Doped semiconductors: donor impurities

A silicon lattice with a single impurity atom (Phosphorus, P) added.

As compared to Si, the Phosphorus has one extra valence electron which, after all
bonds are made, has very weak bonding.
Very small energy is required to create a free electron from an impurity atom.
This type of impurity is called donor.
Note, that there is no hole created when a free electron comes from the impurity atom.
 Free electron concentration in donor - doped semiconductors
When donor atoms are introduced into the semiconductor material, they are all ionized.
Each donor atom creates one free electron.

If the concentration of donor impurity (e.g. Phosphor) in Si is ND,

the concentration of free electrons,

n ND
For Si and other semiconductors, the typical doping levels are:
ND = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3

nD = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3 (compare to ni = 1.31010 cm-3 in intrinsic Si)

nD >> ni

Doping provides a flexible control over semiconductor conductivity.

The vast majority of microelectronic devices are based on doped semiconductors
 Resistance of Donor-Doped Silicon sample
How much would be the resistance of the (1 cm1cm 1cm) Si sample
doped with donor impurities with concentration 21016 cm-3?

= qn ; n = 21016 cm-3
L 1 L n = 1000 cm2/(V s)
R= = q = 1.6 10-19 C
A A
= 1.6 10-19 C 21016 cm-3 1000 cm2/(V s)
= 3.2 (Ohm cm)-1
= 0.325 Ohm cm
R = 0.325 (Ohm cm) 1 cm /(1cm 1cm) = 0.325 Ohm

The resistance of a doped Si crystal can be significantly lower

than that of intrinsic Si
 Doped semiconductors: acceptor impurities

A silicon lattice with a single impurity atom (Boron, B) added.

Boron has only three valence electrons, one electron less than the Si atom.
Having only three valence electrons - not enough to fill all four bonds - it creates an
excess hole that can be used in conduction.
This type of impurity is called acceptor.
There is no corresponding free electron created from acceptor impurity
 Hole concentration in acceptor - doped semiconductors

If the concentration of acceptor impurity (B atoms) in Si is NA, the hole concentration

pA NA
For Si and other semiconductors, the typical acceptor doping levels are:
NA = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3

pA = 1015 cm-3 .1018 cm-3 (compare to ni = 1.31010 cm-3 in intrinsic Si);

pA >> ni

The vast majority of microelectronic devices using hole conductivity,

are based on doped semiconductors

In doped semiconductors, the concentration of intrinsic electrons and holes can be

neglected as compared to those coming from donor and acceptor impurities.
 Concentration temperature dependence in doped
semiconductors

n, cm-3
Impurity electrons
ND

Intrinsic electrons,
intrinsic holes

100 K 200 K 300 K 400 K

Typical dependence for n-Si (i.e. donor-doped)

(for p-Si (i.e. acceptor doped) the dependences are similar
 Mobile charge carriers energy
In semiconductors, the mobile charge carriers are
the free electrons and holes

Ec
Bound
electron

Ev

Atom
valence
band

Intrinsic material at low temperature. There are no free

electrons or holes no free carriers.
The mobile charge energy does not make sense.
 Conductance band energy

Hole
conductance
band
Ec
Free
electron

Ev

Atom

When the electron in the valence band acquires sufficient extra

energy, it can be detached from its parent atom and reaches
reach the
conductance band
The minimum energy of the conduction band is denoted as EC
 Energy Band Gap (Eg)

Ec
Forbidden
Band-gap Energy
region
Ev

Generally no electron can have the energy between Ec and Ev

The band-gap is the energy difference between Ec and Ev:

Eg=Ec-Ev
 Mobile charge carriers energy
conductance
band

Hole
Ec

Free
electron

Ev

Atom
valence band

Intrinsic material at high temperature. Temperature generates

free electrons and holes in equal concentrations.

The energy of free electrons is close to EC; the energy of holes is

close to EV
 Average free carrier Energy Fermi energy
conductance
band
The average energy of all
the mobile charges in
semiconductor: Ec
Eave Average [(Electron
EF
Average Energy + Hole
Average Energy)]
Ev
(EC + EV)/2.

The average energy of all

the mobile charges in valence band
semiconductor is called
Fermi energy EF.
In intrinsic semiconductor:
EF (EC + EV)/2.

The energy of free electrons is close to EC; the energy of holes is

equal to EV
 n-type semiconductor
Extra free electron

Phosphorus (P)
has 5 outer
shell electrons.

In the n-type material most of EC

the mobile charges are free
electrons. EFn

Therefore, the average energy

of mobile charges is close to
EC: EV
EF EC
 p-type semiconductor
Extra electron
vacancy or hole

Boron (B) has 3

outer shell
electrons.

In the p-type material most of EC

the mobile charges are holes.
Therefore, the average energy
of mobile charges is close to
EV: EFp
EF EV EV
 Carrier Concentration and
Fermi level: n-type material
Electron concentration:

nn N D ND - Donor atoms
concentration

Fermi energy level: EF EC

Hole concentration ni2

in the n-type pn = pn nn = ni2
nn
material:
 Carrier Concentration and
Fermi level: p-type material
Hole concentration:

pp N A NA - Acceptor atoms
concentration

Fermi energy level: EF EV

Electron ni2
concentration in the np = pn nn = ni2
pp
p-type material:
 Compensation

If both donor and acceptor are added to an intrinsic

semiconductor then the semiconductor is said to be
compensated

If ND > NA, the free electron concentration:

n = ND-NA

If ND < NA, the hole concentration:

p = NA-ND
 Drift Current
The electric current due to electric field is called the
Drift Current.
The electron current density (current per unit area):

J n ,drift = q n nE E

n is the electron mobility and

n is the electron
concentration.
Similarly the hole current
density:
Jn,drift
J p ,drift = q p pE
Jp,drift
p is the hole mobility and p is
the hole concentration.
 cont Drift Current and conductivity
The total (electron + hole) drift current density:
J drift = J n ,drift + J p ,drift
= q n nE + q p pE

J drift = q( n n + p p ) E
Conductivity:

= q( n n + p p ) J drift = E
Resistivity:
1 1
= =
q( n n + p p )
 Diffusion Current
Diffusion is due to concentration difference between two
regions of a semiconductor
The carriers will move from higher concentration region to
the lower one.

Gradual concentration change

Abrupt concentration change

Concentration
Concentration

x x
 continued Diffusion Current
dn
The electron diffusion current density: J n ,diff = qDn
dx
Dn is the diffusion coefficient of electrons

dp
The hole diffusion current density: J p ,diff = qD p
dx
Dp is the diffusion coefficient of holes
Electron Hole diffusion

Concentration
diffusion
Concentration

Jp,diff
Electron

Jn,diff
Hole

x x
 Total Currents in semiconductors with both
electric field and concentration gradients
Electron current density Total electron
current
dn
J n = J n ,drift + J n ,diff = q n nE + qDn In = J n A
dx
Hole current density: Total hole
current
dp Ip = Jp A
J p = J p ,drift + J p ,diff = q p pE qD p
dx

Total current density: J = Jn + J p

Total current: I = J A = ( J n + J p )A A is the sample

cross-section area