics

.

.

.
deal body
--
.
" " .
an ideal body, which absorbs and emits all frequencies, is called
a blackbody and serves as an idealization for any radiating material,
the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation.
1-1
.
) (1-1

Rayleigh and Jeans
:
8D K B T
= )u (T 3
2 )(1-1
C
energy density )u ( , T
) .(J/m3 )T (1-1 c
KB . 1-1
- .
. -
2
ultraviolet
.ultraviolet catastrophe )(1-1
.

8 Dk B T 2
= u (1T) d

C3
d
--

max
.
. max
FIGURE 1.1
Spectral distribution of the intensity of blackbody radiation as a
function of frequency for several temperatures. The intensity is given
in arbitrary units. The dashed line is the prediction of classical
physics. As the temperature increases. The maximum shifts to higher
frequencies and the total radiated energy (the area under each curve)
increases significantly. Note that the horizontal axis is labeled by
14 -1
/10 s . This notation means that the dimensionless numbers on that
axis re frequencies divided by 1014 s-1. We shall use this notation to
label columns in tables and axes in figures because of its unambiguous
nature and algebraic convenience.
--

2-1
1-2 The Planck Distribution and the Quantum of Energy

Max Planck .1900

.

.
-
- .
.
)
Position Momentum (energy .
In classical physics, the variables that represent observables
(such as position, momentum and energy) can take on a continuum of
values.

:
E = nh
--
Energies of the oscillators were discrete and had to be
proportional to an integral multiple of the frequently in an equation of
the form E = nhv
E n h
v .

:
8 Dh 3
u (1 T) = 3 hv/k T )(1-2
c e B 1

) (1-2
Planck distribution lance for black body radiation.
) (i -
hv
1 v hv

k BT k BT
e v =1+ v +
v2
+ ...
2i
v
v 1 e v 1+ v
8Dh v3 8Dh v 3
u (v1 T) = 3 =
c 1 + h 1 c 3 hv
vT k BT
8D
= )u (v1 T K T v3 )(1-3
c3 B
-.
) (ii
--

8Dh v3
u (t) = u (v1T) dv = 3 dv hv/k T
c e B 1
= dv
h
dv = v h

k BT k BT
= . dv dv dv
k BT
dv
h
dv dv v
k BT
v
h

8Dh kT v 3 kT
u (v, T) = 3 ( ) 3 v ( ) dv
c h e 1 h

8Dh kT 4 v 3 8Dh k B T 4 v 3
c 3 h e v 1 e v 1 dv
= ( ) dv = ( )
c3 D
v dv

D4 3
15 e 1

v
8Dh k B T 4 D 4 8D 5 k B 4 4
= )u (T ( ) = ( ) T
c3 h 15 15 c 3 h
= aT 4 ............. )(1 4
=a
8D 5 k B 4
) ( :
15c 3 h
) (1-4 - Stefan-
Boltzman .
) (iii Wien
u max
T : max
max T = 2.90 10 3 m.K )..(1-5

) (1-5 .
) u ( ) u (
) dv (
=0 v
dv
--
or
d 8Dh v3
=0
1
3 hv/k BT
dv c e
v
k BT
= dv , v
hv

h k BT
.
3 (e v 1) ve v = o
3 e v 3 = ve v
ev
3 3 e v = v
or
3 - v = 3e - v

) (3-v ) (3e-v )(-
:1-2 3 x = 3 e-x
--

v = 2.82
or
hv mar
= 2.82
k BT
or
k BT
= v max )(2.82
h
c h T
)= b (2.82
max h
hc )(6.63 10 34 J.s) (3.0 10 8 m/s
= or max T = 23 1
= 2.9 10 3 m.K
2.82K B ) (2.82) (1.38 10 J.v

.
) max = 500nm
(1nm = 10-9 m .
2.9 10 3 m.k 2.9 10 3 m.k
=T = = 5800k
max 500 10 3 m
- -
FIGURE 1.3 The electromagnetic spectrum of the sun as measured in the upper
atmosphere of the earth. A comparison of this figure with Figure 1.2 shows that
the sun's surface radiates as a blackbody at a temperature of about 6000 k.
) (quanta nv
(1 A =10 . )

10
m = 6000 A
)hc (6.63 10 34 J.s) (3 10 8 m/s

= = E = hv
(6000 10 10 m
= 3.3 10 19 J = 2.06 ev
100 )) (W
Watt (W: Joul/sec N
hv
).Power = N (hv
P = 100 = W = N hv
P 100W
= =N 19
= 310 20 guanta/sec
E 3.3 10 J

) (.
1-3 The Photoelectric Effect 3-1
1887, 1886

Heinrich Hertz ultraviolet light
)( emission
.

)
- -
( . intensity of the
radiation .
The intensity of the radiation is proportioned to the square of the
amplitude of the .oscillating electric field.

)(

kinetic energy )(
. )(
:
-1
.independent of the intensity of incidental
-2

. threshold frequency

.1-4
:1-4 .
- -
FIGURE 1.4 The kinetic energy of electrons ejected from the surface of
sodium metal versus the frequency of the incident ultraviolet radiation. The
)threshold frequency here is 4.40 1014 Hz (1 Hz = 1 s-1
.

( E = nh )
) (
.

) (
photon. E = h
Einstein proposed that the radiation itself existed as smell

packers of energy, E = h , now known as photons.
Conservation of energy
) m = K. E
1
mv 2
2
(v
)( W h
) ( / .Work function
:
1
= K. E mv 2 = hv )(1-5
2
h 1 2
mc
2
h . . h
:
h = )(1-6
- -
) (1-5 .
1
mc 2 = hv hv )(1-7
2
) (y = mx-c
.1-5
Figure 1-5. Photoelectric effect data showing a plot of retarding

potential necessary to stop electron flow from a metal (lithium), or
equivalently, electron kinetic energy, as a function of frequency of the
incident light, the slope of the line is h/e.

eV .
)( m/s
.
- -
:
(1 coulomb) (1 volt) = 1 Joule

1.6 10 19 C
) J (
)1 eV = (1.6 10 19 C) (1 V
= 1.6 10 19 J
:2 1.82 en

eV : : :
= 1.82 eV
J
= (1.82 eV) (1.6 10 19 )
eV
= 2.92 10 19 J
[h
]= )(1-6
) (2.92 10 19 J
= =
)h (6.6310 3 J.S
1
= 4.40 1014 = 4.40 1014 H 2
5
1 ec
5
Hz
:3
3500 .
.1.6 eV
- -

:
)(1-5
K.E = h /
= h k.E
h
)hc (6.6310 34 J.s) (3 10 8 m/s
= = h
)(3500 10 10 m
= 3. eV 1.6 eV = 1.95 eV
:
. = 300.0nm 2.935 10 19 J
1.28 10 19 J =
) (a
) (b
) (c
: ) (1-5
( (K.E)1 (K.E) 2 = h (1 2 ) = hc
1 1
)
1 2

2.93510 19 J 1.280 10 19 J = h (310 8 m/s)
1
9

1
9

:
3 10 m 400 10 m
- -
1.655 1019 J
h 14 1
= 6.625 10 34 J.S
2.498 10 s
= 300 nm ) (b )(
= hv hv
hc
= 2.935 10 19 J hv
300 10 9 m
v c,h
v = 5.564 1014 Hz
= hv ) (
= 3.687 10 19 J
3.687 1019 J/
= = 2.30/eV
J/
1.6 10 19
eV
4-1 :
1-4 The Compton Effect
the particle
nature of radiation )(
Arthur H. Compton
) (X-ray scattered
.
I
)
) (
( I
- -
) (1 + cos 2 )(1-8
I
) (1-6 I
.
Figure 1-6. The spectrum of radiation scattered by carbon,

showing the unmodified line at 0.7078 on the left and the shifted
line at 0.7314 on the right. The former is the wave-length of the
primary radiation.
:

)( hv
elastic scattering .
momentum
energy )( momentum and energy
.must be conserved
- -

p
hv
=p )(1-9
c

.
[
E = (m o c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2 )] (1-10
1
2
mo rest mass v
p
=v
aE d
=
ap dp
[
(m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2 ]1
2
[ ]
1
1 d
= = (m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2 2 )(pc
2 ap
1 1
= (pc)c
[
2 (m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2

]
1
2
pc 2 pc 2
= v = )(1-11
E (m 2 c 4 + p 2 C 2 ) 12

)(1-11 v= c m = o
pc 2
= C/ E=pc )(1-12
E
E = hv ) (1-12 ) (1-9
E hv
=p =
C C
p
p .
- -
recoil . p
e
) .(1-7
pe = p + p )(1-13
2 2 r r
p e = p p 2p p
2
)(1-14

[
E = (m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2 E ]
1
2
) P m = 0
(.
E = m c = mc 2 )(1-15
: =

1
) hv + mc 2 = hv + (m 2 c 4 + p e c 2
2 2
- -
hv
) (hv + mc 2 hv) 2 = (m 2c 4 + pe c 2
2
or
m 2c 4 + pe c 2 = (hv hv + mc 2 )2
2
= (h hv) 2 + 2m c 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4
)(1-16
) (1-14
hv hv
=p , p =
c c
hv 2 hv 2 hv hv
( = p e ) + ( ) 2 ( ) ( ) cos
2
c c c c

. C2
pe c 2 = (hv )2 + (hv)2 2 (hv ) (hv) cos
2
)(1-17
] [2hv hv )(1-17
pe c 2 (hv ) 2 + (hv) 2 2hv hv + 2(hv ) (hv) 2(hv ) (hv) cos
2
1444 424444 3 14444 4244444 3

(hv hv) 2 )2hv hv (1 cos
)pe c 2 = (hv hv) 2 + 2hv hv (1 cos

2
)(1-18
) (1-18 ) (1-18 (hv hv) 2

m 2 c 4 + pe c 2 = p e c 2 2hv hv (1 cos ) + 2mc 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4

2 2
) ..(1-19 :
- -
2hv hv (1 cos ) = 2mc 2 (hv hv)
)= 2mc 2 h (v v
c c 1 1
( = 2mc 2 h ) ) 2mc 2 hc (

c c
2h h (1 cos ) = 2mc 2 h

or
2/ c/ 2
2/ h (1 cos ) 2/ mc 3/ h/
/ /
) h (1 cos ) = mc (
= or
h
)(1 cos )...(1-20
cm
) (1-20 h

mc
Compton wavelength
h
2.4 10 10 cm )(1-21
mc

) .
(

m ) (
h
) (
mc

-
- -
) (
.
1-5
1-5 Wave Prosperities and Electron Diffraction
.
) dispersion
(prism
) (..
ware- particle duality of

.lights
1924 Louis de Broglie
-
-
!!
-
m v )(
P
p = mv
.

h
)...(1-22
p
) ( v p
c hc hc h h
= = = = =
v hv E E p
) (
c
- -
h .
:5
0.14 kg 40 m/s
1.00%
:

)p = mco = (0.14kg) (40m/s
= 5.6 kg.m.s -1

h 6.6310 34 J.s
= = 1
= 1.2 10 34 m !!!
p 5.6 kg ms
) p = m e v = (9.1 10 31 kg) (2.998 10 6 ms 1
) v 1%
(.
p = 2.73 10 24 kg.m.s 1
.
h 6.63 10 34 J.s
= = = 2.43 10 10 m
p 2.73 10 24 kg.m.s 1
= 243 pm
..(10 243 .. 12
m ) pm
- -

.
!!.

...

de Broglie Waves are observed Experimentally
X
.X
X-ray diffraction )
( .X

X - -
.
1-8
) periodic Structure ( .
phase difference
. ( 2D ) 2a sin

) n ( 2 Dn
.
2D
2a sin = 2D n

- -
Figure 1-8 the scattering of X-rays by crystal planes when the
angle 0 between the scattered X-rays and the crystal plane equals the
angle between the incident X-rays and the plane.
=
2a sin
... (1-23)
n

(Davisson and )
(1- ( 1-23) Germer
.1-9 22)
.Wave mechanics
FIGURE 1.9
(a) the X-ray diffraction pattern of aluminum foil. (b) the electron
diffraction pattern of aluminum foil. The similarity of these two patterns
shows that electrons can behave like X-rays and display wavelike
properties.
- -
1-6
1-6 The Bohr Atom
"The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom Can be Used
"Drive the Rydberg For mole
1911 Niels Bohr

.

. F
.
=F
)1 (Ze) (e
)... (1-24
4D r 2
) (Ze ) ( Z =1 ) (e
.
. r , = 8.85 10 12 c 2 N 1 m 2
.
=F
mv 2
)...(1-25
r
v .
:
1 e 2 mv 2
= )...(1-26
4D r 2 r
- -
.

stable orbit .
.
:
)(
Stationary electron orbits
.
quantization condition
angular momentum L .
L = mvr = nh , n = 1, 2, ........
)...(1-27
=v
hh

mr
)(1-26
1 e 2 m nh 2 m n 2 h 2
) ( =
4D r 2 r mr m2 r3
)...(1-28
1 n2 h2 4D h 2 2
= e
2
= r .n
4D mr me 2

. .n = 1
- -
( u D ) ( 8.851012 c 2 N 1 m 2 ) (1.055 1034 J.s) 2
=r
(9.11 10 31 kg) (1.602 10 19 c) 2

= 5.29 10 11 m = 52.9 pm 0.53 A
a
E k.E
) V(r. 1
mv 2
2
V (r) =
e2 1
)...(1-29
4D r
) (1-29
.

V ( ) = 0 = r
= )E = KE + V (r
1
mv 2 + (
e2 1
) )...(1-30
2 4D r
mv2
1 e 2 mv 2
= mv 2
1 e2
= )(1-26
4D r 4D r
2
r
)(1-30
1 1 e2 1 e2
( = E )
2 4D r 4D r
1 1 e2 1 e2
= = )......(1 3
2 4D r 8D r
r ) (1-28 ) (1-31:
h
=h
2D
1 e2 me 4 1
E= =
8D 4D h 2 2 2
32 D h n
2 2
2
n2
me
- -
=h
h

2h
me 4 1
E= 2
h 2 n2
(32)D 2
4D 2
me 4 1
E n = 2 2 2 n =1,2,.............
8 h n
)...(1-32

.bound states
n = 1 ) (1- 32
state of lowest energy
.ground-state energy
excited states
) (

).(1-10
: ) (
discontinuous transitions E
. hv
n2 =1 n1 = 2 .
me 4 1 me 4 1
E = E 2 E 1 = 2 2
( 2 2
)
8 h 2 n 2 8 h 2 n1
me 4 1 1
E = 2 2 ( 2 2 ) = hv )...............(1 33
8 h n 1 n 2
- -
FIGURE 1.10
The energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom, showing how
transitions from higher states into some particular state lead to the
observed spectral series for hydrogen.
( 1-33)
.
.( 1-33) hc
hv

hc me 4 1 1
= 2 2 ( 2 2)
8 h n 1 n 2
1

1 me 4 1 1
= 2 3 ( 2 2)
8 h c n 1 n 2
1 1 1
= R H ( 2 2 ) ..............(1 34)
n1 n2
- -
RH Rydberg constant
me 4 (9.11 10 31 kg) (1.60 1019 c)4
= RH =
)8 h 3c (8) (8.85 10 12 c 2 N 1m 2 ) (6.63 10 34 J.s)3 (2.0 108 m/s
2
R H =1.089 107 m 1
)(1
1-10
.
Lyman )(
) (n = 1 Balmer series

).(n=2
6

?Calculate the ionization energy of the hydrogen atom
:

= n2 n1 = 1
me 4 1 1
= E 2 2
)( 2 2
8 h n 1 n 2
(9.1 10 - 34 kg) (1.9 10 19 c) 4 1 1
= 12 2 1 2 34
)( 2 2
(8) (8.85 10 c N m ) (6.63 10 J.s) 1 2
= 2.18 10 -18 J = 13.6 eV
1925
W. Heisenberg
(2 ) The exact value of RH = 1.09736 107 m-1 = 109.736 cm-1
- -
M. Born E. Shrdinger
.P. Dirac

!.
= )u (v, T
8Dh v3
(Q1
c 3 e hv/KT 1
u ( , T)d ) (a
= max
) (b ) (a

b max
b
max ) (c
T
5620k
) : s-x = se-x (.
) (d ) (Sirius
. max
= 260nm
) (e .288 k
.

(Q2 2.3 eV
.2000
2580
.0.9 eV

- -
(Q3 ) (a
100 V ) (b
) 200 pm (1 pm = 10-12 m
(Q4 X . X
0.035 A

60
(Q5
X 0.5 . 5

: :
8Dhc hc/c/
)Q1) (a = )u ( , T (e T) 1
s
max = b / T )(b

)(c mex = 5160 A
)(d T = 1.12 10 4 k 1
)(e = 1.01 10 5 m
)(Q2 W = 3.92 eV
)(Q3 K.E = 6.02 10-18 J
)(Q4 E = 5.4 105 eV
)(Q5 =10
- -

WAVE PACKETS AND THE UNCERTAINTY RELATIONS

.
.
Shrodinger equation .
!
) (insight .

.
.

Freshet and Young
) ( .
) ( )
( Very localized a clap
of thunder
.localized in time localized
" "wane packets
superposing waves
.
They interfere with each other almost completely outside of a
given spatial region.
- -
) (
.Fourier integrals

.
z.
z= x+i y )......(A : 2 1
y Im ) Re ( z x z
I: z
i = 1 i2 = 1 )(A : 2 2
) (
complex conjugate * z:
z * = v iy )(A : 2 3
i i * zz
zz * = (x + iy) (x iy) = x 2 i 2 y 2 = x 2 + y 2 )........... (A : 2 4
z
2
*z z
1
=
1

z x + iy
1 1 x iy x iy x y
= = 2 2 = 2 2 i 2 2
z x + iy x iy x + y x + y x +y
1 x 1 y
Re ( ) = 2 2 and In ( ) = 2 2
z x +y z x +y
Euler , r z
- -
ei = cos + i sin (A : 1 5)
x = r cos and y = r sin
z = x + iy = r cos + i r sin = r (cos + i sin ) = rei
e i . e i = e = 1 e i e i
z* = r e i
zz * = (rei ) (rei ) = r 2

e i + e i
cos = (A : 2 6)
2
and
ei e i
sin = ............ (A : 2 7)
2i
( ) =
1 im
e ( )
2D
0 2D m = 0 1 2 .......
:
2D
1 eim
2D 2D
1 im
d ( ) = 2D
d e =
2D im
let m o
=
1 1 i2 Dm
e e [ ]
2D im
1 1
= cos 2Dm + i sin 2Dm 1
2D im 1
424
1
3 1 424
0
3

=
1 1
[1 1]= 0
2D im
let m = 0
2D 2D 2D 2D
d ( ) = d
1 i(0) 1 1
[ ]
2D
e = d =
2D 2D
1 2D
= . (2D 0) = = 2D
2D 2D
- -
:
2D 2D 2D
1 im 1 i

2D
= e d
2D
cos m d +
2D
sin m d = 0

m = 0
m 2D
.
2D
d ( ) = 0

)for all values of m 0 ..................(A : 2 - 8
= 2D for m = 0 )(A : 2 - 9

2D
d ( ) n ( ) = 0 mn
*
m
)..................(A : 2 - 10

=1 m= n )(A : 2 -11
2D
1 im 1 in
d
2D
e .
2D
e
2D 2D 2D
1 1 1
[ ]
2D 2D
i (n m)
Now, Let m=n d e = = d e
2D
1
= (2D 0) = 1
2D
2D
1
2D
Let m n d ei (n m)
2D
] d [cos ( n m ) + i sin ( n m )
1
2D
=

) (.
sin h x : cos h x
ex e x
= sin h x sin h i x = i sin x )..................(A : 2 - 12
2
ex + e x
cos h x cos h i x = cos x )(A : 2 - 13
2
- -

Short Introduction about Fourier Series and its integral.

A:2.1
Principle of super position
) ( : sin .cos
Fourier analysis .
)) f (x x
(
) ( .Fourier series
1
f (x) = a + a 1 cos x + a 2 cos 2x + .....+ a n cos n x + b1 sin x + b 2 sin 2x + .....+ b n sin n x + ........
2

1
)= a + a u cos n x + b n sin v x ..............(A : 2 14
2 n =1 n =1
1
a
2
(sine and cosine terms a1, a2, .
.b1, b2, Different amplitudes
harmonics multiples .x
.Fundamental frequency x
a1, a2, b1, b2, ..
: 2D ) f(x
2D 2D
1 1
a n = f (x) cos n x dx , )b n = f (x) sin n x dx .....................(A : 2 15
D D
- -
1 1
sin 2x , sin 3x , sinx ) (
2 3
) (A: 2-15 1
a
2
.
2D
1
2D
f (x) dx
) f(x . 2D
Wave packets
Wave pulses

k . k
- -

.
)y = A k cos ( k x t ).......... .......... .(A : 2 16
t = 0 ) k (Wave umbers
45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30 , 27 Ak
0.25 , 0.33 , 0.5 , 1.0, 0.5 , 0.33 , 0. 25 A: 2-3
Ak k .Wave umber spectrum
Figure A:2-3 the frequency spectrum used to generate the we

packet shown in Figure 12.84.
)
( ).(A: 2-4
- -
) (A: 2-4 ) (
.

K
.A: 2-5
...... K
- -
K
. K
.
Figure A: 2-5 (a) the wave number spectrum and (b) the wave
packet. Produced when k the wave number spread shown in Figure
A:2-4 becomes broader.
infinite number
Fourier integral .
:

y (x) A (k) cos k x dk )..........(A : 2 17

) A(k .k
x , k
.
( x) ( k) = constant )....................(A : 2 18
- -
) (A: 2-17
.

1
=)f (x dk A (k) e ).............(A : 2 19
ikx
2D

) (A:2-19.

= ) f ( x, t dk A (k) e ).............(A : 2 20
ikx - (k) t
v

group velocity vg .
d
= vg )...................... (A : 2 21
dk

.
A: 2-6
- -
x = o
y = A e x
2
.xo ) (a
A y
.x = o
)
.y ) (y = A y = A
2
. x
.
ln y = ln A x 2
x 2 = ln A ln y
1 1
x 2 = ln A ln A =y A
2 2
A
= ln = ln 2 = 0.693
A/2
1 0.693 0.693
x 2 = 0.693 = x x = 2

- -
.
1
y
e
y 1
= 0.368 e = 2.718
e
) ( y 0.368
y = A e x
2
.. .

1
y y = A y
e
. ) ( x 2 x2
1
y = ( ) A y = A e 1
e
1 2
= x 2 =1 x = x = 2 x

. .

..
) f (x .
- -

f (x) = dk g (k) e ikv )....(2 1

= 2D
k
k x . v + 2D
k
)g (k
.
2
) g (k) = e (k k
)...(2-2
Let k 1 = k k
k = k1 + k
dk = dk 1
12 i (u1 + k )v
g (k) g (k 1 ) = e k and e ikv = e
) (2-1

i (k1 + k )v
f (x) = dk 1 e k . e
12
{= dk e k e ik v . e
12 1 ik v

dk
12 1
= e ikov 1
e k e ik v

k 2
e

dk 1

1
D
e dk = 2
k12
1
).................(2 3

dk e . e = dk e
1 k 12
ik v 1 k 1 12 + ik iv
. ) (
- -
i
) (k12 k1v
dk = dk e
1 k12 + ik1v 1
e

i
)(k 12 u 1 v

v2
4 2
i v2 i v2
u 12 k 1 v = k 12 2 k 1 v + 2
123
4 4
{
v2 i 1 v2
= (k 12 k )v +
4 2 4 2
2
iv v2
= k 1 ( ) + 2
2 4

2

1 iv v 2
k ( ) +

1422
4
3 4 2

q

dk
1
e

v2 v2

= dk e q 2
dk e
1 q 2
1
.e 4 2
=e 4

14243

2 du 1 e q
2
1

2
v2
D
f (x) = e{ . ikov
.e 4
)..............(2 4
phase factor
) f (x ) (2-4 .
. ) f (x
.
- -
)f (x) = f * (x) f (x
2
x2 x2
kox D 4 D 4
= (e e ) (e +ikox ) e

v2
D
f ( x ) = e 2 )........... (2 5
2
.
) (2-5 ) ( v = 0

harrow
. )f (x
2
)f (x
2

1
e
v ) (A
1
e

. =1
v2
2
v 2 = 2 v = 2
v = 2 2 )................(2 6
) g (k
2
) g (k) = e (k k
) g2 (k
)2 g (k
) g 2 (k) = e 2 (k k
- -
k =k k = 0 k
. 1
e

1
( )k = 2 = (2 ) )...................(2 7
2
k ) (2-6 v
x )f (x ) (2-7
k .
u , v
1
u . v = 2 . 2 2 = 4 )...............(2 8
2
) (2-8
. u , v
.2-1
This is a general property of functions that are Fourier trans forms of
each other.
- -

. k v
.
It is impossible to make both v and k small.
This is a general feature of wouae packets, but we shall soon see
rat it has some very deep implications for quantum mechanics.
Figure 2-4 Relation between wave packet and its Fourier trans-
form for a square-shaped wave packet.
- -

THE PROPAGATION OF WAVE PACKETS
) f (x e ikx

.
) X t , y ( .
plane wanes
t X.
e iuv iwt )...... (2-9

w = 2Dv
2D
=k

)(2-9
2D v
v i 2 Dvt ) 2 Di ( vt
ei
=e D
)................(2 10
=v
c

).(2-10
v c 2D
( 2 Di ) t ) i ( v ct
e
=e
) = e ik ( v ct ).................(2 12
) g (k
t

)f (x 1 t) = du g (u) e iu (v ct) = eik (v ct

- -
) f (x ct
X ) (
v = ct v ct = o
.
Thus the wave packet go light waves propagates, without any
distortion, with velocity, the velsal'y of light.

.
w = kc )... (2-13
W (k) = kc

. )(
w = (k) kc or kv ) w (k
) (2-11.
)ik (v ct
)f (x 1 t) = dk g (k) e ik (v ct
= dk g(k) e ikv iw (k)t )..........(2 14
) w (k
.u k
.
2
) g (k) = e (k k
) f (x v .
- -
)w (k k ) (2- 14
.k
)dw(k 1 )d 2 w (k
( ) w (k) w (k ) + (k k ( ) k + (k k ) 2 ) )............(2 15
dk 2 dk 2 k
(
dw
) .k ) w (k
dk k = k
-group velocity -
.
dw
( ) = vg
dk k = k
and )(2-16
1 d2w
( ) =
2 dk 2 k = k
:
k1 = k k
dk 1 = dk
.

i (k1 + k ) v i w (k ) + k1vg + k12 t
f (x 1 t) = dk 1 e k e
12
.

dk
ik v i w(k )t 1
12 1 1 12t
=e
e k . e ik v. e ik vgt. e ik

ikov iw(k )t )1 (v vgt
dk e
1 k12 12t
=e e ik e ik

)........(2-17

.
12 + ik1 (v gt) ik12 t ) ( + i t ) k12 + ik1 (v g t
e k =e
- -
. ( + i t)
(v g t)
( + i t) k12 ik1
( = i t )
=e
.
(v g t)2
4( + i t)
iu1 (u v g t) (x v g t) 2 ( x v g t) 2
( + i t) u12 +
+ i 4 ( + i) 4 ( + i t)

e

ik 1 (u v g t) (u v g t) 2 ( x v t) 2
( + i t) k12 g
4 ( + i t)
+ i t 4 ( + i)

e

i (u v g t) 2 2
1 ( x v g t)
( + i t) k1 +
2 ( + i t 4 ( + i t)
e ............(2 18)
:( 2-17) ( 2-18)
2
(v g t ) ( x vg t ) 2
( + i t ) k1
2 ( = i t )
dk
i ( k x w ( k ) t )
f ( x1t ) = e 1
e e 4 ( + i t )
1424 3

( x y g t ) 2 i ( x u gt) 2
( + i t ) k1
2 ( + i t )
= e i ( k x w ( k ) t e dk e
4 ( + i t ) 1

1444424444
3
(x u g t) 2
i (u x w (k ) t 4 ( + i t) D
f (x 1 t) = e e
( + i t)
(v u g t) 2 ( v u g t) 2
2 D D
f (x 1 t) = f (n 1 t) f * (x 1 t) = e . e 4 ( + i t) 4 ( i t)
( + i t ) ( i t)
(v u g t) 2 ( 2 )
2 2 + 2t 2 D
= 1. e ( 2 + 2 t 2 )

(v u g t) 2 D

2 ( + 2 t 2 / ( 2 + 2 t 2 )
=e
- -
.
D 2
v2
f (x) = e
2
) (2-19 )(2-5

)(v u g t v ) (2-5
+
2 t 2

ug ) f (x 1 t
2

).(2-19
v = 2. v = 2. 2 ( + 2 t 2 /
or
2 t 2 12
v = 8 (1 + ) )...............(2 20
2
) (2-20
t = 0
v = ( t = 0 ) = 8
) (2- 20

.
- -
:
FROM WAVE PACKETS TO THE SCHRDINGER EQUATION
{f ( x t ) = dk g (u) e
1
iku iw ( k ) t
}
.........
p ) (p2 /2m ug
.
dw p
= ug )= particle velocity = .................(2 21
dk m
w
E .
E=hw
or
E
=w
h
E p2/2m .
( p 2 / 2m) p 2
=w = )(2 23
h 2mh
) k (
. = n
p
2D 2 D p p
=k = = = ).................(2 24
(h ) ( h ) h
p 2D
) (2-14 ) p (k
1
= ) (x 1 t
2Dh
dp (p ) e i (px Et)/h )............(2 25
) (x 1 t
.partial differentiable.
- -
(x 1 t) 1
dp (p) E e
i (px Et)/t
iD =
t 2Dh
1 p 2 i( px Et) /D
=
2Dh
dp (p) 2m e ............(2 26)
.x (x 1 t) ( 2-26)
1
( )=
x x
x 2Dh dp (p) e i (px Et)/D
x
1 ip
=
x 2Dh dp (p) . e i (px Et)/h
h
1 ip ip i (px Et)/t
=
2Dh
dp (p) h . h
e
p 2 i (px Et) /t
=
1
dp ( p ) ( )e ]................(2 27)
2Dh D2
( 2-26) ( 2-27)
D ( 2-27)
2
2m
h2 2 D2 p 2 i (px Et)/D
=
1
dp (p) ( ) ( )e ]
2m x 2 2Dh 2m D2
p 2 i (px Et)/D
=
1
dp (p) ( )e ]
2Dh 2m
:
(x 1 t) h 2 (v1 t)
2
ih = ................(2 28)
t 2m v 2
.
The uncertainty Relations ( )
)(
. k v
k v 1
p=h k h
- -
Heisenberg ancernrainrg clarion
p vh )........(1

)( p- , v - I ) (1:
)( ) ( x
) .

v- .
)(
. ) p, x
( .
p, x .
h
m = 10 4 g

= 10 4 cn / s
1 m m 1 g :
. p
D h m2
p v p J = kg.
2 2 v s2
6.6310 34 J.S J. S m
p 6
= 0.5 10 28 = 5 10 29 k g
4D 1 10 m m s
29
m 5 10 u g m/s
= 5 10 20
=
s 110 9 u g
- -
.
) ( .
) (
)Measwrcmerg position of aneleiton (Hesibdoceg Microswgee
t x px

.
.
) bastion
(.
~

sin
v
.x

h
p (sin + sin ).

c h hv
= 2 sin . p x ~ 2 sin
v c c
v
p v v ~ 2
Dv
sin .

~ 4Dh
c sin
- -

:

.
.

.

.
( 2 10 27
kg : )
10-10 m
px
px
h 6.6 10 34
p x = 10
6.6 10 24 kg m/s
x (2D )10
) 2000
m

s
(
m
Px = mc = 2 10 27 kg 2 10 3 = 4 10 24 kg. m/s
s
:
p x 6.6 10 24
= = 1.7 0.25
px 4 10 24
- -
: 1000 m 1. mm
s
.
6.6310 34 6.6
p 3
= 10 31 kg m/s
10 m 2D
p = 0.005 1000 = 50 kg - m/s
.
p 6.6 10 31 kg k/s
= = 1.310 32
p
.
.10 8
s :

E. t h
h 6.6 10 34
E = = 1.0 26 J = 6.5 10 8 ev.
t 2D 10 8
wave Guide
:
c
=
v 2 v
2
. vg
c2
= 2
v 2 v
2
4D 2 (v v ) w w
2 2 2 2
= =
D2 c2 c2
- -
2D 4D2
k= k2 = 2

w
w = 2Dv v =
2D
w2
v2 =
vD 2
w2 w w2 w
2 2
k = c k = w w k =
2 2 2 2 2
c2 c
w
dw c 2 k
c 2 2kdk = 2 w dw =
dk w
2
dw c 2 k c w
vg = = = w l w = c 1 2
2
dk w w w
2
v
= c 1
v2
.1 mev = :
10 km 1 cu
.
b b y
y = 1com, p y ? , p y . y h
D 6.6 10 34
p y = = = 5.310 33 kgm/sec
2Dy 4D 10 2 m
p x = 2m n E = 2 (1.67 10 27 ) (10 6 en) (1.6 10 19 )

= 2.310 20 kg . m / sec
33
5.3 10
tom =
2.3 10 20
R
=
x
R 5.3 10 33
= ton R = v ton = 10 m
9
20
= 2 10 4 m
x 2.310
.2R 1am
- -
2 R = 4 10 4 m = 4 10 2 con = 0.4
10.4 nm
/ )(

3000 A

= 10

/ 10-6 s
.
2D 2Dh 13.6
=T = = ) hw = (E 2 =
w hw 4
) 2D (1.05 10 34
=T = 1.2 10 15 sec
13.6
( ) ) (1.6 10 19
4
~
C 10 8 sec
= =T 15
= 8 10 6 tw
T 1.2 10

0.0001A 4000 A
.

D = 4000 A , = 10 4 A = 10 14 m.
h c D hc D
=E =hv = 2
D D D
t .
` 4Dh 4h D 2
= C = t =
E c D D
) (4) (16) (10 14
= 14
= 2.1 10 7 sec.
) (310 ) (10
8
= 0.21 sec.
/ 1.1 ev
= t . E
h

2D
- -
E = Dv
h 6.6 10 34
t = = = ..............?
2D E 2D 1.1ev

F (x) = dk g (k) e ikx

g ( k)
g (k ) = o k k/2
=N k/2 k k/2
4
=o k
2
N
+
dx f ( x ) =1
2
2N kx
Qf( x ) = sin
x 2
+ 2
4N kx
dx 2 sin 2 =
x 2
+
2 4N 2 sin 2 n
k 2u 2 = u 2 = 2D N = 1
z 2 z
du . Sin u 2kN du
k2
1
N=
2Dk
N
+
1
dk g ( u ) =
2

2D
+ u/z
1
dk g ( u) = N dk = N k=
2
2 2
k/z
2D
1
N
2Dk
sin
kv
v
2
u =
uD
=
2D
.
u k
- -
uD
( = k ) u = uD
u
.u
dv 2D dv dv dv
= vg = = = D2 )(1
) dk 2D d (1/D ) d (1/D dD
2 C2
= QD , = D2
v2 v
2
v 2 v
2
2
v2 v 1 2v dv dv dv c 2
2 = 2 + 2 2 = 2 2 =
C c D c D dD D 3
dv c2 c2
D2 = (D 2 ) . ( 3 ) = = c 1 v /v 2
2
)(1
dD D v Dv
c c c
= = = v2 v
2
c 1 v
v (v )
v v /v v v
2 2 2 2 2
u g = c 1 v /v 2
2

The Schrdinger wave Eqn. nd the Probability Interpretation

.
montentum
).V (x
.
) (x, t )h 2 2 (x, t
ih = ).............(1
t 2m x 2
.
) ( .. :
1
ap (p) e
i(px Et)/h
= ) (x, t
2Dh
- -
E p2/2m
1
ap (p) e
i(px (p 2 /2m)t)lh
= ) (x, t ).............(2
2Dh
: ) (
) )( ( x, o
. ) (
) (x, t
(x, t + t) = (x, t) + t
t
(x, t) i 2h 2 (x, t) ih
= =
t i2m h xH2 2m xt 2
ih 2
( x, t + t) = (x, t) + t
2m x 2
)ih 2 (x, t
(x, t + t ) = (x, t ) + )t .................(3
2m x 2
) (x, o ) (p ) (2 t = o
) (2 .
= ) (x, o
1
dp (p) e
ipx/h
).................(4
2xh
) ( p
:
(P ) = 2Dh (x, o ) dx e ipx/ h
) (2 ) (x, t ..t
" " :
once ) (
) (x, o ..
) ( x, t
- -
) ( x, t )(
.
) (1 ) (x, t .conglex fetom
) (x, t
1
424 3
) (2

) (3 )) (Spreading(.
)
( MaxBorn )(
.
.
) p (x, t
.

.t = 0
:
x
p (x, t ) dx =1

)(6
vormalization

:
x
) dx (x, o
2
) (7

- -

) (x, o

). (x, o + squaredintegrabli
x 1 / 2
.contineon sin x. x ) (x, t
Import on ce of the ases :
) (x, t
2

. .
) 2 (x, t ), 1 (x, t ) (1 )
.
. ) (x, t ) = 1 (x, t) + 2 (x, t )(8
2 (x, t ) = R 2 e i , 1 (x, t) = R 1 e
i1

R 1 , R 2 , 1 , 2
) (x, t
) i ( 2 1 2
= e (R1 +R 2 e
2 i 1
)
) = R 1 + R 2 + 2R 1 cos ( 1 2
2 2
)(9
) (x, t
.
2
2 1 ) ( 1 2
) (9
. lineally
cosine .

...
- -
Peobalrility current
.(1) complex conjugate

h2 2 ih 2
ih = =
t 2m t 2 t 2m x 2
* (x, t) h 2 2 * (x, t) * ih 2 *
ih = =
t 2m t 2 t 2m x 2
2
644744 8

p (x, t) = ( (x, t) x (x, t) )
t t
* (x, t)
= + *
t t
ih * ih 2
*
=
2m x 2m x 2
2
1 h 2 2* * h
2
2
=
ih 2m x 2 2m x t

p (x, t) =
t x

t (x, t) = j (x, t)
t x
+ +

x
dx p (x, t) = dx j (x, t) = o

x
= [J ( ) j ( ) ]= 0 , j 0
x : (12)
.
square integreble Q

t ax p(x, t) =

dx
x
j (x, t)
= j (a, t) j (b, t) (14)
(1) j (x, t) , p(x, t )

- -
) d (x, t ), p (x, t )(
.
) (x, t )h 2 2 (x, t
it = )+ (x, t )(15
t 2m x
) V(x
.
(x, y, z, t),
) V (x, y, z
2 2 2
+ + 2
x 2 y 2 z 2
)(12

p (r, t ) + . J (r, t) = 0
t
) p (r, t ) = (r, t
2
) (x, t h2 2
ih = ) (r, t ) + v (r ) (r, t
t 2m
= ) j (r, t
h
2im
[
) * (r, t ) (x, t ) * (r, t ) (r, t ]

Expectation Values of Canticle nonctn
.P (x,t) .
) f (x .
) f (x ) = ax f (x ) p (x, t )(20
) = ax * (x, t ) f (x ) (x, t
- -
dx
p = mv = m (21)
dt
x = m dx * 9x, t) v (x, t )
d d
p =m (22)
dt dt
+
*
p (x ) = m dx ( x + * x )

Z Z
+
*
p (x ) = m dx ( + (x, t ) + * x )

t Z
(x, t ) . dx

dt
. x
.
h
ih =
t 2m x 2
h 2
m =
t 2i x 2
* h 2 *
m =
t 2i x 2
h + 2 * *
2
p = ( x x 2 )dx
2i x 2 x
2 * * * *
x = ( x x
x 2 x x x 14
x 24 3
x
x *

x x
*
= ( x ( * ) + *
x x x x
2
( * x ) + * + *x 2
x x x x
.
2 * *
2
*
(xx x = ( x ) ( * ) + *
x 2
x 2
x x x x

( * x ) + *
x x x
*

= x * * x + 2 *
x x x x
- -
+ +
h
p = [ ]+ h 2 * (x, t) (x, t) dx
2i x 2i x
+
h
p = dx * (x, t) (x, t)

i x
.operator
h
p=
i x
.
2
p 2 = dx * (x, t) (h 2 ) (x, t)
x 2
f ( p ) = dx * (x, t) f (
D
) (x, t) .
t x
( p)
.
1
(x, t )= ap ( p ) e i [px - (p/2m) t ] / h
2Dh
.t (p ) t = 0 :
1 h
(x ) =
2Dh
ap ( p ) e ipn/ h =
1D
ou (hD ) e ikv

( hD ) = ax ( x) e ikx
or
1
(p) =
2Dh
ax (x) e - ipx/ h
1
ap * ( p) ( p) = ap * ( p) ax (x) e - ipx/ h
2Dh
1
= ax
ap * e - ipx/ h
Dh4424443
124
*
= ax * = 1
- -
Parsevali
: :1
If a function is normalized to 1, 50 is its Fourier Transform
) : x .(regasrauney p
:
h d
) p = ax * ( x ) (x
i dx
h d 1
) = ax * ( x ap (p) e ipx/h
i dx 2Dh
1
= ap ( p) p ax * (x) e ipx/ h
2Dh
)p = ap ( p ) p * (p
) (p
.p ) ( p
2

x = ih

x
p
ogenatrs .
[ A B ] = AB BA
1
)D (x, t
[ p, x ] (x, t) = h x (x, t ) x
i x i x
D
= (x + ( x, t ) x

) :
i x x
) [ p, x ] (x, t) = h (x, t
i
Commutation relatively
- -
[ p, x ] = h
i
normalized ware fumets :

(x ) = 2 v e v v > 0
= v<0
p(x )= (x )
2
( a)
v2 , v ( b)
v = 1 ,v= 0 ( c )
p2 , p (p) ( b)
ap
=o p (x) :
ax
a a
= ( * ) = (2 2 e v * 2 x e v )
ax ax
a
= (4 3 x 2 e 2 ) = 0
ax
= ( 2 e 2 v 2 + e 2 2v) = 0
= 2 v (1 2 v ) e 2 = 0
1
1 = 2 xn =

(b) v = dx ( x) v ( x) = 2 v e v . v . 2 e x
*
0 0

=
0
4 3 v(v 2 e 2v ) dx =
0
ax.v (4 3 v 2 e 2x )
1
y = 2 v , dy = 2 v , dy = 2 ax ax = dy , x =
1
y
2 2

1 3i 3
v =
4
0
dy y 3 e y = =
4 2

+n t = t n e t at = (n + 1) = n !
t t n 1 tdt
t e dt = t e
n n
e
0 0 0 0
n is aminke (n + 1) = n ( n 1) (n 2).........1 = n!
- -

4i 3
= = ) dy y 2 ( 4 3 x 2 e 2x = 2
2
a
0 8 2

=
) ( ) (:
:
p p I
p .
h * h
* = ax ax (

p p )
i x i x
h *
i
= * ax ( + )
x x
h
= ax ( * ) = 0
i x

Periodical
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t
0 v < L
lax
hermitical poetry

L
h
= p p
*
ax ) )( * (x) (x
i 0 x
h h
= (L) (o) =0
2 2
i i

lerimti of opener p x .
An operator whose expectation value for all admissible wave
functims is real is called a hermitical operator
- -
:
) (x, t )h 2 2 (x, t
= ih =
t 2m x 2
: = p op
h
:
i x
2
) (x, t p op
= ih = ) (x, t
t 2m
.
:
(x, t) p op
2
= ih = )+ V (x ) (x, t
t 2m
or
) (x, t )h 2 2 (x, t
= ih = )+ V (x) (x, t
t 2m x 2
or
) (x, t
ih )= H (x, t
t
H . Hamiltonian
.
p2 p
=H
p2
)+ V (x
2m
- -
/ :
N
= ) (x
x +a2
2
) (a N .
n . vn ) (b
. p2 ) (c
= x x1 x2 ) (a
=x p1 p 2
x p

dx dx !)D (2n 3
N2
(x + a 2 ) 2
2
=1 0 ) (a + x
2 2 n
= 2n 1
2a !)(2n 2
+ +
dx x 1 x

2 2
= 2 2 2
+ 3 + tu 1 ( )
(x + a ) 2a (x + a ) 2a a
D 2a 3
= N =
2a 3 D
2a 3 1
=
D x +a2
2
)(b
+
2a 2 a2
=
n
x
D (x 2 + a 1 ) 2
n < 3 xn
n = 0, 1, 2,
xn =0
- -
+
2a 3 x2
=
n
x dx
D (x 2 + a 2 ) 2
+
x 2 ax x 1
(x + a )
2 2 2
= 2 2
+ + tam 1 (x/a)
2 (x + a ) 2a
= D / 2a , n2 = 2a 2
N
(p) =
2Dh
ax e 2p x/h
+
a a dx e i px/h
=
D h
x2 +a2
p = hk p/h = k
Z = x tiy
= 2 D i R (ia)
2Di k ( ik) D ka
= e = e
2ia a
(p) = D/h e pa/h p>0
= a/h e pa/ h p>0

2a
p2 =
h
0
p 2 e pa/h ap
= * p 2 ap
2
p
ap h2
=z p2 = z2
h a2

2a h 3
= z 2 e z az
2
p ( )
h a 0
3
h h
= 2( ) (3) = 4 ( ) 2
a a
(n + 1 ) = n !
(2 + 1) 2!
p =0 p = p2
p = 2h/a x = x
- -
. (D ) = ( D ) /
h d
=
i d

*
=0
D
h d
=
D
d * ( )
i d

D
h d *
=
*
d
D
i d
h
D d d
= +
*
d ( *
( ) d
) ( d
* )
i D
D
h d
=
i
D
d
d
( * )
h
[
= ( D ) ( D ) * ( D ) (D )
i
*
]
(D ) = ( D )
= 0
=
*

k/2
1 1
3.c.

dk N 2 = N 2
k/2
dk = N 2 k =
2D
N=
2D k
. N
( p)
: 3.d sin
kx
2
x = + k
2D
kx
sin =0 2D
2 x = k
4D k u
x= , k = ( ) = k
.k k 2 2
4D
x. k = . k = 4D
k
- -
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues :
:
) (x, t )h 2 2 (x, t
ih = )+ v (x) (x, t )(1
t 2m x 2

) (x, t) , T(t) u (x
)dT (t) h 2 d 2 u (x
) ih u (x = 2
+ v (x) u (x)
dt 2m dx
)u (x) T (t
(sin 1
dT (t)dt )2m) (a 2 u (x) / dx 2 ) + V (x)u (x
ih =
)T (t )u (x

E
)d T (t )dT (E i1 i
ih
dt
)= E T (t )T (E
= E dt = Et
ih h
i
i ET
lm T (t) = - Et T (t) = Ce t
h
:
)h 2 d 2 u (x
)+ v (x) u (x) = Eu (u
2m dx 2
time indgader S-E :

) (x, t ) (1
.Ligea valu equation .
.
: :
- -
1. of (x) = f (x) + x 2
] )of (x) = [f (x
2
2.
3. )of (x) = f (3 x 2 + 1
3
d f (x)
4. of (x) =
dx
)5. of (x) = df / dx 2f (x
)6. of (x) = f (x
) f (x
) of (x.
.
:
] ) [f 1 (x) + f 2 (x) ] = [f 1 (x) + f 2 (x
c .
)cf(x) = c * f(x :
) cf (x) = c * f (x
.
.
)df (x
= ) f (x ) 2 f (x
ax

)( ) (amitvedre
unit sphere
z . 30

A A :
- -
B B
C C
)
( ) ( 4 6
:
H u E (x) = E )u E (x )(4-10
H :
.
eigeulalw E
.E
eigeufaction E )u E (x
.H
) f (x) = f (x :
:
)h df (x
= ) f (x ) x f (x
i ax
) ( .bouday a xa
)f (a) = f ( a
- -
:
f (x) = f (x)
h a f (x)
v f (x) = f (x)
i ax
= [ + t (x) + f (x)]= [ x + ]+ (x)

df (x) i i
dx h h
df i x
= ( + ) ax
f h
i x2
h f = ( + x )+c
h 2
i x 2
+ ixh
2
f (x) = Ae
energy eigenvahes H
p 2 op
H= + V (x)
2m
the Eigenvalne Poeem for a

.Particle in box

h 2 a 2 u (x)
+ V (x) u (x) = Eu (x) (4 6)
2m ax 2
:
V (x) = x <0
= 0 <x<a
= a<x
:(4 6 )
u (x) = 0 x<0
=0 a<x
.( 4 6 ) V ( x ) = 0
d 2 u (x) 2mE
+ 2 u (x) = 0
dx 2 h
. E < 0
- -
d 2 u (x) 2m E
2
K 2 u (x) = 0 , k2 =
dx h2
e lx , e kx
k2 =
2mE
,E
h2
d 2 u (x)
+ k 2 u (x) = 0
dx 2
A sin Kx + B con lex
u ( 0 ) = 0
:
u (x) = Asin k
u (a ) = 0

ka = nD n = 1, 2, 3.........
.
h 2u 2 h 2 D 2 u 2
En = = n = 1, 2, 3.........
2m 2ma 2
.
A = 2la
2 hDx
u n (x ) = sin
a a
.
a a
2 nD m Dx
dx u (x ) u m (x) = dx
*
n
sin sin
0 0
a a a
1
a
(n m) Dx (n + m) Dx
=
a0
cos (
a
) cos (
a
)

sin (n m) D sin (n + m) D
=
( n m )D ( n + m )D
= 0 whem n m
= 1 whem n =m
- -
a
dx u (x ) u m (x) = smn )..................(4 23

*
n
0
*
.ortagoral
* . ) (4-23
thonormality covelition .
.eigensalutions
-1 grourdstate )u1 (x
.
D 2h 2
= E1
2ma 2
atesr
= 0 V(x)=0 , p = 0
" "
. n p D
) R(x p =0 -2
p = p
x
)dx R(x
h d
)R (x
l dx
p 2 0 p = 0
p 2 = 2mE
p2 = 2mE n
- -
-3
urith caruature
of the solntions .
h2 )d 2 u (x
u =
2m )dx u * (x
d x2
:
The Expansion Postulate and its physical Interpretation
)(x
. (0 ) and ( a ) = 0
nD x
( x ) = Cu sin
a
sin
nDx

)( H
a
) Un (x:
) (x) = A n U n (x
An
- -
a a
dx u (x) (x) =
*
m dx u *m (x) A n U n (x)
0 0
a
= An dx u *m (x) = A n Smn
0
a
An =
0
dx u *m (x) (x)
. /
(x) = A ( x / a ) 0 < x < a/2
x
= A (1 ) a <x < a
a 2

a
12
=1 A=
2
dx (x)
0
a
En
. An
a
2 nD x
An =
0
dx (x)

sin
a
a
2 nDx
An =
0
dx (x)

sin
a
12
= QA =
a
a/2 x 2 nDx 0 x nDx
An = 0
dx A
a a
sin
a
+ a/2
dx ( A 1 ) sin
a a
24 a/2 x nDx 0 x nDx 2 nDx
= 0 dx ( ) sin + dx (1 ) sin sin
a a a a/2 a a a
24 D/a
An =
a 0
24 D/a u
An =
a 0
an
D
sin nu (1 (1) n )
0 An N
.
- -
24 1
= An 2 2 ( 1) n +1
D n
a6
An = 4 4 n odd
D n
=0 n euen
/ ) 3(
.
nD nD
= u a = nD u p = hu = h
a a
Dhn x Dhn y Dhn z
= px = , py , = pz
a b c
2 2
1 2 1 D 2h 2 n x n y n 2z
=E = p = ) ( p + py + pz
2 2 2
( + )+ 2
2m 2m x 2m a 2 b 2 c
.
n x hx n x hy n x hz
= C sin sin sin
a b c
E
.
) .(a = b = c
D 2h 2 D 2h 2 2
=E = ) ( nx + ny + nz
2 2 2
k
2m 2m 2
.
n x hx n x hy n x hz
= C sin sin sin
a b c
- -
.n2
nx , n y , n z . D,ny ,nz
n
.degeneracy
nx , n y , n z g
3 E1 ) (1,1,1, 1
6 E1 ) (2 , 1, 1 ) (1, 2 ,1) (1,1, 2 2
9 E1 ) (2 , 2 ,1 ) (2 , 1, 2 ) ( 2 , 2 , 2 3
11 E 1 ( ) (3 ,1, 1
:
Expansion Postulate and Its physical Interpretation
)(x
. (0 ) = ( a ) = 0 bowdary canditions
nD x
( x ) = Cu sin
a
H infinite well
)Un (x sin
nDx
a
) (x) = A n U n (x
0
dx u *m (x) u n (x) = smn orthonormelnty
.An
- -
a a
= )dx u (x) (x
*
m )dx u *m (x )A n U n (x
0 0
a
= An = )dx u *m u n (x A n Smn
1
0
442443
Smn
a
= An
0
)dx u *m (x) (x
a
= An 0
)dx u *n (x) (x , sin = 1, if m = n

. ) (x
( e iEnt/h
) )U n (x
.
= ) (x, t A n U n (x) e iEnt/h
An
(x) = 0 H = p 2
/2m ) (x
)H U n (x) = E n U n (x
a a
H = = )dx (x) H (x
*
dx * (x) H )A n U n (x
0 0
a
= An )dx * (x) E n U n (x )(a
0
a
= En )dx * (x) A n U n (x
0
= En An
2
a
= 1 )dx * (x )A n U n (x )(B
0

2
= = An An
) (a
2
An
- -
)A n = dx U *n (x) (x
) (x
.En
: . .
) (x) = A (x/a 0 < x < a/2
x
) = A (1 a/2 < x < a
a
dx
a
12
(x) = 1 =A
2
0
a
.En An .
a
) (x 2 nDx
= An
0
dx

sin
a
12 x
a a
24 a/2 x nDx 0 x nDx
a 0
dx ( ) sin
a a
+ a/2
dx (1
a
) sin
a
. =u
Dx a
, dx = du
a D
=D-u
Dx
a
24 a u
= An
a D an D sin (nu) +
D/2
24 u
=
D
0
dn
D
) sin nu (1 (1) n
An n 0 n.
24 1
= An 2. ( 1 ) n +1
a n 2
96
.
2
An = n odd
D 4n 4
=0 neven
- -
Momentum Eiglnhetion of the Fremantle
:Parity
) (sin kx, cos kx

a /2 a /2
2 nDx
= )U n (x sin )(n = 2, 4, 6, ..............
a a
2 nDx
= )U n (x cos )(n = 1, 3, 5, ..............
a a
x x
) (x x= 0
.
= ) (x An
2
cos
nDx
) (x
a a
)(n =1, 3, 5, ..............

2 nDx iEnt/h
(x , t) = An cos e
a a
x .
.
: x = 0
. ) (
.
Parihyopenator p
) (x x x
)p (x) = ( - x
- -
.
)p ( + ) (x) = ( + ) ( x
)p ( ) (x) = ( ) ( x

p + 1
p -1
( cos
nDx
( ) , sin
nDx
)
a a
1 H P
.
P . )PU (x) = D u (x .
)P 2 U (x) = P D u (x) = D 2 u ( x
)( . )P 2 U (x) = U (x
2 =1 = 1
.
= ) (x
1
] )[ (x) + (- x) ] + 1 [ (x) (- x
2 2
H
.
"" "" x = 0
a , 0 )(
.x = a/2

- -
)(
.
.
One Dimensional Potential
.

nonclaesical efpeots
.
) ( :The Potential step
V (x) = 0 x < 0
= V 0 x>0
.
)h 2 d 2 u (x
)+ v (x) u (x) = E u (x
2m dx 2
:
)d 2 u (x
2
2m
+ 2 [ E - v (x) ] u (x) = 0
dx h
- -
:
2m
h 2
[
E V0 = q 2 ] ,
2m E
h 2
=K2
. V (x) = 0 x< 0
u (x) = e ikz + R e ikz
x :
h* *
=j )(x =

2im x x
644444 complex coujngate
4474444444 8
h iux
= ( e + R e ) ( iue
* iux 2ikx
Rik e ) ( ike + ikR * e iux ) (e iux + R * e iux )
iux iux
2im

h
2im
[{
) ik (1 RR * ) + ik ( R * e 2ikx Re ikx ]
[
=} ) ik (1 RR * ) + ik ( R * e 2ikx Re ikx
h
2im
]
) [ 2 ik ( 1 R) = hk (1 R 2
m
. hk
e ikx
m
x R e ikx
x > 0 hk
R
2
R e - ikx
m
U (x) = T e ijx
x
+

transmitted were .
j
h
2im
[
T * e - iux ( Tiq e iqx ) (iq T * e iqx ) T e iqx ]
- -

) j(x .x
P (x, t) + j (x, t) = 0 )(
t t
.
hk 2 hi 2
(1 R = ) T
m m
)U (x) = U (x contiuwity
e iux + R e - iux = T e 2ikx at x = 0 1 + R = T )(a
x = 0
(
d 2 u (x) 2m
]+ 2 [E V (x) u (x) = 0
dx 2 h
. +

du du d du 2m
( ) ( ) = dx = dx 2 (V (x) E ) u (x) = 0
dx dx
dx dx h
)V 8 (x a :
a + + a
a +
du du 2m 2m
( ) at ( ) a = 2
dx dx h
a
= )V 8 (x a) u (x )V u (a
h 2
:
K q 2k
= R , =T
K +q k+q
flected and transmitted

feuxes
hk h k k q 2
= Refleted j =
2
R ( )
m m k+q
hq hq 2k 2 hk 4 hq
= Transmitte d j = T2 ( = ) )(C
m m k +q m (k + q) 2
- -
- :
. .
.

.
- ) (C )(
= .
hk k q 2 hq 4k 2
( (1 =) )
m k+q m (k + q) 2
hk 4qk h k 4qk
=
)m (k + q 2
m (k + q) 2
= k
2m
2
2m
E 2 ( E V ) = q E >> V -
h h
R
2

JR ( k q) 2
= 0
JT 4kq
=q
2m
)(E V E < V -
h2
x > 0 .
q x
U (x) = T e i (iq) x = T e
:
*
k i q k i q k i q k +i q
= R R = = =1
2 *
R k +i q
k + i q k + i q k i q
- -
u = Te
qx

. . )
( .
2k
=T 0
k+i q
Penetrates
)(
" "tunneling .
.
) j (x

)(
) ( n2 > n1 .

.
:The Potential well

V (x) = 0 x <a
= V a < x <a
=o a<x
2mE ) 2m (E + V
= k2 , = q2
h2 h2
- -
x < a u ( x ) = e ikx + R e ikx
-a< x <a u ( x ) = A e iqx + B e -iqx
x < a u ( x ) = T e ikx
hk
)(
m
. hk T
2
hk
R
2

m m

. x=
hk hq hk
= ) (1 R =) B
2 2 2 2
( A T
m m m
.
e - ika + R e + ika = A e -iqa + B e iqa
) ik ( e - ika R e ika ) = iq ( A e -iqa B e iqa
A e + iqa + B e - iqa T e ika
iq ( Ae iqa B e - iqa = ik T e ika

(q 2 k 2 ) sin 2qa
R = ie 2ika
2k q cos 2qa i (q 2 + k 2 ) sin 2qa
2kq
T = e 2ika
2k q cos 2qa i (q 2 + k 2 ) sin 2qa
q 2 k 2 << 2k q E >> V
E
sin 2 ga = 0
.R = 0
) ( 0.1 eV
) ( .
- -
Townsend , Ramsauer
.transmission resonance
) (

c = - a x = 0
Fairy =
2D 2D 4a
= = 2 qa = nh .
q nD n
.Perotintenforometeer .
V (x) = V ) V E < 0
= V >
=
) .(discrete
2mE
= K2
h2

u ( x ) = C1 e kx x < a
u ( x ) = C 2 e kx a <x
u ( x ) = e + ikx + Re ikx x<a
u ( x ) = A e iqx + Be iqx a<x
u ( x ) = T e iux a<x
u ( x ) = A cos qx + B sin qx a<x<a
V > E = q2
2m
(V E ) >
h2
x = a
- -
C1 e ka = A cos qa B sin q a
u C1 e ka = [A ( sin qa) q ]+ B (cos q a) = q ( A sin qa + B cos q a)
C 2 e ka = A cos qa + B sin q a
k C 2 e ka = q (A sin qa B cos q a)
.K
A sin qa Bcos qa
k=q (1)
A sin qa + Bcos qa
A sin qa + Bcos qa
=q (2)
A sin qa Bcos qa
A B = 0
( A = 0 ) x = ( B = 0 ) x =
) ( groudstate
.
(1)
K = q tam qa (B = 0 )
- -
)(2
K = q tam qa ) (A = 0
.
) (a :
) (
2m V a 2
=
h2
) ( y= q a
. discete ser
. y2

y
:
)( lundstates
.
ttractiuepot
) ( .
.
qa = y = (n +
1
)D , n = 0, 1, 2, ..........
2
- -
Figure 5-11. Location of discrete eigenvalues for even solutions in
square well. The rising curves represent tan y; the falling curves are
y 2 / y for different values of
. :( b)
y2
= cos y
y
D
cory = ( + y )
2
D
tan
2
y=nD , n = 1, 2, 3, ................. 1
y=(n + )
2
- -
Figure 5-12. Location of discrete eigenvalues for odd solutions in
square well. The rising curves represent cot y; the falling curves are
y 2 / y for different values of Note that thee is no eigenvalue for
< ( / 2) 2

D2
> .
4
>
D2
= 2.40
4
x = 0 )(

.
- -
. U ( ) = 0 ) (

) ( .
.
) ( The Potential Barrier
:
V (x) = 0 x <a
= V a < x <a
=o a<x
E < V
.
)( .
d 2 u (x) 2m
+ 2 ( E V ) u (x) = 0
dx 2 h 42
1 4 43 4
)d 2 u (x
2
K 2 u (x) = 0
dx
2m
) K 2 = 2 ( V - E
h
U ( x ) = A e kx + Be kx x <a
- -
) (E < V

.

.
.

x << 2a
)(
>> E
h2
>> p
h
.
8ma 2a
E V
h2 k2
>> >> E
h2

2m 8ma 2

T
2

) Wentzel- kreners Birllouin (WKB
2
4ku 4ka
2 e
2
T
K +u
2

.
.itsholdbe4
- -
2 )2 (ka) (ua
lm T = 2u (2a) + 2lm
123 (ka) 2 + (ua) 2
)(
Ka
uxtaposition

.
lm T
2 2
lm T ~
> ~ 2 x < k
~2 dx
2m
] [V (x) E
barier h2
k . u x

)V (x .
x
T
2 4ku
~

. .
T
2
~e
2 )dx (2m/h 2 ) 2 (V (x) E
.
Tunneling Phenomena

.
)( .Cold Emission
- -
.

.

.
) (

.
)
( .
.
.
) ( .
.

e x W
}) {V (x) E (b
.
- -
a
2m
2
2 dx
h2
) ( Ve x
0
T ~e
3
1 )(A + Bx 2
)dx (A + Bx 2
=
3
B
2
1 1 3
2m 2m ( ex
W/e
]w/e
2 2 2
dx 2 ( w ex
h
= 2
h 3
e
2
3
2m 2w 2
=
h 3e
4 2mw w
) (
2 3 h2
T =e =e
2 e
Fowler Nordheim
Scanning Tunneling Micros cepe

STM .

STM
.
- -
.Tunneling in superconductors
The Harmonic Oscillator

.
.
p2 1 2
=H + kx )(1
2m 2
= k. E = p.E
.
h 2 d 2 u (x) 1
2
+ k x h 2 (x) E.u )(2
2m dx 2
= k = m 2
k
) (3
m
2E
= )(4
h
= y
m
x ) (5
h
d 2 u ( x) m2 2 2 2mE
2
2
x u + 2 u=0
dx h h

d u ( x) m m 2 2 E
2
x u =0
dx 2 h 12 { h3 h
2
y
2 2
1 d u d u
+ ( y 2 ) u = 0 2 + ( y 2 ) u = 0 )(6
m dx 2
dy
h
.
.
y3
2
e
= un )H n ( y
2n n D
- -
. )H n ( y
H 0 (y) = 1
H1 (y) = 2 y
H 2 (y) = 4 y 2 2
H 3 (y) = 8 y 2
)( .
y2 )( E. eijenvalne
E . ) asymptotically u (y
.
)d 2 u (y
y 2 u (y) = 0 )(7
d y2
.
du
2
dy
d du 2 d
) y2 (u 0 ) = 0
2
( )(8
dy dy dy
.
d d u 2 2
) y 2u 0 = 2 y2u 0
2
( )(9
dy dy

.
d d u 2 2 du
) y2u0 = 0 ( )2 y2u0 = C
2
(
dy dy dy
d u 1
) = ( C + y 2 u 2 2
dy

d u
), u ( y
dy
C = 0.
- -
d u d u
dy
= yu u
= y dy )(10
.
y2
U (y) = e 2
2y U 2 = 2ye y
2

d d 2 y2 2
) (y 2 U 2 = (y e ) ~ 4 y 3 e y
dy dy
y.
)h (y
2
U ( y ) = h (y) e y
2
).......... ........(1 2
.
)d 2 h (y )dh (y
2
2y + ( 1) h (y) = 0 ).............(13
dy dy

.y = 0
.Power series expansion .

h (y ) = a m y m )..................(14
m =0
m1

m =0
m (m - 1) a m y m-2
2y m a m y
m =0
)+ ( 1
m =0
a m ym = 0
14 4244 3
m
m am y
m =0
. ym
(m + 2) (m + 1) a m+ 2 2 (m + 1) a m + ( 1) a m = 0
(m + 2) (m + 1) a m+ 2 = ( 2m - +1) a m ).......... ..... (15
- -
.a 1
, a0 am
) (m > N m
2
~ am + 2 am
m
) ( .
)h ( y ) = (atolyromialiny
2 22 23
+ a N y N + y N+2 + yN+4 + y N + 6 + ..........
N ) N (N + 2 ) N (N + 2 ) (N + 4

N
1 N
N
+1

N (y 2 2
) (y 2
) 2
(y 2 2
)
a N y 2 ( 1 )! + + + ..........
2 ! ) ( N 1 N
!) (
N
!)( + 1
2 2 2
)( . N = 2k
(y 2 ) k 1 (y 2 ) k (y 2 ) k + 1
y 2 (k 1 )! + + + ..........
! ) (k 1 !k ! )(k + 1
- -
2 (y 2 ) 2 (y 2 ) k 1
= y 2 (k 1) ! e y {1 + y 2 + + .................. +
!2 (k 2)!
y2 ey + x
4 (y ) = h (y ) e
y2
2

.
( N + 1 ) ( N + 2 ) a n + 2 = 2N + 1 a n = 0
1424 3
=0
= 2N + 1 )(17
2E
= 2N + 1
hw
-1 ) (
) (4 ) (17 .
1 1
=E hw (2m + 1) = (n + ) h w )(18
2 2
Planck.
1
E = (n + ) hw
2
)Hn (y -2
.
:
. )Hn (y
= 2 n +1
) d 2 H n (y )dH n (y
2
2y + 2nH n (y) = 0
dy dy
- -
ecussionedations
H n +1 2y H n + 2n H n 1 = 0
dH n
H n +1 + 2y H n + 2n H n = 0
dy
H n (y)
Zn
= e 2zy z
2

n n!
H n (y) = (1) n e y
2 d n y2
e
dy n

2
dy e y H n (y) 2 = d n n! D

.
H 0 (y) = 1
H1 (y) = 2 y
H 2 (y) = 4 y 2 2
H 3 (y) = 8 y 2 12 y
H 4 (y) = 16 y 4 48 y 2 + 12
H 5 (y) = 32 y 5 160 y 3 + 129 y
( )
d2u n mk 2 2mEn
2
= 2
x un un
dx h h2

d2u* e mk 2mEn *
2
= 2 x 2 u* e u e
dx h h2
un u*e
.
d * dun du x 2m
*
ux u x = 2 (E x E n ) u *x u n
dx dx dx h

- -
+ x
. x=

(E x
) En dx u *e (x) u n (x) = 0

. Ee En
1
) E = h w (n + -3
2
.Zero point evergy

.

10-3k . .
.

.
- -
) (:

.
.
:
" "

.
:

ih ) (x, t) = H (x, t )(1
xt
H
. H V .
p sp2
=H )+ V (x
2m
) V (x )(
:
(x, t) = u E (x) e Et/h
)H u E (x) = E u E (x
- -
E )u E (x
.H
-1 ) (E
:
dx u *E (x) u
E
(x) = 0 E E
) (x -2
.
)dx * (x) (x < )(6
) ( expanded .
= ) (x E
)C E u E (x )(7
H )(
x )0 V (x .
.
) (7 :
= ) (x n
C n u n (x) + )dp C (p) u p (x )(8
dx u *m (x) u n (x) = mn
)dx u *p (x) u p (x) = (1 2
dx u *m (x) u p (x) = 0
- -
) (x, t
:
u E (x, t ) = u E (x) e iEt/h

(x, t) = C E u E (x) e iEt/h
E
(x, t) = C E u E (x) e iEt/h

2 t/2m h
dp C(p) u (x) e ip
E
O These Obseruobeas :

) (.
: .
h d
= )p op u p (x )u (x) = p u p (x
i dx p
) < ( < p aconitum

.
1
= )u p (x e ipx/ h
2D h
.
+

)dx u *p (x) u p (x
1 2
) = (p1 p 2
.
.

.
- -
:
A
.a
)A u a (x) = a u a (x
dx u *a1 (x) u a2 (x) = a 1 , a 2
)u a (x )u a (x
= )(x a
)C a u a (x
)C a = dx u *a (x) (x
:Ca
)(x
.
dx (x) (x) = 1
*
-1 .a
Ca
2
-2 a
-3 A
.unity
- -

2
Ca =1
a
:

1= dx * (x) (x) = dx C *a u *a (x) (x)
a
= Ca C a
*
:
a
C a C *a =
a
dx u *a (x) (x) dy u a (y) * (y)
= dx dy * (y) (x) u a (y) u *a (x) = 1

a
a
u a (y) u (x) = (x y)
*
a
- -
The Vector Space Analogy
:operators and observables
)( transforms
.
)A (1 1 (x) + 2 2 (x) ) = 1 A 1 (x) + 2 A 2 (x

. .
A = A A A =0
* *
)dx * (x) A (x) = dx (A (x) ) (x

*
)(a
dx * A = dx (A )
*
)(b
,
.
) (x) = (x) + (x
) (a:
)dx * (x) A = dx ( * + * * ) A ( +
= dx * A +
2
dx * A
+ dx * Adx * A + * * A
- -

] ) dx (AA* = dx [A ( + ) ] [ ( +
*
= dx (AA* + dx (AA* + * dx (AA* + dx (AA*

2
) (d) , (c
) ( * , .

A
hermitian conjugatioput A+
dx (AA* = dx * A +
.
A = A+
[ A , B ] = 0
( AB ) + = B + A +
- -
)(
Time Dependence The classical limit of Quantum theory

.
.
+ pt / m

. .
A t = * (x, t) A (x , t) dx
:
d A
)A t = * (x, t (x , t) dx
dt t
) * (x, t )(x, t
+ A (x , t ) dx + * (x , t ) A di
t t
A
*
1 1
= + H (x, t) A (x, t) dx + * (x, t) A H (x, t)
t t ih ih
A i i
= + * (x, t) H A (x, t) dx + * (x, t) AH (x, t)dx
t t h h
A
= +
i
] [H , A
t t h t
A = 0
dA dA
= =0
dt dt

d
= A t
i
[H , A ]
dt h t
H .
- -
.

.
:
)( 1 A=x
)(2 A=p
:
d
= x
i
] [H , x
dt h
i p2
= 2m + v (x) ,
h
).v (x
[ V (x) , ] = 0
[p 2
, ?=]
[p 2
, ] = p [ p , ] + [ p , ]p
h
=2 p
i
d i/ 2/ p p
= . t/ = )(a
dt h/ i/ 2/ m m
:
] p = [H , p
d i
dt h
i p2
= + v (x) , p
h 2m
P p
=
i
] [ V (x) , p =
i
] )[ p , V (x
h h
- -
[ p , V (x) ] ?
h d
pV (x) (x) V (x) P (x) = [ V (x) (x) ] h V (x) d (x)
i dx i dx
h d ( x) h dV(x) h d (x)
= V (x) + (x) V (x)
i dx i dx i dx
h dV(x)
= . (x )
i dx
h dV(x)
[ p , V (x)]=
i dx
:
d i h/ dV (x) dV (x)
p = . = (b)
dt h/ i dx t dx t
( b ) , ( a )
d p d
= m = p
dt m dt
d d d d2 dV (x)
p t
= .m = m 2 t =
dt dt dt dt dx
d2 dV (x)
m 2
t =
dt dx t

V (x)
d2 dV (x)
m 2
=
dt dx
=
:
V( )
dV d
=/
dx d
- -

hrenfen
.
)dV (x
F (x) =
d
) )F ( )+ (
2
F (x) = F ( )+ (x F ( )
2
) ( 2
(
=
2
)
.
F ( ) F ( )+ ( )F ( x )
F( )
macroscopic helve

.
/ B , A :
-1 AB B , AAB = BA
-2 (A + B)n .
/
-1 :
(AB) + = B + A + = BA
AB AB = BA
- -
-2
)[ (A + B) ] = (A + B
n +
(A + B)+ ................(A + B)+
+
)= (A + B)(A + B)..................... (A + B
)= (A + B
n
A A+ ) i (A A+ , A + A+ /
/
( A + A+ )+ = A + + (A + ) + = A + + A
]) [i ( A - A
+ +
( )
) = ( i ) A + (A + ) + = (i) (A + A
) =i (A A+
( A A + ) + = (A + ) + A + = A A +
/ H
e - iH ( )

!in Hn / n e iH
n =0
/
+
in n (i) n
= (e ) = H
iH
+
Hn ) ( +
! 0 n !n
(i) n n iH
= H =e
!n
H 4 =1 / H
)( H
)( H H

- -
H 4 =1 /
(H 4 1) = 0
( H + 1) ( H 1) ( H + i) ( H i) = 0 :
(H i)=0
H i = 0 H = i
= i
( H i ) =/ 0
(H i) =
( H + 1 ) ( H 1 ) ( H + i) = 0
(H +i)=0
(H +i)=x
( H + 1) ( H 1 ) x = 0
(H 1 ) x = 0
( 1) ................+ 1
1, i
H = H+
. 1
- -
unitary e iA / A
) (e
iH +
= e iH
:
(e ) (e )= e
iA + iA iA
, e iA = 1

(ii 2 2 (ii 3 3 (ii 2 2 (ii 3 3
(1 + i + H + H + ..........) (1 i + H )H + ..........
!2 !3 !2 !3
p /
p
.
2
(a ) H = p 1
) + m ( 12 2 + 2 +
2m 2
p2 1
(b ) H = + m 2 2 A2
2m 2
/
i p2 i p
= [ H , ]= {[
] p,
d i
, =
dt h h 2m h m h/i
p
=
m
dp i
dt h
i
h
[
= [H, p ]= p, m 12 2 /2 + 2 ]
i h
= , 2 m12 + 2 = m12 - 2
h i 2
d x 1 dp
2

= = 12 2
dt m dt m

2 )p(0
= 2
+ x (0 ) cos 1 t + sin 1 t
m 1
m1
- -
d p
= (b)
dt m
dp i x2 A 2A
= p , m 2 2 = m 2 3
dt h 2 x x
.
p2
H= ( e E cos wt )
2m
dH dp dx
, ,
dt dt dt
/
i p2 i p
= [ H, ]= [p , x ]= p
dx i
, x =
dt h h 2m h m m
i p2
= [ H, p ]= p , (eE cos t )
dp i
dt h h 2m
=
i
[p , (eE cos t ) ]= i , h eE cos t = eE cos t
h h i
dH H
= = eE sin t
dt t
- -
:
The Schrdinger Equation in three Dimensions
The Central Potential :
)V (x, y, t
. r = x2 + y 2 + Z 2
.
p12 p 22
=H + ) + V ( r1 r2 )(1
2m1 2m 2
.
m1 r1 + m 2 r 2
=R )( 2
m1 + m 2
r = r1 r 2

p = p1 + p 2
m 2 p1 m1 p 2
=p )( 3
m1 + m 2
.
2 2
p p
=H + ) + V( r )( 4
2M 2M
M = m1 + m 2 )(5
)(
m1 m 2
= )(6
M
- -
[p i
, Rj ]hi sij
[p i
, rj ]hi sij ) (7
R
P H P
H P .
1
= ) U (P , R 3
e i P, R / h )(8
)( 2 D h 2
H .
)(R ,r) =U(P,R )uE (r )(9
:
p2
) + V (r ) u E (r ) = E u E (r )(10
2
P2
E = E tot , M =w
2M
.

h2 2
) r + V (r ) u E (r ) = E u E (r )(1
2
Consequences of Rotational Invariance

) (11
r .
- -

:
L =rp ) (12

2
) ( ) (
L = rp . rp = r p r p
2 2
( )2
= (r . p ) + L
1 1
2 2
p2 2 2
r r
= p 2r +
1 2
L )(13
r2
) V r( radial
. L L2
.
1 2
=E )P + V (r
2
. .
:
-1
.
-2 .
( 2 ) Z
Invariance under Rotations about the z-axis
Z
= cos y sin
y = sin y cos )(14
- -
1 1
r = ( x 2 + y 2 + Z 2 ) 2
= ( 2 + y2 + Z 2 ) 2
=r
2 2 2 2

+ = cos sin + sin + cos
x y x y x y
2

2
= +
x y
H
Invariace
. Z H
= y
y = y + x (15)
H U E (x y , y + x , Z ) = E U E (x y , y + x , Z) (16)
f ( x + ) = f (x) +
af
( x)
ax
H U E (x , y , Z ) = E U E (x , y , Z) (17)
:

H x y U E (x, t, z ) = E x y U E (x, y, z ) (18)
y x y x
.

x y E U E ( x, y, z) = x y H U E ( x, y, z ) (19)
y x y x
.H
x y
y x
: L =r , P
h
L z = x y = x Py y Px (20)
i y x
.( 19) ( 18)
- -
(H L z L z H) U E (x, y, z) = 0
. ) U E (r
[H , L ] = 0
z
)(21
. z Lz .
L =r P )(22
. y, x
.
[H , L ] = 0
[H , L ] = 0
x
y
)(23
H
.
.
.

[L [ ]
, L y = yp z zp y , zp x xp z ]

= [yp [ ] ]
x
, zp y zp y , zp x [yp z , xp z ]
+ [ zp ]
z

y
, xp z )(24

= y [ Pz , z ] Px + x [z , p z ]p y

=
h
(yp x xp x ) = ih L z
i
[L y
]
, L z = ih L x )(25
[L z
, L x ] = ih L y )(26
) (24 ) (26
- -
L L = i h L

H . L
:
[ L , L ] = [yp zp y , zp x xp z ]
[ ] [ ]
x y z
= [yp z , zp x ] zp y , zp x [ yp z , xp z ] + zp y , xp z
Lx
Ly .L2

L2 , H L z

Separation of Variables is the Schrdinger Equation
L2
, Lz ) (11
.
:
2
L = rp ] ) ( ) = [(r p ) ] + [ (r p ) ] + [ (r p
2
x
2
y
2
z
2

= h 2 y z y z
z y z y

h2 z x z x
x z x z

h 2 x y x y
y x y z
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= h 2 x 2 2 + 2 + y 2 2 + 2 + z 2 + 2
y z z y x y
2 2 2
2 xy 2 yz 2 zx 2x 2 y 2z
xy yz zx x y z
- -
(r p) = h
2
2
x

+ y + z x

+ y + z
x y z x y z
2 2 2 2 2
= h 2 (x 2 2 + y 2 2 + z 2 2 + 2xy + 2yz
x y z xy yz
2
+ 2zx +x +y +z ) (28)
zx x y z

=h2 { y y y z z y + z z
z z z y y z y y

+z z z x x z + x x
x x x z z x z z

+x x x y y x + y y
y y y z x y x z
2 2 2
= y y 2 y z + z y +
z z y y y z z
2 2 2 2
+ z z 2
+ z z 2
z x + x z +
y x x z z z x x
2 2 2
+ x x 2 + x x 2
x y +
z y y z z
2 2
y x + + y y
x y y xz
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
= y2 2 + + x 2 + + z 2 +
z xz z y2 y x2
2 2 2
2yz 2z x 2xy
z y z y x y

2y 2z 2x
y z x
.( r . p )
2 2

( ) x 2 2 2
2

2
2
+ r . p = h2 x2 + y2 + z2 + + + h x +y +z (29)

2
y2 z2 x y z
- -
2
2
+ r . p = r . p + ih r . p )(30

).(30
1
2
+ r . p ih r . p

p = 2
2 2
)(31
r
.

p . r
2
1 1 1
p = 2 h 2 r h 2
2 2 2
r r r r r
( p = i h
)

h2 1 1 1
r r + 2 2 2
u E (r) + V (r) u E (r) = Eu E (r) # )(33
2 r 2 r r r r h r
) (

. . 2
y,
)u E (r) = Y ( , ) R E (r )(34

2
) Y ( , ) = Y ( , )(35
2

) (35 )( ).(39
- -

) (x,y,z ).(r, o, y

. symmetry
)( .commuting epertes
h .
2
= l (l + 1) h 2 )(36
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, .............
.
. z
2
) Ylm ( , l ) Y ( ,
lm
) Ylm ( , ) = mh Ylm ( , )(37

z
l m l m
- -
Ylm Ylm
.
. ,
d Yl m ( , ) Yl ) ( ,
*
1 1 2m2
D 2D
= sin d d Yl m ( , ) Yl ( , ) = Sl1l2 S m1m2
*
)(38
1 1 2m 2

The Radial Equation
) (35 ) (36 ) (33 ) (34

.
h 2 1 d d l ( l + 1)
r ) R (r) + V (r) R Elm = R Elm (r ) (39
2 r dr dr r 2 Elm
m .
deglnemacy m )( 2l + 1 l
. m
.
d2 2 d 2 l (l + 1) h 2 2 E
2 + R nl (r ) 2 V (r ) + 2 R nl (r ) + 2 R nl = 0 )(40
dr r dr h 2 r h
. R ne
)(r E n

1

r
Coulomb potential ) .(12
.Singular
1

r
- -
lim r 2 V (r) = 0 )(41
r
)u nl (r) = r R nl (r )(42
:
d 2 2 d u re (r ) d u 1 du 2 u 1 du
2 + = 2 + + +
dr r dr r dr r r dr r r r dr
2 1 du 1 d 2 u 1 du 2u 2 du
= 3 u 2 + +
r r dr r dr 2 r 2 dr r 3 r 2 dr
1 d2u
= )(43
r dr 2
) (r
d 2 u re (r) 2 l (l + 1 ) h 2
+ E V (r ) u nl (r ) = 0 ) (44
dr 2 h2 2 r 2

repulsive centrifugal ) V (r ) (a
l (l + 1)h 2
V (r ) V (r ) + .barrier
2 r 2
) u = r R (r :
.
- -
) u nl (r ) (b
u nl (0 ) = 0 :
. V=r
u nl : Origin
. r
)d 2 u l (l + 1
2 u~ ) (47
dr 2 r
Ansatz
u (r ) ~ r s
:
s ( s 1) l ( l + 1 ) = 0
s =l s = l +1
r l +1 u () = 0
r -l regular sohtim
irregnlar ) R (r

r .
d 2 u 2 E
+ 2 u =0 ) (50
dr 2 h

) 1 = d r (r ) r 2 dr d R nl (r ) Ylm ( , )(51
2 2 2
) r 2 dr R nl (r
2
=

) dr u nl (r ) (52
2
- -

E < 0 *
2 E
= 2 )(53
h2
d 2u
2
+ 2 u = 0
dr
u (r ) ~ e r )(54
E > 0 *
.
2 E
2
=k2 )(55
h
d 2u
2
u2 =0
dr
) V(r
.e ikr
e ikr
- -
The Hydrogen Atom
.

.
Ze2
V(r ) = )(1
r

d2 2 d 2 Ze 2 l (l + 1) h 2
2 + R + 2 E + R =0 )(2
dr r dr h r 2 r 2
E < 0
.
1
8 E 2
= 2

r )(3
h
) (2 :
)d 2 R 2 dR l ( l + 1 1
+ R+ R = 0 )(4
d 2
d 2
4
) (
1 1
Z e2 2
C2 2
=
2 E

= Z

)(5
h 2 E
= 1
) (4 .
137
. rest mass
- -
The Energy Spectrum
) (4 .
. .
d2R 1
R=0 ) (6
d 2 4
R R ~e
+
2

2
R~e

R= e 2
) G ( ) (7
)(4
):G (s
d 2 G 2 dG 1 l (l + )
1 + G =0 )(8
d 2 d 2
) G ( :

G ( ) = l a n
n )(9
n =
) (a
an

H ( ) = a n n )(10
n =
- -

d 2 H 2 l + 2 d H 1 l
+ 1 + H=0 )(11
d 2 d

)(8 ) G ( ) = l H ( p
:

2l + 2
n ( n 1 ) a n
n 2 + n a n n 1

1 + ( 1 l ) a n n 1 = 0

) (12
n=0
{(n + 1)[n a ] }

n +1
+ (2 l + 2 ) a n + 1 + ( 1 l n ) a n n 1 = 0
n=0
.
a n +1 n + l +1
= )(13
an ) ( n + 1 )(n + 2l + 2
n
a n +1

1
) (14
an n

n = nr l ) (a ) R ( p
.
n = nr + l + 1 )(16
nr 0
1. n l +1
2. n is au int eger
- -
1
E = c2
) (Z 2
)(14
2 n2
E = hw
.
. .
m
= )(18
m+ M
m M .
Ei Ej mC 2 /2h
= iy = (Z )2 12 12 )(19
h
1+
m n n
M
- -
The Degeneracy of the spectrum

= nr + l +1 =1 )
. n ground stale r
= o, l = 0
=2
(i ) n r =1, l = 0
(ii ) n r = 0 , l =1
(i ) n ) (13 r
=1, l = 0
a n +1 n + l +1 n + l + 1 nr l 1
= =
an )(n + 1)(n + 2l + 2 ) (n + 1)(n + 2 l + 2
n nr
= ) (20
) (n + 1)(n + 2 l + 2
:
a1 1 1 a
= = a1 =
a ( + + 2) 1 2 2

H ( ) = a n n = a + a 1 1
n=
a
= a +
2

) H ( = a 1 )(21
2
(i i ) n r = 0, l = 1 .
H ( ) = a
) . Y ( ,
1m
- -
) (2 l +1 .
=3 3 +1= 4 = 2 2 =n=2
n r = 2, l = 0 :
a1
= 1 a2
=
1

a a1 6
.
1
H ( ) = a 1 + 2 )(22
6
H ( ) = a

1 nr = 1 , l = 1
4
H ( ) = a )5 = (2l +1 nr = 0 , l = 2
)( 1+ 3 + 5 = 9 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + [2 (n 1) + 1]= n 2 =n =n=3
) (2l +1
. 2
z

. . 1
r
- -
The Radial Eigen functions
)(13 =n .
:
k + l +1 n
= a k +1 a ) (26
(k + 1)(k + 2l + 2 ) k
:
)n (k + l + 1 ) n (k + l
)a k + 1 = ( 1
k +1
.
)(k + 1)(k + 2l + 2) k (k + 2l +1
)n ( l + 1
......... a ) (27
1. ( 2l + 2)

) . H ( . ) H (
= ) H ( ) ( )(28
)( 2 l + 1
n l 1
r

h
Rnl (r ): = a
c
3
z 2
zr

R10 (r ) = 2
a
e
a
3
z 2 a
2 zr
R20 (r ) = 2 1 z r e 12 30
2a
2 a
3
z 2 z r 2 ( z r ) 3 a
zr
2 2

= ) R21 (r
1 1 + e
3 2 a
3 a 27 a 2
3
z 2 z r 2 ( z r ) 3 a
zr
2 2

R30 (r ) = 2
1 + e
3 a 3 a 27 a 2
- -
r ) P (r

) (12-2
) Pem (cos
2
) Pem (cos
2

).(12-3
.

]) = dr r 2 + k [ Rnl (r
k 2
r

.

= r
a
2z
[3n 2
]
) l (l + 1

[ ]
2 2
a n
r2 = 2 5 n 2 + 1 3 l (l + 1)
2z

1 z ) (12 36
=
r a n 2
1 z 2
=
r2 2 3 1
a n l +
2
- -

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max T = 2.90 10 3 m.K )..(1-5

)hc (6.63 10 34 J.s) (3 10 8 m/s

Einstein proposed that the radiation itself existed as smell

Figure 1-5. Photoelectric effect data showing a plot of retarding

Figure 1-6. The spectrum of radiation scattered by carbon,

= (h hv) 2 + 2m c 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4

1444 424444 3 14444 4244444 3

)pe c 2 = (hv hv) 2 + 2hv hv (1 cos

) (1-18 ) (1-18 (hv hv) 2

m 2 c 4 + pe c 2 = p e c 2 2hv hv (1 cos ) + 2mc 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4

ware- particle duality of

) p = m e v = (9.1 10 31 kg) (2.998 10 6 ms 1

= 2.18 10 -18 J = 13.6 eV

(2 ) The exact value of RH = 1.09736 107 m-1 = 109.736 cm-1

)(Q3 K.E = 6.02 10-18 J

)(Q4 E = 5.4 105 eV

zz * = (x + iy) (x iy) = x 2 i 2 y 2 = x 2 + y 2 )........... (A : 2 4

)y = A k cos ( k x t ).......... .......... .(A : 2 16

Figure A:2-3 the frequency spectrum used to generate the we

e iuv iwt )...... (2-9

= dk g(k) e ikv iw (k)t )..........(2 14

p x = 2m n E = 2 (1.67 10 27 ) (10 6 en) (1.6 10 19 )

(P ) = 2Dh (x, o ) dx e ipx/ h

Import on ce of the ases :

.(1) complex conjugate

= j (a, t) j (b, t) (14)

(1) j (x, t) , p(x, t )

normalized ware fumets :

time indgader S-E :

] ) [f 1 (x) + f 2 (x) ] = [f 1 (x) + f 2 (x

= [ + t (x) + f (x)]= [ x + ]+ (x)

the Eigenvalne Poeem for a

A sin Kx + B con lex

dx u (x ) u m (x) = smn )..................(4 23

) (sin kx, cos kx

)(n =1, 3, 5, ..............

u (x) = e ikz + R e ikz

e iux + R e - iux = T e 2ikx at x = 0 1 + R = T )(a

flected and transmitted

:The Potential well

u ( x ) = A cos qx + B sin qx a<x<a

) ( The Potential Barrier

Scanning Tunneling Micros cepe

The Harmonic Oscillator

(m + 2) (m + 1) a m+ 2 = ( 2m - +1) a m ).......... ..... (15

.Zero point evergy

(x, t) = u E (x) e Et/h

)dx * (x) (x < )(6

)dx u *p (x) u p (x) = (1 2

(x, t) = C E u E (x) e iEt/h

) < ( < p aconitum

dx u *a1 (x) u a2 (x) = a 1 , a 2

= dx dy * (y) (x) u a (y) u *a (x) = 1

:operators and observables

)A (1 1 (x) + 2 2 (x) ) = 1 A 1 (x) + 2 A 2 (x

)dx * (x) A (x) = dx (A (x) ) (x

= dx (AA* + dx (AA* + * dx (AA* + dx (AA*

)(R ,r) =U(P,R )uE (r )(9

Consequences of Rotational Invariance

) Ylm ( , ) = mh Ylm ( , )(37

The Radial Equation

) (35 ) (36 ) (33 ) (34