THU?

lI!I|'KH|
I
Glll TEIFIN BIEINIS TFHJE EIUFIN VQT LY

N
Mark LEVI
uA xu K I B A M T at i
 THU ,
CU KHI
TURN HUI:
THE MATHEMATICAL MECHANIC: USING PHYSICAL REASONING T0 SOLVE PROBLEMS
Copyright 2009 Princeton University Press. All rights reserved.
Ban tihg Vit NXB Tr, 201 I.

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the Publisher.

BIEU our BII-IN Muc TRUGC xur BAN nuoc Tnuc iniin not rnu vn:N KIITH TPIICM

Levi, Mark
Tho ed khi tozin hoc Gizii loan bang lrt_1'c quan vat ly I Mark Levi ; Huy Nguyen dich.
- T.P. H?) Chi Minh : Tr, 2011.
240 tr. ; 20cm. - (Canh elm m6 rong). Nguyen ban : The mathematical mechanic.
l. Vail 1y loan hoe. I. Huy Nguyen. II. Ts: The mathematical mechanic.

510 -- dc 22

L664 |3BN 978-6044 -01 274-5

8 934 97 4 1 O
 THU ,
CU Kl-II
TUFIN HEIC
The Mathematical Mechanic
sufn TUFIN BIEING T|=:L_r|: EIUFIN VFIT LY

MarkLEV|
lluy Nguyin d_/ch

NHA xulh BAN IRE

Muc lL_1c

1 G101 THIEU

2 DINH LY PYTHAGORAS
3 cuc Tlu 1/A cuc DAI
4 BAT DANG THUC c110 B61 DO/KN MACH

5 TAM 1<1-161; LUAN (:1) v/\ C/\CH Gliu

6 1111111 1100 vA c11uY1i1\1 DONG

7 s1J DUNG c0110c mi Ti1\111 TiCH PHAN

8 PHUONG TRiNH EULER-LAGRANGE
THONG QUA NHUNG LO x0 KEO CANG

9 THAU KINH, KINH VIEN VQNG,

VA co HOC HAMILTON

10 c/11 BANH XE DAP

VA DINH LY GAUSS-BONNET

11 BIEN PHUC THAT LA DON GI/\N

PI-IU LUC: 1<111:'1\1 THUG VAT LY ci\1\1'T11111:'T

TAI LIEU THAM KH/\O

1

s|c'i| Tl-|||'.u

Tht tinh c6 mt trong nhung phl kin

lon hc_)c vT dai nhl mqi thbi dai |e_1i

duqc dn dt bdi truc Quan vl

~ George Polyn, ni dn k|1|np|1c\'m Archimedes

v php lfch phn

1.1T021n hQc d6id1u Vlt 13?

Tr lai thi Lin bang X6 vifit nhung nm du thzip kj?

1970, lp cit nhn chilng ti g6m khong 40 sinh vin
nm hai ngmh tom vl 13?, duqc huy dng di lao dcfmg mila
h 6 min qu. Cng vic ca chtmg ti ll trn b-tng v51
dung cc xi-16 tai m(f)t trong cc nng trang tzflp th'tz_1i dy.
Ban ti Anatole v1 ti ducyc phm cng xflc si. Cng vifec
hom thilnh V51 chtlng ti cm thy thoi mi (nhu bit ctr
ai cflng c th cm thiy trong hoim cnh d). Anatole thco
chuyn ngnh vzfit 1y cn ti thi chuyn ton. Nhu nhirng
k hm mi) hai (1(f)i tuyn d6ikh1ng, m5i chlng ti ra sire
thuyt phL_1c ngufri cn lai rng linh vuc ca minh uu vit
hon. Anatole ni mt cch qu qL1y6tr5ngton hc_>c 121 dy

5
tr ca v2f1tlv.T6iphan phao rang toan hqc c th t6n tai bat
chip vat Iv cn vat Iv thi khng. T61 ni thm cac dinh Iv
la vinh hang. Cac gia thuy't vat Iv thi hft dtlng ri sai. Dil
vay ti da khng cho Anatole bi't truc rang Iv do ti chqn
chuyn nganh toan hoc la d rn luyn cai cng cu c6t y'u
cho vat 13? linh VL_lC ma ti du tinh s theo du6i sau nay.
'lht_1'c mila h truc khi vao dai hc_>c, ti cia tinh ct) gap
ra,
thy vat lv ca minh. Ong da hi v cat: dL_r tinh cila ti cho
hoe ky mtla thu. Bat dau chuyn nganh toan ca em", ti
(mp. G1 co? Toan? Anh khvllng r61! Ong dap lai. Ti coi dc)
nhu' m{)t 101 khen (va 06 l xac nhan quan dim cla ng).

1.2 Quyn sach nay ni v diu gi

Day khng phai la mtjt trong nhfrng cu6n bia mm,t0,
(lay, dL1 d git thri gian qua hai mtta git), ma n'u du'Qc nm
lhfnng tay thi s khin mt con trau nude khuyu g6i (Nancy
Banks-Smith, nha ph binh truyn hinh ngudi Anh). Vi
kich th uc nh ca n6, cu6n sach nay s khng ha guc duqc
ai, it ra khng th ha gL_1c ai bang tac dng vat Iv ca n.
'luy nhin, cu6n sach thuc sL_1' la mt dn giang tr hay c
th chi lit mt cL'1 chich ch6ng lai quan nim cho rang toan
h(_>c la day t ca vat Iv. Trong cu6n sach nay, vat Iv bi dat

vao vi tri phuc Vl_l toan hc_>c, va t6 ra la mt day tr c nang

luc (xin l6i cac nha vat Iv). Nhfrng 3? tung vat Iv c th la
v tung khai mi) thuc thu va gqi ra l(7i giai cue kv gian don
cho mt bai toan toan hQC. Hai ch th nay gan b khang
khit dffn n6i ca hai s chiu t6n that nu bi tach rfyi. Su (T161
vai c th rat hiu qua, nhu cu6n sach nay minh chirng.

6
Hoan toan co th tranh cai xem vic tach hai bi) mon nay
ra co la mot eai gi qua nhan tao hay khong*.

D1''m qua Ijch sti. Cach giai toan bang true quan vat ly
it nhat co ttr thoi Archimedes (khoang nam 287 tr. CN
khoang nam 212 tr. CN). Cng da chtrng minh dinh ly tich
phan n5i ting v the: tich hinh trL_i, hinh cau va hinh non
bang cach sir dung mat cai can thang bang gia tuong. Ban
tom tat ciia dinh ly nay duoc khae ln bia ma ca ong.
Cach tip can ca Archimedes co th duoc tim thay trong
cuon [P]. Doi voi Newton, hai chL"1 d nay v6n1a mat. Cac
cu6n [U] va [BB] trinh bay nhfrng loi giai vat ly rat dep cho
cac bai toan toan hoe. Rat nhiu nhfrng phat kin toan
hoe co ban (nhu Hamilton, Riemann, Lagrange, Iaeobi,
Mobius, Grassman, Poincare) da duoc dan dat tu nhung
suy xt vat 1y.

C6 hay khng mt cng thiic ph6' quat cho each t1''p can
vatIy?Nhu voi cong cu bat ky, vat chat hay tinh than, each
tip can nay co khi t6t va co khi khong. Kho khan chinh
la nhin" ra ban chat vat ly ca bai toan**. Mot s6 bai toan
phii hop voi each giai nay, mat 56 khac thi khong (c6 nhin,
eu6n sach nay chi bao gom dang thL'r nhat). Tim ra mo

* Toan hoc la mat nhanh ea vat ly ly thuy't noi ma phan thuc nghim la r
tin" (V. Arnold [ARN]). Khong chi cac thi nghiin lrong cu6n sach nay la
r lin tham chi con min phi, ma thirc chat la cac lhuc nghiem gia tubing
(bai toan 2.2; 3.3; 3.13, vii (hire ra hau heft cac bai loan lrongcuan sach nay).
"* Day la each tie-'p can di nguoc trao liru chung: thong thuong mat nguoi bat
dau bang mat bai toan vat ly, roi trin khai no thanh mg)! bai toan toan hoe;
bday chiing ta lam nguqc lai.

7
phng vefit 1}? cho mcfat bli Lom cu th c khi d d1ng,v1 c
khi khng; ngudi dcc c th c 3? kin ring ca minh sau
khi ludt qua nhfrng trang sch ny.
Mt bi hcc m mcfn sinh vin c th rL1t ra ttr vic (1Qc
cu6n sch nly l tim kim mt 37 nghia vzfxt 1y trong ton
hQc 151 rt c ich.

SL1 chgit ch clia ton hpc. Lp lum vt 13? ca chtlng ta s

khng hon tom cheflt ch. Nhfrng leflp luzfm ny chi 151 phc
tho ca nhfmg chtrng minh cheflt ch, C1u'Qc di?-zn dat being
ngn ngfr vt 1y. Ti c chuyn ngfrchL'mg minh vt 13? thlnh
chirng minh tozin hqc cho mcfmt vli bli ton chQn1(_>c. Lm
vic ny mtxcch ct) h th6ng s bin quy'n sch thimh
mt pho scht0, dly vl chln ngzit". Ti hy vqng ngudi dcpc
s nh2_"1n ra hinh mu d n<Z'u c hL'1'ng thL'1 s c kh nng tu
xir 1)? nhfrng trufmg hqp m ti d1 b6 qua.V('rilcritr1n tinh
nly, ti cim thy bt ly ny trong vic sir dc1ngttrchLrng
minh xuyn su6t cu6n sch m bi) qua dfiu ngoeic kp.
Dim ch6t ('7 dy 151 llp luefln vz_1t 1y tr thmh cng cu d
khm ph vl d c m(f>t truc quan su sic ~ hai buc di
truc tfnh chzflt ch cfla ton h(_>c. Nhu Archimedes d vit,
Duong nhin vic thit lp mt chtrng minh s d dlng
hon nhiu nu tru'()c C16 da c ngudi nim duqc khi nim
s0 khi ca bli tozn. ([ARC], tr. 8)

Mtcch tijv cn r6 rng. Thay vi phin dich chL'1'ng minh"

vt 13? thmh chtrng minh ch2f1tcl1,victhi'tl1p c h th6ng
clc tin d thL_1'c cht" c l s 151 m(_)t du z'1nthL'1 vi. Dy s
151 mt tefxp hqp czic tin d thuc ch'tcL"1a co h(_>c, tuong tu

nhu clc tin d hinh hoc/s6 hoc ca Euclid ml trong d

8
cc chtmg minh duqc cho 6 trong cu6n sch nxy tr nn
chit ch.
Ta th tufmg tuqng mt nn vn minh ngoxi tri dit mix
6 d ngudi La pht trin co hQc trufyc, nhu mt bi) mn cheflt
ch v thun my mang tinh tin d. Trong th' gii song
hnh nziy, m(f)t ngudi no dc) Git d vi't mt cu6n szich v
vif;-c sir dung hinh hoe C16 chtrng minh cac dinh 1y co hoe.
C6 th b1ihQc 6 dy 121 con ngudi khng nn hon toln
tlp trung v10 czich tip cln nay hay cch tip can kia, m
nn coi d nhu hai mzfit ca m(f)t d6ng xu. Cu6n sch nay
151 mt phn (mg ch6nglz_1i su th 0 kh ph6 bi6n d6i
vi
khia canh vefzt 13? cla ton hqc.
So'1uQ'c v tm Iyhpc. Nhng cch gii vt 13? trong cu6n
sch nly c th ducyc din dich ra ngn ngfr ton hqc.
Tuy vefly, khng th trnh khi thifiu st trong qul trinh
din dich. True gic 00 hqc 121 m()t thuc tinh co bn ca
tri tu con ngufyi, cng co bn nhu kh nng tung tuqng
hinh hqc, khng sir dung chnng l ling phi m<f)t nng luc
manh m m ta cc). C0 hQc 151 hinh hoc vi dim nhn vlo
chuyn dng v ti'p xL1c.@ hai khia canh sau, co hqc cho
ta m(f>t chiu kich cm nhzfxn b6 sung, cho php ta quan
st ton hQc tit mt gc d khc, nhu duqc miu t trong
cu6n slch nay.

Quylut ti'n ha dng bufin win dang tfin tai. Kh nng llp
luzfzn bilng vzfit 13? Cii 121 khffvi ngun cho nhftng pl1tki6n tom

hqc nn tng, tit Archimedes, d'n Riemann, dn Poincar,

v dn tzfin hm nay. Tuy vzfly, khi mcjt chfl th phzit trin,
kh nng 13? gii tu nghim bi chim vo qun lang. Kt qu

Q
la sinh vin thung khng c duqc nn tang truc quan ca
cac mn hqc ma h(_) theo c'1u6i.

D61 tupng ca cu6n sach. Nfu ban c himg thL'1 vi toan l'1QC
va vat ly, ti hy vQng ban s khng quzilng cu6n sach nay di.
Cu6n sach nay c th thti vi vi nhtrng ai xem nhfrng
diu sau day la ky thljiz

~ Dinh ly Pythagoras c th duoc giai thich bang dinh luat

bao toan nang lu:Q'ng.
~ Dng mi cng tic trong mcjt mach din don gin chfxng
minh du'(_rc bat dang thL'1'c \/Z1; 3 %(a+/1).
- Mt s6 bai ton giai tich' phL'1'c tap cc) th duqc gii quyt
d dang ma khng can mt php tinh nao.
- Khao sat chuyn dng cia banh xe dap d chirng minh
duoc cng thtrc Gauss-Bonnet (gia dinh la khng di hi
ngufyi doc c su am tufyng d tai nay; tat ca hiu bit co
ban du (1u'Qc cung cap).
~ ca cng thL'i'c tich phan Riemann Ian dinh ly anh xa
Riemann (du duqc gii thich (rcac muc thich hqp) Ciu
hin r6 m6n mt bang each quan sat chuyn dng ciia
lu'u chat.

Cu6n sach nay s li cu6n bit ctr ai mu6n tim hiu v

hinh hoc hay co hcpc hoac nhfrng ai khng tim thfiy himg
thii vi toan hqc bi vi ho cho rang n qua kh khan hay
nham chan.

" Nguyn van: calculus vita c nghia 1:1 giai iich, vita c nghia la php iinh -
N.D.

IO
S1? dung trongkha hQc.Ng021ivicl1 mn 21ntinhthzm b6
dufyng, cu6n sch ccn c th duqc dilng nhu' mt tai liu b6
sung trong clc kha hcc v gii tich, hinh h(_)c v b6i dudng
gio vin. Gio sur tozin vii vefxt ly cc) th tim Lhiy min vxi bi
ton v nhzfan xt c ich cho cng tc ging day cla h(_).

Kih thlicnn tng cn c6.Ph1nl6n cu6n sch (cc chuong

2 Clffn chuong 5) chi dci hi gii tich vl hinh 11(_)C so cp
vi dc kh duqc giir 6n dinh su6tc1c chucmg nxy, vi mf_>t
vi dt bi6n ngoai l. Chuong 6 v51 7 chi yu cu ngui doc
bit s0 qua dao h1m veil tich phn. Cu6i chuong 7 ti c()
d cap su{t tiu tn, nhung khng am hi nhfrng hiu bit
su sc. Chuong nly bit ctr ai di llm quen vi gii tich so
cip cng c th tip cm duoc.
Phn thir hai (cc chuong 6 d'n chucmg 11) c dt1ng(dt1
him khi) mt vai khi nim v gii tich da bi'n, nhung :01
trnh dimg nhiu thuzfit ngfr, hy vqng ring truc gilc s giL'1p
ban dcc vuqt qua ducqc cc rlo cn ky thuzflt.
Tit c mc_>i diu mt nguzfyi cn bit v vef1t 13? duqc m t
trong ph1._11L_1c; n duqc trinh bay d phuc vu nhfrng ngufyi
thiu ki'n thtrc nn tng.
Ta c th dQc sch tirng phn mcfnt hay ttmg bli tom
mt; nfu bi mic ke_:t,bg1n chi cln lit sang trang khzic <15 c
thm himg thL'1. Cc) ngoai l cho ciu LrL'1c m6i ch d mint
trang n21y, ch yfu xuit hin 6 nhfrng chuong cu6i.
Ngun tziiliu. Theo nhu ti bit khl nhiu, tuy khng phi
tom bf), cc ldi gii trong sch ny l mi. Chling bao gm
101 gii cho clc bi ton 2.6, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.13,
3.3, 3.7,

3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12, 3.17, 3.18, 3.19, 3.20, 3.21, 5.2, 5.3,

ll
 (i. I, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1 v 7.2. Cc m6 phng 6 chuong 8
vii ('7 muc 9.3, 9.8 v51 11.8 cfing cf) th l mvi.
ceic
Khng cc) nhiu tii liu lin quan d'n ch d ca cu6n
szich ny. Khi ti cn hcpc ph6 Lhng, mt vi du tim thy
lrong cu6n sch ca Uspenski da gy n tuqng cho t<')i d'n
n6i chii d niy d tr thinh nim dam m*. Thm nhiu
h1itz_1p ('7 dang d'y c th Lim Lhfiy trong cu6n szich nh ca

Kogan [K],ci1a Balk vi Boltyanskii [BB], vl trong chuong 9

Iii ca cu6n szich cC1aP0lga [P]. Ngun g6c ciia nhfrng bii
ton ny cng nhu' ld giii ciia n l1 cng trinh c6 tit 24 thf
ky trufyc cia Archimedes [ARC].

1.3 Mt vi dL_1 cich gii vzfit 1}? so vi cich gii

t02'1n hQc
B511ton. Cho ba difim A, B C trn mt phng, tim dim X
sao cho tfing clc khoing cch XA + XB + XCl1 nh nht.

/4 '_ 61 - / 20

llinh
in
1.1. N611
1.
L

King khoimg czich /\/1

*

+ XI! + .\(
<1)
2

Iii nh nhiil thi czic gc [Qi X lii 120"

* Dfiy Iii vi du iii tin ci'1:1 cudn szich niiy. @iI1i1c 2.2, biii biio ci'1a Tokicda
{TO} cimg v(ri vi di_i n1y 151 viii vi du [)6 sung rift I61.

12
 Cch cn vtlf. Ta bit du bimg vic khoan ba lo t2_1i
tic-3})

A, B, C trn mafxt bln (c th coi dy 151 m(f>t thi nghim gi

tung hoc n duqc thuc hin 6 nh mt ngufyi ban vi mut
dich tif-it kim chi phi). Sau khi c(_)t ba soi dy lai vfyi nhau,
gqi d 151 dim chung X, ti lu6n ttrng scyi m<f)t xuyn qua
m6i 16 khc nhau vl treo vo cc qu nng phia dui bn,
nhu hinh 1.1. Gi sir trqng luqng ca m6i qu nzfmg being
1;th nng ca sqi dy thir nht khi d 151 AX: thL_rc vefly, d
ko Xtix 16 A ti vi tri hin tai ca Xta phi nng qu nzfmg
don vi ln mt khong XA. Ta d gn t6ng khong clch
XA + XB + XC mt 3? nghia vefit Iv 1:1 th nng. Biy gid, n'u
khong cch/n:1ngluc_mg ny 151 cue tiu, h s 6 trang thi
can bimg. Khi d, bf) ba luc cng dy tc dung ln Xccfmg
lai s bng khng v do d chtmg hqp thlnh mt tam gic
(thay vi l1 chi hung rdi rac) n'u duqc dt g6c-n6i-ng(_>n,
nhu cho thiy trong hinh 1.1(b). Tam gic ny l tam gic
du bi czic qu nzfzng 151 nhu nhau, vl do d gc nm gitra
hung chi duong ca cc vc to ny 151 120. Ta d chi ra
ring LAXB = LBXC I LCXA = 120 .'

ton hoc. Coi a,b,c vim x, ln luqt l kv hiu cila cc

L01 gizii

vc to vi tri ca cc dim A, B, Cvix X. Ta phi t6i thiu ha

tng cla cc d1iS(x)=|x a] + |x bl + [x c
dg)

D c diu d, ta cho cc d2_10 him ring phn ca S

8
= 0, trong d x = (x,y), hay din gii cng
35'
bng khng: 8,\= -5
~

By

__________l
4 151 kv hiigu cfla gc; ngudi dich gifr nguyn kv hiu cfxa nguyn bn
(I6 sir nhm ln trong bn in nguyn tc, thco db t6ng S(x) |x- : a| + |x- a|

+ |x- al. Ngudi dich sfra lzii cho phi: hqp v(yi tng th bli l02'1n. ND.

1)
diu kin trn mt cch gon gang v hinh nh h0'n, ta cho
gradient vs = 0. By gifr ta tinh VS.

Ta c:

l|x a| = A/(x a|)2 + (y cu): = (x a.) /\}(.>c a|)2 + (y a1)2

ax ax

vl mcfn cch tuong tu:

%|xa| =(ya2)/,/(xa,)2 +(ya2)2.

Theo d, V|x a| = (x a) / |x a|l1m<f)tvct0CIo'nv1,hu(mg

chi tir A dn X. Ta s ky hiu vc to ny l ea. K't qu ny
nhn duqc tit m(_)t php tinh r6 rlng nhung 37 nghia vzfat 1y
ca n muon tit cch ti'p can veit 13?, don gin l lL_1'c m X
ko cng dly. Liy dao hzim hai s6 hang |x b| v |x c| cn
lai trong t6ng Sta thu duoc VS = ea + 0,, + e(_, trong d eh via
ea ducyc dinh nghia tL1'0'ng tu nhu ea. Ta k6t luzfan rng vi tri

t6i uu cila Xtunng (mg VS = cu + e,, + e(_ = 0 . Theo dz) cc vc

to don vi ea eh ec tz_10 thnh mt tam gic du, vil gc ngoili
bait ky ca tam gizic d chinh l gc nm gifra czfap vc to don
vi bit ky, bang 120".
Theflt 13? khi quan salt thiy cli kh khn thay hinh df
thL'1

dang khi ta chuyn tit czich tip czfin ny sang cch khc.
Trong li gii ton h(_>c, cng vic taflp trung vlo thL_rc hin
mt s6 thao tc dang thL'1'c. Trong ldi gii vefxt 1y, cng vic tp
trung vo t2_10 ra mt m6 hinh vt I37 phil hqp. Cch tiip czfan
nly l mlu muc cho nhiu bli ton khlc trong cu6n sch.

14
1.4 Ldi cam on
Cu6n sch nay hn da khng ra dfri n'u khng nhd diu
cha ti di ni khi ti muri sau. Ti cho Ong xem mcfnt nghich
ly vat ly xy dn vi ti, va ng niz Tai sao con khng vit
n ra va khri du mt bf) suu tap?. Cu6n sch nay chinh la
phn duqc trich dnti1'b(f) suu tap d, v'i mt vai thm thit.
Rat nhiu ban b va dng nghip ca ti da dng gp
cu6n sch bang nhfrng gQ'i y va ldi khuyn. Ti dac bit cm
cm Andrew Balmonte, Alain Chenciner, Charles Conley, Phil
Holmes, Nancy Kopell, Paul Nahin, Sergei Tabachnikov,
va Tadashi Tokieda, nhd vao su khich l cila ho ma bf) suu
tap dz duqc do got thanh mcf>t dang chin chu. Ban than
ti dac bit biit on Andy Ruina, ngudi da dcpc ban tho rit
nhiu ln va cf) nhiu gcyi y Ian chinh sita. Ti bit on Anna
Pierrehumbert bi v6 s6 gqi y ca c da giiip ci thin cu6n
sch nay, va Vickie Kearn vi su c6 vii ciia ba.
Ti v ctmg cm on h5 trcy ca T6 chrc Khoa hqc Qu6c
SL_1'

gia v'i Quyt dinh Tai trq s6 0605878.

lb
2
B!NH LY PYTHAECIRAS

2.1 Gioi thiu

mire khong
Day co v la mot nhan dinh tam thurong dn
I
4

A
nam yen, khi
dang ban toi: Kh6i nuoc tlnh trong be chfta
I-1

rang cai dang d

khong bi tc dong, s van niim yn. Toi cho
(tr.
luu tam la no co mot h qua thL'1 vi la dinh ly Pythagoras
27). Thm vao do, no con ko theo ca
quy tac ham sin (tr.
29), quy luafxt l1_xc day noi Archimedes, va
dinh 19 Pythagoras
30).
cho din tich b mat cila hinh 3 chiu (tr.
("Imus 2.2, god
Chfmg minh ca dinh ly Pythagoras, mo ta
ra mot chimg minh dong luc hoc ca dinh
ly Pythagoras duoc
chuyn dong
mo ta ('7 muc 2.6. Phuorng cach tip can dura vao
s1'1a,bao gom:
lam cho mot s6 chfl d khac trr nen rat sang
- Dinh ly co ban ca gii rich.
~ Cong thtrc tinh toan nhanh cho dinh thirc.
~ Khai trin dinh thirc theo dong.
chuong nay.
Tat ca nhng diu trn s duoc mo ta trong
Vai chfmg minh khac mang nhiu tinh vat ly
hon chirng
\

A A
A
mot chitng
minh dinh ly Pythagoras cng duoc neu ('1 day,
minh con
minh sir dung nang luong dan hoi, nhfxng chitng
lai sir dung dong luqng.

17
2
B!NH LY PYTHAGDRA5

2.1 Giti thiu

Day co v la mot nhan dinh tam thuong dn mfrc khong
dang ban tor: Kh6i nuoc tinh trong b' cha nam yn, khi
khong bi, tac dong, s vein niim yn. Toi cho rang cai dang d
luu tam la no co mot ht} qu thL'\ vi la dinh ly Pythagoras (tr.
27). Thm vao do, no con ko theo ca quy tiic ham sin (tr.
29), quy luefrt lure day noi Archimedes, va dinh ly Pythagoras
cho din tich b mat ca hinh 3 chiu (tr. 30).
Chirng minh cfra dinh ly Pythagoras, mo ta omuc 2.2, goi
ra mot chirng minh dong luc hoc ca dinh ly Pythagoras duot
mo ta ('1 muc 2.6. Phuong cach tip can dua vao chuyn dong
lam cho mot so ch d khac tro nn rat sang sa, bao gom:
- Dinh ly co ban ca gii tich.
~ Cong thfrc tinh toan nhanh cho dinh thtrc.
~ Khai trin dinh thirc theo dong.

Tit ca nhfrng diu trn s duoc mo ta trong chuong nay.

Vai chimg minh khac mang nhiu tinh vat ly hon chitng
minh dinh ly Pythagoras cng duoc nu (7 day, mot chfrng
minh sir dung nang luong dan hoi, nhirng chirng minh con
lz_1i sir dung dong luong.

17
 D6 tai ch dao ca chuong nay la dinh 1}? Pythagoras,
nhung chL'1ng ta s di lch ra ngoai bai ton 6 mot vai doan
ngan.

2.2 Chirng minh b ca ca dinh 13? Pythagoras

Dung mot b ca hinh lang tn; nhan tam giac vuong
lam d1y(hinh 2.1). Ta treo b ca ln sao cho no co thfi xoay
tu do quanh mot true thing dfmg xuyn qua mot dau canh
huyn. Bay gio as day nuoc vao b ca.

<1)
kg Q

b
(Z

Hinh 2.1. B6 ca day nuoc,co1l16tu do chuy'n dong xoay quanh mot m_1c thing
dirng, khong hf: dich chuyn.

>
1,/2 E:T:a"-::*?j" 1,

Hinh 2.2. Dinh 13? Pythagoras tuong duong voi sL_r tiu bifin cac moment quay
t6ng hqp dat ln b ca xoay quanh dim P.

18
b mat thang dfrng cila n. Ta kt luan dinh I3? Pythagoras la
mt h qua ca vic kh6i nu('rc tinh lun bat d<j>ng**.
Bai tap. Ti! dim A ngoai dlrng min v tija tuyh A T va cat
tuyh AP Q nhucho 01.231 tronghinh 2.3. Ch ngminh rang

AP X AQ IATZ (2.2)

Gcyi Y: Xt phan tam giac cong t6 dam APT trong hinh

2.3, ta lin tufmg mcfnt binh cfrng b0'm day gas va c th xoay
quanh O.
Nhu giai thich 6 muc 2.3 trong m<_)t ngfx canh khac, (2.2)
cho thay vilng t6 dam gift nguyn khng dfii khi xoay quanh
O. Tuong tu, dinh 13? Pythagoras cng cho tha'y rang din Lich
ciia tam giac vung la khng d6i khi tam giac xoay quanh
mt dau canh huyn.

T
V V-=i.= as ai=.>.;+;.i;
1'21mu;-ii:Jzvrm1~];s"--,.=i:..1-a-
"fr:>11'r:,v:*;*.''1"!
Ll.'\: 5'? '
1;

1"
3:g+~'=-
A
R,"
.4 -V

l.,?:;u ._l--,ff..;;1._'1_t.=.
4}'w-M16-i|,"U'i.v" '

P.-""!-tw-1 r"
A..,.
1:. .24
i, .-
.

\V4.
.- -

Lad

0 P

Hinh 2.3. Chfrng minh AP >< AQ = AT.

* Nguyn van: still water remains still ~ N.D.

2O
2.3 Chuyn mot-ly l vat ly sang mot chung
C161

minh nghim ngat

Diem ch6t trong chung minh b nurorc cua dinh ly
Pythagoras la su trit tiu cua tong cac moment quay tong
cong quanh dim P (hinh 2.1). Lam th' nao chung ta tai
lap y tufmg moment quay bang khong nay trong thuat ngft
toan hoc thuan tuy ma khong can dung den cac khai nim
vat ly? Day la cau tr lo'i.
Mnh d vat 1y (2.1) v tc"ng moment quay bang khong
quanh P co th din dich sang mnh d hinh11oc:din tich
cua tam giac khong C161 khi no xoay quanh P'_ Sau day la
chung minh cho su tuong dong iy.
Goi A(0) la din tich cua tam giac xoay quanh P mot
goc 9 C6 nhin, din tich la doc lap voi 9
. :

A'(9) = 0
va ta khang dinh rang chinh su bat bin ca din tich nay la
tuong duong vfri diu kin moment quay bang khong (2.1).
D5 co su tuo'ng duong nay ta chi can chi ra rang:

A'<e>=a-5+b~5+C-5 (2.3)
2 2 Z

* Day la mot vi du v bai ton co v tam thuong (din tich cfla tam giac khong
doi qua php xoay) nhung an chua1n(f)tdif}ukho11g he tam thuong(d1nh ly
Pythagoras.)

2|
 AN (l
Hinh 2.4. Phn din lich qut bvi hai cglnh gc vung bimg v('7iph.:51n din tich
qut bvi canh huyn.

D chttng minh (2.3) ta xoay tam gic mcjt gc nh A6

quanh P. Canh a qut ngang mt vilng hinh quat din tich
-%u2A6, tuong tu cho canh C. Thurc t', din tich duqc qut b6'i

b cng theo biu thfrc nhu trn: 5/M0. Thuc vy, b thuc
hin hai chuyn dng dng thdiz (i) truqt theo phuong ring
n, khng nh hufmg dn vn t6c qut thlnh din tich, v
(ii) xoay quanh dim du ca n. Ta kt lum rng din tich
q ut l 1/719.
2 T6n g din tich Cl ut bi c ba canh I51:

1
AA =(a2 +b2
1
--2-jAe.
1

2 2 2

K3?hiu trir 6 dy 151 dL_ra vo dfr kin din tich bi m't"

do cz_1nh huyn. Chia cho A3 v lfiy gifyi han khi A6 > O ta
thu duqc (2.3).
Sau dy l1 rn(f)t vi {mg dung ca 3? tufmg qut:

~ Mt chirng minh hinh vnh khuyn ca dinh 13?

Pythagoras duryc m6 t 6 muc 2.6.

- Mt nhzfxn xt v din tich giu'a hai vt bnh ca xc dz_1p

(mL_1c 6.1).

Z2
 - chirng minh bng hinh v cila vic dinh thL'1'c
GE

ti dL= adb biing din tich hinh binh hnh duqc tao
nn Eri cc vc to (a, C) v\ (5, Q) (muc 2.5).
- Mt chtmg minh bng hinh v ca cng thirc phn
r

theo dng ca dinh thL'1'c (muc 2.5).

f(1B)

If f($) 48 f(") 1

a 7
zn >11-c

Hinh 2.5. Dinh 137 co him ca gizii tich: di(f:n tich thay d(i6v_1nt6cur0ngErng
dcf) cao f(.\') ca bin di dcfmg nhim cho
v(xi vim t6c ctia 116.

2.4 Dinh 13? co bn ca gii tich

Y tung xem xt din tich cila vtlng duqc qut bi min
1y co bn
dogan ngn chuyn dng ll rt cf) hiu qu. Dinh
ca gii tich:

55 J/(ms = f<x>
dx I -

lil m(f>t ni ring mt doan nga"'n di chuyvn 6

vi du; dinh 13?

vn t6c don vj theo hung vung gc vi chinh n, s qut

m_t vimg c din t1'c11 bih d51' 6 vn t6c bng
v'i d cao

ca doan ngzin nhzin vn tO'c ca n (1).

Y tumg tuo'ng tut p dung cho php tich phm v'i cil hai

2'5
cn bi'n thin, thm chi vd hxm hqp. Vi du, ta c th nhzfin
thfiy ngay tirc thi:

-5-Ih I f<s>ds=/'< <0) '0)

dz '<>
Q
g g

being cch lzfip lai cu in nghing 6 trn: t6c thay (151 v_1n

din tich bing vi tich s6 ca dc) di f(g(t)) ca bin di

dng vi vein t6c cfla n g'(t). Diu trir l do bin chuyn
dng hung vo trong: chiu ducmg quy uc hung ra ngoi.
Ta cn cc) th cho can trn bi'n thin theo thi gian,
chirng minh cng thirc ny s 121 mt bi tlpz
a hm
J
Q; W)
f<s>ds = /<h<1>>/m) - /<g<r>>g'<r>

y }<~#>|
.-
\

1 ,

'-:2-A I *zw1 H

';@%* -, l
r;i~"!Z~Z@l :5 . .
L

~i~F-;v1:Z5 g - 2 :2-ii - , -=_;; .-. ,1

'1' '3iE -'.~::'.~'Yz ~ 1.-5

2-.>.>'... '- ; w ..
="~"'
-

0 '
~
Mr}
ti
.

@'1" c
H '
x\ s

d > ~ ,

:.>w;@..
sr.4zi\>:,,.1"
v
~
@113 ~" s%ssi;;;~1:1_#

g!

U (L

Hinh 2.6. Dogm thing di chuyn trong khi vin song song vi phuong ban du.
Vimg din tich duqc qut khng phL_l thuc vo dudng di c1'1a doan thing.

24
2.5 Dinh thitc cho bri php qut
Theo dinh nghia, dinh thirc b l vtlng din tich ca
hinh binh hnh tao ra bi cc vc t0 (a, b) v (c, a). Dinh
nghia ny dn ti m(f>t cng thirc tinh nhanh', cho gi tri
ad~bc. Sau dy l mt gii thich dcfang hqc ca cng thirc
ny ca Nana Wang, sit dung m(f>t ln nra 3? turng hiu qu
cla php qut.
Din tich dang ni dn ducyc qut bi vc to (cl, b) khi
n di chuyn dQc theo vc to cn lz_1i (c, d). Thay vi vy, ta
hy chuyn (a, b) thnh hai chuyn dcfmg don gin hon,
nhu cho thfiy trong hinh 2.6. Din tich qut trong qu trinh
chuyn dcfmg du tin 121 ad, v trong qu trinh chuyn dng
lhir hai 151 bc; diu trir 121 do doan thing di chuyn ra sau".
Din tich t6ng cng duqc qut l adbc. Vin c th nhm xt
ducyc ring vtlng din tich qut khng phL_1 thuc vo dumg
di cla vc to chuyn dng (a, b), chirng nlo n cfm chuyn
t6c thay 6161 cila
d(_mg song song vfri chinh n(').ThL_1:c vafxy, vain

din tich qut thnh biing vi dc} dli ca doan thing nhzin
vzfm t6c theo phuong vung gc. V1 th, chuyn dich cu
th
nhu th no thuc ra khng quan trqng.

nhiu ngudi (bau gm c tzic gi) khng may dfa duqc day dang sau ca
Hail
vng (hire nhu dinh nghia, chfx khng phi 3? nghia hinh hgc ciia n.

Z5
 '
'

JV

..
,_=:~';!:r:1'=...;-,~.
PT5'135115*?griv;/i9i!Yl-'1!':.
.&?g:!'X"1'Ji\"' ,'.21;"='.-~:"-,'*. LT 1;"%:|=;:-.
;i.';~=*;-Ji!@I.:"-'-";'T119311';=-~t%i"-HIH9-i:;~_
'
* \
Z7 '

. 1""

.,.- ~._.:,\y .;4=;,,'.,;

.~ 1. 3, .,~.,.->3-_\-._ ~~\\
A .-;
2:{2>'!'.=11;;! '=:\-' "1 lzzhfw \.-4 ;;;yr~,=1'*-'\ xi! -
_~--5
'
;_ \
" -;
"

' ml!-1;:;a,\x5;;=I{@r.En-=;\~15;:~~<=-%.~pxhH<g{r;mfg;
.h.n"r a|'L'| .1, , . ..;.; 1. I
.1.,L:,.=.4;.i,.,;=;.,n,1,:=:k3.N-4|;-;,.1<iq*Wu:.i,-,;,g\;-
r. /..| 1,
_
,
_
.,
, . _=;

~ ;-w':=@~:;r'_;=;:Mi1::;a;;amw::m;a;a=:1arimrir
.,.
1-,.-.-M .=' 13-_ :\.,.;.; .
1
&;.~';~
r
"1 u';.',_.w,
r--A---~<\ r .
r

v~ K r --.\|1\<_ lI\..& ~e-~..

r
T "

-
-
' =

'

?,r,fY;!;:1.;::1z;;i;_;15;..1-:,.A;;=;ui31,1,.k-...;,;,;,,,$.,,_:, 1
$;":x.*-_'= :':t-:1*g=a:;_..=:;=rJ==:'1'2"-_'1~y- :'.:>-~ ";":. -

\
~ 1 '_

"sfj;9;f""%-@*}i71}'i{1l'f-ATii:15;iiq;.'.*11.i,i5r ~11 \
--
* 1
1
. .1.-~_-A .r:. .\--\; 'g.= ;=..j ';_:_ ;.~._ 1:_,~./' 3 -

~ = .5I%ir;:;a,;;r:gm;,?r;;e<;.3:;:1~,%;v;v;i;;2" "
r

' " 3:-HM .53='x:|i'.'"'55IY~$1-.i\.l-,=--'h

Hz;|:t;;;,._.-,.!,'4 ~ _,:1gr.1 .. . Q~
-
, _ '6\>
Y "1i;;<._v=;1:';;,'i;--~:,"fi.;;.P-%if.s* .r " '1f1chba1\%
"ii-;1tf!i:w1<'*" V

II .. "=_:]:

Ilinh 2.7. Chfmg minh v dinh ly Pythagoras cho bbi php qut.

Bai toan. Dua ra mt 101' giii thfch clia php qut" tuong tu
cho cng th zic khai t1'i1 djnh th Lic trongmt ddng:
an an an
aw azs an an an an
an :2 aza = all H _ an H m + al3 ~ ~

an an an an as: an
an an an

G<_)'i H tao thanh bi hai

y: Di chuyn hinh binh hanh
dng vc to cu6i theo hufmg true x vri an, sau d theo
tn_1c y vfri am, va cu6ic1nglatheo hu(mgtrL_1c z vc'Yi an . S0

sanh luiqng qut nay vi luqng qut bi 7r dudi su tinh ti'n

cho bi vc to (an, am, am).

2.6 Dinh ly Pythagoras c ducyc nhd php quay

Hinh 2.7 cho thay mt tam giac vung thuc hin tron
mt vng quay quanh mt dau canh huyn ca n. Canh
huyn va canh gc vung lin k vfri trL_1c xoay qut ra nhfmg
hinh dia, trong khi canh gc vung cn lai qut ra mcfat hinh
vanh khuyn.
Ta cc):

26
 7Ca2 + (din tich ca hinh vmh khuyn) = 7502.

Dinh Pythagoras gp phn vo vic chi ra riing din

13?

tich ca hinh vnh khuyn lt b2.Li1mth6n&0 d ta chfrng

minh diu nfxy mcjt cch true tip ml khng cn dilng diin
dinh 13??
Sau (Iy mtjt gii ttx nghiefzm. Hinh vmh khuyn ducyc
13 13?

qut thtnh bi mt dean thing chuyn dtfmg cc) din dli b

khi d02_1n thing ny thuc hin dng thdi hai chuyn dngz
trtrqt (theo phucmg ciza doan thing) via xoay vng quanh
dim mitt T ca n. Quan st cho thiiy: chuyh dng trtrqt
khngnh hung dh vn t0'c qut d1'_n rich tao theinh. Ni
cch khc, bitng czich b6 qua vtn t6c truqrt, v theo C16 cho
doan thing xoay tai ch5 xung quanh dim mL'1t ca n, ta
khng lm nh hu'ng v2f1nt6c doan thing qut ra vilng din
tich. Diu ny giii thich vi sao din tich hinh vxnh khuyn
bitng vdi din tich ca dia trong hinh 2.7.

2.7 Nurc ctng stu ctng tinh

Mtjt pht biu tufmg chirng hdi hqt c th c nhung h
qu su sic. Dy m<f)tvidL_1 cho pht biu dc): Trir khi c
1221

nhfmg tlc dng tit bn ngoi, kh6i nude tinh trong b ch11'a
sgift nguyn tr2_1ngthz'1itTnh. Thtrc ra, pht biu hin nhin
ny ko theo cc diu km hin nhin sau:

" Nguyn vn: Still waters run deep (nghia bng ct'1a nlit"Ngu<1ilhiuntrm1
thutyng su siic").
*" Dylai 1:: mt mrimg hqp defxc bit ca djnh luzftt bio toiln nimg luqng, pht
biu ring nilng luqng khng th duqc tz_1o ra. Cmg ph quail chimg nao,
mnh d cimg c v don gin chimg y.

27
 1. Dinh iy Pythagoras
2. LL_1'C diy Archimedes
3. Dinh iy ham sin -

Trumg hop dau tin da duoc giai thich mot each co ban
bang lap luan be ca" vita roi; thay vi be ca ta co m tuong
tuong ra mot kh6i ling tru nuoc treo vao mot khfii nuoc
tinh lo'n hon, nhu trong hinh 2.8. Mot khi kh6i lang trL_1 6
trang thai can bang, tong moment quay (xung quanh canh
thing dfrng bat ky) ca cc p sua't bn trong ln cac b mat
thang dirng la bang khong. Diu kin moment quay bang
khong nay la tuong tL_r nhu (2.1), nhu mot diu hiu, gifing
nhu dinh ly Pythagoras.

Q) 1

I-Iinh 2.8. Tong moment quay trn kh6i niroc lng trt_i gia tuong la bang khong.

Dinh luat Archimedes. Diu nay co the duoc chimg minh

d dang nhu sau. Dinh luat phat biu rang: Itrc d.7y ta'c dung
vao mot vat chim (nhu vin d) bang vc'ri trongluangnudc
bj vat chiirn c115.
Chtirng minh. Hinh dung thay vin da chim bang mot khoi
nuoc co hinh dang gifing ht. Kh6i nuoc nay s lo lfrng 6
trang thai can bang, nhu: d cap 6 trn. Luc dy n6i tac dung
ln kh6i ntroc do do bang voi trong luong ca kh6i nuoc.
Nhung vin da cf1ngcam nhan" luc dy n6i gi6ng vay boi
no co ciing hinh dang nhu kh6i nuoc.

28
Djnh Ifhaim sin. Dinh 137 ny pht biu ring trong tam gic
bit k/, d6 dii ciia m5i canh ti l vi hm sin cia gc d6i din:
a b c
sina sin B siny
Chfmg minh. D chirng minh dinh 137 ta dung cch sir
dung thiiy tinh, tung tuqng mt 6ng mng di v6 han c
dang AABC, d6 diy nude, duqc dt trn mcjt mzfit phng
thing dtmg (hinh 2.9). Hoeflc ta c th chi tung tuqng mt
6ng nuc hinh tam gic duqc tch ring ra khi kh6i nuc
bao quanh.
Ta hiy dt canh AB niim ngang; p sufit tai A B khiv
d biing nhau, vii pA pC = 1),, pc Nhung chnhlch
151 .

zip suiit ti l thuzfln v(ri chnh lch dc} su: pA p C = kb sin 05

v51 pB pc = ka sin/3 trong d k h s6 ti l. Ta kt luzfm

151

riing bsina = asin. Mt lafip lum tuong tu chi ra rng

csin = bsin y . Suy ra dinh 137 hm sin.

C
7

b a
h

ae c
A B
Hinh 2.9. (jug nuvc mng hinh tam gic sir dung trong chtrng minh cfia dinh
if hiam sin.

29
2.8 Dinh 13? Pythagoras ba chiu
Dinh 13?. D61 v61 mot n? din duoc gioi ban b61' ba matphzing
truc giao vzi mot mgitphng thli tukhng song song v(r1' bit
kjl matphng nao trong s6ba matphzing kc? trn, ta co:

a2 + b2 + c2 : d2, (2.4)

trong do a, b , va C Ia cc d1'_n rich b mat clia ba mat true

giao, va d 1a d1'_n tich ca mat con Iai.

Mot chfrng minh vat 137. Bom khi nn vao ttr din. T6'ng tat
ca ap luc bn trong tac dung ln hinh chop bang khongz

F + F,, + F6 = -Fd, (2.5)

nu khong thi b chira ca chixng ta s tang t6c bat thinh

linh theo huong ca hop luc, dem lai mot nguon nang luong
tL_r do din dn mau thuin voi dinh luat bao toan nang luong
dinh luat duoc dam bo tuan thl 100% vo'i kin thirc ca
chng ta cho toi gio.
B61 (Fa + Fh) _l_ F6, dinh 13? Pythagoras cho:

|1+j, +F,,|2 + FC 2 =|Fd|2'

C

Hinh 2.10. Phin ban ba chiu ca dinh 13? Pythagoras: din tich thoa man (2.4).

3O
 Tu0'ng tut:
F + F,,| = F 2 +|F,,|2

Ta kt luzfm
(2.6
|Fv\2 +'F/1 +|F_|2 = IE,

Biy gi Fl] = zip lL_1'C din tich = pa; tuongtu, FA = pb

><

lpc =p-,v1 Ft, : pd.Thvz10 (2.6) v1 trittiu p2 ta dune

(2.4).
Tm lz_1i:Dinh ly din tich (2.4) gp phn vxo pht biu
ring b chira bi nn c dang du'<_)c th hin hinh 2.10 khng
tz_10 ra thL'1c diy dcfn ngt gy chuyn dfmg n10! Mrjt nhn

xt v_1t 137 don gin dem l2_1i mt dinh 1y ton hoc gqn gmg.

"Don dp" ton hpc. Ngudi hoiii nghi c th phm nn v

su thiu chzfit ch tom hqc trong cch fiat duqc (2.5). Thuc
(I16, ta (I51 vin d'n dinh lut bo toim nng lucyng ma} khng
phzit biu n mt cch cu th trong ngn ngfr ton hqc. D5
(hip lai, ta d 3? (2.5) tuang duong vdi 51; b'l bih th't1'ch
um hinh chp qua php tjnh tih.
Thus vzfly, (2.5) tu0'ng duang v61 phlt biu ring vri vc
m r bit kg]:
F-r+F,,-r+FL_-r=F,-r,
Nhung s6 hang F r cho ta th tich qut thnh do min
-

()l(,7 khi n bi tinh tin theo vc tor I, lafap luefm tu'0'ng tL_r
vlm czic mzf1tc(>nle_1i.Nim<f)tcch ngn gqn, phuomg trinh
-.uu cimg din t dfx kin ring khi hinh chp bi tinh tin
Hwo vc to 1, th tich tich tL_1 duqc nhr cc m2f1ta,b,c bng
wri lh Lich mt di qua mzfat d.

'51
 Nhin theo mt cach khac, ggi V = V(r) = V(x, y, z) la th
tich ca hinh chp bi tinh tin theo r = (x, y, Z). DT nhin,
V dc lap vfyi I, nghia la, nhfrng dao ham ring phn theo
tirng bin trong bf) ba Ian luqt trit tiu:

(vx, vy, vi); VV(r)=0.

Mt each vat ly hqc, vc to gradient VV(r) vc to ca
cac dao ham ring la hcyp ltrc ca ap suit bn trong ca
khi tai ap sua't p = 1 ln cac vach b chL'ra.

2.9 Can bang bat ngd

Tai sao dinh ly Pythagoras cc) qua nhiu chljrng minh
khac nhau vefty? C6 l bi vi n qua co ban. Tham chi khi
ta tu gii han trong czic chirng minh vat 1y, hay cc chtrng
minh duryc truyn cam hirng bi vat ly, van cn mint vai
chirng minh; mcjt chirng minh nhu vay dz duqc trinh bay 6
mL_1c 2.2, cn thm hai chfrng minh khac cng duqc trinh

bay sau. D5 chufin bi cho mcjt trong nhfrng chirng minh nay,
truc tin ta xem xt m<f)t co ch' don gin nhurng c gia tri
dc lap. Trong muc tip theo ta se sir dung co ch nay d
chtrng minh dinh ly Pythagoras (thm ln nira!)

Bai t0an'. Mtjt hinh vanh khuyn C nh trurqt khng ma

sat trn mt cung ban nguyt ran. Hai IO xo" dan hi chat

* Ti d tinh c0 nhzfm ra van d nay khi suy nghi v chuyn dng cila mt v
linh nhan tao ldn.
*" Theo dtnh nghia, sire cang ca mt 16 xo dim h6i chat bi'n d<')'i ti l thuefm
vri d dai ca n. Cu the, sirc cang bang khng tucmg (mg vri d dai bang
khng. Th6 nang ca loai I6 x0 nhu vzfly la ti l vri binh phuong C16 dai ca
n6 (xcm muc A.1).

32
gifing nhau CA v51 CB n6i hinh vzinh khuyn vri hai du

\
du<)'ng kinh. Chling t6: hinh vilnh khuyn 6 trang th1i_c1n

bng tai vi tri bit kr trn hinh bn nguyt.

\ \\
N

Q \C
M
A
\ O
H

Ilinh 2.11. Chfmg minh cho b6inh1"mgl() x0.

Chfrng minh. Hinh vmh khuyn ('1 trang thi cn bng khi
cc thzinh phn theo phuomg ti'p tuyn ca tfit c lL_rc tc
dung ln hinh vimh khuyn trit tiu l1n nhau. Ba luc tc
dung ln hinh vzinh khuyn:ph1nluctruc giao tir cung trn
v hai lL_rc cng a v GE (ta ch(_)n hing s6 Ho0kes k = 1),
nhu th hin trong hinh 2.11. Chi hai luc sau c thnh phn
tip tuyn khc khng, v21 ta phi chi ra rng hai thzinh phin
ny trit tiu ln nhau. D6 duqc vy ta chi luu 3? ring hinh
chi'u cila hai tia ny ln [WN tha mn:

O/1 MN = OB/mv,

v, bfri OC _L MN, nhfrng tia nly cc) cilng hinh chiu v*i
hai lL_rc:

33
 OA/mv = CAM/v , OBM/v = CB/mv.
Cc hinh chiu ca hai luc CA vi: CB trit tiu nn hinh
vnh khuyn 151 cn biing (tai vi tri bit kj/).

2.10 Chrng minh dinh 13? Pythagoras bng

nhftng 16 X0
Chi cn chi ra ring hinh vnh khuyn trong hinh 2.11 r
trang thi cn biing, 151 chng ta d chfrng minh durqc dinh 13?
Pythagoras. T l'lL_1C vefly, m(f>t khi hinh vnh khuyn cn bng 1:21

tai moi dim C bt kjl trn cung trn, n khng nhzfm lL_rc,
via theo dc) khng sinh cng, d trucyt tit C dn A Diu ny .

nghia th nng khng thay C161 trong su6t qu trinh truqt,

1:21

cho nn nng luqng ban du biing vc'>'i nng luqng sau cng:

-liaz +b = O2 +18.
2 2 2 2

Ta sir dung dfr kin ring th( nng ca mt 16 xo dim h6i

chzfat c chiu di X gxl, trong d k
151 lei hing s6, (xem
mL_1c A.1). Ta kt luzfin ring a2 + [)2 = c2.

C C Al/1I__~__i__ Bl

thangthng

Ivlinh 2.12. (a) :12 + b2 151 dc leflp v(yi gc 9; (b) cu; moment quay cn bfmg, vi
cc thmh phfm cL'1a cc luc vung gc vri AB I51 bimg nhau vim cc cnh tay
dn cng vy.

34
2.11 Thm mt bli ton hinh h(_)C V6116 X0
ton hinh vnh khuyn trn cung trn (muc 2.9) c
B511

th duqc din dich lai theo clch khc cng bt ngf) khng
km, it nht ti nghi vafly. Thit bi 6 hinh 2.12 duqc gqi 3?
151

tit vic truqt hinh vtnh khuyn trn (Ting dy dune th hin
trong hinh 2.11. Khc bit (Yhinh hin tai 151 ta dt C tz_1i m(f>t
vi tri (:6 dinh trn mitt phng, trong khi d doan AB duqc
php xoay quanh trung dim O ca n. Thm v210 dc), khong
cch tit C Ci-'n O biy gidl tily 37. Hai dziy 10 X0 din h6ichzf1t
AC v BC tranh nhau xoayAB theo hai hurng d6i nghich.
Bi ton A. Chng to rzing trong co ch'm0 t 6 trn, thanh
thazng 6 trang tha'1' czin being theo phuang b't1<j/.

Bi ton B. Chng 16 ring vi mQ1'AABC

a2 +b2 = 2(d2 +r2),
tmng do r = 0A = OB 1:1 nfra d dzii ca canh AB vzi d = OC
(xcm hinh 2.12).

LM gii. Bzii t0a'n A. Ta ChQI1 hing s6 Hooke k =1 cho c hai

tlny xo. Khi d
16 Ev EC czic luc tc dung ln du A
1:21

vn B trong hinh 2.12. Czic moment quay cfla hai lL_rc ny

qt mnh true xoay 0 ct) dtf) lfrn bng nhau. ThL_1C vgiy, cc clnh
my (Inn lit bng nhau, OA = QB, cng nhu hai thnh phn
n uv giao ca luc, AA '=BB', trong hinh 2.12. Cc moment
quay nily 151 d6i nhau, cho nn thanh thing cn biing.

' ||uuh1<\'l co bn v moment quay xcm muc A.5.

"55
Bai tozin B. Bi thanh thing can bang phim dinh*,ta khng
can t6n eng d xoay thanh thing hung v dim C. Diu
nay e nghia la th nang ea thanh thing frvi tri bat k/ lun
bang vi th nang vi tri dae bit nay:

gal +%b3 = %(dr)2 +%(d+r)2

hay
a2 +b2 = 2(d2 +r2).

2.12 Chung minh dng nang: dinh 13? Pythagoras

trn bang
Hinh dung ban dang dung tai ge eua mt san truqt
bang" hoan toan khng ma sat (hinh 2.13). Giay trucyt ea
ban la hoan toan khng ma sat. Dam ehan day minh rdi
khi true X, ban bat dau truqt vri van t6e a doe theo true
y. Drfmg nang eua ban la maz /2. Bay gid dam ehn day
minh rO'i khi true y, dat duzqe van t6e b theo phucmg X,
theo d thu duqe thm dng nang la mb2/2 (khi dam ehn,
ma sat v(7i truey eoi nhu la bang khng). Dng nang eua
., A \ ,2t u N10 bl .. , . A
+ ' . Mat khae, van toe
3
ban sau har eu dam day nay la
1 \ 2 2 ' ; .
eui eung eila ban la eanh huyn C eua tam giac van te,
:. ,
va dcfmg luvng eua ban duqe eho bang
2
Theo do:

maz

2
+
mbz
2
=
mcz
~,
2

* Ta ni rang m(f>l can bang la philn djnh n-'u trang thi can bang dat dtrqe
tai mei vi tri bit kv.
** Deng n51ngl11n(f>tdailu(_yng v6 hudng va eng duqc vvi nhau theo s6'hQc.

Sb
 hay a2+b2 =c2.

fl:
Ilinh 2.13. Dng niing sau hai cl: dxm dziy hen tlep: %+%-=
2 1 ,2

\/\/\/\1"

(I

Hinh 2.14. Vic ciit dirt sqi dily lilm xuffl hin vein 16
thco phuong ngang I. Dng luqng Incl c duqc thfmg qua hai phfm II lcfr,
truc tin 151 maz via sau (I6 l mbz.

2.13 Pythagoras v Einstein?

Sau dy chfmg minh cit dirt sQi dy" ca dinh 13?
151

Pythagoras. V bn chit, n gi6ng vdi chirng minh duqc

trinh by truc dc), chi li vit lai theo mt dang thtrc khc.
Nn mcf>t dy 16 xo 6 gifra hai kh6i nng nhu nhau cheflt
dn n6i n'u th ra, m5i kh6i nzflng s vng v mt bn, vdi
cilng vzfm t6c b. Sau d ta c(f)t hai kh6i nng lai v'i nhau

'57
bng mt S(_)'i dy d gift cho 16 xo lun bi nn, nhu cho thfiy
trong hinh 2.14.
Ta hiiy nm c h "nn chit" di v'i vein t6c a nhu cho
thiy trong hinh 2.14, vl sau d, mcfat khi c h dang bay,
ta ct dirt dy n6i, theo dc) d 16 x0 bi nn bung ra. Vn t6c
do ducyc C ciia tirng kh6i nzfing ll canh huyn ca tam gic
vef1nt6c vi ceic canh a, b. Mzfat khlc, dng nng ca c hai
"I Z

khi nn g b y g idll 2><~i=m.

2 Nhun g nn g lucyn g n51Y dat
duqc thng qua hai phin ti l: truc tin, 2% = ma tir cL'1
diy ban du, v51 sau d, 2><_;Z = mbz tit 16 xo. Theo d:
mcz = maz + mbz.

Trit tiu m cho ta dinh 13? Pythagoras".

* Tn coi nhu khng c6 lrong luc.

** Chfing ta nhiic dn Einstein 6 diy chinh vi d kin ring h c nng luqng
151 E = mcz

38
3
cucTuvAcUcBA|

Nhirng bi ton v gi tri l(m nhit/nh nhit thufmg rit

ph hup v'i phu0'ng cch tifip cxn vef1tly.L3? do c l l trong
thuc t6 nhiu hf: vt 1y tu tim duqc gi tri cuc tiu hay cuc
dai: mt dng h6 qu lic chi ra vi tri cuc tiu ci1ath' nng;
tia sng phn chiu tu vin dl nhn dui dy su6i dn v6ng
mac cla ta chi ra con duidng t6n it thi gian nht; mt bong
bng x51 phbng chqn hinh dang ca th tich nh nhit; mt sui
dy miic thng gifra hai du c6 dinh chqn hinh dng cc) tm
kh6i thip nhfit, v cu th ci danh sch ny ko di bait tn.
Dy 151 mt mu chung cho vic tim ra mt cch gii vlt
13?. Gi sir ta phi cuc tiu ha mt hm s6. Bufrc chinh 151

thit k mt h thfing co hoc v(')'i th nng l hm s6 bit

trudc. Cuc tiu cila hm s6 tu0*ng ung cuc tiu ca th nng,
turong ung trang thi cn being ca h. Khi m6 t diu kin
cn bilng ta thufmg cc) mt cu tr lO'i dgp d. Thzfit vefly, ta
s phi tao ra m()t my tinh" co hoc, n s tu gii quy-'t
duqc bi ton cn ta chi cn chd m dc_>c liy cu tr ldi.
Sau dy 1:21 m(f)t biu din dang biu d6 cila su tuung (mg
gifra gii tich vz co hcpc, cho trumg hqp hm s6 cila mt
bi'n X :

'59
Gii tich Din dich vt 13"
Hlm s6f(x) Th6 nng P(x)
Dao h1mf(x) Luc tcdung F(;) = -P(x)
f(x) nh nhzil => f(x) = 0 P(x) 121 cue tiu
:> F(x) = O (trang thi
cn bng)

Mtllru 5? v hi'u b1''t co bn. Nm duqc giii tich v hinh

h(_)c so cp ll dfl d hiu chuong ne1y.Tuy v2f1y,phu'0ng cch
tip cho php ta gii nhiu bi ton gii tich,
czfin vzfxt 137 v51

c mt vi bli ton ca gii tich da bin!

Nn tng vzfit 13? sir dung trong chuong
duqc m6 t nay
trong phn phu lL_1c. Ta sir dung nhfrng m6 hinh co hoc cho
nhfrng d6i tuong ton h(_)c. Cc m hinh nly bao g6m 16 xo
dln h6i 13? turfmg, dy, hinh vnh khuyn truqt, khi nn v21
chin khfmg. Tit c cc d6i tuqng gi tung
niiy duqc m6
t trong phu luc ngin, cilng vi clc khi nim v cn bng,
moment quay, v trqng tm.

Ci gi cng 06 gi ca I16. Lfyi gii ca cc bli ton 6 dy

trfr nn ngn gQn khi ta vln dung vlt 13?, mt dng thay vi
c trang diai khi sir dung gi'1itich.Tuy nhin, theo dinh lut
bo ton dc) kh, diu nly c gi ca n. Kh khn chuyn
tit vic thuc hin nhfrng thao tzic s6 hgc chain ngit sang vic
thit k mt h thfing co hQc thich hqp.

V31 nt 1161' bt. Cc ch d ca chuong niay g6m:

1. Mt tinh chit quang hqc ca hinh ellipse.

2. Duimg biu din phil hqp nht bng 16 x0.

40
 Hinh chp ca th' tich nh nhit vi trong tm.
Bii ton din tich nh nht via lm nhiit.
Bi toln din tich be mt nh nhit. '

Chirng minh dinh 137 gc n(>i Lip sir dung co hqc.

CL'1u1iy mt nan nhn bi chim bng cch sir dung nhfrng

qu nng.

Phn l'n, nu khng mu6n ni 151 tit c, chi l nhung

bi tefip gii tich, nhung ('1 dy ta gii chting ma} khng czin
dilng gii tich.

3.1 Tinh chit quang hec ca hinh ellipse

Hinh ellipse ll min dang ciia du(mg L1-On vi hai tm":
bu(f>c met sci dy vo gifra hai chic dinh (Fl vii F2 ) v51 di
chuyn bL'1t chi sao cho dy vn cng; chic bL'1t chi s phc
ra mcfit hinh ellipse. D cu th, hinh ellipse bao g6m tit c
dim ms} t6ng khong czich ca m6i m<f)t dim t(7i hai dim
cho truc (gqi l tiu dim) 151 mt hing s6.

P Q

Hinh 3.1. Dinh nghia ca hinh ellipse: PP] + PF2 =h5ng s6.

4l
 Mei hinh ellipse c tinh cht dng luu 3?: mt tia sng
pht ra tilt mt tiu dim s nhd sir phn xa tit durng ellipse
Cli qua tiu dim cC>nlg1i diu ny Citing cho huzdng truyn'

bit ky ciia tia pht. Nhd d neu cho'i tr laser tag trong m(f>t
cn phng ellipse vdi mt vch phn x2_1 s rt vui.
H0210 ban c m tung tuqng choi nm bng trong m(f>t
can phng ellipse: Citing [2_1l met tiu dim E v21 nm bng,
ti s nm triing ngurdi dtrng tai tiu dim F2 bit k' ti
nhim t 06 no (coi nhu qu bng ny sao cho cc gc ti
v phn xa lei being nhau). Di nhin, n'u ngufri tai F; hL_1p
xu6ng, khi dc) bng s bay qua F; v dp nguqc l2_1i ti sau
mt cL'1 bat tudng.
Gii thich tinh chit dng ch 37 nziy nhu the nilo? Sau
dy l m(f)t pht biu hinh hqc cu m cila bli toein, theo
sau l gii dp.

Bi ton. Gpi P I mt dim trn hinh ellipse vc'r1' tiu dim

E vii F5, vzi MN 12 tip tuyh tai P, hinh 3.2(a). Chng
to ring:

AFIPM = 4F2P1v.

Led gii. Lm sao ta chtmg minh ducyc tinh chit ny? Met
cch giz31ir{tt6n site l (i) vift phuong trinh ciia m<f)t ellipse,
(ii) tinh hai gc trong d bi, v (iii) xlc minh ring cc biu
thirc 151 bng nhau. Cch ti'p cn ny cc) the din ti vic

* Laser tag 13 mcjt h0z_~it dng di nhm hay c nhn mi ngudi choi c6 ghi

dim biing c1chbz'in" tr(1ng1m_1ctiu,din hinh la being m6l"sL'1ng"nhiim

pht hng ngoai cfim tay; m5i ngudi choi thufmg deo czic muc tiu nhay
cm hng ngoai d tin cho vic tinh dim. - N.D.

42
tinh ton gy c tay" ml khng hiu thm bao nhiu. Thay
vlo dc), cch tip can trL_tc quan trinh by sau dy ngn
h0'n

nhiu vl chi ra diu gi dang xy ra". -

M
vP

n4
M N

(0,) (b)

Ilinh 3.2. (a) Theo true quan; (b) Theo chfmg minh co hqc.

Ta treo mt sqi dy vzio hai chic dinh E v51 F; duqc

dng vo m2f1tbng(hinh 3.2(b)), sao cho m<f)t r()ng1'Qc nzfmg
ln duqc trn dy nhu trong hinh. Nu ta di chuyn rng roc
sang tri hay phi, trong khi giit czing sqi dy, rbng rqc s
phc ra mt hinh ellipse. Bing cch Ciinh hung tm bng
thich hqp, ta cc) m sip xfp cho dim tily 3? P trn dumg
ellipse ll dim thp nhit, nhu trong hinh 3.2(b), sao cho tip
tuyn tr thnh durdng MN niim ngang. Nhung sqi dy tao
thnh nhfrng gc bng nhau vfri duimg niim ngang. Thuc
bi) ba luc tlc dung ln rbng f(_)C (hai luc cng v1 trqng
vz_1y,

luqng) ll trong diu kin cn bng luc; cu th, tng luc nm

ngang 151 biing khngz

T1cos0c,T2c0s0c2 =0,

43
 trong d T] vi T2 1221 cz'1clL_rc cing ca hai phin S(_)'l dy. Nhung
Tl = T2 bi rdng rec khng ma s1t', v ta duqc O5, = 062.

Nguyn13?Her0n. Nguyen 1y Heron pht biu ring nh sng

con duirng ngin nht. Theo dinh nghia ciia ellipse,
ch(_>n

mqi con dufrng FIPF2 du ciing d d21i;nghe c v ngd ngin

nhung tht ra m5i con dudng nhu vy 151 mt l6i di ngfin
nhfit tir E den dudng ellipse vii d'n Theo dc) FIPF2
121 dufrng di ca mcjt tia no dc). Mzflt khzic, ta d chi ra ring
LE PM = 4F21>1v .Nic1ch khc, ta da chi ra rang nguyn 1y
Heron 151 nhit qun vi ding thtrc gifra gc ti vl gc phn xa.

____ u\
16) x0 lL_1'C cfmg
khong (161

llinh 3.3.llinlivz1nh khuyn 6 Lrzing thi czin bng, Ulr d cc gc 151 being nhzlu.

3.2 Mt chtrng minh co hqc khlc

Dy chirng minh co hqc hoi khlc ca tinh chit
lei fI1@[
quang hQc trn. Kho st met hinh vlnh khuyn Ull(_)'[ khng
ma st dqc theo hinh ellipse, v1 sir dung hai lb x0 vc'vi luc
cng khng dli" T = l <15 neo hinh vmh khuyn vo m5i

cfrkhzic bit nzio trong luc ciing s gly ra gia t6c gc cho rng
* 'lh1_i'c vzfiy, bzil
roc thco hufmg ciia luc czing ldn hcvn.
** M(1ticfiz1nl1fi'ng khzii nim ny, xcm muc /\.1.

44
tiu dim. Th nng ca h co hqc ca chtmg ta bng vdi
tfing dc} dli ca cc dy via theo dinh nghia cla ellipse thi
t2_1i bit
n 121 hing s6. Hinh vnh khuyn do vafly m cn bng
cL'rv1trin10,v:1 cc thlnh phn tip tuyn ca luc
tc dung

ln hinh vimh khuyn cng 151 trong diu kin cn bng lL_1'c:
Tc0sal=Tc0s<12, ko theo 051 = 052.

3.3 H61 quy tuyn tinh (phtl hcyp nhit) thng

qua 16 X0
Tung tu'c_mg mt taflp hqp czic dim dtr liu (xi, y)
trong m2_1t phng. Ta duoc yu cu tim ra mcfwt dudng thing
y = ax + I) phil hqp nhit v'i b dtrlicfzu ny. Nh't" nghia 151
+ b nhu
gi?Dtr1l(ri cu hin21y,v('Yi m5i xi ta xemy = ax
min gil tri suy don, trong khi yl. 13 gizi tri quan st hay do
1:21

(ax; + b), gqi

ducyc. DC: chnh gitra bi) hai gi tri ny 121 y,
151 sai s6 (hinh 3.4). Dufmg t6t nht 6 dy nghia 151 dumg
co't7ong b1n h p h uongsalson
' A a.
hon h/t Ph'tb'7
a h h xac
1euc1n '

ca bli ton tim dufmg phil h(_)'p nht, cn duqc ggi 151 bxi

toein 1151' quy tuyh tinh, 151 nhu sau:

(1%?/qt) |

/\'b :

7:}
. 1 >
(3.1)?
Hinh 3.4. Dudng no t6i \hiu 11621 King sai s6

45
 Biton. Cho N d'1''m dLT1i_U(Xi, y) trongmgitphzing, rim
dudng thing y = ax +-b ph hop nhling dinz d Iiu nziy
nhzft theo nghia t6'i th1'?u 116:2 t5ng binh ph uvng sai $5:
N
s(a,1>)=Z(y, (ax, +b))2. (3.1)
i=1

Cc n s6 trong bli ton ny v51 h s6 chin

151 d d6c a
b ca duirng thing t6t nht". Phu0'ng php tiu chuin d
tim ra cuc tiu cfla (3.1) 151 cho dao hm ring phn theo a
v b biing khng. Sau dly 1:21 m<_3t dudng tt co hoc di d'n
cu tr ldi.

Ldi gii. Dufrng thing cin tim duqc xem nhu mt thanh
thing (hinh 3.5). Cho thanh xuyn qua cc 6ng bQc khng
ma slt truqt trn czic rnh din dt tai dudng thing dfrng
x = x,. M51 6ng bao duqc n6i bng m<f)t IO x0 dn hi cheflt
vo dinh (dng tz_1i mint di<-im dfr liu).* Ta chqn
mcfnt czii
hing s6 Hooke biing 2, d cho thf nng cila m6i 10 x0 bng
dimg binh phuong dc) di ca n. Tcng (3.1) biy gid mang
3? nghia vt 137151 th nng!

* Iiiu bifft co bin v 10 x0 dim h6ichef\t<rm1_1c/\.1.Cho muc dich ca chfmg

la 0 day chi cn nhc lai rng th6 nimg cL'1a mcjt lb x0 dim hi cht ca hing
$6 Ilookc klix fl-1.
2

46
 (llrm/1)

din
Rnh F.
11 .,+'b
J

.11,

Ilinh 3.5. T6ng binh phuong

cim bfmg (3.2) cfm 1L_lC v1
Ith6 nng (3.1) l1l6it}1iC>11khic{1c diu kin
moment quay duqc dzip (mg.

N'u t6ng binh phurong 1:3 nh nhit, th nng h co hqc

ca chflng ta l nh nhit,v1thanh fytrang thi cn biing. Cc
luc c()n lai m thanh cm thiy 121 phn luc, nguqc chiu
Fi tit cc 6ng tay zio; t6ng ca cc luc nly trit tiu, cling
nhu tng moment quay ca chilng d6i vd dim chin A :

N N
=0, Ed, F,=0. (3.2)
= i=l

trong d dl. 151 khong cch ttr dim chin dn 6ng tay o. Luu
3? ring cosa = xi . Bziy gid d lip biu thirc cho E, kho
d,
st diu kin cn bng ca luc trn 6ng tay o. 6ng tay o
cm nhefln duqc (i) phn lL_rc tit thanh thing, (ii) h_rc ko
ca 16 x0,y'. (iii) phn 1L_IC tit rinh din theo
(axl. + b), v51

phuong X. Chi hai trong s6 nhfrng l1_rc nly c thnh phn

y khc khng, v:1 chng 121 cn b1ng:F, cosa = y, (ax, +12). Sir
dung nhfrng biu thirc ny v*i d v trong (3.2) ta thu dune I.

* Cho hiu bit co bim xcm mnc A.5 v /\.6.

47
 2yaXxNb=0 (3-3)

XxyaZx2b2x=0 -

Dy h hai phucyng trinh vi hai fin a v b m khi

ll
ducyc gii, cho ta gi2itr1d(f) d6c v h s6 chin t6t nhit.
Luu 3? ring k<-it qu nhu (3.3) c th thu ducyc true tip
bng cch cho dao hnm ring phin ca sai s6 trong (3.1)
bng khng:

g!-=22(y, (axl. +b))=O

V21

HS
=2
aa 2'/VI (y!Aa.+b
( xi
. =0.
Tai dy ta c mt din dich vzfit 13? ca czic diu kin ny:
phuong trinh du tin din t su tiu bi'n ca hqp lL_rc trn
thanh, trong khi phuong trinh thfr hai din t su trit tiu
ca moment quay quanh dim chin A.

3.4 Da gic cc) din tich nh nht

Vi dL_1 tip theo c th tip czfln biing vzfit 1)? mrjt cch hiu
qu vl cho ta mt cch gii gqn glng. Bli ton nay c th
d2_1i din cho m(f>tl0e_1tb1i ton turong tL_r.

Dinh 13?. Kho stmt da gizic n cgmh P co din tich kh d1"

nh nh't ngoai tip mt during c0ng' l61'1<1'n cho truc K.
Khi dd mi tija dim ca K v'1' cgmh ca Pla trung d1'm
ca canh dd.

* Kkhng duqc cho bivi mt cng thc til czi nhfrng gi ta bit ring n 1:31

dufmg cong l6i.

Chfmg minh. Hinh v cho th?1'y ba dung thing bao quanh
durfmg cong K, vd phn chn khng bn trong tam gic vii
vd khi c zip suit p = 1 bn ngoli p ln cc dung thing
(khi khng th xuyn qua). Vzfit cn K ngn tam gic khi
co lai thlnh mt dim. Theo cm nhefm, tam gic c6l1m
diu t6t nht c th cho vic co lai: n c6 t6i thiu ha
din tich cla minh. Cu th hon, 151m cc thanh hqp thnh
mt tam gic c din tich nh nht A clc thanh khng ;

n61 vi nhau tai cc dinh. Ti khiing dinh ring m6i thanh

khi d 151 6 trang thi cn bng. Thuc th', th nng h ca
chng ta bng din tich cila phn chn khng nhn v'i zip
suit p, d cho
Din tich nh nht E th nng nh nht
E trang thi cn bng.

, mi
PH,
7'
-2:; " .
p = O
. , _
chan khong
r .
,' . I4 ;;-s
"2-W,

w
';j%wv;;;;;,, ..; 1' <
v1-.

Hinh 3.6. B6 ba lhanh thing bao quanh mt bong bng chain khng bi p vlo
trong d ln dudng cong K bri khi bn ngoi.

MTUTMUTM

Hinh 3.7. Nu mt luc phzin b6 du trn min doan thing cn being vri mt Inc
I510 dung tai min Ciim cila doan thing, lhi dim db 123 [rung dim.

Xcm 1y gii 6 muc A./1.

49
 B61m5i thanh 6 trang thi cn bng, p suit hu'(7ng ra
ngoi tc dung ln thanh tai dim tip xL'1c cn b'1ng v()'i 1p_
sufit hufmg vo trong cfla khi. Diu ny hm 3? (xem hinh
3.7) ring dim m:/31 zip luc tc dung ln trung dim; n'u
1:31

khng thi moment quay ca tit c luc trn thanh quanh ti'p
dim s khc khng. Don gin ma} ni, thanh it s quay n'u
dim tip xlic khng phi 151 trung dim.

Ivlinh 3.8. N611

%B
mt phng ti'p xL'1c t6i thiu ha th rich ca hinh chp, khi d
dim tip xilc lrqng Lm ca AABC.
151

3.5 Hinh chp 06 th tich nh nht

Bi ton. Trong tit c mgit phng
up xc mit ellipsoid
x2 /az +yZ /b2 + 22 /cz =1, mt trong s0'chL1ngg1'a0 v61 gc

phn tzim thnh/t x 2 O, y 2 O, z, 2 O t._a0 thnh hinh chp

c th tich kh d1'nh0' nh't. Chi ra ring tij) dim ca mgit
phzing d Izi trong aim ca mt ABC (hinh 3.8).

L61 gii vt 13?. Ta hy tufrng tu'c_mg milt phng tip xc chia

tch phin chn khng bn trong hinh chp v6'i khng khi

* Trqng lm (hay dim cim b5'1nglL_rc)cL'1atam gic Ii: giao dim ca czic dudng
trung luyn.

5O
 nhit. Khng khi chi p ln
bn ngoi gc phn tzim thL'r
phn mzflt phng niim trong gc phn tm thir nhit. Mzfit
phng ct ngang mat phng t(_>a df) khng gefip sir cn tn)
niio, trong thi nghim tu'(')'ng tucyng ca chiing ta. Khng khi
d min phng ln kh6i ellipsoid rn, c6 ging nghin" th
tich ciia hinh chp ti gii tri cuc tiu. '1z_1igitrith tich nh
nhit, mzfit phng s ('1 trang thi cn bng tirc l, bit cit
dng thzii no nhm mfr rng ci bong bng" chain khng
d()ih6in5lL_rc.CL_1th htm, th nng cila h ti l vi th tich
ca phn chn khng (xem muc A.4), (I6 th tich t6i thiu
turdng ting nng luqng t6i thi'u, nng luqmg t6i thiu thi lai
tuomg ting trqng thi cn bng cho mat phing. Nhung dy
l diu kin cn bng luc gira p suit khng khi ph1n b6
du trn AABC titbn ngoi vdi p lL_lC tit kh6i ellipsoid nay
ln mzfat kia. Theo djnli nghia, diu ny nghia lei dim tip
xiic 122 trpng tm ca tam gic AABC. Trqng tzim ciia mt
tam giic l dim giao nhau cia cc trung tuy'n cila n, nhu
gii thich trong muc 3.15.
Chi d so snh, sau dy 151 m(f)t cch gii thumg thiy.

Lfyi gii gii tich (khng phi d doc ml d so snh d6 di).

Ta bit du bng m6 t th tich cia hinh chp lin h vi
t(_)a dc} tip dim (X0, yo, Z0). Vc to php tuyn ca mgit
ellipsoid tai dim d lei:

2 2 Z

N=V X +y +1 =2 X), yo, Z0.

{a2 I92 c2 a2 b2 02

v phuong trinh ca mt phng tip xiic 121:

51
 (r r0). N= 0

trong dc) 1'0 = (x0, yo, Z0), hay

(X _ax20)x0 + (Y b);0)30 + (Z ;o)Zo O_

Z Z Z

vfyi L; + i% + Z; = 1, phuong trinh mt phng ti-'p xL'1c nit gcpn

(I C
thnh:

xf+y2y +@=1.
a b c
Ta tinh h s6 chin X trn x bng cch cho y = Z = 0,
v1 tuong tL_r cho hai h s6 chin cn lai:
b
X=i, y=__,
Z 2 2

Z=_.
~

X0 yo Z0

Th tich ca hinh chp b'y gify duqc m6 t trong m6i

lin h vi dim tip xL'1c:

b
v = [XY]Z = X)Z = (LL-
1 1 1 2

3 2 6 xoyozo

Ta phi t6i thiu ha V, d lei, t6i da ha

X0)/OZ0 E f(X0 , yo, Z0) tily thuc vlo diu kin bin:
yz Z2 X2
g(x0, yo, zO)Ea;+Z;+C;= 1.

13
D6 f dat cue tiu ta phi
nhln tr Lagrange; m(f)t cch r0 rng horn, diu ny cho:
cc) Vf = 1Vg, trong d /1

52
 yozo : ZAL;a
X010 = 2,1Z_ (3.4)

Z
xoyo = 21-2.
c
Nhn phuong trinh du tin vdi x0, phuong trinh thir
hai vi yo , v phucmg trinh th ba vfyi Z0 ta lm tit c cc v6
bn tri bng nhau. Cc v' bn phi khi dc) cng bng nhau:

x_<>
2

a2
I X1 : b2
2 2

.Zl>.
CZ '

Cu6ici1ng, tit g(x0, yo, 20):] ta kt luefln ring:

2 2 2

x_:.J_i<L_Z__l
a2 I72 c2 3'
0
X0175,
v 2

X=i=a\/5.
X0

VB '=i:z::-~- ~

Hinh 3.9. N'u th tich ca hinh chp ng0a_1iti'p1n(f)tld16il6ilz1 nhb nh51't,khi

d cc trqng tm ca mint 151 c{1cti'p dim.

5'5
 A A > \
Ta nhan thay rang 5X;tu0ng
1
x, = tL_r, yo = g) va 20 = -3-Z
Ni cch khc:
1
(X0, yo, z0)=((X,0,0)+(0,Y,0)+(0,0,Z)), (3.5)

hay dim tip xL'1c qu thuc 121 trqng tm ca tam gic ABC.

3.6 Dinh 1}? v trcpng tm

Kt qui ny di duqc bi't d'n tir truc (xem cu6n [D]).
Bi ton ny thlt ra chi 151 t6ng qult ha ca bi toln 6 trn.
Ti cm thiy n d dep d xirng dlng duqc trinh by ring.
Dinh 13?. Goi K l mt kh6i
trong khng gian s6 hqc 3
161

chiu R3 , vl ABCD l mt tit din (cho 151, mt hinh chp

tam gic) cc) th tich kh di nh nht chtra K. Khi d tip
dim ca tirng rneflt vivi K 151 trong tm ca melt d.

Chfmg minh. Ta tur'ng tucyng cc) b6n mt phng bao quanh

K v tao thnh bin ca mt bong bng chn khng hinh
chp. Tirng cp hai mt phng c th ct nhau, nhuzng
khng duqc quyn xuyn qua K. Ap suit khng khi bn
ngoi bong bng chn khng buc cc meflt phng p ln
1

K. Th tich cila hinh chp chn khng ti lef: thun vfri th

/
n1ng.D0 dc) n'u hinh chp c th tich nh nht, khi d th
nng s ll nh nht, vii do d tit c meflt phng s (7 trang
thi cn being. Theo d zip luc hudng ra ngoi trn m6i mefzt
t2_1i tip dim cn bng vc>'i p suit phn b6 du hufmg vo

trong. Diu nly hm 37 ring tip dim ll trqng tm ca mzflt.

" Diu niny hin nhin dlng tin; chfmg minh duqc cho trong phn ph1_1l\_1c

(xcm muc A./1).

'54
Qu vly, ta c th nghl v p luc humg mfai
nhu luc trcpng
C16 dim tip xL'1c
truf>'ng, phn b6 du khip tam gic, vl khi
121 dim cn bng trcpng tm! -

3.7 Mt bli ton ding chu

mt bi ton
Sau dy l mcjt cch gii phi-tiu chufin ca
duqc nhiu
gii tich tiu chun. Phuong php n1y tr ldi
m1_1c ti'p sau.
cu hi khc, nhu s duqc trinh by trong cc
mt hinh
ton. Tim kich thudc ca m_Ot dudmg trdn vzi
B511
t5ng ch u
vung c t5ng din tich nh nhl, n/u bi't truc
vi ca chaing.

Tr lri. x = d: dufmg trbn 151 ni tip hinh vung.

Lri gii. H co ca chimg ta bao gm IT1(f)[.S(_Yi thbng

h<_)c

lqng; m(f)t phn cla thng l<_)ng duqc bqc quanh

hinh vung
v1 m()t phn quanh dufmg trim, v(1i nL'1t thng lqng lu6n
xuyn qua mcfat ci 6ng tuyp nhu cho thy trong
hinh 3.11.
(3 mt bn ca 6ng tuyp, sqi dy duqc
giit 6 dang hinh
vung nhd co ch cng mp nhu cho thiy trong
hinh 3.11.
cho thy
Tung tu(_mg11'1c ny c6 khi bn trong vng nhu
phng
trong hinh 3.1 1. Khi c6 phng ln nhung khng th
v6 h2_1n bri sqi dy 15 khng gin. Th nng
ca khi 151 mt

hm nghich bin v'i din tich. Din tich t6i

thiu do d
tuorng trng vc'>'i th nng cuc dai v51 vi m(f>t
trang thi cn
bng ca h.

cng duong via do d

* 'lh1_rc vy, nfiu ta d khi phng ln, n s thuc hin
mzi't mt luqng nhu vzfly lrong th nimg cfxa n.
dgli, nhung th<Z' thi sao?
** (In bling khng 5n d1nh,b6in1ngluqnglh c1_rc

55
 ,- l ~
1 q , ,;yr~;!f;1s;:;@;;!$r<;;i;%;1*A;m;1!;:1A%:%:

N..- w!.=, 1!-?'15:Ei:5i?"'i7t ~ !i"'.? *:[i.::!1 .. -51:

V - =:.'>~&1-== ;

J F " ~" M"il5"l!1?*{""YiW'<-iii?

I Ia lln Wu
"*T4?:l?<=ii~J"i.i".:?E=r'.;;.,
1 H M n i ,1
1|; M ~|='-H1--I=<=;1.@,-'us(1|=.
$1 Mn 9 \ 1,. Hy
lg,-Inv;.;1;..-
:1
w
'
-- 1=

-u.",1\H..,s11vJ=L
K

'1? "<"-~- w
1=w~-|!~.~,,=1e;H~~,||1,5!;';;~-1;-,,:!"~41;;,-1
1
1
~__,|_.U
L. a ':
L .
*.-
1 .. a H...'
HY _
111..,
,_.-,.; W '.
.;,._I,-gf ;;;
I
]_;'.E;;:;
\
M
My';_:l;.;:rl;i=
5-1: :$u4'y\'|" -~{,|-,
Y 1 4 Y

,1;eL,|,.

'*""~
, H, ,.
l",';:"lMil-"*5\L1\{?1'?5i-'
+
,
W =f.'~<';'"?'s*=.~" rw!'e;%.~~*~.-.n
"I, " In II I
1' .1 M.
\!Hv;H
, >~~,
1 \
IW2-*141I~\-I'\"\I
U1"-i*:will
' {M=i"11II1I*iI""::
{

-1
~
~.
,1M H rt F l)"" W J 1|
4

"
my
M1;
'~:'.,lI.1
,h 1-; .1 -W ..
.
L ;=;!r~&;; .[;,-;z;;;i;;7%;;z=,;;.*\;,_
,< .- . .
;.
I . F :-l:.'~::.;'. z 1* ~-~ Wm-
w.:
:1 ,: L {ll
~
,si
11 1*:~--v%Ii'.:;$-11; :1!-"W.1wwf';i~ 11

;;..
1
1.

', ,I\. .
p
4
' w w "~~~+
| }X-J1, ,
I; ,1,
1}~h'r|r.l;=!v
,__;{;._5_.:;_=-.1.l;..7;
wl.
K
*~;;{\.,;;; :;;;;;w
"A; Y<\
, 1,
;.' E?
,,\ I ;,
.:
,3;
1|. ' .-I;
H.
.4.: 1
,i-1 .\s-
'.

Ilinh 3.10. T6i thiu ha din lich bi't Lrufyc l6ng chu vi

khung

;;

'51
5;~; _1@,=.
\,,l1\'1;1z:.'.ml-1[,}'~@-3; iq

}i' 1w,*1":.~.'|~
>1
\ 1%
~::_' ,v_,l;:
/\ NIH Tm). -4

a;;l@;L;i*>%::: %*?*:s;;%:~2;~
|Ij''1.u *'!=::1$I1J":i\P,v
:?!wi|%v'-1g]<}4f;{ vi" 1; 11;, ~ . Egw-a,';|-,;1I f:;,|;! ;_s...,
thu nh _~.'~
$5?~?%l"i1i**..ui~'i'i~i%;".."-ii,
er; ,1 |~;.1h):U 4"-:@1=::'111sr:>%@;"1;,;,;;_.4:
,\ .;,\,..,\v,, I
14{a1\-mi. =15?:I;1,~H;"~-If ' ;!'=.=4!=\;!'%;.:1
{Si:!I:H1v4_lE;q\: 1;. 43:; 1; 11:: \ ., .1:=;; 'i1%;:iI,I?.':!1f;>!1\
M1.Iynr-we
15: 1% 5":=%ii1&*=: .\
:31 .n

Hi_;@. .,_-_:i1 -H; x = 'r@!1v\1"'-~"'

_-_~-W p suat p:1

Hinh 3.11. C hai hp chfra c' gian

ra c hfin g lai luc sit cL'1a dfiy.

nn (va dy 151 dim ch6t), Igrc cng ca sai dy 12

C110

nhunhau tai m pi dim trn dziy; cu th'6ph5n hinh vung

vzi phin hinh trdnz
Z = T2. (3.6)
Trong phn
ti dy ti s chi ra ring 2T1 = px v51 2T2 = pd,
vl theo d x=d:ce_1nh h1n h v un g being dufmg kinh
hinh
trn, nhu khzing dinh.

L
Luc cng ca day. Dau
chtra khi nn hai chiu
xem xe't mcfat hp hinh vung
tien
' su zit p. Goi T 151 kyhiuluc
co' ap
cng dy trn ce_1nh hinh vung. H1nh 3.12 cho thy luc px

* D'trnh nhfmg hiu nhm, goi 11_rc cn g lzi 6137 ni luc ma! czin duoc tc
I
dung d gift m5 i bn ca 1'18! dau \
day khbl tch rm neu SQ! day c
art - A . . A
I

56
ca khi diy mt canh hinh vung humg ra ngoi, cn bng
vfri hop luc 2T] ca lL_rc cng cila dy.
1
71
T2
" a>,1, 11' / \ "~ 111"?
3:
:5".
g

~
Q},;';:;\1e-=$-KW} .a2,1~

\&_

&- ,::;tr
<1?

.1
-:

2
\
s
W

T1 12
(Q) (1))

Hinh3.12.(a)Ch{tkhl day canh bun

= ' hinh vuong
phi cua * hudng ra ngoiai vi
bn phi (px); cc canh lin k ko canh d6 bzing hqp h_rc 2T, vf} bn tri.
1z_ai

(b) Nita ci dia bn phi cm nhzfm p luc ln durng kinh ca n, v nira cbn
l2_1i bi ko bri l1_rc cng cfla dy.

Diu kin cn biing luc cho

2T] = px. (3.7)

dung trn, ta xem xt diu kin cn bng

Tuo'ngtL_1' cho
luc trn m(_3t hinh bn diaz dudng kinh bi diy sang phi, v
scyi dy bi ko sang trli; diu kin cn bng luc din ra:

2T2 = pa. (3.8)

Sir dung T] = T2 , ta kt luzfm:

x = d;
diu phi chimg minh. Mt cu tr ldi thzfxt c dqng!
ll

Chi d so snh vri mcjt cch gii vt 13?, sau dy l cch

gii thng thu'(mg.

57
Mqit cch gii thng thudng. Ting chu vi ll khng C161:

4x + 7m = L,
cho nn:

d=i.
L~4
71'
(3.9)

T6ng din tich do d being:

A(x)=x2 +L=x2 +ZC(ix)-

dz L -4 2

4 4 7r

Liy Ciao hlm thco x, ta duqc:

L 4x -4 L 4x
A(x):2x+-2-(i~){j=2x2?-.
7Z

4 1r rc 7Z

Tit A (x) = O ta thu duqcz

L4
X~'i=O
71'

hay
L
x=-~
rc + 4

Th vo (3.9) vl gin luqc ta thu duqc:

L
d= i
+4
rc
.

CU th, x : cl.
Cch tifp czfm c0 hcpc dem l2_1i mt 3? nghia vt 13? cho dng
thL'rcA '(x) =0 CL_1'[hll_lC cng luqng bit bin doc theo
121 d2_1i

dy. Ngoi ra, mt dzfac dim k/ la ca cch tip czfzn vlt 13?
151 ta khng bao gid phi vi't biu thfrc cho dai luqng A(x)

58
(chinh l d2_1iluQ'ng ml ta cn tim cuc tiu), vii cng khng
bao gin? phi 15y dao hlm (mc dii ngudi ta c th tranh ci
ring being cch vit ra diu kin T] = T2 ta thL_rc chf d liy
dao hm, chi din dat khc di ml thi). V'i czich tip cm
vzfit 13?, ta gin nhu di thng dn dp n, mcf>t khi m6 hinh co

hqc di duqc thi't lzflpl

Ba vi dL_l ti'p theo cho thy gii cc bi tozin lin quan
mt khi di thi-'t k duqc m hinh c0 h(_)c.
Bi ton. Tim czic kich thmic ciia hinh chunht vzi tam gic
du c t5ng din tich nh nhzit, biif t5ng chu vi ca chling.

Biii ton. Tim czic kich th L100 ciia da gic n canh vzi mt da
gic m cgmh c t5ng din tich nh nheft, bi't t5ng chu vi
cia chiing.

B21it0n.M(5tdu0ngtr0n, mthinh vung, vzi m_0t tam gic

du c t5ng chu vi bi't truc. Tim cc kich th u'c Iin quan
ca ba hinh ny sao cho din rich tvng 1;} nh nhi.

Lfri gii. Ta dua ra mzjt lfyi gii nhanh cho bli ton thtr ba.
Llp luzfln h01n ton nhu trn, ta kt luzfm ring diu kin
din tich nh nht, chinh 151 diu kin cn being, dbi hi luc
czing ca dy bin 151 nhu nhau d6i viii mi mt hinh dang:

Tdubng trfm = Thinh vung : Ttam gi-\c . (3.10)

Bing cch chqn p suiit khi p = 1, ta c duqc tri s6 szc

cng sau dy tit cc phuong trinh cn bng luc:

T dubrng lrbn =-,1

X r1 y
=-,1 V
=,
z~/5
2 hinh vung 2 tam gic 6

59
 trong d x I51 dumg kinh ca dufmg trdn, y 151 canh ca
hinh vung, v z l1 canh ca tam gic. Dn chirng cho tam
gic ducyc th' hin trong hinh 3.13; cho dudng trn v hinh
vung di du/(yc trinh by ('7 trang 41. Ding thirc ca nhfrng
luc cng dy (3.10) cho ta hai phuomg trinh:

x y- z I

chng dinh r6 ti l cn dat duqc ca bi) ba kich thuc ny.

D gii quy't bi ton ny biing gii tich, ta s phi t6i
thiu ha din tich nhu mcjt hm ba bi-'n v<'7i mt diu kin
bin mcfat d ti bao trilm trong gii tich da bi'n.

3.8 Chic hp r nhit

Sinh vin hqc gii tich thung d6im2f1tv(7i dang bli toain
dng hp" cht ngui, me: trong dc), nh sin xu't mu6n tit
kim chi phi biing cch llm ra chi'c hp c kich thuc hiu
quiz nhfit. Trong muc nly ti m6 t mt cch gii vzflt I)? cho
loai bi ton ny; trong muc k-' ti-'p ti s chi ra lm th' nlo
d cch gii ny c th thich (mg duqc vi bi ton mfr rng.

:;\1,_;~.",.
., .< ' .4 -
-_.~' 3-
4/
'
.*
,;;..,

=';:~s~+::>*1.@-E*2: aim .

;>.:~
-s~
..,1'~>"Ii "..1'?{'f1f.iH:1gfflifii1%%;5's{:
-1;: -=- '1-T
_7i17'-Yfillw
=
\ 4',~:.'-:~;v1;;;g:, -~;.:,mr_-; ,r-,5-;;a=~=,;A~
yr %+:"v"~;~< #4 ~!1r;%1;>
,",_;;<;,i;tri Tw-W1-.<<!;_Ih"r".:
'1 '_>1r{?;;r,,;;;; NIi{|\1>i"hi!filu-f.T'Pf{,f'Y
>'r"-:;;X-.= 5.-2,-4,-;./;.._ __.1,{,.,};L1;_!';r1i1}'?$&1,,_:;:$!l
1\.1;,:'$gy=4~,*\?.v*43',",:\.
1e,{~,,qp-<41}; _.rw,+;,*;_1

1:-"-Ph1;a;;";i1'-{pr-V
fi,3i111.1i~*_:'- .1":4,-?w{;=~<v=#
m
~:"~'f:*:i-I
. ~

;=:=f;.-1
_,~ -. 2-1 , = 1,
>.,,-4;: vi '1' .=\~31:1-={M5:3'Ev?.=:*%*=1'\]i_:
V343!m.4Qt:HT.-xi,i;gl<..,a ';:-{=;iis1?:- .-"Qt:
wu__:.,_'_;~;_, rm. P
~_,, 4 . ).,...'v.':.l._"f*(5';;5T$v ~;,,4
1- --'5' ."\:,~w-; ;.
"
,_':m"-:
WM! " .
P? -mf1~_"? 1 " 1"
-'4-- '1 n
Illa

dy

6O
 dy

T
; 4, 9 -

Z}::*?.%;i::'~;!-i==f :1

*wm@ww
-'.'?.-14v
1: --
W mu .

~
*/2

I-Iin}:/3.13. Cm bfmg cc luc t:_1i gc ch1"rV cho 2'Ic0s 30" = 2(p:/2)c0s60", hay
-;=__ncu p=l.
z 3 ~

Bali tom. Til ca mthp hinh tru c t5ng din tich b mt

t0'1' thi'u ling vi th rich cho trudc lei nhu th'n0?

Lri gii. Ta hy tung tuqng mnjt h(_>p hinh trL_1 duqc ch

t2_1o d n c th thu nh tixy thich sao cho thay (161 duqc c

chiu cao v bn kinh ca n. C6 th hinh dung mt co ch

duqc xy dung nhu duqc gcyi 3? trong hinh 3.11 (7b1i ton vita
r6i. Bziy gid ta d6 nuc dy hcjp c th tich V, V51 b(_>c 15y n
trong m(f)t mng c sL'rc cng b mt khng Cic"i' 0' . C6 th
tu(')'ng tuqng mng bong bng d khng v6 v cf) th trucyt
khng ma st d(_)c theo bit cit du n cham vino.

Xum muc A.2 cho ml gii thich ngiin gqm ca khi nim sfrc cimg b mm
v(ri lift c hiu bi't co bn cn thil.

bl
 luc dfiy

v.
, ,;.;
.
:

~:'..~?l',

-

pl? WP
p

..
-
-
'

.
Tr

s~~.v
T

1';
.
,
2

-.,;
~

'
r
J
luc day
\: p Qrh
-

I-'1",--.
-'f.".'.'

"1. -,
1*

14
5'Y1\"'i1I171*~
I-3:5; 21'
2
,

15
:~ .
_

P. -q 1.
Y

In
"
%~:!.,

._,, q_,+;;~'5 js_Y;:'.

A:$v;?-g)

H.

ifgp 1
E.

;'=:-. ~-1.:
H4 -.. -5.;I
.,,*1~='v(:=.\.;,;1,.f
--4.-w"-.=_'-
~

e.
.~

1 '1 11-:
-.f-?ic ,1<:;w
Evi

luc ko : 0' - 2717

\{_'6
o O

<(> <1
Hinh 3.14. Di-u kin cn bring gifra sfrc cng bc: mt v zip lL_l'CZ (a) mzfat trn
cilng ca hinh trL_1 v (b) nira doc thn tr1_1.

Th' nng E ca mng m strc cng b mzf1tl1 hing s6 0'

ti l vi din tich: E = GA (xem mL_1cA.2). Theo dc), hinh c
din tich t6i thiu cng 151 hinh c niing luqng nh nh't, val
cng hinh 6 trang thi cln bng. Cu thf-2', luc ko hung
151

xu6ng ln I'I11ttI'l1 cilng ca hcf)p (hinh 3.14), tc dung dcpc

theo duimg trn, cn bng vi lp lure hung ln ca kh6i
nude bn trong dy mat trn cimg ln:

0'.27rr = p.7r.r2. (3.11)

N goi ra, nira doc thn tru (b m_itng01i+ kh6inuc'1c) nhu
trong hinh 3.14 bi ko b6'i sire cng b mzflt ca ldp mng lin
k v bi diy bi lu'u chit tc dung ln mt hinh chfr nhzfatz

0'-(4r+2/z)= p-2r/1.
Chia phuo'ng trinh ny cho (3.11) v gin luqc, ta thu duqc

h = 2r.

62
 Ni cch khc, hinh tru t6t nhfit" 121 hinh tru rn tit dicfzn
H

dqc theo tri_1c Citing ca n l mt hinh vung.

3.9 Ci hp r nht
C0 hqc c th khi quit bi tozin ci hp r nh't", mi:
chi phi cho mefit trn, mefli bn, va mzfit dy 12: khc nhau
duoc khng? Chng han, czic kich thuc ciia chic hijp hr
mxt trn r nh?1't 151 nhu th no? Chi thm m<f)t cu, li gii
gain nhu lzfip lai nguyn vein lri gii ca bii ton vita r6i. Cu
th nhu sau.

Bi tofm. Mt trn, mt bn, vei mt dy ca mt hp hinh

/
tru duqc tao nn ti: nhng vat 11'_eu khac nhau v01 chi phi
A A 1 1

tmmg Lingl a , b, vzi C cent trn m5i dun vj din tich. Tim
cc til ciia cihp r nh't c th3t1'ch cho truc.

Lri gii.
bj co hqc. Cfing nhu trong bi ton trn, ta bait diu
Th1''t
vi mt ci v hinh tru thu nh ducyc sao cho bn kinh vii
chiu cao c th thay di my thich. D6 nude vio dy hinh
tru n1y.Tuy nhin, biy gifr, ta s sir dung baloz;1imng' vfri
sirc cng b mat a, b , v c bng V()'i cc chi phi turmg (mg.
Ta ko cng mt mnh mng c strc cng b mzfat a v dinh
cc canh cfia n vo dufrng trn trn cilng ciia hinh tru sao
cho mng cng dqc theo hinh dia trn cting. K6 tip ta bqc
mt ming cf) strc cng b mefit khng dfii C quanh vch
bn ciia chic hp, dinh n6 vo czic dufmg trn trn cting

* Ta lai nhc d'n hiu bifft co bn v ming, m\_1c /\.2.

63
 vii dui ctlng. Ci mng s c6 p chzfit mzfit bn ca hinh tru
cflng nhu ko mzfat trn v21 mt dy v phia nhau. Sau ciing,
ta lzfap le_1i diu ta C151 llm vi mflt trn cilng cho hinh dia dui
cimg, sfr dung mng c.

Hozin tit. Bzf) ba mng ny c6 nn chafit chic hp. Chi phi

tfing cng l t6ng trqng s6 ca cc din tich mt trn, mafit
bn, vl mzfit dy: 7rr2 -a + 21rrh-b + ftrz -c, C16 chinh ll
th nng ciia h c0 h<_)c ca chiing ta; ci hcjp r nhiit do
d 6 trang thi cn bng. Cu th, mat trn ca h(_)p bi ko
xu6ng bi ci mmg Gm liy mt bn, V51 bi diy ln bi p
lL_rc nurc bn trong (hinh 3.15); hai lL_rc ny trong diu 1231

kin cn bngz

b-27rr=p-7r2.

' '
P

,t_t
T
.2

' I
.

\i.v '$
p~21'h,

'

stfj
V.
:. ;
,.-4]
I ;f,"P? -;y;5I

ii
a
<

~14.-;>=~

" ,%i.i

93-{%1'>*?/4*

"ma r n i. =':;"';*:
i ' 3 - ' -Ii-J! ,'T"'i
g?
'a:=<:.

i..

b - 27T!' H '

Hinh 3.15. Chi phi t6i thiu ha vi vt liu khc nhau ch0m2f1ttrn,mzf1tbn
v51 mint dziy.

Nita dQc thn tn} trong hinh 3.15 bi ko bi sc cng b

mt theo mt hung v bi dy bi zip suft p tzic dung ln

* Bbi th nng ca mng I sllrc cng b mt >< din tich; xem chi lit 6 l111_1C A.2.

64
khip tifft din ngang hinh chit nhaflt Z r >< h theo hufmg
nguqc lai; nhirng luc ny 1:51 cng trong diu kin cn bing:
a-2r+b~2h+c-2r=p~(2rh).
Chia phu'0ng trinh nly cho phuong trinh fr trn v51 khr
clc s6 hang, ta thu duqc cu t1-ldiz
h a+c
b
D6i vri mt chic hp mail trn hfy tao nn tfr veil liu
dng nhft trong dc) a = 0, b = c diu ny dua dn h = r.
Trufrng hqp a = b = c cng thirc ('1 trn cho h = 2r phil
h(_)p vi kt qu ca bxi ton (iaflt ra.

3.10 Ch6 t6t nhit 6 rap ngoli trfri

~ A,
Bli ton. Tir ch no mtngzri c the c gc nhin mzin nh
rngnhzft? Cu thfhon, cho mrdc mt doan thing AB nm
d_0c mt dudng MN nzim ngang khng cit
(main nh) vzi
AB, tim dim P trn MN sao cho gc APB lei cuc dai.
cw 0

1p V

Hinh 3.16. Khdp n6i P tnrqt tflythich dqcthco MN. Cc tia I/I W1 PB mrqt
thy thich qua lai gifra cc 6ng bqc tz_1i A via B. Khi gc nhin 151 lfm nht hm} s
6 trang thi cm b51ng.\f1th6 ba luc tlc dL_1nglnc:'1ivu6t" APB lin dng quy.

65
 "My tinh" ccrhpc. Xem xt mcjt ci vu6t" bao g6m hai
thanh thing durqc n61 vfri nhau being mt 16 xo c6 diy cg
thanh ra xa nhau. Cc thanh xuyn qua cc 6ng bqc A v
B (mt niilm trn cilng v m(f>t nfim dui cilng mn nh)
sao cho chng c th truqt khng ma st. Mi ca czii vu6t
P duqc hln vz1o mt hinh vlnh khuyn nh trng vlo MN
v c th tru'(_rt trn [WV khng ma szit.

Ldi gii.
L01 gii
djnh tinh. L6 xo cmg gin di, gc APB clng lfrn,
th nng clng nh. Gc cue de_1i vi vefly tuong Crng v(7i th'
nng cue tiu, chinh trang thi cn being cila h chL'1ng ta.
1231

Nhung ci vu6t APB, cm nhzfxn du'Qc ba lL_rc: FI,, I-7;! v51 F;

m5i lL_I'CIl'L_1'C giao vi dufmg tuong itng, nhu cho thiiy trong
hinh 3.16, biyi tit c m6i n6i du khng ma st. B61 nhfmg
luc n1y c t6ng moment quay bng khng, cc duimg biu
din cla chlllng 121 dng quy, din theo b6 d v 1L_rc d6ng quy
r 1'I1L_1C A.6. H qu I3, Ling vdi gc APB kh diln nhzft, b
ba c'1u"0ngtr1_Icg1'a0 dLr0ngMN, PA, vzi PB tai cc
V01" czic
dim P, A , V2 B I dhgquy. Ta tim ra m(f)t tinh chit dc
trung ca hinh trang mong mu6n v theo d gii quy-'t dune
bi ton, it ra 13 dinh tinh.

66
 C

O D
d b
7' A T
(

M P d Q N
Ilinh 3.17. Khong c{1cht6i1ru d I \/ ab ,

djnh Iupng. D' c dp an r6 rng hon, luu 3? ring

Ldzi gizii
PA J_ AC v51 PB _l_ BC hmyriing A v B nmtrn duirng
trbn dudng kinh PC. Dudng trn ny cng tip xc MN bi
PC _L MN Theo d dim P t6'1' LIL1 lei tija dihi ca dudng
.

MN v mt dufrng trdn di qua/1 vzi B. Chinh xzic l1 c mt

duifmg trbn nhu veflyz tm ca n la} giao dim ca dudng
trung true AB V()'i du(mg thing dimg di qua P.
Khong cch ngzin nhzft lei trung binh nhn ca cc d_0
cao, d= \/21-5 trong d a vl b l cc dmf) cao cla A vl B.
Qu vy, tham chiu hinh 3.17, ta c:

a = PQ = 00A(:D\/0B2 - BD2,
trong d:

OB = OP = DQ = ig- 1

()7
 b.__
BL):-lZ.
2
Thay hai phuong trinh sau cimg vao cai diu tin, ta thu
ducyc:
1
a = 5/(a+b)2 (ab)2 = \/ab.

Ch?) t6t nhit ('7 rap ngoai trfwi duqc cho bfri trung binh nhan
ca (if) cao dim trn cilng va dim dui cilng ca man anh!

3.11 Gc ni tip
Dinh 137. Mt gc ni nap trong dudng tr0n chiphu thuc
vao cung chin va khngphu thuc vao vj trica dfnh gc
noiuep.
Chirng minh.
Thi't bj c0'hQc. V61 chtmg minh nay, ta dfmg cai vu6t" (duqc
dilng 6 muc 3.10) tao bi hai thanh thing n61 khfrp P vdi
mt 16 X0 bi nn 06 day cac thanh ra xa. Ta c6 dinh khrp
P trn dudng trn, cc) the trucyt tily 3? khng ma sat. M61
thanh truqt xuyn qua mt 6ng bao xoay tily 3? khng ma sat
tai cac du A va B cila cung da cho, nhu trong hinh 3.18.
T61 khzfng djnh rngh 6 trang thi can bng ("I61 vdi vi
tri bat kjl ct"1a Ptrn dumg trn. D5 duqc vzfly trudc tin xem
xt luc trn m(f>t thanh (chqn PB) khiP d11Qcg1''c0'djnh mt
ca'ch c chzi y. Thanh chiu nh hu/'ng cta moment quay T
quanh Pva moment quay F}; ><PB tao thanh bfri phn lL_rc
FB tai 6ng bao. Diu kin can bang ca moment quay quanh

:
Pcho T = FH><PB,x1c dinh gia tri FB T / PB. Bay gid cho

68 4
Fl thnh phn ti'p tuyn ci1a1L_rctaiPtc dung ln thanh.
Thlnh phn nily cln bng v'i thnh phn song song v'i h
ci1alL_rct2_1iB(xem hinh 3.18(b)):

F= FR c0s9 =
Tc0s0
PB
_l PQ

' 3

9 17']; cos (7

9"
A
1)

f7
<FP,, Q1)
F

(Q) (b)

llinh 3.18. (a) Mziy linh co hQc" (b) Tinh toxin l\_rc I<c1nthiC'ld6 gift Pdfrng yn.

Ta thfiy ring luc tip tuyn Fln thanh khng phu thuc
vo vi tri ca thanh. Diu ny c nghia ring hai thanh dzflt ln
khp n6i tai Phai luc bng nhau nguqc chiu. Ta kt lum
riing khrp P121 6 trang thzii cn bng, nhu C151 khng dinh.

3.12 Nguyn 13? Fermat v Dinh lult Snell

T6m1uQ'c.Nguynl? Fermat pht biu ring nh szing lruyn
di gia hai dim chqn " con dudng c6 thdi Iuqng nh nh't
~ it ra, nu hai dim dix gin vfri nhau. Cu th h0'n, bit ctr tia
szing nlo cng c tinh chiit t6i thiu ha th()'i gian nhu sau:

69
vfri hai dim bit ky dull gin A v21 B trn tia, cung/1B ca tia
cho thi gian di chuyn kh di ngin nhit ttrA t'i B.

I
'TL||
ll
l|,I
U]

'0
J
//1
///
1////

Hinh 3.19. Cung AmBli1 con dufmg thiri-gian-nhb-nhfit; nh sng tit A khng
hi u_1 trn cung n1y.Tr1ilz_1i, cung /MB 151 lhu()c dufmg c1_rc lri, nhung khng
phi thdi gian ngzin nhiit; tinh chfit nziy di cilng vi su t6n mi cfla m(f)l dim
hi tu trn cung nxy.

Quan stnguyn I)?Fermat vn heinh. Mt trong nhfrng diu

nguyn 1y Fermat dL_r dond6i hufmg truyn ca clc
151 SL_1'

tia sng trong thu kinh nhu th hin trong hinh 3.20. D
rL'1t ngn th(Yi gian, nh sng trnh phn dly hcrn ca thu

kinh bri truyn qua thy tinh t6n thi gian hun. Diu nay

* Diu thuc s\_r quan trqng khng phi l A v B gin nhau, mil hinh qu:;1t
1:21

hep ca chilm tia pht ra tit A khng hi t1_1 truc khi ti duqc B. Minh hqa
don gin nht cho diu kin ny duqc dua ra bbi chflm tia Ian truyn trn
min cu (hinh 3.19). Cc dim A vii B duqc nfii vri nhau bri hai chilm tia
kh di, AmB vl AnB, ci du tin 151 chm tia ngiin nhit; theo d, hinh quat
ca chflm tia tir A khng hi tu trn cung thdi-gian-nh-nht AmB. Tri lai,
tia AnB khng phiai I51 con dufmg nhanh nhiit tir A twi B; cung nily chfxa
dim hi tu A cfla hinh quat ca chilm tia ti: A . D6'i vri I3? thuyt t6ng quilt
lin quan dn bi tozin n:1y,d<c gi nn doc cu6n sch ca Milnor [M].
** Ti l 11 ca vzfm t6c nh smg trong chfm khng trn vzf1nt6ctrongthL'1ytinh
duqc gqi l h s6 khlic x:;1.n c1ngi('rn,d(> da1yth1'ul<inh cn thit cng nhb
d dat duqc cimg mt hiu qu. Khng khi gin nhu gifing chn khngz

7O
gii thich tai sao thu kinh lom phn kj/, trong khi thu
kinh 161 hi m.
Mcjt vi du khc trong hinh 3.21 cho thy m(f)t tia til dly h
tc'Y1' mit. Con dufrng chi ra trong hinh l nhanh hon dufrng

thing, bi n(> tr gi" d rL'1t ngin phn dudi nude t6n

km noi nnh sng truyn di lu hcm.
/n
Lzim th-'no ainh sng bier dudngnzio l ngin nhzft. Kh
Q

nng cila mh sng d chqn con durng ngin nhfit c v nhu

1:21 thin k/. Phi chng vic chqn duqc con dudng nhanh
nhit khng dbi hi thng tin v nhfrng con duimg khc?
Thuc sq thi ha ra nh sng c bi't v nhfrng con dudng
khc. Trn thuc t, nh sng truyn theo mqi con dung
kh di, nhung, dai th, nh hung ca chL'1ng trit tiu lin
nhau trir trn con dufmg ngin nht vii ln cn cla n, nh
hung ca cc vilng ny trr nn d6ng bi).

Hinh 3.20. /\nh sng di chuyn chm hon trong lhy tinh; bbi vay tia sng
trnh phn dy hon ca thiu kinh.

r1=l,00029.Th5u kinh nhua tng hop dimg liun trng kinh cf) h s6 khdc xa cao
(:6 n =l,66.Th\'1ytinh dilng liam thiu kinh c hf; s6 bfmg 1,52. Hg: s6 ca kiln
cuong n = 2,4;loai thfiu kinh s khng try v rift mng, nhung khng r.
n:31y

* Dc gi nn dqc cufin sch tuyt vdi QED cila Richard Feynman [Fe], cu
d6 dmg luu tm niay duqc gii dzip trong <16.

71
 V
Y2 A
khng khi
nude
Tr/2
( L
(X1

A1 amux
((1) (b)

Hinh 3.21. (a) dlnh luzfn Sncll; (b) vdi ngudi Ian, thfi giri phia trn matnu('1c
duqc nn vao mt lang kinh.

Ljch s1? tm Iuqc. Tinh chat t6i thiu cua nh sang duqc
phat hin b6'i Heron X11 Alexandria (khong nam 60 Cng
Nguyn), ngudi da phat biu rang tia sang truyn di gifra
hai dim trong khng khi va tia sang phin xa khi kinh
phang gifra cac dim la ngan hon bat cu con dufmg lien k
nao. Dang tfing quat cua nguyn 137, ap dung duqc cho mi
trufmg ph( quat, duqc phat biu bi Fermat vao nam 1662.
C6 me hiu duqc tai sao mt s6 nguri da phan d6i: theo he,
nguyn 13? nay, ap dzflt tin kin cho tu nhin. Nhirng nguri
hoai nghi ch nn lo lng. Nguyen 1}? Fermat cc) the duqc
gil thich thng qua din dng hQc c6 din, bang cch vin
dn ban chat sng cua anh sang. Cach 13? gii duong dai,
d-'n

duqc phc hQa trong cu6n sach ca Feynman vita nhac den
6 trn, dua vao din dng hQC lunjmg tit, noi ban chat sng
duqc thay the bang ham sng xc suit.
Nguyen 137 Fermat xac dlnh cach thuc chum tia (161 hung
khi bang qua ranh gii gifra hai mi trudng. Mt he qua r6
rimg h0'n cua nguyn 1y nay duqc bi't dn nhu dlnh luat Snell.

72
Djnh Iutkhlic xa Snell. Vi mt tia sng truyn qua mg? t
phzin cch gia hai mi trudng (xem hinh 3.21), helm sin
ca cc gc twang ling 06, , 052 gia tia v dudng vunggc
V01 mtphn czich Izi ti I v01 czic vn tO'c cl vzi cl ca nh

sng trong mi trudng tuang ling:

sin 051 sin 062

- = -. (3.12)
C1 C2

sina ~
N61 czich kheic:d_a1'1uqng - giunguyn khng (T51 khi
C
nh szing truyn qua b mtphn cch.
Dlnh luzflt nly s duqc pht biu la_1i nhu mt bzii toln
An
cuu ho trong muc 3.13.
Ta dung thuc nhin th' givi thng qua dlnh luzfzt Snell:
mi tia va vo dim nh trn vong mac, du dn duqc d
khi tun theo (3.12).
Bi ton. Ynghia vgitly, nu c, cua 53$
(.
I gi?

Lbri gii. Sin 06 /c l1 v1nt6c cla Clim ml mlt du s('>ng" giao

v'i mt phn czich hai mi trufrng (hinh 3.22). L61 gii thich
duqc dua ra trong hinh 3.23 nhu sau. Hinh v cho thfiy meflt
du sng trong khng khi tai hai thdi dim cch nhau m(f)t
gi1y.Do cc chum tia vung gc vi mzjt du sngm, APPQ

Xcm bill tom 3.13 cho chfrng minh co tinh cfla du kin ring dlnh lult Snell
suy ra ti: nguyn Fermat.
137

"* Nguyn vn: wavefront rnt du sng 151 quy Lich nhfmg dim dao dng
cung pha trong mi truimg truyn sng, gii han gifra phn mi tru'(7ng mil
sng di truyn qua v sng chua truyn tfyi. - N.D.
" Pht biu hin nhin Iii rfit dng tin ny c th duqc bin minh thng qua
nguyn 1y Huygens; chi lifit c th duqc tim thiiy trong cu6n [ARN]. Thuc
trgmg ny dua trn tinh ding hung cua mi trudng. Vi nhfrng mi trung

75
 leitam gic vung, trong d 37 nghia ca dim Q duqc
gii
thich theo hinh v. B61 QP = cl, ta c PP = c, /sin0c,.
Dy df) dich chuyn cila P trong m(_3t giy v21 do
1:51
d 151
vn t6c duqc ni d'n.

(51

*' min phfm cch

< -
UIC1/Si1l(.1 = (J2/Sil1O!2 Va? -Ff
C2

I'Iinh 3.22. Dumg gytr0ng1n<}tm:tdziu sng cf) v:1nt6c

0 = cl /sina, = C: /sinal ~

%,@%
' = " MP .13!
~"'?:<:r".:1:;;;@l;:;;;
/1,~
$11? Q' ' Y1?r$l:%%?v;{fi%;5}*.131,,,.
-==1i'ii__;;;'m-.vi}).4];,

-;-:a'jggA;yj;
;,;,.%
c1 "****Mg"z?}}w\;
||., L

'~$i5.';*'
-'1N|]|f.'
(:1/sin Q1 <11 * -
Y

P P
I-[inh 3.23. Tinh vein t6c cfla dim gy trong milt du sng.

G60 tdihan. Hinh 3.21 gii thich mt hin tuqng th vi quan

L
st duqc b6'i nhfrng ngurdi dil:1n.Khiban nhin ln mt
tir phia dui, moi thir trn
nude

di hu/ng chm lia ti khng cn vung gc vi lnl dilu sng,

trong ngfr nghia ca linh true giao Euclid.
it ra
mzfit nude xuzit hin nhu th bi

1:21 khng

74
 Dim C nzio trong hin11 3.24 cho thdi gian ngzfn
nhit n'u
gi st? coi nhu vn 1'60 ngu'0"1' bcri 12 being khng
.

Bi ton nziy la gi6ng ht bi ton ni trn v

tim ra cod
dufmg th()'i gian t6i thiu ca tia phn xa cL"1a nh seing.Cf1ng
nhu tia sng, ngudi ctru hf) ca chL'1ng ta tuln theo nguyn
1)? Fermat v thfri luqng nh
nhit, diu ny ngu 3? ring cc
gc trong hinh 3.24 tha mn djnh lueflt Snell. Ni
cch khzic,
bzii tozin nylzl yu ciu gii thich lm th/'n10
dinh lult Snell
duqc suy ra ti! nguyn 137 Fermat.
Mt chirng minh gilo khoa tiu chuin coi thdi gian nhu
mt helm s6 cfla vj tri chua bit x cfla C, viz tim ra x cue
tiu bng php dao hlm. Cch gili dua ra (7 dy khng bao
gfim mt php tinh 15111 cng th11'c gii tich no.

B
/1
dffl lin 1/U
a I

C mg "05 l(h6il1rqng : 1/vzfm 16c

(Y

1/u
A

Hinh 3.25. Luc czing c6 lh duqc l:_1o m hozflc bng nhfrng l0 xo luc cfmg bill
bi'n
hozfac bng nhfmg qu nzfmg.

Ldi gii. Hinh 3.25 cho thfiy mt hinh vlnh khuyn truqt dqc
theo dy (du''ng b0 bin); hinh vlnh khuyn duqc n6i vri
dim A bng mt IO xo luc cng b't bin" c lL_lC clng ta chqn

* B210 g61n,nh1'tli1,v:_1nt6c cL'1a anh ta theo phuong thng dng.

** L0z_1i lb xo nhu vy duqc m0 ti trong muc A.l.

76
l I/u, nghich do cavim t6c chay. M(f)t cch tucng tL_r, ta
n6i hinh vmh khuyn vri dlfim B bng min 16 xo khc cc}
luc cng bit bien /1) , nghich do ca vn t6c boi.
1

B61 th' nng ca mt 16 xo luc cing bit bin bimg d di

cila n nhn v<')'i lL_I'C cng, the nng ca h co l:

AC/u+CB/1). (3.13)

Nhung biu thirc n1y trtmg khrp vi biu thirc thfri gian
di chuyn trA tfri B!Ta theo d m gain thdi gian vi nghia3?

(:0 hqc cila me nlng.

Nu thdi gian di chuyn 151 nh nht, khi d nng lucyng
151 nh nhit bi vy h s 6 trgmg thzii cn bing; do d,
vl

cc lL_rc trn hinh vnh khuyn dec theo dy 6') trong trang
thi cn bng luc:
1 . 1 .
sma = -s1nB-
I/I 1)

Ta theo d vita lai dinh lueflt Snell. Tit C16 ta

trinh bxy

pht hien met din dlch mang tich co hec ca dinh lult
Snell: cc luc trn hinh vnh khuyn theo phuong cila be
mzfit phln cch trong trang thi cn bng.
6*

Bi hqc cho ngudi cL'ru hf) 121 hy chay sao cho cc gc

oz v [3 tao vi dudng vung gc vfyi durng birbin tha mn
he thirc Snell.
Sau dy met din dich 13? thtl ca cch gii cho bli
151

toln ngudi cfru he (din dich nly 151 met su l:?_1p lai ca nhn
xt trong bi ton 6* trang 55). Hinh dung ngudi ciru h<f)
mang mt cy so d1ilu6n ducyc gift vung gc vi hung
chuyn dng ca anh ta, cho dim anh ta chay hay bod. Cy

77
 szio ny121 m6 phng ca maflt du sng. (H0210 1231, ta cc)
th nghi v mt hng ngufyi chay/boi vai k vai,
kh nng
vain dng ca nhfrng ngui n21y l nhu nhau).
Xem xt giao
dim cL'1a cy s1o vdi dufmg bi) bin. Dim ny di chuyn
vi vein t6c khng d6i trong khi ngu()'i cL'ru hf) chay v vc'ri
v1nt6c khng d6i khc khi anh ta boi. By gifr
chi'nthuaf1t
t6t nht duryc duqc d:;1c trung bi tinh chit 151 hai vzfin tfic
ny bng nhau.

3.14 T6ng binh phuong nh nhit cho mt dim

B511 ton. C120 ba din2A, B, v C trongmtphng, rim dim
M sao cho tngbinh phucmgz

AM2+BM2+CM2 (3.14)
Izi nh nhit.
Ldi gii. Tfing binh phuong (3.14) cf) th din dich nhu th'
nng ca ba 16 x0 dln h6i chfzt n6i Mvi czic dim A, B,
v
C, v'i hing s6 Hooke k =
2 cho m5i1() xo (Xem hinh 3.26).
By gid nu nng luqng ca (3.14) dy 151 nh nh21't,khid
t6ng moment quay ln Ml bng khngz

MA+MB+MC=0,

Li
trong d ta di luqc b6 h s6 chung k = 2.1-Diu ny du: phn
vo phzit biu ring M lei tzim kh61' ca A, B, vl C. Theo

*
dc)

VOiki'nth1'rcnEn,xcm muc A.1.'lacm chi hai dfr kin tz_1i dy:

truc lin,
ring sfrc cng ca mt 16 xo dn h6i chzf-1t I51 k><L, trong d L 151 d dni
ca
lb xo vii k lei hiing s6II00kc,v<1th1'rd6n, thnng ca 16 xo
la: gk/3.

78
n, V51 tng cng bng th nng ca h. Do d czich
dc) dli
x-'p dt sao cho dc} di nh nhfit tucmg
(mg v61 tr2_1ng thgii
cn bng, v v'i su trit tiu cila tfing cc lL_1?C a, b,
c v d
tc dcfmg ln dim chung X:
a + b = - (c + d) (3.15)
Nhfrng xo ca chflng ta c lL_1C cng (:6 dinh gifing
IO
nhau: |a| = |b|; do d vc t0 a + b n51m trn phn gic cila
gc AXB; tuong tu, C + d nm dqc theo phn gic ca gc
CXD. Theo (3.15), cc phn gic nly nm dqc theo cilng
m(_3t dudng thing; ta d chirng minh duqc
ring dudng phn
gic duqc dimg chung cho c hai gc.
D6 chi ra ring cc gc AXB v CXD being nhau, ta
luu riing |a|=|b|=1 ko the0|a+b|=2cosAXB.
37

Tuong tu, Ic + d| = 200s LCXD. Tir (3.15), ta k't lun ring

LAXB = LCXD.

Q
A

1 \
I., /'
/1\ \

/' "
\ ,/,/I
.
M_/_\'l' PII/\NG NGANG
I ,
I5

((1) ' (I1) B

Ilinh 3.29. Tdng PA +115 121 nh nhfit khi oz = B.

82
3.17 Khong cxch ngin nhit dn cc canh ca
mt gc .

B511ton. Mt dumg trdn nm bn tronggc nhqn. T1} d1'7m

nzio trn dudng trn thi tdngkhong cch dh cc canh ca
gc I nh nhit?

Lri gii. Hinh 3.29 cho thy gc nh(_Jn v51 ci vnh hinh trn
trn m(f)t mzfit phng nfim ngang. M(f>t sqi dy vng qua vnh,
v(')'i hai du dy viit qua cc canh ca gc v treo vo d cc

qu neflng bng nhau. Sqi dy 151 holn ton khng ma st,

cho nn n6 trL_rc giao v'i cc canh ca gc tz_1iA V21 B. Theo
d PA v PB ll dcf) dli khong cch tit P dn ceic canh
ca gc.
di AP + PB 151 ti l vi th nng cfla h c0~ thuc
DC)

vzfiy, AP + PB cng l('>'n, t6ng cao dq) cila hai qu naflng clng

lfm. Theo d cue tiu ca AP + PB lucmg (mg vri trang thi

cn bng, v21 vdi diu kin cn bng ca cc luc cng t2_1i P:
T cosoc = T cos [3 , chinh la:
oz = [3 .

H thirc ny dc t dim P t6t nhit v gii quyt duqc

bi ton.

Lm r6 cu tr Ida. Diu kin O6 = [3 ni rimg tip tuyn tai

P 151 true giao v'i phn gic m, nhu: duqc thy theo hinh
3.29(b). Diu nly (:6 nghia OPs0ng song v'i m. Din dat
1:31

r6 rng h0n: dim P "t51' uu"1 du mt ca bn kfnh song

song v01 phn gizic ca gc v hu/ring v dinh ca gc. Dim
"t_ nhzft" di'm t0'i da ha AP + PB nm trn bn kmh

song song V01 m nhung hung ra ngozii.

83
 B
1v B
\\ N -

. >

O O F

.
,
M A Chain khng M
((1,) (1)) (C)

Hinh 3.30. D5 c doan ngiin nhit qua PI ba dufmg vung gc dirt nt grip
nhau mi mt dim.

3.18 Doan ngin nht qua mt dim

Bi ton. G01 MN 1:} doan ngn nhzft trong s'nh1ing dogzn
nzim bn trong mt gc cho truc AOB (vi M 115m trn
OA vei N nzim trn OB) v di qua mt dim cho trade P
bn trong gc. Chring t6 ring bq ba dudng vung gc tai
czic dim P, M, v N, nhudzrac thh1'n tronghinh 3.30,
I dng quy.

Lri gii. Xt thit bi trong hinh 3.3O(b) v th1_rc chit I21

m(f>l thanh thng c6 co l2_1i, vi m(_3t hinh vlnh khuyn 6m6i
du. Ta lp deflt thit bi nhu' cho thiy trong phn (c): thanh
trucyl do xuyn qua mt 6ng b(_)C tai P cc) th quay, vl
tL_r

cic hinh vlnh khuyn c th trucyt khng ma st dQc theo

hai canh cla gc.
MN c d di nh nhit, khi d h co c th'
N'u doan
nng nh nht v1 khi dc) thanh thing vri hinh vlnh khuyn
ca n 6 trong trang thi cn being. Theo d c ba phn lL_rc

84
true giao duqc th hin trong hinh 3.30 tc dung ln thanh
v51 hinh vnh khuyn cng lai biing khng, vl czic moment
quay cua chung cung vefly. B6 d v luc dng quy (muc /\'.6)
phlt biu ring nfu t6ng ba luc biing khng v tng cc
moment quay cua nhu'ng luc nly bng khng, khi d duiwng
biu din cua bf) ba luc ny 151 dng quy.
+ .

Q A

0
B

<> 1

Hinh 3.31. D6 di lrn nhiit cua thanh silo l bao nhiu, d5 c lh mang sixo
vng qua gc dufmg?

3.19 Thao din vi thang

Bi ton. Haihnh Iang c b rngln Iuot a v b h_op nhau
thnh mt gc vung. D6 dzii thanh szio Idn nh't 13 bao
nhiu, d c th chuy'n czii so vdng duoc qua gc dudvng
tirhzinh Iang ny sang hnh Iang Ida?
Ldi gii. Bi ton lei tim ra doan ACB c dc} di nh nhfit,
chuyn qua gc thip hon, vi hai du tua trn cc vch
ngoi. Vi du, hinh dung vic mang m(f)t ci thang rut ngiin
duqc vbng qua gc vl thu ngin n nu khng vita; mt khi
ci thang chuyn lqt qua gc duimg, d(_3 din cua n s 151 df)
di nh nht d cp (7 trn.

85
 My tinh" co h(_)c duqc chi ra trong hinh 3.32 gii quyt
duqc bxi tonn. Mt thanh rL'1t ngfin (mt 6ng xi-lanh rL'1t
chn khng vri mt piston, nhu cho thiy trong hinh 3.30j
c hai hinh viinh khuyn (A vzi B) duqc him vlo hai du.
Clc hinh vlnh khuyn du'qc1u6n qua clc dudng MN v.'E1 NP
nhu cho thiiy. Thanh thing c th trurqt xuyn qua mt 6ng
tay o xoay tL_r do tai C.

A
M N
(1
C

B
O

P
Hinh 3.32. Czich gii sir dung hai hinh vimh khuyn A v5: B, mt thanh xoay
quanh C, via mt 16 xo.

Th6 nng cila h co ny 151 ham don diu ca d di AB

v theo d vi tri ca drf) di nh nhfit tu0*ng (rng trang thi
cn biing. Biy gid, h thanh/piston/hinh vnh khuyn my
thu(f)c ba luc duqc chi ra trong hinh 3.32. (3 trang thi cn
being, t6ng luc v moment quay ca bcf) ba luc nziy 151 bng
khng, v do dc) cc dudng biu din cL'1a ceic luc 151 d6ng
quy'. Diu nly gii quy-'t duqc bi tonz d c dogzn thing
c d di nhd nhzft, ba dudng vunggc" v01 hai bLi'c tuvng
tai A, B, v vi durng AB tai C 1:5 dng quy.

* Xem b6 d v luc dng quy, mnc A.6.

"* Luu Y ring cc lgrc thuc t'l truc giao cc dufrng tuorng {mg bri khng c ma st.

86
 Cch gii hinh h(_)c din ra m(f)t biu thtrc gii tich cho
gc 05 = ANAC tire thi. Qu v2f1y,tr AOCA v AOCB ta c:
0C=ACc0t0z=CBtan0z.

Thay AC = a / sina v CB = b / cosa vo biu thirc

vita r61 v51 gin luqc cho ta:
l
a 5
tan0t=
U .

Mt lain nfra, cch gii ny nhanh h0'n nhiu so vfri cch

gii gii tich truyn thfing.

Hinh 3.33. Gc 01 s tfii da ha lh tich ca czii ly lei bao nhiu?

/If
A\
,..__.......i__ [3

A/\ 4

I~Iinh 3.34. Tfing moment quay trn phn hinh quat (6 dzfnn bimg khng.

87
 3.20 Ci ly gi/y chfra ducyc nhiu nhfit
Bi ton. T01 muh
Im m_0t ci 1y gi}/hinh ncin tzkmt dia
giy hinh qua t, being cch dn V30 nhau cc
canh ca hinh
ca? t nhu cho thy trong hinh
3.33. Bn kinh R ca (Tia lei
bit trudc. D5 c hinh nn vi th7 tfch kh d1"1c'rn
nheft, gc
gia dudngsinh hinh nn v true d0'1'XLi'ng1 nhu thnzio?
Lri gii. Bi ton lei tim ra hinh dang ca hinh nn c th
tich kh di lc'>'n nhit, trong m(_)i hinh nn c d di dudng
sinh bit trurc.
Mziy tinh co hqc bao gm mt b nhfmg doan
thing
c dc) dli R chL'1ng s hqp thnh cc dudng sinh cila hinh
nn; tit c du'()'ng sinh duqc b vo nhau tai
mt di'm O
c6 dinh trong khng gian; czic du cn lai ca
nhfrng dung
sinh ny duqc dinh vlo mt mzit phng (dy ca
hinh nn)
nhd mt ngm khng ma stf Mt phng c th tu do
thay
d6i khong cch ca n ti O. Hinh nn te_10 thnh
duqc
bom dy khi nn. Meflt phng, khng cn tu do nfra, bi khi
dy ra xa O v bi cc doan thing ko lai gin. Th
tich clfla
hinh. nn 121 mt hm nghich bin ca th nng.
Do dd th
tich lm nhft tuong frng th nng cuc tiu v51 v*i trang
thi
cn being. Cu th, phfin dudng sinh t6 drflm v6
cilng nh
(hinh 3.34) s ('7 trang thi cn bng. Moment quay
cila cc
lL_rc trn phn t dm quanh
O biing khng, gii quyt duqc
bi toain; chi cn phi gii mi pht biu moment
quay bng

lubng llrqmg c2'\c du mL'|tci'1a czic dufmg sinh bi dinh

* C6 th
ti: tinh vino min
phng nhung cc) th truqt khng ma szit.

88
khng ny. Ta s khng cn bit cc luc
trn phn t6 dam tai
dung ln phn t6 dm
O; bi c chinh xc hai luc cn lai tc
(i) luc ca p suiit
ny, nhu duqc thfiy trong hinh 3.34(b):
vit tit cho side'")
hung ra ngoi (chit s vit bn dui 151

E = pA_,, (3.16)

(ii) luc ca ngm

trong d Ax l din tich phn tf) dm, via
base")
tit mt phng (ch b vi't bn dui 151 vit tit cho
F}, = pAh, (3.17)

dy. Luu 3? ring cc

trong d As 151 din tich cixa hinh quat 6'
dufmg sinh khng true tip giao cit nhau.
ca hai luc ny
By giy, cc moment quay nguqc hurng
trong hinh 3.34(c):
quanh O lei trong diu kin cn biing, nhu

F3. OA = Fhsin. R

Th (3.16) v51 (3.17) vmo, ta cc):

OA = Ah sin. R. (3.18)
AS.

ky tam gic nlo

Nhung 0A = %R, bi trqng tm cila biit
niim 6 dim hai phn ba ca quzing dufmg
tit dinh ti dy.
[3 bi ti l ca cc din
Thm vz10 dc), Ab /Ax = r / R = Sin
v<'yi ti l dumg
tich ca hai tam gic vi mt dy chung bng
(3.18), ta thu duqc:
cao cla chng. Thay diu ny vlo

__:_____-
" side: canh N.D.
** base: dy N.D.

89
 2 = sin2 B
3 I

bi tozin ducyc gii quyt.

3.21 Tam gilc c chu vi nh nht

Mt luln cL'1' ca hoc d gqi ra dinh 13? ny, m'i viii nm
ffuc Cly.

Dinh 13?. C110 K 12 mt du012gc011gph5ng10"]'k1h tizyykhng

Clnia dogzn thzingnzio. C110 AABC c chu vi nh nhit" trong
86nhL?ng tam gizic chda K. Khi do:
1. Ba doan thngn6id1'nh ca AABC vii tija dim trn
canh c1'0'1'd1'_n ca AABC I dngquy, nghia 13 chng
gp nhau tai m_0t dim; tlrong duong vi djnh 1)? Ceva"'

abc = abc,
trong dd a, a, b, Z2, c, c Izi cc J0 di duqc china
tron g hinh 3.35(a).
2. Bg) ba dining true giao vti czic canh ca AABC
tai tija
dim Izi dng quy (hinh 3.35(b)).

Chfrng minh. Dimg CO'h_0C df chL?ngm1'n11, nhu sau:

*
_
Mth cohpc. Kho st ba thanh thing (v6 he_1n) h(_)p thnh
tam gic ABC, vi m6i cp ghp di hai thanh durqc

Xem chfmg minh chit ch trong cu6n [L1].

N "N116 nh?{[" c th duqc thay b5ingtGih:;1n."
lu6n

W D6i vdi pht biu via chfrng minh cho bbi co hqc
xcm bill tozin 5.6

QO
qua m(f>t hinh vnh khuyn nh, nhu cho th{y trong hinh
3.36. Cc thanh duqc n61 khng ma st vi cc hinh vnh
khuyn, v theo dc) c th hqp thnh mt tam gic c hlnh
dng bit kj/, trir diu kin bin ta zip dill: AABC phi chira
dudng cong K bn trong n, nghia 151 K 151 mt v?_1t cn
khng th vuqt qua d6i vfri cc thanh. By gir ta n6i mi
cZ_1p hinh vnh khuyn bng mt 16 XO1L_I.C cng
bit bin nhu

cho thfiy trong hinh. Cc 16 xo c6 lm sup AABC , nhung

veflt cn K ngn cn su sup d6 nhu vzfly. Nhiic lai ring cc

lb xo ca ta cc) luc cng T = 1, th nn th nng ca mt 16

xo bng d di ca n, ta theo d gn chu vi cho Y nghia
veflt 13? cla th nng. Nfu AABC c chu vi nh nhfit, h co

s fr trang thi cn bng.

0
U

I)

(L

A
r I3
(,1) (b)

Hinh 3.35. CL_IC tiu chu vi cim AABChiun chi su dng quy

ca (a) cc dudng Ceva vx (b) cc Ciuimg vung gc.

A B

* Xem giili thich ngiin trong muc /\.1.

9|
 -- I --~. cAc DUONG TRUC GIAO (HiNH 3.35(b))
- ~-\

u .. 1- I ||| ,1n.\YTRUO'CMl,\T. Kt cziu bf) ba thanh, hinh

- 1| - - H N I. x0, duqc Xt nhurmcfnhe, l1ti1ythu(_)'c
.. 1. . llu \\obaph'1nlL_rc Fk tuvtcn K.@trz_ang
..
1|. ... |- \..,-_\ mug b31L_1'c ny bitrittiu,cL'1ngnhut6ng

\--~---- ml -||m\'\ lllil chng. Song b6 dv lu d5ngquy (l'1'1l_lC

\ ~1|-I- -I I-I-~u|.1ngtrongtru'<7nghQ'pdccdudngbiudin

... I Inn unv IA dng quy. Diu ny minh chirngphn thfr

. .

| :1 - mu <HlI||

/'|
y ..' rl
F12 \\ A

<3 I l\'_

Q 2 a C cota
Q B
i
(X

| 1 cot [3

(Q) (1))

llinh 3.37. Cn bng luc trn hinh \/511111 kl1uY"(<7)\/3 Ciln biing moment quay
lrn thanh (b).

QHQNG MINH Q[']A @190 = a'b'c' . D6i vi AABC c6 chu vi

nh nht, ttmg thanh thing 151 561 tufqng ca ba phn luc
vung gc ducyc chi ra trong hinh 3-375 mt WC U3? K V51 hai
luc ta hai hinh vnh khuy tip Xfw V61 rhanh. D61 v01 m5i
thanh, t6ng cc moment quay C133 ba luc quanh ti'p dim
l bng khng; diu ny dn dn (3.19) v (320) bn dU<3'i,
v ta s trinh by ngay sau d5YP nhn C30 phLYO'ng trinh nly
v'i nhau s cho abc = a'bC' T511 C5 Ilhffng gi ta cin lm -

l tim ra phn 11_rc ttr m6i hinh vmh khuyn ln thanh. D

cho cL_1 th, ta chqn hinh vmh khuynA v thanh AB. Hinh

92
 su D6N(; QUY CUA cAc DUONG TRUC GIAO
(HINH 3.35(b))
BAY G10 HIEN NGAY nzuoc MAT. K-'t
ciu bo ba thanh, hinh
vmh khuyn, v lo xo, duos xt nhu
mot h, 1:1 tiny thuoc
mot czich cu th vo ba phn ltrc Fk tit vzfit cn
K. @'tr2_1ng
thzii cn bng, tong ba ltrc ny bi trit tiu,
cng nhu tong
moment quay ca chting. Song b6 d v lL_rc dong
quy(mL_1c
A.6) pht biu rng trong truong hop do
cc dumg biu din
cila ba luc ny 12: dong quy. Diu ny minh chtrng
phn thtr
hai clfla dinh ly.

R1 I, Rg \\ A

\/
at Q
A
O/:1__O( .
C
2
cI cota
ct 04

1
1 B cot/3y

(Q)
(5)
Hinh 3.37. Cn biing luc trn hinh vnh khuyn (a)vi1
cm being moment quay
trn thanh (b).

CHUNG MINH ct'IA abc = a'b'c. D61 vfri AABC

co chu vi
nho nhit, tirng thanh thng 151 C161 tuong ca ba
phn luc
vuong gc duroc chi ra trong hinh 3.37: mot ltrc
til K v hai
luc tit hai hinh vtnh khuyn ti'p xc vo'i thanh. D61
voi moi
thanh, t6ng cc moment quay ca ba luc quanh
tip dim
la bng khong; diu ny dn dn (3.19) v (3.20)
bn dui,
v ta s trinh by ngay sau dy; nhn cc phu0'ng
trinh ny
voi nhau s cho abc = a'bc'. T1't c nhfrng gi ta cfin
lm
121 tim ra phn luc tit moi
hinh vnh khuyn ln thanh. D5
cho cu th, ta chon hinh vmh khuyn A vii thanh AB.
Hinh

92
vnh khuyn tily thu(f>c b6n luc: hai tit cc IO xo vi: hai tir
cc thanh, nhu trong hinh 3.37(a).
Trurc tin chiu b6n lL_rc ny ln phn gic ca gc A
v51 sau d ln duimg true giao vdi phn gic ta thu duqc tit

diu kin cn bng luc:

R, c0sa' + R2 cosa = 2c0s0z, R1 sin 0c R2 sin oz = 0,

trong d 0/=%0. Tit phuongtrinh thir hai R = R2 (tuthln

n di 151 mqt du kien thu vil), v tit phuong trinh du tin,
sir dung cos 06' = sin 06 ta thu duqcz

R, =c0ta.

A
, 0,

~I~ 3 >
Hinh 3.38. Khong cch tir tm ca ellipse dh g6c ton d0 151 khfmg dfii.

Dy ll phn tit thanh AB ln hinh vnh khuyn A

lL_1'C .

Theo dinhlu2f1t3 Newton, thanh AB chiu mt luc nhu vy

phn h6i tit hinh vnh khuyn. Ta nhc l2_1i ring luc ny
vung gc thanh, bi hinh vlnh khuyn 19 khng ma st.
Hinh 3.37(b) tm luqc tit c luc tc dung ln thanh AB.
Diu kin cln bng moment quay ca cc luc nziy quanh
tip dim cho:

93
 cc0t0c=c'c0t,B. (3.19)

Mt cch tu0'ng tL_r, ta (:6:

acot = a cot)/,
bcoty = bcot0c.
N hn ba phuong trinh ny vi nhau nhu d cgip
tir truc,
viatrit tiu, ta thu duqc abc = a'b'c' He thljrc n:Z1y den
. lu:Q't
n lai cho thy dng quy ca cc dudng Ceva trong dinh
SL_1

13? Ceva.'

3.22 Hinh ellipse trohg gc ket

Bzii toain nly l'y ttr mt ky thi ton hoc Putnam.
Bi ton. Kho stmthinh ellipse nzim tronggcphn
tm
thL?nh't cria mtphng (x, y) vzi np xlic cc
true t_0a d.
Ch Lingminh rzingkhong cch tit dim gia ca ellipse dh
g6'c tea (TO chlphu thurjc vzio cc bn true ca
ellipse Chll
khngphu thucphuong djnh hung ca n.

* Ta chmg minh djnh 137 nixy sf! dung khinimt?1In khfii

trong muc 5.6. Mt
cch xix 137 hinh hoe rt t6tcL'1a dlnh 137 Ceva c m tim
thfy trong cu6n [CG].
** Ky thi ton hQC William Lowel Putnam, thufmg gqi
tiit Ky thi Putnam 12: mzjl
curjc thi lhurng nin dmh cho sinh vin dai hoc ca
My v Canada. Curf>c
thi duqc t6 chfrc lin din vo nm 1938, v hin do H<f)i
Ton hoe My qun
ly. - N.D.

94
Y
F1"
{>3 Y

A,
i D u
1/ /v

\@ ~-mi
- >
X O X-/-
0 1 I

Hinh 3.39. Hinh cllipsc E1 trgmg thzii cn biing phim dinh nll hai hinh chi!
nhzfit li dng dang.

Tit d s thu duqc kt qu sau: nu ta quay hinh ellipse

trong khi gift n vn tip xL'1c vri cc trL_1c, tm ca n6 s vach
h0'n
ra mt cung trim. Trong trudng hqp suy bin don gin
khi hinh ellipse l mt d02_1n thing, cung trbn s trfy thnh
mt gc chia tu dudng trn.
hoc.
Ldi gii. Sau dy 151 ldi gii cho bi tozin nxy, sit dung co

H ca tinh. Xem hinh ellipse nhu mt vzfat rin trurqt

khng
ma st dcpc theo cc truc tea (IQ. Met 16 xo ko cng
buc
ca
tm hinh ellipse vdi g6c tea d (hinh 3.39). Thf nng
10 x0 l mt hxm hip bin vri dc} dii
ca n, vl do dc) cue
tiu ciia d dzii tuong duong vi circ tiiu ca th'nng, chfnh
I2 vi trang thi cn being. Tm lei: chi cn chirng
t riing
hinh ellipse 6 trang thi cn bng trong bit ctr phuohg nlo.
MOT DIQU KIEN CAN BKNG. p chirng t6 ring hinh
ellipse
cn hing fyvi tri bit k/, chi cn chi ra ring hai hinh chit
nhzfit

duqc cho thiiy trong hinh 3.39 151 dng dang.

>1
Bzim chit ring bicfzt cfla 16 xo khng quan trqng trong cch giili niiy.

Q5
 d ba lurc tlc dung ln hinh ellipse (hai phn
ThL_rc vzfiy,

luc vl mcfat 16 x0), v d t6ng moment quay ca clc

luc nly
trit tiu, diu kin cin via d 151 cc dufmg bin din
ca
cc luc ny dng qui theo b6 d v luc dng
quy ('7 muc A.6.
Diu kin sau tuong duong vi su dng dang cfla
hai hinh
chit nhzit. Bi ton cila ta C151 duqc rL'1t gen v vic chirng
minh SL_l dng dang cla hai hinh chit nht, mt diu
rit 1y
thL'1, nhung chfrng minh llm sao?
HOAN TAT CHUNG MINH. T61 khng mu6n gi dinh
rang
ngudi doc quen thuc vi php bi'n d6i tuyn tinh, nn
phn
tho lun nly khng sir dung chng. Thay vo C16 hy
hinh
dung v hinh 3.39 trn m(f)t tzim thy tinh hfru co v dung
nghing tim ny dui nh m:E1ttr()'i sao cho bng ca hinh
ellipse trn mt phng ngang ll hinh trn. B61 clc dufmg
song song d6 thnh czic bng song song, hai hinh chit
nheflt
ca ta tr thnh nhfrng hinh binh hlnh. Thuc t', nhirng
hinh binh hnh nly l hinh thoi, nhu ta se gii thich ngfin
gon sau, vl bi cc hinh thoi ny c chung mt gc,
nn
chtmg dng dang vi nhau. Cc hinh chit nht ban du lL'1c
d cng d6ng dang, bi php chiu hinh gift nguyn
tinh
d6ng dang. Cbn phi gii thich tai sao cc hinh chfr nhzflt
tr thlnh hinh thoi. Hinh binh hnh O5cC'y l mcfat hinh
thoi bfri dudng cho ca n OC l phn gic gc, diu suy
ra tir dfr liu ring C tm ca hinh trn v ring OX'
1:31
vl
O'Y' tifip tuyn vfri dudng trn. Hinh binh hnh OXDY
151

ll mt hinh thoi bfri Ox = Dj/', cng nhu

hai doan tip
151

tuyn vri dudng trn.

96
3.23 B31 tap
Yu cu tim ra cch gii vt cho cc bi trip sau.
13? '

1. Trong s6 czic hinh vung c din tich S cho tru'c)c tim

hinh cc) chu vi lcrn nhiit.

2. Trong s6 nhfrng kh6i deflc hinh vung cc) th tich cho
tru'c)c, tim kh6i cc) din tich b mit nh nhit.
3. Tim tam gic vuc)ng cc) din tich ln nhzit, v<)i tng dc)
dli ca mcf)t canh v canh huyn bit tru'c)c.
4. Tim hinh vung c din tich lc)'n nht, bit ring hai dinh
ca hinh vung nm trn mt dy cung ca mcf)t ducrng
trc)n cho tru'()c, vi) hai dinh c<)n lai nm trn du'c)'ng trn,
trn dy cung ngin h0'n.
5. V n()i tip hinh chfr nht cc) chu vi lcm nht trong mt
tam gizic cc) canh dy b v dufyng cao h.
6. Tim cc kich thu'c)*c b v h cia hinh chit nht ncf)i tip
dudng trc)n cho gi tri bhl lcm nhfit. (Luu Y: Dy 121 baii
ton cit m(f)t ci dim cirng nhiit ra khi lc)ng g5 cho
tru'c)c; dc) bn u6n ca m(f)t thanh dim lei ti l vi bhz.)
7. V m()t kh6i chit nhzfit cc) th tich lc)n nh21'tn(_)iti'ptr0ng
m<f)tkh6ib:1n cu cc) bn kinh cho tru'()c.
8. V nC)i tip mt hinh trL_1 cc) th tich l6'n nhit trong m<f)t
kh6ic.'1u cc) bln kinh cho tru'()c.
9. V m()t hinh nn cc) th tich nhc) nht ngoai tip mc_)t
kh6i cu cc) bn kinh cho tmdc R.
1O.Tim hinh tru c din tich b mt lc)n nhz1'tncf)i tip mcf)t
hinh nc)n mi) tift din doc true cc) gc 2a tai dinh vii dy
c ban kinh R.
11.Tim tip tuyn ca hinh ellipse x2 /a2 +y2 /b2 =1 tao
vi gc)c phin tut dilu tin mt hinh tam gic cc) din tich
nh nhiit.

97
12.M()t kh6i rn bao gm m<f>t hinh tru vi mt hinh bn
cu 6 trn cilng. Ti l nz210 ca kh6i rin niy s t6i thiu
ha din tich ca n (mg vi mt th tich cho truiwc? t

13.Tim cc kich cfrphil hcyp ca mcfat kh6i ciu v mt kh6i

l2f1p phuong c t6ng th tich cho truc mail din tich b

rn.'1tl'n nhfit.
14. Ti6t din ngang cila mt con knh cf) dang ciia mt hinh
thang cn. D6 d6c nio ca czic c2_1nh bn s t6i thiu
ha chu vi u'('rt cL'1ati'tdin, bitdin tich S ca hinh
thang vi (i su h?
15.M(f>t tuy'ndudng st di qua mt kho hang B, v nm
cch mtkhong a tri thitrin A . Mt con dudngthng
phi duzqc xy n6i tuyn du'<>'ng st dn thi train. -Du la
gc con dudng ny nn hqp thnh vi tuy'n dumg sit
d t6i thiu ha chi phi xy dung, bit ring chi phi vzfln
chuyn d(_>c theo con dufrng 121 n lain nhiu hon dqc theo
duimg sit (rl> I)?
16.Xt tam gic c chu vi lfm nht ni tifp mt du''ng cong
l6i K. Chfrng minh ring hai canh k nhau hqp thlnh
nhfmg gc bng nhau vfri tip tuyh v(7iKtz_1i dinh chung.
Chimg minh ring tinh chiit nhu vy giir nguyn cho bit
ctr da gic n -canh cc: chu vi In nhit (hay theflm chi 151
t<'yi han) nlo.
mt tit din c clin tich nh
17.(B21itef1p m r(f)ng).Kh2'10 sit
nhit ngoai tip m(f>tkh6i16i cho truiyc K. Cho bi't mt
dc tru'ng hinh h<_>c ca l02_\i tit din th niy.

98
 4
BATaNsT@Uc
c:|-||:1 sch EJCIAN MACH

4.1 Gii thiu

Nhfrng kin thL'rc duoc tom tit duoi diy s di'1 cho vic
doc hiu chuong niy. Nhfrng khi nim chi tifit ho'n co th
tim thiy trong phL_1lL_1c.
Cudng do dong din. Cuong do dong trong mot diy dong
lithong luong ca chit khi" electron trong o mang ion
dong, tuong tu nhu thong luong ca nuoc trong mot 6ng
din. Cng nhu thong luong ciia nuoc qua (Ting din duoc do
hing s6 gallon trn mii giiy, cu'o'ng do dong din duoc do
hing s6 don vi Clin tich trn mii giiy, di chuyin qua mot
li't din ngang ca diy din. Cuong do dong duos kv hiu
I
hing vi duoc biu din hing don vi coulomb trn moi
giiy, hay ampere.
Din p. Ta hiy xem xt mot dong chiy in dinh ciia nuoc
lrong mot 6ng din clii. Bi vi ma sit voi thinh 6ng, dong
mroc mu6n chiy chiml2_1i.Bri dong duoc coi nhu (in dinh,
zip luc nguoc dong cao hon; do chinh Ii gradient zip
luc mi
mroc duoc bo'm di 6 vin t6c in dinh. Theo cch nhu viy,

99
 m<_3tdng din 6n dinh truyn qua dy dn di hi suc p
khng d6i cua zip luc din, duqc gcpi l din p. Su chnh
lch din p diy czic electron chuyn dcfang d(_)c theo dy.

Din trd D6 cho don gin, ta hinh dung nude chy 6n dinh
qua mt 6ng din khng ma st, nhung biy gid 6ng din cf)
mt vlt cn x6p. Chnh lch zip luc 6 hai diu vlt cn gift
cho dng chy 6n dinh. Luu 3? ring luqng nuc b0'm m5i
giy cng nhiu thi chnh lch p suit cng lfm. Mcf>t cch
tuong tu, ta xt mt dy dn vi mt thit bi din tr, vi
du dly tc cua mt bng dn trn tuong tut vdi nut bit
khng kin trong fing din nude. C6 mt dng din 6n dinh
I truyn qua dy din. Hon loln tuong tu v(ri dng nude,
s cchnh lch din zip V6 hai du thit bi din tr, v
nu dng cng ln thi chnh lch din zip s clng lfrn. Thaflt
ra, thuc nghim cho thiy m(f)t quan h tuyfn tinh V = RI
(dinh lult Ohm), trong dc) R 151 mcjt hng s6. Hing s6 ny
duqc goi 121 gi tri din trfr - mt ci tn rit h(_)'p 13?, b*i mt
gi tri R ldn biu thi mt gi tri V (chnh lch zip suit")
l(7n (mg v'i m(f>t dng 1 (thng luqng) cho truc.

R] R2
R1-1-R2

Ilinh 4.1. Din tr trong mach mc n6i ti'p; via dng din trong mach mic
song song s duqc cng d6n.

IOO
Din trdmach n6'i t1''p vi mach songsong. D6i vi hai thit
bi din tr R1 vi R2 mic n6i tifp (xem hinh 4.1), gizi tri din
tn) tuong duang Ii: '

R=&+&. an
thit bi din
D61 v('n' hai trc'1 mic song song, gi tri din
tr?) tuong duong 15,;
1 1 1
=~+. mm
R R1 R2
Mt chirng minh ngin cila diu niy duqc trinh biy trong
phL_1lL1C; 6 diy ti chi cin ni ring ci hai quy luit niy du

ddng vi true quan. Quy luit thir hai cc) l cin duoc giii
thich. Khi hai thit bi din tn) duqc mic song song, mach
tu0*ng dudng din din t6t hcm, b6'i n cf) hai knh din din.
C6 th nghi ring suit din din 121 tdng suit din din ca
mii nhnh. Thuc t6, diy chinh li diu mi quy luit (4.2)
pht biu, nu ta dinh nghia suit din din nhu nghich dio
ca gi tri din trfy.

Djnh Iut2 cda Kirchhoff. Tdng dng din vio m(f>t nL'1t nod
nhirng diy din duqc n61 vi nhau bing vi tdng dng din
ra khi nL'1t.

I1 I4

I2
13 I5

Hinh 4.2. Dinh luzf1t2 Kirchhoff.

IO!
 ' b

Hinh 4.3. N6i tilt Pv/i Q liun gim

Q
gizi
G

lrj din
va n ly gizlii be: dzing mac (4.3).

Vfrividu tr0nghinh4.2, djnhluefltcho ta 11+ 12 + 13: 14 + 15.

Dinh luzfzt ny din t vic din tich khng th tich ly tai mt
n1J1t,c1Z1ng nhu nuc khfmg th dQngla_1im6in6icf1a 6ng dn.

4.2 Chtmg minh trung binh cng ln hon trung

binh nhn chi bng clch dng rn cng tic
Mach din trong hinh 4.3 duqc lzim nn biing nhfrng din
tr c gi tri a v b Bfit du v'i cng tic hnhu trong hinh,
.

m6i nhnh song song c din trfr tuong du'o'ng a + b. B61

hai nhnh mc song song, t6ng din tr tuang durong gifra
A v51 B 151 5%", din theo (4.2). Bly gin? ta hy dng cng
tic.Gitr1dintrtu0ng duong ca mach din vi mt n6i
tr(r mung duong,

tfit 151 ngang bng hozfic nh hon gi tri trufycf

Gi tri din tr* mi nh hon nly 151 gi? By gid ta
vx

c hai thit bi din tr mic n6i tip, m6i ci c6 df) ln

(a~' + b-1): ill. Theo d:

iii? a+b

* Pht bifiu r6 rmg hin nhin niiy nn duqc chirng minh ml cch cht ch.
Ta s dlra ra mt chfmg minh nhu vzfay d tha lng nhfmg
ngufri holi nghi,
nhung tm dim cfla la <yd1yltl1i1l2f1pn16ilin k't (s6h(_)c vii mach
din
(iv bi tom hin tai) h0nl:1m<}tchL'rng1ninh.

IOZ
 ll 2
Z _2_".
a+b
(4.3)

Q
K 0
(L b

IIinh 4.4. S6 lrung binhzcng, nh?1n,diuhi>a:

P0 = (ll + /I) / 2,PK : JZEPQ = ((<r' +11") / 2)" -

Diu niy ko theo bitC15ngthL'rc giua s6 trung binh cng

vl s6 trung binh nhn duqc pht biu 6 tiu d ca mL_1c.

ChL'1 3?Phuong trinh (4.3) ko theo khng chi biit ding

1.
thxc gifra trung binh c<f)ng vl nhn, ml cn vi s6 trung
binh diu hba ((61- + 19" ) / 2) = Zab / (a + 1);

5'1/$23655
2 a+b
(4.4)

Quv.'f1y,nu A 2 B > O,khid()\/:4 2 \/_;nh1nb'td1ng

lh1'1c nlyvi \/Z vl sau d vi \/E ta thu duqc A 2 \/X; 2 B.

By gid xem hai v ca (4.3) nhuA vl B vi p dung bit ding

lhtrc sau cimg ta duqc (4.4).

Ch\'1 Y 2. (Mt din gii hinh hoe ca bit ding thttc (4.4).)
(loi a vii b 151 cc df) di ca hai doan thng k6 nhau, vx xem

lO3
 xt mt hinh bzin nguyt c du'O'ng kinh 151
tfing ca hai do;-1n
ny. Dung dudng vung ttr dim K nod
hai doan trn tifp
gizip, V51 goi P I51 dim giao ca dufmg
vung gc nly v61
hinh bein nguyt. Goi O ll tm ca hinh bn nguyt
v Q
leichn ca durng trL_rc giao til: K trn bzin kinh OP. C6
th chi ra riingz
~

P1<=\/E, P0:-Ci
2
PQ=2i.
a+b
Diu ny dem lai mt din gii/chirng minh
hinh hqc
cfla bait ding thfrc (4.4).

~ 1

(L
1|. - -

Hinh 4.5. Dng lift c cng liit liun gim din lr

gifra /1 v B.

4.3 Trung binh cng 2 Trung binh diu ha

ca
n s6
Hy nhfylai dinh nghia ca trung binh diu haz m6i
s6
hang duqc nghich do; 56 trung binh diu ha
ca nh/ng
nghich do nly duqc tinh ra vl sau d kt qu duqc
nghjch
do ln nf1'a.Daith, trung binh diu ha trung
binh cng
I231

nhin qua lng kinh ca php nghich do.

IO4
 Sau dy 151 m(f)t chirng minh biing m6 hinh
din rng tmng

binh ccfmg l'n hon hai dang trung binh cn lai:

_|

1 "
1
2ak z-261;) . (4.5)
'1 /<=1 '1 k=l

Tirng hlng trong hinh 4.5 gm cc din tr nhu'

nhau.

Lu'u 37 ring m5i himg lin sau 151 mt chu ky hon

vi ca dng
din
lin trudc; nhd vlo dfr kin ny, m5i ct cng g6m cc
trr nhu nhau.
Ta bit du vdi tt c cng tit d h6;bi1ng cch
dng szflp

t{t c chng cilng m(f)t 1L'1c ta s chitng

minh duqc bit ding
thfrc bn trn. Cu th nhu sau.

cng tZ'c d' I10. Mqi hng c gil tri din tr nhu nhau
Taft c
2:2, ak; n din trr song song gifing ht nhau cho gi tri din
tr tucmg duong gira A via B:
1 I1

EW-
kl

Taft c cng tzic dng kin. M61 ct bao gm n thit bi din

nhu
trfy song song, v theo d c gi tri din triw (21,:la;I)zl,
duqc chimg ti) trong phu luc ('1 muc A.14. V61 n c(f)t
nhu vefly
n6i tip, din tr tuong duong gifra A v51 B 151 lm hon
n lain:

Diu nay minh chtrng nhzfm dinh (4.5).

105
 Vi R11

/0:0 VN+1:V

L R )1
I-linh din zip lai dinh t6i thiu ha
/1.6. Cc
nimg luqng hao phi (4.6).

4.4 C6 phi don mach ltm gim gi tri din

tr?
Ta xem xt m<f)t me_1nglu'1 nhung thit bi din trfr; mt vi
dL_1 nhu trong hinh 4.6. Mt tp hop nhfrng dim
n6ith1nh
dudng nhu vefty duqc gqi 121 C16 thi. Cc dim duqc goi l cc
dinh, v clc dufmg thing duqc gqi 151 clc canh ca d6 thi.
Trong hinh v ca chng ta cc ce_1nh l cc thi't bi din tr
j
n6i kt cc dinh. Hai dinh i v bait ky duqc n6i v'i nhau
being m(f>t din tn) Ru. Ta cho php R,/. = , nghia I51 khng
<><>

phi tit c ceflp dinh cn duqc n6i din. Giai tri RI]. = O tuong
(mg vi don mach gifra hai dinh i v

Djnh Iut don diu ca Rayleigh. Ta hy c6 dinh hai dinh

trong <16 thi, nhu ducyc thiy trong hinh 4.6, v xem xt din
tn) tu0'ng du'0ng gifra chng; R
hm s6 cfla RU. Rift
I51 m<f)t
d nhn ra ring n'u bit CLTRU notng, khi d gi trj din
tr ton th'cng tzing. Pht biu nty duqc bit d'n nhu 151

lOb
 ta da dimg
djnh Iut don diu Rayleigh. 6 hai muc {rude dy
cch tao
mt trudng hqp d5_1c bit cfla nguyn 13? ny: biing
d ti! oo dffn
ta m(f>t n61 tit, ta di bin C161 gi tri din tr no
0, theo dc) lm gim gi tri din trfw toim
th.

Sau dy 151 chimg minh ca dinh luzflt don

diu Rayleigh.
ca chilng ta
Nhm hiu chinh ky hiu, xem nhu gin C16
4.6), v ta
bao g6m N+2 dinh 100,111, .... ..,I)N,1)N+](hinh
xt gi tri din tn")! R gia U0 v 1) NH Nhm
hiu
hiy xem .

chinh m(_)i thir, ta zip m(f)t din V gifra U0 vii UNH Ta

zip .

c th chqn = 0 (tire 121

V0 ta c th cho dinh U0 n6i dfit),
vx theo dd ta c VNH = V.
trr R, khi
Nu V 151 din Zip hai au mt thit bi din
V2 / R (diu nay
d cng khiu hao trn thit bi din trl
d nu ta
duqc gii thich trong phu luc 6 muc A.16.). Theo
bng cch no d duy tri din p tai cc dinh vk khi d ,

cng suit hao phi trong mang lufri s lei:

~ ~ Z
~+1 _
(4.6)
PO71, ..... ..,\7N)=
i,j:0 R1]

trong ('16 V0 = V0,VNH = VNH = V.

= V, d
Trong thL_1'c t, _ta chi diu chinh duqc din zip VNH
cc din 2'1ptu do" cn l2_1i Vk ,1 S k S N
tu do", tu quyt
dinh" s ra sao.
dinh thil vi: Cng suit thz_1'c thu P
Sau dy 121 mt nhzfan
hao phi trn mgzngludi lei kh d1 nh nh't Ling
vdi m_6t di_n
zip cho truc (4.6):

rift hay, cu6n IDS] cho nhfmg chi U61 vi\

* Dc gi nn dqc mfpt cu6n sch
tham kho su hon.

IO7
 ~ ~ 2
_
P : N+1

' , V0 = 0, VN+| = (4.7)_

Ti gii thich diu ny 6 doan kf tip, nhung trufrc ht ta

hy dting n d h0mt'tchL'1'ng minh cho nguyn 13? Rayleigh.
D0 RU. nm fr mu s6, nn P 151 m(_3t hiim nghjch bih
vi
m6i RU. Nhung bfri P = V2 /R, tire 151, R = V2 /P, ta kt
lun ring R l m(f)t helm hip bih vi m6i R!/. Dy minh 1:21

chirng cho nguyn 13? Rayleigh, ngogii trir vic chL'1ng ta cn

phi kim tra (4.7).
G01 (VI, ..., VN) 151 cc gi tri din p thuc c t2_1i cc dinh
D1 ,...,1)N . Ta cc):

1 8 //+1 VA _ Ohm "+1

2?/k1>(v, ,...,vN)_ g--Rh _ g1,
Kirchhoff
_ 0 .

(Ki'n thtrc co bn vdinh1uz_1tOhm v Kirchhoffs dune

trinh by 6 muc A.12 vii A.13.) Nhung P(I7|,..., I7) 151 mt
hm s6 du'0ng bc hai, v do dc) n cc) mt dim tdi han 151
CL_1'C tiu duy nhit. Ta di
chi ra ring din zip thirc t'Vk t6'1'
thiu 110'a hzim cngsuzft. Cng suit hao phi trn mang lui
trong thuc t durcgrc cho bi cuc tiu cfla hm cng suit, v1
diu nly chfrng minh (4.7)

4.5 B511 tip

Chtrng minh ring b1't ding thL'1'c:
1>l+1
1.

*___._
a+b
ll*11 l
+ _W____.
c+d
__,

a
+ __
c b
+L
d

IO8
dimg vi nhzng s6 hang a, b, c, d duong bit k/. Gqi )7:
Kho st mach din trong hinh 4.3, v21 thay d6i gi tri
din trfr nzio Cit). (Tham kho thm v cch tip czfm nay,
xem cu6n [DS].)
Tim mt din gii co hqc cfia biu thtrc (4.6) bng cch
dimg 16 xo.
Tim mt m6 phng dang co ca din z'1p,cu'<mg dnf) dng,
din tr, dinh lu1t2 Kirchhoff, v dinh luzfat Ohm. Gqi 3?:
sir dung 16 xo cc) hing s6 Hooke kg. =1/RU.
Cho mt din gii co hqc ca nguyn 137 c()ng-su{t-t6i-
thiu-ha.
Tim m(f)t m6 phng dang co cla (4.1) v (4.2) bng cch
dting 16 X0.

IOQ
 5
'rA|4 |<|-|(|:
LUAN cu VA |:A|:|-| GIAI

5.1 G161 thiu

Khzii nim v tm kh6i d duzqc Archimedes
sir dung h0'n
2400 nilm v tru*c*. Kh lu sau Euler
mi gidi thiu met
khi nim khc, cng lien quan den kh6i,
d li moment
qun tinh (xem muc A.9). Khii niem niy gqi
ra lri gii dep
cho nhiu bii ton, xem cu6n [BB]. Sau d1yt6igiim(f)ts6
bi ton khc sir dung khii nim tlm kh6i.
Cain nhiic lai ring tm kh6icf1a met
vafzt 151 dim cn bng
ca vt dc); vzjt duoc treo 6 dim d lei 6 trang
thi cn being
theo phucmg bit ky nio. N(f)i dung chi ti't
c the duqc tim
th'y trong phu luc (muc A.8).
Met khia c2_1nh thL'1 vi ngay tirkhi cen nh chng
1:51
ta chip
nhzfln ring c t6n tai ci dim cn bng duy nhfft d. Diu

* 1%: in urqng khi d(_>c

Thzfil tzic phflm cfla Archimedes; hien san
c thng qua
Google Books tgii dia chi httpz//books.g00gIe.c0m/b0oks?id=su
YGAAAAYAA].
Sly(mg dung dzing ghi nhn cfia Archimedes
trong sir dung cc khi nim
lm kh6i eho czic php ion tinh phn duqc dien
gii trong cu6n sch ciia
Polya, cu6n [P].

HO
ny nghia 151 chilng ta chp nhzfan dim cn b1ng khng phu
thuc vz10 phucmg hung ca vefxt th. G151 dinh nily 151 dilng,
nhung chi khi trufvng trqng lucbit bi'n. Trong trufyng trqhg
lL_rc bif-in thin, vi tri cn biing s phL_1 thuc vlo phuang ca

vt th; sau dy 151 mt vi du. Trong mi trudng thun nhit,

m(f)t thanh thing s cn biing tai tm hinh hoe ca n. Mzfac
dil trufmg trong luc c bin thin ngay c trong khng gian
khp kin ca cn phng, sq bi'n thin CL_l'C nh nxy bi chim
di so v()'i c1clL_rc dy n61 m2_1nh h0'n r1't nhiu cila khng khi,
ma st tai cc du truc v.v... Tuy v_1y, nu nhfrng sai lch kh
chiu ny duqc l0z_1i trir bng cch no d, chilng ta s quan
st thy mt hiu {mg hit ngfy: chiffc que s cn bng tai tm
ca n chi theo nhfrng phucmg dc bit - niim ngang v51 thing
dtrng. D5 dat duqc cn bng tai czic gc lch khc chimg ta
phi treo chic que lch tm t2_1i mt dim phu thuc vz10
gc lch. Hiu {mg nly cue nh trn tri dit, nhung c th
quan st duqc r0 rng trong chuyn dng cila czic v tinh.
V tinh dang di quay theo phuang hurfmg tlm.

5.2Tim tm kh6i ca nita dudng trn biing

dinh lueflt Bo toln nng lucyng
Bi ton. Tim tm k116i czia m_Ot dy dzin hinh bzin nguyl
c mgit d khng d51'.
dzi1"

Tm kh6i cila mt vt th c mzfu df) khng d6i 151 m<f)t

khi nim hinh hc_>c thufln tL'1y, duqc gQi l trpng lzim.

" Mt dc} di cfm dy din duqc dinh nghia l kh6i luqng vzfn chit trn mt
don vi chiu di dy dn.

lll
 Day la mt bai tap gii tich c0 ban v tinh tich phan
nhung v(Yi mt meo co h(_)C, ti s b6 qua duqc php tinh_
tich phan. Ti s chi dua vao dfr kin sau:

H lc0s6 1
m = , .
0->0 Q2 2

N6 c th du'Qc chirng minh bang each sir dung quy tiic

lH0pita1 hoac khai trin Taylor.

Lfri giai. Ta hay treo day dan nra dufmg trn ln tai tam ca
n, nhu trong hinh 5.1: hay hinh dung dan day din vao mt
tam bang khng kh6i luqng va cho php tam bang xoay 15
lu trn mat phng thing dirng quanh m(f)t chic dinh dng
xuyn qua tam ca hinh ban nguyt. T()'i Clay, ta hay van day
dan nghing rnt gc nh 9, nhu cho thay trong hinh 5.1,
r61 tinh cng thuc hin theo hai cach khac nhau.
Mcf)t mat, ta nang trong tam ln mt d cao

H = x xc0s6 = x(1 c0s6);

ta theo dz) thuc hin cng W = mgH, tL'rc la:

W = mgx(1- cos 0). (5.2)

* Cng c th din giai diu nay bang luzfm cfr (dfmg hqc) vat ly bang each xcm
xt gia t6c ca mt dim di chuyn trn dudng trn, nhgin 01:1 thdi gian. Ti
d lai phn giai thich nay cho ngudi doc nhu la mt bai tap nhb.

I12
 0
QR
:1: 37
an

:L'(l cos 0) L) ~-~-~

mt cng biing vi nmg

Hinh 5.1. Di chuyn cung UR ti! tri sang phi t6n
tm khfii ln mt doan x(l cos9),d1n dn (5.3)

Nhung, mzflt khc, hiu qu cila vic xoay dy din

tuo'ng

ducmg vi vic nng cung QR (hinh 5.1) ln

mt d cao
h=6R+, trong CI(')8l51nh so v'i 9 theo nghias/6->O
khi 6 > 0. Vic dc) tiu t6n mcjt cng W = /Jgh, v'i
/J 151
luqng
kh6i luqng ca cung GR. Lc ny p, = gm, bi kh6i
cc biu
cung trn phu thucfmc vo kich thuc crimg. Thay
thitc ca h vii p vo W = /Jgh ta thu duos:
R
W=mg62+,
75

trong d 8 sai s6 nh so v(Yi 6, theo nghia ('15 duqc

1:21
d ceflp

sau khi trit

6 trn. Dng nhzit biu thirc ca W vi (5.2),
tiu mg:
R 2
x(l c0s6)=;6 +2. (5.3)

Sau d(),bZ'1ng cch chia h thirc nhefan ducyc

cho 62 vii cho

9-9 O,ta c x/2=% (sirdung5.1), hay

2R
x=.
rt

I13
 ?;
\
v1'vl\'|n
1"?

u.
"aw '1- 2:-..;_
'"'
qH;,.<-r
,=~.1,.-;; I,w..W_
"H:
:z'a%;11'-.1'+%%1~&T%@%i&:3;

H1?

,
V

#1
,,,n=.w~~.,\.-wan4
~-:~+*~
..Y,::.\f-,:,:.\)_m
1 -@@1:~1W%%.*
i~.-M
a|.""!
_n-7'7-'!l"'
.-"1

~~.

-
W
,

~
~

~;v,n~::'i14,
1 '

-- ya:
Mr-:11.~~{=
;~_-Ivy

M

H ,
-
1

~
3
R

i.=-1;?mum~;:.<i+:lf.:~.W?
pm... \
ER

~.%',m;.-.w.
115..-vm'..:.i=\%-iii! W ~~v
I

J:IiI,"Ev;IVE!>EHf3,Rwf1.f\~:5L'

22 *,.~12'Y~- 1*r=;;=M.@*.-w<&'~:~
W;-~.\:; -*.-3-pupw_w-\-*----M

2'

"

.
.
___1_
'

.--,
"""'*I"F2"=:'3~a
'11?--Q!

-1*.
u .1 "-"~
4a>:|m M
P W-v-'-*
'm.,;w::'H.
1 *>1Y"**'*
Mew-"M'*."j<'
"\,=@,..
~..\'x',""!.l\.}\
unqgw 11 :;, +1
*MI<
~'*%__." ~11 ;,,-',*:. .4 W ;y;Ly-@- ~
.*~'
1
b_ I
" *1 Z? "7 ;':-P Y :1?1Iiii}-'v\%l:-igiilifl"Q5-g='i"g.3
1
'~
-. MN, 4 .. ,, Inn ~_<:-|-_,,
'
In 7.w =1
1
:,. ,1 45 :4-m ;.,:,~= _';~\+~-1m ~=;.w~
-
grl\
*3
~=":x;*'3-2 e r.<L:a.5 1.1-* -
' \:-ynLL\
-
~ "WW M-\|\I -

Hinh 5.2. D6 nng ct'1a lm kh6i hin h quat la 2 / 3h, lrong d /1 lil d nng
cla cung.

Phuong phzip tuong tu dimg duqc cho trufrng hcyp nhimg

cung trn c gc bit ky, cling nhu cho d2_1ngmi'ng pizza
(dang hinh dfa.) Trudng hqp ca hinh nira-pizza duqc
gii quyt tip sau dy. Truc>'ng hop cL'1a mt hinh quat vfyi
gc ttly 3? cc) th gii quyt tu0'ng tL_r (xem nhfrng bli tzfxp Er
cu6i chuong).

5.3 Tim kh6i ca mt hinh nira ci dia

(nfra-ming-pizza)
Hu nhu khng phi lm gi thm, cch gii vita r61 d
cho ta cng thL'rc tm kh6i ca hinh bn dia dfac. Thuc v.:1y,
ta hy lip lai nguyn vn leflp luefln cL'1a bli ton 6 trn, vi
chi mcfmt khc bit: thay vi cit b6 cung trn, ta ciit bf) mt
hinh quat mng phia bn tri vl dzqit n vo phia bn phi,
nhu durqc cho th1'y trong hinh 5.2.
Bi phn dzfim hinh quat ca ta gin nhur mt hinh 1:21

tam gic, ta c th liy trqng tm ca n fr %R cch tm ca

114
 dudng tr6n'. H qu ll trqng tm nziy s nng ln mt doan
%R, trong ('16 h = QR + 8 dcf) nlng ca cung, gi6ng nhu
1:21

bi ton vita r6i. Theo d tit c gi ta phi lm l1 thay th

h ('7 bli ton vita r6ib1ng h; phurong trinh chinh (5.3) cn
thm vo mt hing s6 b6 sung gz

2R
y(lc0s9)=492 +8,
37:

/1 B

Hinh 5.3. Tm kh6i niao cao hon?

trong d y khong cch chua bit dn tm (hinh 5.2).

1:21

Chia cho (92, cho 6 -> O, v sir dung (5.1) ta thu duqc;
4R
Y 3;
Trqng tm ca hinh bn nguyt v cfla mt hinh bn dia
lin h vfri nhau thng qua h thirc y = -x.

* Chng ta dang sir dung dllr kin rng trong tm niim lai giao dicm c a c c
trung tuyn val ring cc trung tuyffn duoc giao diln chung chia ra thnh hai
phn theo ti l 1:2. Theo d trong tiun niim trn hai-phn-ba trung tuy'n
n6i tir dinh ca tam gic ti cgmh cfla n.

H5
5.4 Tm kh6i ca mt dy khng giin
B511ton. Mt dy khnggin duqc mic vo hai dinh A vzi
B , czing d cao. Tinzim 1:3}/s_01' dydim thja nheft v
ko n xuhg. Liu tm kh0'1 ca dy djch chuyn In hay
xuhg?

Lfri gii. Trong tit c hinh dmg ca dy vri diu mL'1tA v51 B
c6 dinh, dy treo thng c th nng nh nhit'. Bit cl? thay
dfii n1o ca hinh dng sqi dly s nng tm kh6ici1a n ln.

Hinh 5./1.'lhtich ca v.it riin.

5.5 Dinh 1y trqng tm Pappus

V mt duimg thing! v mt min kin D Lrn mzfit phng
khng cit nhau (hinh 5.4), vii xem xt mt hinh blnh donut

* Thuc vf1y,n6ut6ithay C161 hinh dang ca sqi dy khfmg gin thco cch no

dd, ti phi tc dung luc, mix sqi dxy s ch6ng lai. Tire 151 ti s th1_rc hin
cng duong ln sqi dy, biing cch dc) lm tng lh nng cila sqi vz1 vi vy
nng tm l<h6icf1a sqi dy ln cao. (7 dziy ti d sir dung dfx kin riing th'
nng cila mt veil 151 mgh, trong dc) m l kh6i luqng vii h I51 d cao cfxa tm
kh6i.

I16
 bnh
tao thnh bng cch xoay D vng quanh l. Th tich ca
donut 121 bao nhiu? Din tich b mt ca n 151 bao nhiu?
C5 hai cu hi nly s duqc tr 161' dui dy. '

Dinh 13? th tich Pappus. Trong tinh huhg vira duac m

t,

th tich ca bnh donut thu duqc khi xoay vdng min

D
quanh m_0t dudng thing] I:

V = 27rRA,

trong d/1 lei din rich ca D v R (hinh 5.4) I2 khong cch

tirl dln trong tm ca D.
Dinh 1}? din tich Pappus. Din tich ca b mgit bnh donutla:
S = 2 rcrL,

trongd L lei d di ca dzrdng cong C bao quanh D, vzi

r
lei khong cch tit I dh tr_0ng tm ca C.
Luu yrzing trong
djnh I37 ny ta sl? d1_1ngtr_0ng tzim ca v_a't H15 mt-ch1'u:
dudng cong, chlikhngphi min phzing.
Chimg minh gii tich tiu chun cila dinh 137 Pappus, v6n
cc) th tim thfiy trong hu ht cc
sch gii tich, sir dung

cc php tich phn v nhfmg tinh chit ca chng,

vii di
hi mt v21i bin (161 don gin vri php tich phn. Chtmg
minh duqc dua ra 6 dy cho thiy bn chit thuc ca k't qu
6 dang co bn nhiit.

H7
 F

-" "v Mrisei

vch

&/ L5 tholkhi

Hinh 5.5.'li6tdi<}r1ngang cfia 6ng luyp hinh-viinh-khuyn bi bit kin

mot du
D. Mot piston I'ql0 hinh khop vori D diroc ko vong quanh, (1)0 ra viing
12:
chn
khong ding sau no.

Chfmg minh.
H co: Xem xt mot 6ng tuyp bi u6n cong thznh hinh dang
cL'1a mot bnh donut, nhu trong hinh 5.5. Tit
din ngang
ca fing tuyp vong khuyn khong phi dang tron mix chinh
xc l1 hinh dang ca D. Xem xt hai piston duos tz_1o hinh
nhu D bn trong 6ng tuyp, nhu duoc chi ra trong hinh 5.5.
Mot piston bi him dinh v51 tr thnh vch ngn, trong khi ci
con lai co th truot vong quanh 6ng tuyp khong ma st. Ta
cng chira mot I5 thot khi nhu duoc cho thiy trong hinh
5.5. H thong xylanh~piston bi u6n cong ny ci my tinh 1221

co hoc ciia chfing ta. No se gii bi ton giL'1p ta.

CHUNG MINH ct'IA DINH LY Tu TiCH PAPPUS. Bt du vot

piston niim st vzich ngn, toi niim piston tai trong tim ca
no vii ko no di khip c hinh bnh donut, tao ra viing chn
khong ding sau piston. Bing cch tinh ton cong thtrc hin
theo hai clch khic nhau ta se thu duoc k't luzfan ca dinh
13? Pappus.

H8
 Ta nhefm thiy cc diu sau:
1. Gift liy piston 6 trong tm bo dm ring no
s khong

quay, nghia li d di chuyn xylanh, ta chi cn tic dung

lL_1'C F, khong cein moment quay. \/"1
vafiy chi co luc F thuc

hin cong.

: ;.~:i[;=-,-r_i-2-t,.:= ;-~. .1--A;-.1,

112.. ;~g=' '-mi;
&1a$z;.-.;1-.'<;~&:'~'2-.1.~'u -1;! 1

.{:';.;\":1;1,,

.
v;z;_;:t\-\1_:i-,,1__;_.:;:q'~;f1:;{;jj;
~ F
~I@4@:S?It.=%i%114is?!fe's;>2 p > 0
~-1mm~~+sm>m::;a:-.!::'%:%

< L >
Hinh 5.6. Th neing ca mot bong bong chn khong bimg p/1.

2. LL_1'C F cin co d ko piston ch6ngl:;1i1p suit moi truong

p 151 F: pA, trong do A l ti't piston.Tht_rc vzfiy,
dicfan

suit p 151 ip lL_1'C trn mot don vi din tich,

v51 din tich
p
ciia b mt piston 151 A ciia don vi din tich do.

3. D tao ra th tich V ca viing chin khong chong lai zip

suit p, cn co cong W = pV. Thttc vzfiy, C16i voi mot
hinh tru thing, cong niy l W = F><L = pAL = pV. Kt
qu ny co duoc bng cch phn nho hinh kh6i chung
thnh nhiu hinh trL_1 mong song song.

Voi cc nhn xt ny, chirng minh ciia chL'1ng ta di gain

nhu ho1nt1't.M(_)tmzf1t,cong d ko piston di ht mot vong
tron bng luc nhn voi qung duong chuyn dich ciia dim
tc dung luc:

W = F-27rR=pA~27R,

trong do R giong nhu trong pht biu cfia dinh 13?. Nhung

119
 mt khc, theo nhefm xt (3) trn dy, cng duqc cho bng
th tich nhn v'i p suit:

W = pV. 1

Dng nhiit hai biu thtrc dn ra pV = pA27R , nn

V = 27rRA
Diu ny chtmg minh dinh 13? th tich Pappus.
DINH LY Tn TiCH => DINH LY DIEN TICH. Hay hinh
dung ring ta ph l{y b mzfat dang ni d'n bng mcfat lrp
son mng cc: CIC) dly 8, nhu trong hinh 5.7.

4"

Z

tit din

2112:

Hinh 5.7. Dinh 1}? din tfch suy ra tfr dinh I}? th tich duqc p dung cho th tich
ca mt lfrp bao mbng. '

Theo dinh 137 th tich Pappus, th tich ca lfrp son 1:21:

V6 = 27rRA ,

trong d Re l khong cch ti: trqng tm ca hinh vlnh khuyn

mng-ct?-8 dfn I, v As 151 tit din hinh vnh khuyn. Nhung
th tich ldp son V5 x'p xi din tich nhn cho dc} dy:
1:21

120
 VB =S+...; (5.4)

sai s6 nh ky hiu bng... 151 do b mt khng phng. M2_'1t

khc, trqng tm ca hinh vlnh khuyn c0-8 gin nhurlfi trqng

tm cfla durng congz RE = r + ..., v tit din hinh vlnh
khuyn AB = L8 + . Th't't c vlo (5.4), chia cho 8, v cho
8 tin ti khng, ta c k't qu S = 27rrL nhu dz": trinh by.

5.6 Dinh 13? Ceva

Djnh 13? Ceva v dinh 13? do ca n6. Xem xt mt tam gizic
ABC VG! ba d1'7m A], BI, V2 C] nzim trn czic canh dO'i
din cc dinh tuong Ling (hinh 5.8). GQI a, a, b, b, c, 0'13
czic d dzii nhu duqc cho thy trong hinh 5.8. Djnh 1)? Ceva
phtb1''ur5ngba doan thing AA} , BB, vii CC dngquy
khi vzi chikhi:
abc = a'bc. (5.5)

r, b

01 B1

c b

B a A1 a, C

Ilinh 5.8.D1nhly Ceva: ba (I0:;lnlh(51ng Ceva A/1|, BB1, CC, d6ng quy khi via
chi khi abc = a'bc'.

121
Chftng minh. Truc tin, gi sir ba doan AA1, BB, CC] cc)
mt dim chung P. Ta hy dzfat nhfrng chit dim m/1, mg,
vlmc tai cc dinh ca A/1BC,ch(_)n cc chit dim ny sao
cho tm kh6ici1a chling n51mte_1iP. D6 duqc nhu vzfiy, ta c
th cho ml; = a'v<*1 mt. = a, bng cch C16 deflt tlm kh6i cila
(B, C) tai Al Sau d ta chqn ly m/1 bo dm sao cho tm
.

kh6ici1a (A, Al) 151 tai P; d duqc vly ta lm cho m/itha

diu kin cn bng m/,PA = (m,, + m(;)PA]. Tam gic ca
chL'1ng ta vi th chiu ti, s cn bng luc trn mt dim cue
nh deflt tai P. Khi dc) chic chain 121 n cn bng trn durfmg
thing bait ky trong mt phng tam gic di qua P, vl cu th
151 trn durfmg AP/1], nhu hinh 5.9 cho thy.

Nhung do m nm trn dufyng thing d, nn mc via ml,

trong diu kin cn bng luc, nghia

C
1:21

ma = mCa'. (5.6)

/>
TTLBIL

Hinh 5.9. Tam gic niun cfm biing tz_1i tm kh6i P, v do db n6 niim cn biing
h_rc lrn bit cf: dufmg thing nlo di qua P - c\_1th,trn AA.

Bing cch tuvng tL_r,

I22
 mcb = mAb, mAc = mc.

Nhn ba phu0*ng trinh sau cilng ta duzqc abc = a'b c'.

Dinh 13? do (ring (5.5) ko theo su dng quy) ducyc chitng
minh d dng biing phn d nhu sau. Gi sir abc = ab 'c', 1:21

v chip nhn phn-gi thuyt: mt trong czic d0z_1n thing

c lin quan, vi du CC], khng di qua giao dim ca hai
doan cn lai. M(f)t doan C6 khc vi 6| nm trn AB
nhung 6, at Cl c di qua giao dim, v ding thirc sau cixng
151: ab5 = a'b'5'. Nhung diu nly mu thun v'i (5.5), bfri
5' / E at c / c. Chirng minh dn dy kl hon tit.

5.7 Ba (mg dung ca dinh 13? Ceva

Dinh 13? do ca djnh 13? Ceva dem lz_1i mt chirng minh
true tip cho ba dinh 13? sau dy.

Djnh 1}? 1. Trong tam gic b/t 1<y czic trung tuyh dng quy.

I :
A C C, B

Hinh 5.10. Chmg minh cc {rung luyn dng quy

* Vi dl_l xem cu6n [CG].

123
 C

he

Q
A C c B
Hinh 5.11. Chfrng minh cc duiyng cao dng quy.

Chfmg minh. H thtrc Ceva (5.5) vn dimg cho cc trung

tuyn b6'i a = a, b = b, c = c, v51 do d cc trung tuyn 1:21

d6ng quy theo dinh 13? do ca dinh 13? Ceva.

1-31111119 2. Czic dung cao trong tam gic bzft 1<y dc5ng quy.
Chfrng minh. Trong h ky hiu ca hinh 5.11 ta c
he = ctana = c tan [3 ; mt cch tuo'ngtL_r, a tan [3 = atan 7/
v b tan 3/ = b tan 05 Nhn v1 trit tiu s6 hang gi6ng nhau
.

('7 ba phurong trinh sau cling ta duqc abc = a'b 'c

. Theo dinh
13? do cfla dinh 13? Ceva cc durng cao 121 dng quy.
C

1 Q

1/ (1

A I H
C B
Hinh 5.12 Cc duimg Ceva (mg vi cc ti'p dim ca dudng trn n(>i tip 13
dng quy.

124
Dinh 13? 3. Ba dean thing (trong hinh 5.12), mi du'(mgn'i
mt dinh czia tam gizic dh up dim ca dudng tr0n_n1'
tip vti canh d61'din, 12 dngquy.

Chirngminh. Luuyrng b = c, c = a, a = b, bi cc dc} di

ca nhfrng doan ti-'p tuyn tit mt dim bn ngoi dufmg
trn d'n dufmg trn 151 nhu nhau cho c hai tip tuy'n. Nhn
v' theo v' ta duqc abc = abc.

5.8 B211 tzflp

Tim tm l<h6i ca mt dy dn hinh bn nguyt bng

cch gii hai bi ton nh, m6i bli c gi tri dcfmc lp.

1. Tim l1_lC cng ca m(f>t sci dy hinh trn c khfii luqng vl

bn kinh cho truc, xoay trn xung quanh tlm ca n (1
vn t6c gc cho trudc (hinh 5.11-3(a)), biing cch mufmg
tuqng mt 6ng tuyp hinh bn nguyt (hinh 5.13(b)) c
nuc chy vo mcjt du v thot ra 6 du cn lz_1i.

2. Sir dung lL_1'C cfmg vita tim duqc Ci xc dinh tm kh6ici1a

hinh bn nguyt.
Lfri gii.

Phn Dy l m<f)t bi ton cobn trong co hqc, nhung

1.
clch gii sau dy c v l dc do. Ta hy chi nhin vo
bn nguyt bn phi ca sqi dy hinh dung che nira bn
tri bng mt mzln chfin sao cho ta khng cbn thfiy n.
Biy giirsqi dy dune b0'm v1o"phiatrn v51 thot ra phia
dui. Diu ny gi6ng nhu nu'c'1c chy vo v thot ra mt
6ng tuyp, nhu dune th hin trong hinh 5.13(b). 6ng tuyp
phi duqc gift bng zip lL_lC 2T no dc) (trong dc) T 151
1L_1C

125
 cng ta dang tim). Ap luc ny lm cho nude do chiu,
thay d6ivz1nt6c mcfmt lu'(_yng biing 1) (v) = 21) . Trong
su6t thfvi gian At, mt ct nu'('yc cc) dc} di AL = DAZ
s chy vo phia trn, vl cng c(_)t nu'(7c di nhu vy
s
thot ra phia du'Gi. K't qu cu6i cilng 151 (if) di AL ca
c(_)t nurc thay d6i vein t6c mt luqng
21). Kh6i luqng
ca ct nuc ny l m = pAL = pvAr, trong d p 1:51

m2f1td<_) dli, tL'1'c 151 l<h6i lu'c_mg trn m6i don vi chiu deli.
Theo dinh lut 2 Newton FAI = mA1) ta c:

2T.At=m .21).

,1, . T-<~i

1' -14;

'r< *1; M?
(a) (b) (c)

Hinh 5.13. (a) Mt sqi dy xoay vng linh hoal dufyi tc dung ca luc cng.
(b) Mcjt czich d lim ra luc cng ny I51 hinh dung nurc di viao vii di
ra khi
mt 6ng tuyp bn nguyt. (c) Sir dung l\_rc cng d tim ra tm kh6i.

Sau khi rL'1t g<_)n theo T vii th' biu thL'rc ca m vo, At
trit tiu, val ta thu duqc:

T = pvz = pw2R,

trong d T 151 lu'c cng v 60 1:21 vz_?1nt6c gc.

Phin 2. Ta hy teflp
trung chL'1 y vo phn vlt liu cung
bn nguyt ca sqi dy. Cung trn duqc gift trong quy

I26
de_10 nhd vo hai 1L_rc czing T (xem hinh 5.13(a)). LL_tc
hung tm 2 Tgy ra gia t6c hufmg tm ca tm kh6i:
Mwzx = 2T , trong d M151 kh6i luqng ca bn nguyt
vl theo dc) M = prrR . Thff vo phuong trinh sau ctxng
ta ducyc p1rRa)2x = 2p0)2R2 , cho nnx = ZR/7r.

Chimg minh ring b6n doan thing n6i tir mt dinh cL1a
tit din dn trcpng tm ca mt d6i din l dng quy. Tit
din xem nhu' khng du.

127
 B
HINH HC_ll3
vA |::HuYN Enjlwzs

Hu nhu cc bi ton trong muc ny dua trn 3? tufmg

v chuyf-En dcfmg. Y tung v chuyn dng d ducyc sir dung
truc dy trong phin v dinh I3? Pythagoras. Trong muc 2.4
ta d chi ra ring dinh I37 co bn cila gii tich c th duqc
mufmg tuqng bng nhirng thueflt ngfr dcfmg hoc. Trong muc
ny ti di tzfap hqp mt vli bi ton khc, trong dc) bli t6i
thich nhit 151 bi toln xe dap. Mt (mg dung tuyt vri ca
3? tung v su chuyn dcfmg, cho php tim ra
din tich dui
dufmg tim czfin m khng cn mt cng thitc niio, theo
cu6n slch cL'1a R.Foote [F0], duqc pht biu 6 muc 6.6 nhu
mt bi tlp. Mt bi tefip khc 6 phn cu6i chucmg m6 t
cch tinh din tich trn mt phng biing cch sir dung mcjt
xe dy mua hang. C th tim thfiy chi tit v czich tip can
dcfmg h(_)C trong cu6n sch [LS].

6.1 Din tich gifra clc vt blnh Xe

Bi ton. Hinh dung cum int chib xe sao cho c hai bnh
xe vach ra nhng vt dudngkin (hinh 6.1). Bnh truc khng

128
bao gidcn In v_t bnh sau, d'ch0 hinh vnh khuyn mo
khng bi thzi t lai. Hy chi ra rng din tich ca hinh vzinh
khuyn nykhngphu thuc vo vt bzinh xe(!).
Din tich nhu nhau dtl ban li xe vng quanh bm n
1:21

hay quanh mt kh6i nh.

Ta xem dy 121 mcjt chic xe 137 tung: khong cch b gifra
cc dim tip xc ca cc bnh xe vi mt dudng l hing
s6." Ta s xem b nhu 151 dudng co s. Khing dinh ca biii
toln hm 3? ring hinh vlnh khuyn c din tich 7l'b2. Dy 151
din tich tucmg tu ta s c duqc khi gir bnh sau c6 djnh
v cho bnh trufrc quay vng.

Hinh 6.1. Din tich giua hai vl bilnh lun lun 151 nhu nhau: zrb, trong d b

151 durng co bn c1'1a chic xe.

cng 151 tip tuyn ca vt bzinh sau,

L(ri gii. Su()'n xe lL'1c no
nhu hinh 6.1 minh hc_>a. Din tfch dangni dh do dd duac

* Mt lfri khuyn K61 nhiic dn ci bn cling d duqc dua ra i'nm_1c 1.3, trong
d ti d nghi khoan vi ci 16.
** Pht biu mt cinch nghim ngzfat, d diu ny dng thi phuc truc phi
thng dfxng.

129
qut thzinh bi m_t doan thing tija xlic vi dumg cong ca
bnh sau khi dean thng nziy twat khip Iuat vcing quanh
dudng cong. Doan thing nziy c d di khng c151 b trong
su6t hnh trinh ca n.
Tai sao din tich duqc qut thimh lun lun nhu nhau?
Sau dy 151 gii tL_r nghim*. Luu 3? ring dmf) tng ca
m(f)t 13?

din tich duqc qut khng phu thuc vo thnh phin ca

vzfin t6c theo phucrng ca doan thing. Vic doan thing cc)

chuyn dcfang truc_rt nhu th nlo khng c nh hung gi.

Nhung nu ta loai vain t6c truqt ra, doan thing s chi don
thun quay quanh tip dim cfla bnh sau R, v qut thnh
rnt hinh trn! D0 d din tich cila hinh vmh khuyn bng
v'i din tich cla hinh trn c bn kinh b = [RF| vii bng
v'i dudng c0 sf) ca chic xe dap.

, . g 9'.

T;-r"il1|i.f2 i
E
,4 . i 1 ~
.1

*':< '

Hinh 6.2. Hinh cnh hoa truqt doc thco ducmg trn qut thnh mt th tich biing
vi th' tich hinh cnh hoa qut thianh khi n [L_X quay quanh dim thiit ca n

gii thich tuong

* Dziy l tL_r nhu trong chfmg minh php qut" ca dinh I}?

Pythagoras (iv muc 2.6.

130
6.2 Dinh 13? th tich bilng nhau
Dy lil mt dinh 13? cc) dang Pappus m. ti d bt g:Z1p khi
dang suy nghi v bli ton xe Clap. True gic ding sau b:?1i

ton nly 151 mt su khzii qult gin don cla truc gic ding
sau bi ton xe dap. Mt khi ta bit r6 kt qu, chfrng minh
n biing gii tich li khng kh. Du vefly, ti nghi khng th
pht hin ra n nu chi suy nghi trn nhfrng cng thtrc.

Dinh 13?. M(3t1<h61' dc hinh bnh donut duqc tao thzinh theo
cch thng thudng 122 quay mt dung c0ng151'1<1'n quanh
mt true d61' xng cmg nzim trn mtphng ca duirng
c0ng(tr;1c (761 xzingkhng c5 t dufmg cong). By gid czit bnh
donut bngmt mgitphng song song vdi true d0'1' xlimg vzi
A / 1 v / 4'
A V
tiep xuc ph1a trong cua banh, t._a0 thzinh m_0tm;1t hinh so
41

tm, nhu trong hinh 6.2.

Ta hiyxoay hinh s6tm nziy quanh dudng thing di qua
dim thzftmit vzi song song v01' truc JOY xling ca hinh veinh
khuyn. Ta thu duqcmtkhi dcmi: mt czii bzinh donut
V61 hinh dngkhzic hzfn v01'mrjtmittht(hinh 6.2). Th tich

ca ci bnh ny bng vdi the? tich ca ci bnh ban dfiu.

Ilinh 6.3. M61 quan h gifra cc trqng tm via cc din lich ca hai tit din
ca mt hinh vimh khuyn.

131
Chung minh. Xem xt mt cnh hoa cua hinh s6 tm.
Khi cnh hoa trucyt vng quanh theo hinh mui tn ('7 phn
bn tri cua hinh 6.2, n qut thnh ci bnh donut cho
trudc cua chung ta. Khi lm vic d, cnh hoa thuc hin
hai chuyn dng dng thdiz (i) truqt trong meflt phing ring
n v (ii) quay quanh dudng thing di qua dim nut tht
cua cnh hoa nhu duqc m6 t trong d1nhly.N'utal02_1ira
chuyn dng truqt, ta khng h lm nh hung th tich
duqc qut. Kh6i daflc mi tao thlnh c th tich gifing nhu
kh6i diu tin.
H qu. Goi A 151 din tich hinh dia ducyc tao thnh bng
cch ciit bnh donut v*i malt phng chua truc (161 xung cua
n, v R 151 khong cch tit trqng tm cua hinh dia nly dn
truc d6i xung, nhu trong dinh 1y Pappus. Tuong tu, gqi AP
151 din tich cua mt cnh hoa (phn nua cua hinh s6 tm),

vl RP l khong cch tut trQng tm cua ceinh hoa dn truc

nhu trong hinh s6 tm, (hinh 6.3). Khi dz):

A X R = A1, >< R],

6.3 C6 bao nhiu vlng trong mt chic nhn

cui?
Dir kin sau dy ban du c th rt kh tin. Mzflc du d
duqc cho bi't tu truc, ti cng khng th gii thich vi sao
diu ny lai dung mt tinh ton quy chun xem chung
khng tha cho ti khi bi ton cc vt bnh xe" (bzii
ton 6.1) gcyi ra clu tr lfyi.

1'52
 @ (fl)

1-)inhl3?.H1nh 6.4 cho

trong I2? mt tru v
(5)

Hinh 6.4. Th lich ca hinh vnh khuyn phu thuc chiviuo (ii) cao

thymthinh vzinh khuyn c b mt

b mt Ing bn ngozii 13 dang ceiu; tzim
ca mt cu nzim trn t1';1c d61'xLi"ng ca k116i tru. T1167 rich
cfza hinh vzinh khuyn nhu vy phu thuc chi vo d cao
(C)

I>Ict'1z\ n!

H ca n, vei bng -EH.

Cu th, hinh dung hinh vnh khuyn bao quanh khfii
cu c6 Tri dt c cilng th tich nhu mt chic nhn cui,
min sao hai hinh vnh khuyn cf) cimg chiu cao (coi nhu
c hai qu cu v51 b meflt ngoi ca chic nhn cui 121 dang
cu ho21n ho).

Chfmg minh. C6 th chimg minh dinh 13? ny bng tinh ton.

Cch leflp luln dng hQc s trnh duqc vic sit dung cc
cng thirc vii llm cho nhzfln dinh tr nn hin nhin. V21 chi
cn hinh v cling d llm sng t6 hu nhu toln bcf) cu chuyn.
Cu th nhu sau. Hinh 6.4(a) cho thiy mcjt meflt phng
tip xL'1c mt tru phia trong. Mzf1t phng ct kh6i cziu theo
mt hinh dia trbn. Dung kinh dia nm trn mt dudng
sinh ca mat trL_1. Xt mt nfxa hinh dia nhu duqc th hin
trong hinh 6.4(b). Bly gifr ta hiy cho nta cli dia ny truql
doc theo b malt hinh tru theo hinh mi tn, gift cho nra ci

133
 dia tip xL'1c vi mat tru. Nita ci dia chuyn dng qut ht
th tich ca bzinh donut. Nhu'ng chuyn dcjng ca nra ci
dia bao g6m m(_)t phn truqt thuin tL'1y trn meflt phng
chtra n6 diu ny khng gp phin gi vo vic t2_10 thnh
th tich vii phn quay vng quanh dudng kinh. D0 d, nu
loai b chuyn dng tru(_yt, ta s khng llm thay d6i th
tich cL"1a phfin durqc qut.
M51 chuyn dng d diu chinh cfla nira ci Ca, nhu trong

hinh 6.4(c), qut thnh mt tri banh cc) duirng kinh H. Th

tich cL1a ci bnh donut vi th bng vi th tich cfla tri banh
c duimg kinh H:

v=5H?
6

/ / I / /
Q+
, / / / / /
1

, I, / /
/' Trgngluc

Q_

Hinh 6.5. Dim Q t6i u'u phi niim gifxa Q via Q.

6.4 D6 d6c nhanh nhit

Bi ton. Cho mt dung trdn C vei mt dim P trongmt
phng thngdng. Cho Q15} m_6tdin trn C, v kho st
m_Ot vin bi truat dpc theo dean PQ dU6I nh hu'0'ng ca

134
 vn t6'c being khng.
trpng luc. Vin bi xu't pht ta1'P vi
s I2 nh nhzft?
Vi dim Q nzio thi th&1' gian di ch uyn

Nhn xt. Liu dim QQ, dim gin

nht vfri P, cc) phi 151
chuyn dim Q theo
cu tr ldi? Khng. Thuc vy, ta hy di
gian truqt t ,,Q nhu mt
chiu kim dng hf) v theo d6i thi
bin
hm ca Tai thdi dim khi Q di qua Q+, (inf) d51iPQ
d6iv(7iv2f1n t6c biing khng (bfri
vi n chi vita dttng vic thu
khc, dzfa d6c ca PQ
ngiin lai v sip bt du deli ra). Mzfit
lai, tai thri dim khi
d6c ln vri mt vain t6c duang. Tm
bang khng, trong khi
Q = Q+, do di bin (161 v('>'i van t6c
gia t6c hung xu6ng ca PQ tng.
Diu ny nghia l thri
l dt Q bn duri
gian truqt ngn lai. Theo d thi t6t horn
Q+ Mt czich turcmg tu, tai thvi dim
.
khi Q di qua Q_ (tip
theo chiu kim
dim trong hinh 6.5) trong chuyn dng
vfri v2f1nt6c khng xc
dng hf} ca n, dc) di PQ tng thm
t6c xc dinh. Khi d
dinh, trong khi d d6c thay dfii vi vn
Q_. Diu ny thu nh
him nhin c l(_)'i khi dzfat Q bn trn
nhung chinh xc
pham vi ca dim Q t6t nht mt chxit,
thi I16 5 du?

Q!

6.6. Tgli thfri dim bit kjl I > 0

cflc vin bi hqp thianh 1n(f>\du'0r1g\1(">n,
llinh
t6c ban du bimg khng.
nu chfmg xuit pht tai P vri vefm

135
 Lri gii. Xt hinh quglt nan" tao thnh bi nhiu dufyng di
qua P, vc'>'i m(f)t hat cum trn m6i du'ng dt tai P. Tai th<5'i
dim t = 0 ta th ht cc hat cu(>'m vi vein t6c du bng
khng, chtlng bit du chuyn dng dui tc dcfmg ca
val
trqng lL_rc. Tai thi dim t > O cc hat cufrm tao thnh mzjt
dudng cong no dc) nhu trong hinh 6.6. Ta kyhiu du'c>'ng
cong nzy being F = E (ky tu F vi't tt cho "fr0nt", nhu
mint du sng ca mt dqt sng dang Ian). Khi I tng ln,
mzflt bi du sng s cham dufmg trn tai dim Q nlo dc).
Dim tip xc diu tin nly tuong (mg vfri thri gian d6 d6c
ngin nhit. Qu vly, Q lei dim du tin trn Cnoi mt hat
cum dng vo.
Dzing luu )7 ring meflt diu sng E, (mg v'i m5i thdi dim
I, thL_rc ra lei mt dufmg trn nhu trong hinh 6.6! Dufrng trn
ny di qua P vi tip tuyn tai P nm ngang; CIu'(Yng kinh
ca dudng trn ll gtz /2. By gi ta c th7 chqn liy mt
dudng trn E tip xilc C; dim Q t6t nhiit" 121 tip dim
gira hai dung trbn. Cu tr lfri ny chua hom toln r6 rlng,
nhung khng kh d chi ra ring Q nm trn dumg thing
n6i P vfri dim thiip nh't Q ca dumg trn C.
Chng t6 ring cc hat cudm Imp thnh mt dudrng trn.
Du tin, nhiic lai mt kin thirc hinh h(_)C co bn. GQi PP
= D dudng kinh ca m(_3t dudng trn (hinh 6.7), v PS
1:21

l dy cung bit kjl, v()'i 6 = LSPP' . Khi d

PS: Dc0s0. (6.1)

* front: phn du hay mail du sng N.D.

136
 P

9
S

PI

( Q) (1')

Hinh 6.7. Nffu PS = D6030, khi dc) S niim trn duimg trbn v(1i duimg kinh
D I PP.
Diu ny suy ra tit dfr kin ring PSP' = 90 .Di0l2_1iv1n
dng: quy tich ca dim Stha min (6.1) 121 m<f)t
dudng trn.
By giir ta hy tr la_1i vi cc hat cudm. Chon
mt thdi
dim z > O no d v51 kho st mt hat cudm dai
din tai
thivi dim ny. Gia t6c ca n I51:

a = g cos 0 ,

nhu trong hinh 6.7(b) minh hqa. Khong cch hat curm
nly
di chuyn trongthdi gian t sel:

PS = a /2 = (g /2)c0s6 = Dc0s9,
trong d D = gtz /2 151 quing dudng roi do. Ta
tL_r di chi
ra ring tai thdi dim t, mQihe_1tcucrm
S tha min (6.1).
Theo nhefln xt hinh h(_)C 6 trn, tit c cc hat cum
S nm
trn dufmg trn c dudng kinh D = gtz /2 vl c
dim trn
cng tai P, nhu d khng dinh.

157
 \ ,1 - \ d z ,
6.5 Tlm ra Zsmr va Zoos: bang phep quay
Kho st m<f)t dim P chuyn dng trn m(f)t dumg trn
don vi 6 vln t6c don vi theo hu'ng nguqc chiu kim dng
h6, xuiit pht tai dim R) trn trL_1c X ta_1i t = O. Do dc) cung
POP c d di 1, tirc 151 LPOOP = t . Theo dinh nghia ca
hm sin via cosin, vc to vi tri:

= (cost, sint).

11/

( 13%: V
\ ~11 ,
-I.

.,;.5':~

r ,;z'i.jf ii ;

;.*a;,;:1'f .5";
() P0
.7
(7

c = cost. .9 = sink

Hinh 6.8.

Vain t6c duqc dinh nghia being dao hm ca vi tri:

<4 d >
v= c0st, ~s1nt
.
.
dz dz

bi v| = 1 (gi dinh vay), cc tam gic vung to

Mzfat khzic,

defim trong hinh 6.8 c nhfrng canh huyn trtlng khp (c (if)

I38
dli 1).Han n\1a,b('Yi V _L OP tit c c:;1nh tuong {mg hai tam
,

gic 151 true giao v do d cc gc tucmg (mg trung khp. 1221

V1 th cc tam gic tr") dzfam cung trung kh(rp', v theo

C16:

v = (sint, cost).

S0 vi phucmg trinh vita r61 ta kt luefxnz

d d
. .

-c0st = smt, s1nt: cost.

dz dz

b b
b n
Hinh 6.9. Din tich du(1idu'<1ngti<';m cafln 151 bao nhiu?

6.6 B211 tap

1. (Foote, trong cu6n [Fo]) Theo dinh nghia, duirng tim
can l dudng cong tao thnh do vt bnh sau cua chi'c

,_i_i___i-
* Nguyn vn: congruent. Theo Euclid, equal, biing
nhau, nghia IA hai dfii
tuqng cf) cimg kich cfv (d di d6i v(1i dean thng, difgn tich d6i vi hinh
hqp
phng). Bbi vzfiy, dung equal cf) th lia kh mo hf), trong nhfmg trufyng
cu th d6i vi cc d6i tuqng hinh hoc. Thff nn, congruent, trimg khp,
duqc dung d din t hai hinh phng mil ta c th chuyn dich
hinh nz\y
ln/vri hinh kia, lfrc In chung c cung hinh dang v cung kich
chng khrp
cfy. Mfgt s6 sch gii tich khc dung chit 'd6ng du'
d chi khi nim n1y.
N.D.

1'59
 xe khi bnh tru'(rc di chuyn trn mcfat dufrng thing.
Cu
th hon, mt duiyng cong duoc goi l mt
dufrng tim
can nu 6 d tfm tai mt dc) din b vii mt
dufwng thing
sao cho doan tip tuyn nno nm gifra
dumg cong vl
Ciu'6'ng thing du c df)
di b. Trong hinh 6.9 mcfat dufmg
tim czin bn-v6-cuc duqc phc ra. Din tich
ca phin
v han t dzim ll bao nhiu?
. , ]
Dap an. EH19.

Trong khi chd dcyi trong mt hng tinh tin

di 6 siu
thi, ti dang ln theo duimg vach ca gach vung
lt nn
vi bnh tru'c'rc ca xe diy mua hlng ca minh.
Sau mt
vng chuyn dng trn ca bnh tru'(7c, czic
bnh sau
dtrng lai 6 mt vi tri mi. Tire l xe diy d xoay
quanh
bnh truivc mt gc Q Gi tri x'p xi ca 9151
bao nhiu,
xem nhu C151 c tit c thng tin cn thit (chi
cn thiu
cu tr lfyi)? Di_n tfch ca vin gachlt11A,l<h0ng
cch
gifra bnh truirc vl bnh sau l b. Cho ring
b di h0n
canh cfla vin gach rit nhiu. D5 don gin moi
chuyn
hcm nra, cho ring bnh sau thing hng tuyt d6i vi
bnh trufyc (fr xe dfiy thuc t' khng phi vzfiy;
cc bnh
xe tao thnh m<f)t hinh thang).
Dp sin: (9 = A /I92. D6 c nhiu thng tin
hon ntra v
bi toln n1y,xem cu6n [F0], [LW], vl nhfrng
tham kho
trong d.

140
7
5|] D|._.INl3 |:ci HQE
El "rim-| Ti|::|-| PHAN

Hai bz1i toln du tin trong muc n1y cc) th gii d dng
biing gii tich m khng cn dn co h(_>c. 5 dziy, ta mu6n
minh hQa cho vic dflng "mziy tinh c0 hQc" thay cho gii
tich trong mcf>t s6 trudng hqp.

1 xdx \
Tinh tich phln
7.1 J0 X/?-2* bng cch nng
mt qu nzflng 1* x
Mcf>t duqc lp ln mt dufyng rfanh thing
qu nzfing P = 1,

dimg khng ma st, treo vz10 mt du dy cf) d(f> di 1. Ban du

sqi dy duqc ko theo phucrng thing dimg. Khi du trn m1'1t

cfla sqi dy bi ko ngang ra khi vi tri ban du ca n, qu

nfing trurqt d(_)c trn dufrng thing dfrng. Bing cch thay dfii
d dich chuyn xcila dultrn ca dy tit x = O dn x I 1,
ta thutc hin cng W = J-0 F(x)dx, trong d F(x) 151 lL_1'c cn
cc) d giir m(f)t du cila sqi dy tai X, nhu trong hinh 7.1.

" Gi trix = 1 In khng th dnt duqc, bi n dbi hi luc tc dung v6 cimg; khi
dc) ta d6imaf1tv6im6ttich phn bit dinh.

14]
 Mt khc mt cng tuong tL_r duqc thuc hin khi nng
qu neflng P ln d cao 1, sao cho W = P-l =1,
vta kt
lusfm F(x)dx = 1 ti khing dinh ring F(X)=
.?Ll:lC nly
G01 O 151 giao dim cila hai dudng true giao,
nhu duqc cho
thiy trong hinh 7.2.
T6ng moment quay trn dly AB quanh O tiu bi'n,
ta
duqc: ()B><F= OA ><P,
:17
1

F=%.
\/1 .1.)

P = 1

Hinh 7.1. Cng duoc thuc hin being czich nng qu nng I
I51 L F(x)dx = I-l

R1;

1:

B F 1

._. W . _i_
A 0

1)

Hinh 7.2. Cc phn luc tr1_rc giao Fvi1P c moment quay being
khng d6iv1' O.

142
 O

I-linh 7.3. Cng cfm Lhifft (15 ko qu nng tirdui cimg ln

Y

Q6

mt gc X151 L; sin ldl.

Va bi OA/OB=x/\/1x2 v P=1, ta thu duqc

nhu d khng dinh. Ta di chi ra ring:
F(x) = -l\[%~;;,

x
L--Wdx=1.
1

7.2 Tinh tich phn Ksinldl \/6'1 mt qu 150

Kho st mcfat qu lc: mt chit dim cc) khfii luqng P = 1
trn m(f)t que thing c dcf) di 1, lic lu quanh mcjt khrp
n61

0.LL_1'C sint czin d gift qu lc 6 mcfat gc t so vfri phuong

thng dimg, nhur duqc th hin trong hinh 7.3. D0 bn kinh
thanh being 1, df) ln gc t luqng dinh (ii) dxi dgc theo
duimg

trn. Th nn, cng cn thit <15 di chuyn qu nzfing til I

dn

d + dt 121 sin tdt , v cng t6ng cng cin c d ko qu

naflng

:
ttrdufri cilng r 0 ln r = x 151 Ixsintdt .M2f1tkhz'1c,suthay
C161 trong thf nng 151 (kh6i1uqn)
(chiu cao) = 1 cosx
><

143
 (hinh 7.4). Dng nh{t hai biu thirc cho ctlng mt mfrc nng
luqng s cho ta:

_[Xsintdt=1 cosx.

1 cos :1:{

Iiinh 7.4. Thffnng cila gc lch xl 1- cosx. K}16iluqngl 1.

7.3 Chfmg minh biing luu chit cho dinh 13? Green
Tho ngn ny s llm cho khi nim ca ton tfr
luzfzn
phn k/ v cng thlic Green

IF
F-na's=
D
divFdA (7.1)

c v gn nhu tm thung. Tho lun mang tinh tL_r nghim

ny c sir dung ceic khi nim ca tich v6 hung v tich
phn theo durmg.
Ta c (i) mt trurmg vc to phng F = F(x,y) vl (ii) mt
dufmg cong C bao quanh m(_3t min phng D. Dim miu
ch6t 6 dy ll coi F nhu trudng vein t6c cila mt khi phng
tufyng tuqng, r61 d min D tri theo trudng vm t6c d,
thu ducyc mt min mri D(t) tai m5i thdi dim tvdi
v51

D(0) = D. G(_)i A(z) = din tich (D(r)).

I44
 Chia min D thmh mt s6 luqng lfm N ca nhimg mnh
nh D", 1 SnS N , ta chia nh din tich ca n6:

A(t) = 2/\(r).

Liiy dao hm theo I t2_1i F = O, ta duqc (sir dung kv hiu

A = d/d1);

A(0) = 24(0). (1.2)

Nhung mire dtf) v2f1nt6cthay d6i (O) cila din tich m6i

mnh nh se gin nhu ti l thuefln vi din tich cila

n:

A,,(0) = kA,,(O) + 8 , (1.3)

Onfu A (O) > O.

trong d 8121 mt sai s6 nhz 8 / A,,(O) >

Gii han ca h_ s0't11_ khi min co thnh mt dim, 1._a1'

Tire la ta c,
duqc gpi I suit tiu tn ca F tai dim d.
duqc dinh nghiaz

div F(x,y) = limf1g)2,

/4(0)
(x, y). H
trong dc) giri han duqc liy khi min co v dim
s6 k cho ta bit dtf) gin ra (hay co lz_1i) ca
mt don vi din
mcf>t dun
tich, duqc do tai mt dimf Theo d k that ra l
vi do d(f) pht tn ca phn t\'1 khi.

____ii-i-
* D5 dng c6 duqc cng thirc F= div(I, Q) = ;+ gg ti: dinh nghia ny.
X

145
 C

Hinh 7.5. Min ban diiu bi dng F cufin di.

By gid th' (7.3) vo (7.2) ta thu duqcz

A(0) = 2divF(x,, ,y,, )A"(0) + sai S6 b,

lrong d (xn , yn) 13 mt dim bn trong "6" thtr n. Trong
gii han ca php chia doan nh v6 cng ta thu duqcz

A(0) = HRdivF dA .

Vly mzc df) thay d6i din tich ca min di chuyn

mcfat

151 tich phn ca thnh phn vung gc vfri vain tfic bin ca
n6: /1(0) = J-CF nds (6 dy n l vc to php tuy'n hudng
-

ra ngoli ca C). Dy 151 ton bf) phc tho ca chimg minh

dinh 13? Green (7.1).

146
B
PHLIIJNG TRINH EULER-
LAGRANGE THEING QUA
NHUNG Lt: xu Kcn |::ANrs

8.1 Vihiu bit 00 bn v phuong trinh

Euler-Lagrange
Chu0'ng mus ngin ny bao g6m mt din giii thun my
co hqc cila phi'm hm Euler-Lagrange nhu th nng cla
mt dy 16 x0 gi tufrng. Din gii ny din dit gin nhu thing
dn phuong trinh Eulel-~Lagrange v dem lai m<f)t giii thich
cohcpc r6 rng cho lu2_1t bo ton nz1nglu(_mg.Ngo1ira, ttrng
s6 hang ring bit trong phuong trinh Euler-Lagrange cng
ct) Y nghia co h<_)c Cl_1 th.

Sau dy 151 giai doan gi(')'i thiu cho nguiri dcpc chua quen
v'i phuong trinh EulerLagrange.
B511 ton co bn ca php tinh bi'n phn 151 tim ra mt
helm x(t) t6i thiu ha php tich phn.

J; L(x(z),X(r))dt , (8.1)

l47
trong d L 151 mt ham s6 cho trufyc vfyi hai bi'n s6. Gi tri
bin ca x duqc cho: x(O) = x0,x(1) = xl.
D5 hiu r6 durqc phn cn lai ca chuong, ta hy xem
qua m(f>t vi du: t6i thiu ha tich phn
1 X2
JO idt (8.2)

trong diu kin x(()) = 0, x(1) = a. Thayvi sir dung 13? thuyt
thng thung, ti s minh hqa lm th no co h(_)c gii quyt
duqc bi tozin cu th ny. Cch tip can tuong tL_r p dung
cho trumg hqp tfing qut, s duqc trinh by sau.
Ti mu6n biu din tich phn (8.2) nhu th-' nng 1:21

ca min 10 x0. D5 lm th, ta hy hinh dung m(f>t lb xo

duqc dt dqc theo trL_1c X . Ta biu din x(t) nhu vi tri ca
mt phn tit ca lb X0, trong d t 151 tham s6 gn cho cc
phn tit ca 16 X0. Ta gi hai du ca IO x0 t2_1i x = O vl t2_1i
I
x a : x(O) = (),x(l) = a. Ta gi sir rng 16 xo dim h6i, theo
nghia 151 luc cng ca 16 x0 duqc cho b<'7i dinh lut Hookez
T(x) = dx / dz = X. Luu 3? ring ti c th lam cng 16 xo it
hay nhiu tai nhng vi tri khc nhau, cho nn T(x(t)) =
cc) the: bin thin theo t . T6i khng dinh ring (8.2) dng

bng th- nng ca dy 10 x0 ni trn (trong d tirng phn tit

I duqc gitr tai x = x(1), c th bri luc). Tam gc l2_1i chtrng
minh, ta di bit: nu mt helm s6 cu th x(-) mang 1e_1i mt
cL_rc tiu cho (8.2), khi C16 trang thi ca 10 xo 121 cn bring:

T = O, hay 2'5 = O, sao cho x 151 mcfat hm s6 tuy'n tinh; v51

diu kin bin ko theo x = at nhu trong dp n.

" Bi khfmg cbn luc n.'310 khc tc dung ln lb xo.

I48
 Cn phi gii thich t2_1i sao (8.2) 151 fh nng. Xt mt phn
nh ca I6 xo tuong (mg vi khong (t, t + dz). Ta hy bit du
v(7i mt nguyn t: khng bi ko cng, ri sau dc) cng n tit
d di biing khng dfn dzf) di sau cimg x(t + dt) x(t) .Khi
ta ko cng, luc thay (I61 tit 0 dn m(_)t cch tuyn tinh

v'i khong cch, vi th ta tc dcfmg mt luc trung binh 151

Mat khc, nhn n vc'ri khong clch x(t + dt) x(t) = Xdt ,
cho cng tfing ccjng being gxzdr, nhu di pht biu!
Mac dil Archimedes c th di khm phzi ra cch tip cefin
duqc nu 6 trn, vl chic hn c th d khi qut n, nhung
bli ton ny d khng duqc dzflt ra cho (mg. Thay vo dc),
Euler v Lagrange d gii bi ton theo nhfrng phu0'ng php
khc nhau. HQ nhgin thiy ring nfu m(f)t hm s6 x = x(t)
dem lai mt cuc tiu cho tich phn (8.1), khi d n phi
tha mn diu kin:
a
LX(x,X) - LX(x,X) = O; (8.3)
dt
6 dy cc chi s6 ky hiu phucmg ca dao hm ring. Luu 3?
ring trudng hqp don gin m chng ta dang xt suy ra tit k-'t
luzfan ny. Thuc th', nu L = X2 / 2, khi d L. = X,Lx = O, V51

(8.3) trv thlnh 56 = O, nhu ta di tim ra bng leflp lun co hoe

chn phuvng. Lp luzfin ny cc) th-' m rcfmg ra cho trufmg
hcyp t6ng qut, din dn cng thfrc (8.3) v dn din gii co
hqc cfla n.
_;L1_Q, :b)d':.

L2(77>-i7) :I:(t + (It) Ll(5l/'#i7)

Hinh 8.1. Th6 nng cn bng cc ll_IC cng: dy l mt din gii dgmg co cfla
phuong trinh Euler-Lagrange (8.3).

149
 Tu thi Euler va Lagrange dn nay, cch thng thudng
|( guy ra (8.3) la sir dung php tinh bi'n phn, theo [GF].
Mqc tiu cua Chung ta 6 day la chi ra cach tip can ma
Archimedes cung c th dung d tim mt each churng minh
khic, vl h0'n nfra, cung cap mt din gii co h(_)c cu th cho
Lu-ng s6 hang trong phuo'ng trinh. D6 tm tat, phuong trinh
(3_3) cc) th duqc xem nhu la diu kin d IIIQI cai slinky"
Lreo l0 lung 6 trang thai can bang.
Ti can nu r6 la cac lap luan trn day la khng thuc su
chat ch; muc tiu la chi ra ring ly thuy't nay c mt din
gii co h(_)c c th cam nhefin duqc bang truc quan.

8_2 Din gii (:0 hoc ca phurong trinh Euler-

Lagrange
Ta hay hinh dung mt cai IO xo ly tung, nhu m(f)t bang
Cao su nng hay mfit cai slinky ducyc xem nhu: mt dufrng
thng mng v han, ducyc dat doc theo true X. Caic phan
tit cua lb xo duoc gn cho mt thng s6 I e [0,1] , sao cho
x(1) la tqa din ca phan tit tuong ting.
Cho t do kh6i luqng cua slinky, sao cho doan
[x([),x(t + dt)] kh6i luqng dt. Ta bay gid gn cho tich
C6

phn Eulf-1rLagrHnge (8.1) y nghia cua th nang t5ng ccfing

Gila lb x0.

* Slinky lii ml loai d6 choi gm mcfat I6 xo xoiin 6c Gan l'l6lVElC61l'1 nay bat
ln r6i xu6ng nhu czii yoyo. N6 c th Lhuc hin mt s6 cc lhu thuefil, bao
gm bu('rc" xu6ng C511 lhang du1-n6'i-CI21Li khi n co gizin r61 tu hi phuc
hinh dang vri sir trq giup cfia trong luc vii aa quay cfia ring n. - N.D.

l5O
 1. L(x, O) thnng trn du'Gngth1ng;n<'>icch khc, mt
13

ch't d1''m dm duqc dt tai X c thf nng L(x,0)dm.

Theo dinh nghia ca th nng, luc tuong ttng tzic d<f)'ng
ln chiit dim ny 19

LX(x,0)dm.

2. Ci slinky tha man mt dang cla dinh luzf1tH00ke: h_1'c

cng 121 T(x,x) = Lx(x,X). Vi du nhu trong trufmg hcyp
quan trqng nhit ca L=%m V(x) ta cc) T = mat tire l
dinh lut Hooke tuyn tinh. Nhung nhin lrong truimg
hqp tfing qut, h_1'c cng phu thuc khng chi vlo C16) gizin
dli X m cn vilo vi tri X.

I L(x X) dt = nng luqng tcing cng ca

, slinky. Thuc vzfiy,
xem xt mt d01I1 ngin [x(t), x(t + dt)] ca slinky, cf) kh6i
lurqng dt.Th'nz"1ng bao gmhaiphnz m<jtl1th'n1ng ca
m(f>t chiit dim dt , cho bi L(x(t), ())dt ,vi1 hai l cng
cn

thi't d ko cht dim dt nly cng ra thnh doan thing ma}

ta dang xt; cng nziy duqc tinh nhu sau:

x(1+d1) Q'~- )5 [ X

[M Tx,dZ 1 do U =J.0L2(x,s)dsdl

= (L(x,X) - L(x,O))a't,
trong dz) 2:52 = s. Nngluqng ting cng ca doan thing,
cl!
th nng + ko cng, dilng being L(x,X)dt. Nng lu'(_mg
tcing cng ca slinky 1110 ny l tich phn Euler-Lagrange
(8.3), nhu d khzing dinh.

151
 8.3 Mt clch suy ra phuong trinh Euler-Lagrange
N'u mcjt hm s6 x(t) t6i thiu ha tich phn Euler.-
Lagrange, khi C16 ci slinky tuong Cmg 6
trz_1ng thi cn biing.
Chnh lch luc cng tai hai diu ca mt doan
v6 cimg nh
khi d 151 cn bng luc vdi lL_rc th'.

LX(x, x)|f*" = J.,+dlLx(x, mar.

Chia c hai v' cho dt v liy gii han khi dt > O din d'n
phuung trinh Euler-Lagrange.
Tm 1.31, ta def gain cho m51' s0'hang trongphuotng
trinh
Euler-Lagrange m_0t din gii c0 11_0c: Li I
lac czing, %L,
lei t5ngh_0p ca Iuc cng trn mt
don vj k116i 1u"_0ng v Lx
lei lac thtrn mt don vj1<h0'1' Iuang.

8.4 Chfrng minh dinh lut bo ton nng

luqng
bng cch truqt mt dy IO X0
Phuong trinh Euler-Lagrange (8.3) c mt tinh
ch't kh
pht hin. D6 l:

L XLX = constant (8.4)

d6i vi bit ctr nghimx = x(t)

L
no cila phuong trinh
Euler-Lagrange. Y nghia ca dai luc_>'ng' ny
lei gi trong m6
hinh "slinky" cila chimg ta? Cu tr ldi in ding
sau quan
st hin nhin nhu' th ny: Do slinky
lei dng du, tire I51

* Trong trudnghq dafxc bit khi L 13 chnh lch gifra

thfv dng nng, L ~ XL,
trr thimh nng luqng t6ng cng, nghia l t6ng ca
hai nnglugmg.

I52
mt dc) nng luqng ca n L(x, khng phu thuc vlo t,
nn ta bit rngz

Nngluqngdupc cha trongmtdoan a 3 x S b khng

thayd'51' nu ta truat cj slinkysao cho x(t) di chuyn
dh x(t + c), (8.5)

trong dc) C l mt hing s6. By gi ta hay din djch pht

biu hin nhin (8.5) sang ding thirc khng hin nhin (8.4).
Ta hy truqt ci slinky sang phi vi c = dt, bng cch cho
chit di-'m dt truqt vo doan [a,b] tz_1i X= a v21 ko ra mcfat
luqng nhu vy tai x = b. Mt mafit, su thay C161 ning luqng
bn trong [0, b] bng khng theo (8.5). Mzit kh2ic,s1_rthay
1:21

C161 nly duqc t2_1o nn tit nng luqng ca kh6i luqng thm

vo trtr di nng luqng ca kh6i luqng b()'t ra v cila cng

thurc hin bfri cc l1_rc cng tzic dng ln hai du mL'1t. Nng
lurqng thm v1o/ b't ra lei:

M11113.

trong khi cng duqc thgic hin bi luc cng tai m6i du l:
, I=!b
L2dx|,:," ~ L2aZx|,:,h = ~xL2dt|,=l.

Cho t6ng ca hai nng luqng bing khng vl chia cho

dz, ta c:
, I=Ih
L ~ xL2|,:," = 0,

minh chtrng cho su bit bi'n ca nng luqng (8.4)!

155
 S
"r|-|Z\u |<iN|-|, Kl'NH VlN VIQING,
vA |::|:I |-u;||: HAMILTCIN

Trqng tm cfla chuong nly 121 mrjt dang lp lun kiu

phy tay (theo nghia den) ("Y I'I1L_lC 9.3. Tuy dcm gin, n c
nhfrng h qu kh bit ngd trong ton h(_)C vl trong quang
hoe. Nhd vlo din gii co hqc, nhfrng h qu ny trfy nn
d tip ciln hcm nhiu meflc dtl thudng thi chL'1ng chi duqc
d cp ti trong chuong lrinh trn dai h(_)c.
Dzin b1i ca chutmg 151 nhu sau. Muc 9.1 trinh bily ki-n
thirc co bin; muc 9.3 vil 9.2 m t h co v dua ra chrng
minh co hqc cho m(f)t dinh 137 hinh hoc v bo tom din
tich.ML_1c 9.7 kt n61 bi tozinco/hinh hqc vi ml bli toln
quang hQc, vl mL_1c sau
cixng (9.8) gii thich chtrc nng cla
kinh vin vcpng v51 nhfrng thit bi quang hqc khlc thng qua
nguyn b?itd1nh", v6n cng bait ngu6n tit co hqc.
13?

Sau dy nhung ntn6ib2_1tc1a chuung:

1:21

1. Php zinh xa bo ton din tich ny sinh mt cch tu

nhin trong co hQc(mL_1c 9.2 v 9.3).

* Dy l<h6ngph%1ili1l?1n du lin ta biit gzflp diugi d tfm1 tl1u'(mglz_1ic nhfrng

quzi chng lm tlnrfyng.
11

154
 2. Mt bng tu'0ng dng gifra co hqc v nh xa bo ton
din tich (muc 9.5).
3. Nguyn 1y bit dinh - mt d6i ing c6 din (muc 9.6).
4. Hoat dcfmg ca kinh vin vqng, thi kinh, vl nhfrng thit

%
bi quang hoe khc duqc gii thich thng qua nguyn
13? bit dinh" (muc 9.8).

(<1) (1))

(C)

Hinh 9.1. Nhfrng vi du v nhfmg php ilnh xa bo loim din tich.

(<1)

9.1 Php nh X21 bo ton din tich ca mat

phngz nhfmg vi dL_1

Theo dinh nghla, mt php lnh x2_1 ca mefat phng 151

:
mt hlm s6 gn cho m5i dim Z (x, y) ca melt phng mt
dim md:

</>(z) = (f(X, y), g(X, y)) (9-1)

Mcfwtphp nh xa nhu th ducyc gqi 151 bo tozin d1'_n tich

n'u din tich ca tzfxp hcyp bait ky biing vfyi dicfzn tich nh ca
n qua php nh x2_1. Nhirng vi du dun gin nht ca php
nh xa bo tom din tich bao g6m
1. Php quay: vi mi dim (x, y) nh xa gain mt dim du'<yc

xoay qua mt gc cho tru'<'7c 6. Dim quay nay duqc cho

155
 theo tqa C16 (x c0s6 - y sin6, x sin6 + y cos0), nhu trong
hinh 9.1(a).
2. Php quay hyperbol: gin ra 6 hung nay theo mcfat h
s6 khng d6i kv co lai 6hu'(mg kia theo cimg h s6 d;
chng han, (x, y) l> (ix, /Tly) , nhutrong hinh 9.1(b).
3. Php quay parabol (x, y) I> (x + ay, y) hay mt nh
,

xa lch, nhu trong hinh 9.1(c).

4. Php tru'Qt parabolz (x, y) I> (x + yz, y), nhu trong
hinh 9.1(d).

9.2 C0 hoc V51 nh X21

Mfii lin kt dzng chL'1 y gita hinh hqc vl c0 hqc I51 mu
hinh laflp di 1:51p lai ca cu6n sch ny. T61 s m6 t mcjt khia
cgmh ca m6i lin k'tn:31y dui dang don gin ht mire, sau
khi lucyc b hu ht cc thut ngfr chuyn mn vl cc riio
cn mang tinh kythu2f1t.B5ng cch sir dung co hcpc, ta s c
duqc mt ldi gii thich tai sao kinh vin vQng, kinh hin vi,
v51 thi kinh cc) th phng to cc veflt th.

f | F
X

@ f
F
9:?'\
in-.\r
X
9;
I

Hinh 9.2. C0 hqc dn d'n hinh hqc: Hf; co gy ra mt php nh xa I41 bi6n"
czfap (vi lri, luc) (x,/) bn tri thnh mt czfap dng dang (X, F) bn phi.

156
 1 E
Y

1
X
hiim sinh
Hinh 9.3. Thi nng ca mt lb X0 dim h6i chin
151 m(f>t

ca nh xa lch.

Sau dy mfii lin h hinh-co ny duqc trinh by m(f>t

151

cch vn tiit. Xem xt mt h ccr don gin,

nhu 13 h trong
khng ma st
hinh 9.2. Mi hinh vnh khuyn c th trurqt
dqc theo dumg thng ca n. Hinh dung
ti dang giit hai
vlnh khuyn, v'i m<_)i thfr dang ('1 trang
thi nghi. Vi tri x
ca hinh vmh khuyn bn tri v lL_rc ko f
tay tri ti xc
luc F lm
dinh" vi tri X cila hinh vnh khuyn bn phi v
nh xa
di chuyn hinh vlnh khuyn d. Do d ta c php

I//=(X,f)+>(X, F)

Ci dng ch nh xa niay bo ton din tich, bit

91:1 php
c th phirc tap
k Sl_I sip dt c0 hqc giua hai vnh khuyn
vo nhfmg 16
dn du. Ta c th thay d6i 1;/bng cch thm
naflng, nhung ta khng
xo, nhung rng rqc, thm nhmg qu
(D5 bift nhung
th thay C161 tinh chit v bo ton din tich.
vi dL_l khc, Xem hinh 9.3 vl 9.7).
s thiy trong
Gii thich th1_1c ra rt dorn gin nhu ban dqc
muc kf ti'p.

6 muc 9.9.
ll Nhiu vi du hon duqc cho trong phn bli tlp
3* Theo viii gi thuyt chuyn mn s duqc m6 t sau.

157
9.3Mt chtrng minh phy-tay (dng nghia
den!) ca bo ton din tich
Sau dyl chfrngminh cho vic nhxa I//: (x, f) |> (X, F)
bo toln din tich. Vein vfri hinh 9.2, hinh dung t6i dang gifr
hai hinh vanh khuyn sao cho h l bit dng. D5 gift mqi
thL'1 vin dtrng yn ti phi tc dL_1nglL_rc(f) 6 tay tri va luc

(F) 6* tay phi.

By gi t'i phn phiy-tay: thzfit chm rii khng kich
(C15

thich bt cli rung dng no) ti di chuyn hai tay trong

mt diu bc} thy 3? nhung cc) tinh chu kj/, dua hai hinh vlnh
khuyn v lai vi tri ban du cfla chL'1ng. Cu6i cling ti lilm
cho cng bng khngz <j(f)dx + q(F)dX = 0, hay

<_'/1x+$Fdx=0 (9.2)

trong d s6 hang dziu tin lei cng duqc tay tri ti thL_rc
hin v s6 hang thfr hai 151 cng duqc tay phi ti thuc hin.
Cho dn dy, I"I1(_)ithl1 hon
ton hin nhin v mefzt co hoc.
Nhung by git) ta hy phin dich n thnh m(f)t pht biu
hinh hoc. Khi ti di chuyn hai tay, cc dim (x, f) v (X,
F) lin luQ't vach ra nhfrng duimg cong kin c v C. Ngoli ra,
dumg cong thir hai Iii nh ca dudng cong duz C = 1;/(c).
Nhung luu 3? riing hai s6 hang trong phuong trinh (9.2) chinh
xzic 151 din tich ca c v C! Cng duqc m6i tay ti thuc hin
c 3? nghia hinh h(_>c 151 din tich! T6ng ca hai din tich being
khng; ni cch khlc, ngoi d6i diu, php nh xa I//bo
SL_l'

toln din tich. SL_r C161 diu ny nghia l SL_l do hu('mg: nh

caci 8 n 8 ta Y bntristrn 8 nhuci 8 n 8 taY bn P hi.

I58
Chinh sa V hinh thc. D trzinh phi d6i mfat vi nhfrng
din tich gi tri aim, V51 vi 13? do lich sir, ta hy g(_)i Y = F;
d c ky hiu th6ng nhiit ta cng (161 bin = y (hai dai f
lucyng ctlng diu). Khi d (9.2) trfy thnh:

Cf);/a'x=(J3YdX (9.3)

diu m c nghia ring php nh xz_1 (,0 = (x, y) (X, Y) bo r>

ton din tich, by gid thi bo ton c diiu [i].

Tinh cht nly vl tinh cht tmmg tu trong trufmg hqp chiu
cao, xut hin dufri nhiu v b(_)C khc nhau v c nhfmg h
qu su sfic trong dcfmg luc hoe vl quang hQc. Trong thuc t6,
quan st ny dua chilng ta tdi t('Yi rnt linh vuc nghin cu
rfit nng dcfang l bcf) mn tp symplectic [HZ].

9.4 Hlm sinh

Chirng minh ca SL_I bo ton din tich 151 khng tht
chzfit ch, bi vi ti thlm chi cn khng dinh nghia chinh xc
php nh xa go, m chi ni ring n duqc xc dinh bi mt h
c0 duqc m t mc)tc1chlfrm(1Sau dy 121 m6 t cu th hon.
Nhfrng gi ta thuc su cn tit hinh 9.211th nng P = P(x, X)
ca h. Theo dinh nghia cila th n1ng,* ta cc) clc luc:
6
f= P(x, X)
X (9.4)
8
F - a7P(x,X).

* Nhic lai ring nu P(x)lz11h' nng, khi dc) lL_1'C ll P'(x).

159
 Dy 13 dinh nghia cu th cila mh xa 1//. Anh xa duqc xc
dinh b6'i mcfut hm s6 P, gqi l hzim s1'nh.Anh xa sau khi d6i
bin (P = (X, Y) P-> (X, Y) c durqc bng caich 6161 ky hiu ca
F, nhu d d cp 6 trn, vii bng clch C161 1<y hiufthnh y:

y=~iP(X, X)
88 (9.5)
Y: a7('P(X,

Vi d1_1. Kho st mt hm s6 bzfac hai don gin:

P(x, X) = 5k(X x) 2
1
.

N6 c th durqc vi nhu 151 th nng ca mt 16 x0 dim h6i

cheflt c hai dziu duqc gifr tai cc dim x X (hinh 9.3), vc'ri
hing s6 Hooke k. H phuong trinh (9.5) cho X = x + ky, Y
= y," dy chinh xc ll nh xa truqt duqc dinh nghia trong
muc 9.2, vi a = /<!C2'1ithL'1 vi l, dc) trucyt, mt tinh chit hinh
hQc, duqc din gii nhu 121 hing s6 Hooke, mcjt thucfac tinh
co h(_)C. Cng luu Y ring X x = ky chi dinh lu:1tH00ke
151

cho 10 xo dm h6i chit, trong khi Y = y nghia ta ko hai 1:21

du ca 16 xo vi nhfmg luc bng nhau!

160
9.5 Bng tuiong itng gifra C0 hoc V21 Gii
tich
Cohpc Gizii tich
Th6 nng P(x, X) Ham sinh P(x, X)
C210 dng luqng
Cc lurc
8 8
f___;P(xvX)> y__a:'P(xv X),

F=XP(x, X) Y=ga)?P(x, X)

Cng duqc tay tri (phi) Din tich ca tao nh:

thuc hin:
(fdx (q.>FdX) <j>ydx (gfn/ax)

T6ng cng thuc hin bng Din tich duqc bo tolnz

khngz d Ydx

5t3fdx+5{>FdX=0 qgy x (P

tich (9.3) c
Khng gian bc cao. Tinh chit bo tom din
th khi qult cho nhfrng php nh xa trong
khng gian bzfxc
gian n-chiu
cao bng cch cho c x vl y 6 trong khng
d y
(1121): xeR", ye1R", sao cho (x, y)e1R2". Khi
dx trong (9.3) phi dugx: hiu nhu tich chmz
:
ydx 2 yk dxk .

Php nh xa (p(x, y) |-> (X, Y) trong R2"

m tha min tinh

chit (9.3) duqc ggi 151 mt zinh xa symplectic.

gin hon
Din gii co hc_>c ca hinh 9.2 cn tr nn d0'n
3: ti khng
trong trumg hqp khng gian chiu cao n =
dqc theo nhfmg
cn phi giCr cho cc hinh vnh khuyn
dudng thing nita, ma bay gidl X, f, X, F E 1R3.LL'1c n1y(x,

161
y) niim tr0ng]R v ta c mcf>t php nh xa <p:1Ri +> IR%.. Php
nh xa n_1y gln c_1p (vi tri, luc) 6 tay tri ti cho ceflp (vi tri,
luc) 6 tay phi ti. Php nh xz_1 ny hin nhin 121 nh xa
symplectic (sau mt php di bi'n nhu duqc m6 t (7 dinh
Iv vita r6i). Khi hai dira tr cilng quay vng mt sqi d1y'
bng cch nim ly hai du ca n, chilng dang xy dung
mt nh xa symplectic trong khng gian R6 (coi nhu sqi
dy dirng yn).
Din gii co hoe c tinh ph6 qut dn mfrc n10?C(') th
chi ra ring, mt zinh symplectic bit ky, khng quzi suy
X_1

bi'n vira phi, 151 hqp thzinh cxa nhfrng nh x2_1 xy dung
trn nhirng hf: co h(_)c tu'0ng tL_r nhu cc h vita du'Qc m6 t.

9.6 Nguyn lv bit Cijnh

Nguyn 137 bit dinh co hcc lucyng tr pht biu mt cch
dai th ring nu ta bit clng chic chin v vi tri ca mt hat,
ta clng km chic chiin v vefm t6c cla n.
Tinh chit bo ton din tich c th duqc xem nhulzi mt
mf) phng c0 hcc c6 din ca nguyn Iv bit dinh. Hinh 9.4
cho thy mt nh xa bo toln din tich nn chiu rng ca
mcfat vtlng phzing theo phu0'ng x ti! 1 xu6ng c()n 8 << 1. Ta

c th nghi v su nn nly nhu 151 su thu nhn thng tin v x,

bd pham vi gi tri x kh di bi thu hcp. Nhung d bxo to-in
din tich, nh xa_1 phi ko gin theo phuong y. S1; ko gin

Nguyn vim: skipping rope trf) chm nhy dy: hai nglrfri dfrng 6 hai 6511
dy lin t1_1c (via d6ng b) quay sqi dixy vng qua du r6i qut qua chn d
cho nhfmg nguiri khc c th nhy lin tuc trong vng quay ca d1y.~ N.D.

162
 ny nghia l pham vi ca nhirng gi tri Yl ldn, cho nn ta
d lm mit thng tin v Y. Tm lai, d thu nhn duqc thng
tin vX ta d 151m mit thng tin v Y; cc bi'n s6 nziy c th
xem nhu nhung m6 phng ca vi tri v dcfmg lucyng co hqc
luqng tfr, v thL_rc t6 chilng thudng xuiit hin trong 00 hQc
c6 din nhu l vi tri v dng lugmg.

Bi ton. C110 ring php nh xa trong hinh 9.4 nn vimg

phzfngnhu duqc minh Iwa. Chira rngpham vi ca nhng
gi trj Y trong nh ca min di_n t1'chA t0'1' th1'u 13 A / 8 .

Kinh vin vqng phng to nhftng vt th nhd vo nguyn

Iv bt dinh ny, nhu ti se gii thich sau (muc 9.8).

9.7 B510 toln din tich trong quang hqc

Kho slt mt tia slng truyn qua mt thit bi quang h(_)c
mcjt 6ng kinh, kinh vin vqng, mt thi kinh, hay m(f)t
mcfmt

vi kinh nhu trong hinh 9.5.

1/

LA 1
Y

5%

W
'
""9117 >*X
5

Hinh 9.4. Nn pham vi ca x liam giin phgun vi cfla y, din theo diu kin bio
t0e\n din tich.

163
 X
X

((1) mat diiu sng

Hinh 9.5. (a) Thdi gian di chuyn T(x, X) djnh nghia php nh xa bin (x, 6)
thnh (X. 9) thng qua (9.6). (b) Chfmg minh ca (9.6).

x v51 X ll tc_>a drf) giao dim ca tia sng v('ri hai truc
Gcpi

song song, x v21 X. Thiri gian di chuyn gia hai dudng nly
duqc ky hiu 151 T(x, X). Cho L(x, X) = cT(x, X), trong d c
: constant 151 vn t6c ca nh szing trong khng khi.' Cho
:
y sin 0, trong dc) 6121 gc gia tia sng v trL_1c n?1m ngang
true giao truc x trong hinh 9.5(a). Mt cch tuo'ng tL_r, ta dinh
nghia Y = sin Ta s chi ra ring dir liu du vo (x, y)
.

ca tia szing cc) lin h vdi dfr liu du ra (X, Y) thng qua:

iL(x, X): y (9-6)

Ex

gm, X): Y.
* Theo dc: L c chiu kich ca khong cch; lu'u 3? riing L151 l'n hon qung
dtrdng lhuc ca tia saing biri phn thdi gian tiu t6n trong thy tinh noi
mix nh sng truyn chm hon, cho nn Tlia lc'm hon thivi gian cng qung
dufyng d cn trong khng khi. Trn thuc t6 ta c th chqn h don vi sao
cho c: 1, trudng hqp m ta s cf) T: L.

164
 X
X
:1: _ '

1 A
BM
A-1:4

(H) lnlt du sng

Hinh 9.5. (a) Thdi gian di chuyn T(X, X) djnh nghia php nh X'gl bin (x, 0)
thnh (X. 6) thng qua (9.6). (b) Chng minh cfla (9.6).

x v X tqa dc} giao dim ca tia sng v'i hai true

G01 1:21

song song, x v21 X. Thdi gian cli chuyn gifra hai duimg ny
duqc ky hiu 151 T(x, X). Cho L(x, X) = cT(x, X), trong d c
: constant ll vzfm t6c ca mh sng trong khng khi.' Cho
y = sin 6, trong d 9151 gc gifra tia sng v true niim ngang
true giao truc x trong hinh 9.5(a). M<f)t cch tuong tL_r, ta dinh
nghia Y = sin(~) Ta s chi ra riing dfr liu du vlo (x, y)
.

ca tia sng c lin h vi dz liu du ra (X, Y) thng qua:

@110,
8x

5a?L(x, X): Y.

* Theo dd L c chiu kich ca khong czich; luu 37 riing L 151 ln hon qung
dufmg thuc ca tia sng bdi phin thiyi gian tiu t6n trong thy tinh noi
mi: nh sng truyn chzfnn hon, cho nn T151 ln hon thfyi gian cng qung
duimg d cn trong khng khi. Trn thuc t' ta c th chQn h don vi sao
cho c: 1, truimg hqp m ta s c6 T: L.

164
 Dy chinh quan h tLro'ng tL_1' nhu (9.5) trong vi
151
liy C1L_1

tit cohqc, hinh 9.2! Ta di chirng t biing m()tl2f1pluz_1nphiy-

tay dang C0(II1l_lC 9.3) riing php nh xz_1 (x, y)1> (X, Y)
bo ton din tich. Dy 151 tinh chit cor bn ca bit ky thit
bi quang hc_>c no. Ta thiy (dng nghia den) cc hiu (mg
cila tinh chit bo ton din tich ny khi nh sng truyn tit,
mt mn hinh tivi chng han, qua trng mt kinh, qua gic
m2_1c,vi1ln vng m2_1c.T6is mf) t m(f)t biu hin 137
thL'1 cila
tinh chit bo toln din tich 6* muc tip theo.
Tuong Lingcohpc. Bng nhung tuang L'mg(mL_1c 9.5) mi) rng
tit co hqc sang quang hoc: hlm th nng P(x, X) tu'0'ng [mg
:
d d1iL(x, X) cT(x, X); luc F ?P(1-,X) tuong (mg sin 9.
:
Chfmg minh ca (9.6). Hinh 9.5 cho thy mcfat m2f1t du sng
ca nhfrng tia sng pht xut tz_1i A. Theo dinh nghia, mQi
vi tri trn mt mt du sng lei cch du A theo nghia lun
t6n mt thdi Iu'Q'ng nhu nhau C15 d'n duqc vi tri d tit dim
A chiem thfyi luqng nhu nhau se 151 mt cch din dat
chinh xc hon.

1. Ha ra mt diu snglun Iun vunggc vdi tia sng

trong mi trudng ding hu'(mg,** nhu ta C151 gi sir tit c
thiu kinh trong thit bi quang hcpc ca ta du nhu' vzfly.
C6 th suy ra tinh true giao ny tit nguyn 13? Huygen;

um thiri gian duqc d cp nhu I51 <76 dzii quanghpc, ta c() the nirZ1ng111zf1l

111111 lam truyn hqp

Lai/\la1111(f>tt:f1p czich duq11z111ghQc linh, diu C16 nghia
I11, 111(1ld1r61ngtrc311tl1c0 ngfr nghia cfla
(16 diai q11z1nghQc.

" |)11'~u 1121y nghia 151 vim t6c z'1nh szing tai 1n6idi(1n
khfmg ph1_1 thuc vim
|1l111-(mg lruyn.

165
 do tinh ding hung, taflp h(_)'p v6 cling b cc dim c
th dfn duqc d trong thdi gian dt tit mt dim di
cho (ceic t2_"1p hQ'p dim nly duqc ggi 151 cc mt khL'1C
xz_1) l hinh cu chit khng phi hinh ellipse. Thng
tin b6 sung c th duqc tim thiy trong cu6n [ARN].
Trong hinh hoc Euclid, cc bn kinh lun vung gc
dufmg trn; cng vi Iv do d ma: nhfrng tia sng
v<'yi

lun vung gc vfri cc mt du sng cn nhc lai

ring cc mzfxt du sng duqc dinh nghia nhu l nhfmg
durmg trfm vfri thi gian gitr vai trb khong c1cl1.*

1 X
C 1/, Y

1 D
13
DC ':~,~=:=i|f-~
~'=+f_*'9?
*1 A
d
_

A ifZa=I~.I
m :":*f -
L

1, X
W. a A B b

((1) (b)
Hinh 9.6. Nu chilm tia lhu hcp, khi dc) gc gia hai chilm tia mr rng ra.
Diu nly duqc nhn lhiy nhu 13 SL_l' phng10.N6u chixm tia thu hcp lai,
coi nhu, b6n lain, khi d thit bi phng ta theo h s6 151 4.

2. Xem xt hai vi tri lin tip cila mt mt du sng,

cch nhau mt thdi luqng ngn dT (hinh 9.5). Mt
diu dich chuyn m<f)t doan cdT, vii giao dim vdi
trL_1c X chuyn di mt doan dX = cdT / sin. Theo

d cdT/dX=dL/a'X=sin=Y.
I A A ,.
Tait c diu ni1yla1mQtch(1 d ca hinh hqc vi phn; mi)! tho luzfm t6t c
th duqc tim thy trong, nhu I51, cu6n [DO].

I66
ChL'1 Y. thuc vlo du kin ring cc gc
Cng thttc (9.6) phL_1

9, (9 duqc do trong khng khi.

9.8 Kinh vin vcpng v1 bo ton din tich

Xt mt thit bi quang h(_)c, nhu 151 mt kinh vin
vcpng
dang biu
hay mt thi kinh (dang sau duqc cho thiy dui
d6 trong hinh 9.6). D61 vi chng ta thi't bi nly
l mt hfpp
c thiu kinh
den: ta khng bit hay khng quan tm xem
nlo, c gucrng no (7 bn trong, hay c bao
nhiu ci. Tait
c nhmg gi ta bif-it 151:

A
Mt ch 1m song song ca tia sng duqc bih JOY

thnh m_0t chizm song songhcp hon.

Chi ring dfr kin n1y bao hxm 3? nghia thit bi

1:21 quang
hqa cho
hqc s phng to v1tth!'fai sao? Sau dy 1&1 phc
nh xa
cu tr ldi. Trong muc trn ta d kho slt php
(x,y = sin 9) |> (X,Y = sin (9), v6n gn dfrlicfzu du vlo ca
tia sng cho dft liu du ra. Ta d th hin ring php
nh

x2_1 d 151 bo ton din

tich. By gir, su thu hgp ci'1a chilm
tia ham nghia ring php nh xa nn mt hinh chit
nhzt
tich
mng abcd theo phuong x. Tinh chit bo ton din
y. M51
khi d tc dung m(f)t su ko gin b1lz_1i theo phucmg
s\_x ko gin theo phuong y bn
thn n biu hin nhu su
phng to nh.
Thuc t ta s chi ra ring h s6 phng to biing vd ti l
b

rcfmg ca chum tia, gi dinh ring cc gc v'i

truc quang hqc
(vi du durng true dfii ximg hinh hqc) 151 nh.

I67
 Sau dy l mot gii thich chi ti-'t hon cho nhln dinh otrn.
Trong thzio luln sau ta s lm vic voi nhfrng gc nh, diu
:
ny cho php ta coi y sin6 x1'p xi Qvl Y: sin 6 x2ip xi 9.

1.. Moi tia szing nhu, cC trong hinh 9.6 duoc die trung
boi mot dim (x, y) trong mzfit phng, trong do x 121
toa do nhp vio via y l gc xp xi cila tia seing voi
truc quang hoc.
2. H s6 phng to ca thi kinh 151 ti s6 62 /9, , trong do
6, 13 gc gifra hai chilm tia song song toi thi kinh, vl
62151gc gifra cc chum ra (hinh 9.6). Truoc tin, luu
37 ring mot chilm tia song song duoc
cm nhn being
mfit chflng ta nhu' 151 mt dim, boi tit c tia slng
song song hnfni tL_1 tai mot dim nh cila vng mac
chljlng ta (gi dinh chng ta liy tiu dim mt minh 6
V6 CL_1'C v:E1 cf) tm nhin h01n h'10).B1y gio, hinh dung
ta dang nhin vlo m(_')t con thuyn o xa, c chilm tia
song song ab (hinh 9.6) dn tit mot di(5m' 6 dui tlu
v c chum tia khc dc dn tit mot dim 6 mi tlu.
Voi mit thuong duoi tlu viz mi tu hin ra r't gain
boi vi cc chm tia hop thinh mot gc nh; ti hu
nhu khng cn xoay mit minh d nhin tit du nly
dn du kia. Nhung cc chilm tia duoc bin C161 AB
vl CD hop thnh mot gc lon hon, Ci m dui tlu
vl mi txu s hin ra cch xa nhau hon chinh xc

xa hon 92 /9, lain.

1:21

* Czictia simg phzit ra tfr1n(f1tdi<n1 ihi khng h0m toim goi 151 song song,
nhung con lhuyn lin 6 rfit xa vii I21 c lh xem nhu chiing I51 song song.

168
 img v'i doan
3. Chilm tia tri ab trong hinh 9.6(a) turcmg
ab trong hinh 9.6(b); chixm tia
ti bi nghing trong
hinh (b). Cc
hinh (a) tuong {mg vri doan cd trong
nly h(_)p
chilm tia c gc v vi tri nm gia haid6icL_1'c
nht abcd. Doan
thnh phn bn trong ca hinh chit
doan ngiin hon AB
nm ngang ab zinh xz_1 thmh mcfn
DC) di ca doan
nhr vo tinh chit chum-tia-thu-hep.
song song tuong
nm ngang 151 b rcfmg ca chixm tia
(mg. D0 d ti s6 ca cc d) di ab / AB
= }t,bi1ng vdi
tuyn tinh, mqi
ti s6 ca b rng cc chi1mtia.Nhd su
ngn lz_1i theo ctlng
doan nilm ngang trong abcd (i)
D6 cao cila abccl
mt h $6 X v (ii) viin nm ngang.
151 sin6,, trong
khi (if) cao cC1aABCI) 1:5 sin 62. Cc din
tich ca abcd v51 ABCD 121 biing nhau:
ab sin6, = AB sin62;
~
-

= 7, ta thu duqc hf: s6

thay sin 6 bng 6 v dimg ab/AB
cc chflm tia:
phng to nhu 151 ti s6 cila b rcfmg
02 /0, =1.

9.9 B511 rap

,..
\ ,
ring hn hqp
1. Kim chitng rng nu dao hlm
P<.nX> 0, khi d h
phucmg trinh (9.5) xc dinh X,
Dx9x

Y nhu l nhimg helm s6 cila x, y.

diu l<il'1,ai!(.x,X) l1 mcfat hm dun diu
L61 gii. Theo X

ca X. Theo dc) X duqc xc dinh

chi theo x, y. Theo

dc) phuong trinh thfr hai

(9.4) xc dinh Y theo x, y.

169
 2. Php nh xa tuong Ling vdi hm sinh P=(X-x)2
151 gi? Lm th' nlo mt php
nh xa nhu vy c th
hin thuc ha duqc bng cch sir dung co hqc? Gqi
37: Xem hinh 9.3.

3. Tim hm sinh P(x, X) tao ra tirng loai nh x:;1 trong

hinh 9.1.
4. Bit m(f)t php nh tuyn tinh vi dinh thlic being
xz_1

1, tim m(f>t hlm sinh t2_10 ra php nh xa ny.

5. Xem xt m(f)t hf: vi IO xo duqc th hin trong hinh
9.7. Anh xa n10 trong hinh 9.1 c th duqc hin thL_rc
ha nhd vo sL_r lua chon thich hqp nhfrng hing s6
Hooke k,, k2 v kg)?

3/ Y
\'lIlIlIlIlIYI VYVIIVVIVVIIIIYI "I.7IIIIIIIVIIIII'
kl _L 13/2 X /{I3

Hinh 9.7. Mt php mh xa din-tich-bo-toiln Ming qut (hon) duqc hin

thuc ha nhd nhng IO xo.

6. ChQn lua no cho nhtrng hing s6 Hooke trong hinh

9.7 tuong (mg v('ri h kinh trong hinh 9.6(a)?

7. (Trong bli teflp ny ti gi dinh d(_3c gi quen thu(f>c v'i

cng thfrc thiu kinh). Tim tuong tu co hoc ca cng
thirc thu kinh dll+i=%. Gqi 37: Cng thL'1rc thfiu kinh
th hin mt thuc t l cc tia sng durcyc phng ra tit
mt dim tli hi tL_1 tai mt dim khc. Tait c tia sng
nhu vy t6n mt thfri luqng nhu nhau [truyn di] gifra
hai dim ny. D6i vfri mt h co hoe tu0'ng (mg, th'

l7O
 nng l nhu nhau cho nhung hinh tr2_1ng khc nhau,
vii mcjt tng no d ca luc th nn bng khng.
Cho ma trim A 2 X 2 d6i xfmg biit ky, tim mcjt h co hq
c th nng l dang ton phu'o'ng l(,4x,X),v1the0 dc)
A, . t 2
luc the t_il x laAx.
9 Bing cch sir dung m6 hinh ha co hqc ca m(f)t ma
train C161 xL'rngA tit b1i tzip (7 trn, chimg minh ring gi
tri ring c1aA s6 thuc. GQ1' Y: N'u cc gi tri ring
151

khng 151 s6 thuc, thi s t6n tai mcfat dng co vinh cru.
Ky 151, khi d cng duqc luc Ax thtrc hin vng quanh
duimg trn don vi l being khng (chtrng minh khng
di hi php tinh no).
Hy chi ra ring tinh true giao ca vc to ring ca m(f)t
ma train d6i ximg A 13 m(f>t h qu ca su khng t6n
dng co vinh cfxu. Gqi 37: din gii Ax nhu 151 luc
t2_1i

ducyc mint thift bi co hqc thich hcyp gy ra.

I71
 1U
r::A| BAN:-| XE BAP
VAEJQNH LY GAUSS-BCINNET

10.1 G161 thiu

Chu'0'ng ny k mt c1u chuyn 137 thL'1 v m6i lin h
gifra
tn) choi vi ci beinh xe Clap v mt dinh 13? ccr bn ca hinh
hcpcvi phn. C210 gc n(f)i ti'p trong mt tam gic phng cc)
t6ng bng 180. Khng dinh ny c th phlt biu lai mmjt
cch t($ng qut vii c0 bn hon: nu ti di vng quanh
mt
dudng cong kin trn maflt phng, khi d mi ca ti du'(_rc
xem nhu 151 mt vc to, s quay mt gc l 21: (v()i diu kin
ti lun nhin thing ti trur(yc).'
121

Liu diu tucmg tu cn dng vi nhfrng cu dln s6ng trn

nhfmg maflt cong? Hinh 10.1 minh hqa mt dudng di hinh
tam gic trn m21tciu.Haicanh nm trn nhfrng kinh tuyn
v m(_3t canh trn xich de_10. D61 v('>'i cu: din ca mzit cu
cc
c2_1nh ca tam gic hin ra nhu mt durimg
thing." Mcfnt my

* Y nghfa lozin hoc c1_1 th ca phzit biu nly ducc cho lrong muc 10.3.
** Nhfrng dnfmg lh5mg" nhu' vzfxy duqc gqi I51 nhzing du01zglrac dja
vs: duqc
dinl1ngl1Tz1('r1m1c 10.3.

I72
bay bay vng quanh tam gic nly se re tri mt gc Tc/2 ba
ln gifra cc l6i di thing, theo dz) tng cng xoay mt gc
3717 / 2 < 271: trong su6th21nhtrinh ca n. Thuc ra vdi moi
dudng di khp kin trn mcfut mt cu don vi, gc x0ay c
th tinh bngz

6=27tA, (10.1)

trong d A 151 din tich duqc 161 di kin bao quanh. D6i vdi
dufmg theo phu0'ng xich dao, vi du, ta c A Zn (din tich :
ca mat bn cu), via theo dc) 6 = 27! 275 = 0, ph hcyp
vi true gic.
Biu thirc (10.1) mt trurdng hqp dc bit ca dinh 13?
151

Gauss-Bonnet. Dinh 13? xlc d1nh"g('>c xoay" 6 cho mt l6i di

kin trn mt mzfat tron bit ky, khng nhit thit phi ll mt
cu. Cc kin thitc co bn cn thi't cho phl biu dinh 13?
duqc trinh bly 6 muc 10.3.

511-,-_~Y7r~

Hinh 10.1. T6ng cc gc trong mt tam gic C511 121 7r A / R2.

173
 Sau dy l tm tiit ni dung ca chuong. C6t 161 ca dinh
Gauss-Bonnet nm trong mrjt dinh 13? duqc pht biu d0n
137

gin v nhfmg meflt nn (fr muc 10.2; n ll dim ch6t ca c

chucmg. Dinh I37 nly ny ra
trong du ti khi ti dang thay
mcfntci sm xe bi thng, nhu m6 t 6 muc 10.5. Khnhg chi
phlt biu dinh 13? mzflt nn duqc co hoc gqi 3?, m ngay c
chirng minh cng dune co hQc dua ra (tr. 177). Ni dung
ca czic muc cn lai 151 nhfrng {mg dung cfla dinh 1}? mzjlt
nn, bao g6m:

1. Lm th nxo d do din tich ca mt ming dit bng

cch sir dung mcfat bnh xe qun tinh.
2. Lm th n10 sq d6i hung ca true bnh xe gziy ra chuyn
dng quay.

dudng sinh

mat phng truc giao

~z13iF:%="=;-;,_

._ -I .3. ..gg._*;.,,_-. .,
\
.r_ 3'f~*~?='~ ' -"->2'~9"4 :>23\
~-"L-**f?
duimg sinh ca C* 1*

"
.

c,,,

Hinh 10.2. Dinh nghia cfla melt nn d6i.

* Chfmg minh to:-in hqc lhufm my c th duqc tim thiy trong cu6n [L2].

174
 3. Kin thL'rc co bn cho dinh 13? Gauss-Bonnet (dc) cong
v1 66 cong Gauss).
tric dia
4. Dinh Gauss-Bonnet
137 nhu 151 mcjt su pht biu lai dinh
1y nn C161 ngu.

Sau khi hiu pht biu ca dinh 13? nn d6i ngu, cc muc
cbn lai cf) th duqc dqc theo trinh tu bit kj/, vi m(f>t ngoai
l hin nhin 151 muc v dinh 13? Gauss-Bonnet phi dua trn
phn hiu bit co bn 6 truc n.

10.2 Dinh 13? nn c'16ing1u

Djnh nghxa nn d6'i ngu. G01 C 151 m<f)t melt nn 16i, nhu
trong hinh 10.2. Cc tia t2_10 nn mzfxt nn duqc goi 151 dudng
sinh. D dinh nghia meflt nn d6i, tung tuqmg m(f>t hc; mt
.. z

phng vung gc cc dung sinh ca C. Tt c mat phang 1

nay tip tuyn vri mat nn ba't kh kin no C16, nhu trong
\ A A . A A

hinh 10.2. Mzfit nn nly duqc gQi 151 nn dfii ngiu cla C,
duqc ki hiu 1:21 C*.
Tinh C161 ngiu l thuzfm nghich: d6ing1u ca C * 121 C, ttrc
151 (C*)*: C. Ly do l dinh nghia cila C* tuo'ng duong vi hai
nhln dinh sau dy:

1. Cc duimg sinh ca C v C* h<_)'p thnh nhtrng cp true

giao, nhu' duryc minh hoa trong hinh 10.2.
2. Cc ti'p tuyn vfwi hai dubng cong c v 0* tai cc dim
tuomg trng 121 song song, trong d c v21 c*lz1 cc dufmg
cong giao tuyn ca C vii C*vcYim:1tc1u d0'n vi.

Nhung hai tinh chit nixy holn tom dfii xirngz khng meflt
nn no duqc uu tin, v vi th' m6i mt nn d6i ngu 1:51

175
 i
ca ci nn cn lai. Chlizng minh chi tit c th durcyc tim
thiiy trong cu6n [L2]. .

D5 thy ring nn cng nhqn, thi nn d6i ngiu cng til.

Dinh 13? sau dy pht biu m<f)t m6i quan h cu th gifra chL'1ng.
M210 dil CIOn gin, dinh 137 nly gp phn tao nn cng thfrc
Gauss-Bonnet (nhu duqc cho thy 6 mL_1c 10.4).

:
'=.
i
:
"= ;j;~'
I: . ~13 -""- M I
.,,.1i&'73!3i"f"=-;1i"..=-.
.,.='{'.*1*r' ~5"'3':!'P\'='3"-,L*\:;J*
..~;;;;=z;::1_[51;;.'* 'l!.T5"*??;;;'.'?-.in:5';

0" 0*
1 AF.r:!s;2*m:?-%?hfr:;s=;%F*P5%
zzg;a;,&;w,;z.@;y@a=.~q;1,@.
~. umJxiia!:nii3Wf?!,=a21:u#!B

/
0*

Hinh 10.3. Vli mint nn vii phn d6ici'1a chfmg. A(c) + L(C') = 271'

Djnh 13? nn C16i ngu. N'u Clzi mtmtnn I6i v C*1 nn

C161 ngu czia n, thi ta c:

A(C)+ L(C*) = 21:, (10.2)

trong d A(C) lei gc khl ca C, nghfa lei, din tich phn

mat cu don S2 duac gidi h._an bi C v L(C*)1zi d di ca
v_1'

dudng cong C, m S2 trn mt cu don vi. Luu yrng cc

mt nn 6 dy khng nhzft thitphi trn.

Dinh 1y hinh hqc thun ty nay duqc gc_n' ra nhfr co hoe,

cng nhu l chfrng minh duqc dua ra tip dy.

176
Chlfng minh nhd C0hQC.
H cahqc. Cc dumg sinh ca hai mt nn C v C hqp
thmh nhng cp truc giao. Ta hy dai din cho m6i dufrng
sinh bng vc to don vi ca n, V61 dui dt t2_1i dinh ca mt
nn. Theo dc) ta c mt b nhfrng hinh ngozfic vung chzflp lgai
vfyi nhau tai tm (hinh 10.4). Ta nghi v nhirng hinh ngozfac
vung ny nhu nhfrng vzflt th deflc cc) th xoay tu do quanh
tm. Cc du ca nhirng hinh ngozfic vung nuy hqp thnh

A
hai dudng cong c v c* trn meflt cu d0'n vi S2.

{I'M
(ls
V I-:| \ \

Chan khng 1;;

iL,
'\

ti'p tuyn chung moment quay

-------------- P2.-'=x; giant! C0

(ls
- l'&
,; '

~9,,_,-
~ K

nhin tit 16 xo luc cng khng dfii '~'

bn dui

Hinh 10.4. /\p lgrc trn ds (plzia trn) cn bimg hqp lL_rc cfla luc cimg ln ds
(phia du'01).

By gid ta hinh dung ring milt cu chfra m(f>t chit khi hai
chiu c p sutp = 1, nhung phin nn cu ducyc c bao 15y
chtra chn khng. Ap suit c6 lm sup d6 dudng cong c. D
bil l2_1i, ta hinh dung dudng cong c 151 mt 16 xo luc cng
khng C161, cc) luc cng T = 1, duqc dinh viao cc du thip
h0'n" ca cc hinh ngoc vung. Diu ny tao ra mt Sl_I

177
 ging co: c hai duong cong du co xu huong sup as mot
ci do p sufit, ci con l:;1i do ltrc c1ng.' Do rin cta clc hinh
ngozfic vuong ngn str sup dd xy ra dong thoi.

Trang thi cn bng. Dtng luu tm 1:21, he co tinh vita duos

mo t l 6 trang thi ctn bng phi'm dinh bit k hinh dang
cita mzf1t non C. Tam gc lz_1i phin chtrng minh mot lt'1c, ta
luu rng diu nty hm chi nhtn dinh (10.2). Qu vy, th
37
1

nng khi do I51 khong phu thuoc vo hinh deing ca C. Nhu'ng

me nng ca bong bong chn khong1a1A(C), trong khi th/
nng ca mot lo xo ltrc cng khong ddi 151 do d1iL(C') ca
no (xem muc A.4 vi A.l). Do veftyz

A(C) + L(C*) = constant.

Bing
czich d bep C v mot dim ta mo rong C thnh
mot duong tron cue dai, v theo do hing so duroc xtc dinh
bng do do chting minh duroc (10.2).
21:,

Con phi chfrng to ring hai mzit non luon fr trang thi cn
bng. Xem xt hai hinh quat nho tuong (mg trn C v trn
C. Goi ds v ds* lit cc do dti cila czic cung tuo'ng L'rng cla c
v21 0* (hinh 10.4). /7\p lL_rc trn ds duoc cho boip. ds = ds v51

theo do moment quay quanh phuong OA song song voi tip

tuyn te_1i mot dim trn cung bng ds+E, trong do 8 151 nho
vo citng so voids: 8 / ds > O khi ds > O.M:Z1tkhc, cung
ds* tily thuoc vo hai don vi lL_tc ca lL_rc cng; goc gifra hai

* Ap ltrc v czitng thing co the co nh htrong nhu nhau ln con nguoi [nguyn
vtn: pressure and tension; pressure vixa nghia 151 p suit, vita co nghia lit
zip lt_rc, tension vita co nghia ltrc ci1ng(d6ivoiceic vial, nhul51,d1y,lo x0...),
vira co nghia cimg thing (d6i voi nguoi) N.D]

178
 I Igrlg = 27; fkds : 21r f kds = O

Hinh 10.5. Do cong phng vii tich phn ca no. Trong su6t himh trinh vong
quanh duong cong, tiffp tuy'n xoay mot goo 21: n'u duong cong khong lu-ciit.

lL_rcny duoc cho theo goc gifra hai mt phng ti-'p xL'1c vo'i
mzfit non C* doc theo hai duong sinh vien ngoli hinh quat.
Nhung goc gia hai mgitphngnziy being voci gcgia duong
vunggoc clia chting, chinh 151, voids. Ta kt lun ring hop
lL_rc ln cung a's* 2T sin(a's / 2) = ds + 8 Moment quay
1:51 .

trn a's* co do Ion ds + 8. Cc moment quay ging co trn

ds vii ds* thf nn co cimg do Ion, theo thfr bzic quan trong.
Ngoi ra, czic phuong ca nhfrng moment quay ny 121 nguroc
nhau, bod clc tip tuyn tai cc dim tuong (mg trn c v
c* lei song song.
Phn con lei cila chuong ny ta khai ph vi he qu ca
dinh 1y non (161 ngiu.

10.3 Su leflp thlnh cong thirc GaussBonnet v

hiu bit co bn
Trong muc ny toi trinh bly pht biu ca dinh 13? Gauss-
Bonnet; muc k cho thiy lm thf n1o dinh 13? ny suy ra tit
dinh 13? v nhirng non C16i ngu.
Do congphzing. Do cong cL'1a mot duong cong phng duoc
dinh nghla nhu l \

179
 Min cong

Mzfit phng liffp tuyn

Hinh 10.6. D6 Cong triic dia 151 (16 Cong cfla dlrfmg cong dngvc chiffu ln mt
phimg lifip tuy'n.

kZ ff).
ds
(hinh 10.5), trong d s lei d di cung v51 0 la gc gifra tip
tuy'n v51 mt phucmg c6 dinh trong mat phng.
Ni theo vt 1y, k 151 vein t6c gc cfla tip tuyn khi tip
dim di chuyn dQc theo dudng cong vzfin t6c don vi. ThL_lC
v2f1y, nfu vain t6c 151 1, khi <16 s 151 thdi gian, v % 121 v2f1n t6c

thay d6i ca gc theo thiyi gian, chinhl,vaf1n t6c gc.

D5 thy 151 nu ti di vng quanh mcjt l6i di phng kin
khng tir giao vi chinh n, lilc no cng nhin thing phia
truc, khi dc) mi ca ti s xoay mt gc 21::

LL k(s)ds = 275; (10.3)

chuin xc ho'n, theo dinh nghla ca k v theo dinh 13? co

bn cla gii tich thi:

L L d6
[0 /<(S)dS = JO Eds = 0(L) 0(0) = 21:,

180
trong d phucmg trinh sau cilng din t vic ti-'p tuyn vi
mt dudng cong kin s xoay mt gc Zn nu dudng co_ng
khng tut n giao cit. Dfr kin ny 151 khng qu hin nhin
nhu thoe_1t trfmg: C161 v'i mint dufmg cong r6i" nhu trong
hinh 10.5 n c th khng r6 rng dn vy. M(f>t chtrng minh
cht che cc) th duqc tim thfiy trong cu6n [CL].

D6 cong trzic dja. Thay vi mt mzfat phng by gid ta xt dn

mt mzfit cong (hinh 10.6). Ta hy hinh dung mt con kin
di chuyn dc_>c thco m(_3t l6i di y trn mzflt cong. Con kin b
xiu nghi ring mt cong l phing, vl vdi n d cong ca Y
tai mt dim, don gin, l dz) c0ng(ph1ng) hinh chiu ca y
ln mat phng ti'p tuyn tai dim dc). DC) cong hinh chifu"
ny duqc gQi 121 d_ cong mic dja ca
Tich phn I7 k(s) ds
Y.

c 3? nghia cla mt gc ml theo d n xoay theo trong hnh

trinh ngang qua 7. Dufmg cong bit 1<y ml cc) d cong trc dia
l bng khng s duqc con kin cm nhzfin nhu m(f>t dufmg
thing. Durdng cong nhu vy duqc goi 1:51 dudng trio dja.

Anh xa Gauss

.
1
~ 1

A5

Hinh 10.7. DC) cong Gauss

181
 mt din gii vgitly. d_0 cong trc dja cua mt
Sau dy l
dudng congy trn mt mt conglzi vn tO'c gc quay quanh
dudngphp tuyh vri mt cong cua vc to up xuc c dizn
g6c di chuyh dpc theo y 0 vn t6c don vj.

D45 cong Gauss. D6 dinh nghla d cong Gauss tai mt dim

p, ta xt m(_3t ming nh c din tich AS d bao xung quanh
p(hinh 10.7).
Quan st mi'ng lng nhim thnh tit nhirng vc to
te_\0

php tuy'n don vi 6 trn ming nh dang xt. Ta r tung vc

to don vi ny di v dt g6c cua chung tai mt dim chung.
Bing cch nly ta gain mcjt dim trn mt cu don vi cho m6i
dim trn mat cong. Anh xa niy duqc gqi 151 nh xa Gauss,
mic du a'nh xgz chut (hay mint nh xa maus') s g(_)'i t hon.
Gqi AA 151 gc kh6i cua hinh nn cc) duqc. D6 cong Gauss
tai m(f>t dim p duqc dinh nghia 1:21

_ AA
K-K<p>-MOAS,
trong d gii han duqc l'y trn khip cc ming chuap vi
dumg kinh tin v khng. Ni cch khc, K dinh thuc 1:51

Iacobi cua nh xa Gauss. Di) cong Gauss do d phng"

cua meflt cong. Din tich AA mang dfu; vri nhirng b mt
l6i nhu: mt qu trung, n 121 diu duong, v1 theo d K > O
(ta gi dinh trudng hqp khfmg suy bin). Vi mt mefit yn
ngua, K < 0. Hinh tru, du cf) mflt cong, 121 khng bi phng v51
:
thuc t c K 0. Thuc vzfiy, vdi hinh tru nh cua mt mnh

* Nguyn vein: maus map: map nghin Iii {mh

21 X2}; maus 1:1 mt til ti'ng Duc,
nghia 13 chut. N.D.

182
qua php nh X2; Gauss suy sup thimh
mt cung trn, cc)

din tich AA = O.
D

Hinh 10.8. Mt min D ci'1a mt cong, duqc dudng cong yvin quanh.

min D trn m(f>tmzf1t

Cng thc Gauss-Bonnet. Kho st m()t
cong ducyc duirng congyvin quanh,
nhu duqc cho thfiy trong
nhu 121 m(f>t vi tuyn
hinh 10.8. Ngudi dqc c th nghi v Y
trnz n c th 121 con
trn mzfat cu; tuy nhin, dirng coi n 1:31

dumg n10 d trn bf} mt ca mt

tiu hlnh tinh c hinh
pht biu ring:
dang khng du. Cng thitc Gauss-Bonnet

HDKdS=2rc, (10.4)
IT/6615+

cong y, K 151 (inf) cong

trong d k 151 df) cong trc dia ca duiyng
Gauss ca mzfxt cong, v51 ds 151 m(f)t
phn tit nh v6 cimg ca
din tich b mat.
Ta hy vit 1z_1i
Mt din gizii clia cng thc Gauss-Bonnet.
(10.4) nhu:

L//<dS=27l'-1-L)KdS.
theo d
V6 tri th duqc vi nhu 151 gc xoay gc ma}
cc)
mt vng quanh
du mziy bay xoay khi my bay di chuyn
1y pht biu ring gc
(lurng cong Y trn malt cong. Dinh
xoay 121 bng 21: trtr di tng <16 phng"
I I K dS trn min.

183
 n*
90 T
T

<a>
D7 C
<11)
6*

Ivlinh 10.9. Chfmg minh ca dinh 1)? Gauss~B0nnet.

Ta vita din dich (10.4), nhung liu n c m(f>t gii

thich
don gin khng? Trong muc ti'p theo ti s cho thiiy ring
(10.4) suy ra tit djnh 137 nn (161 ngiu. V21 dim c6t
161 ca
djnh nn d6i ngu l vic gc gifra hai mzflt phng bng
13?

vri gc gifra hai dufrng vung gc ca chfmg.

Diu tuong tL_r,
th nn cng c th duqc pht biu cho cng thL'rc Gauss-
Bonnet. Mt lain nra nhu trong nhiu vi du khc, diu gi
d
khng ngd via thL'1 vi (dinh 137 Gauss-Bonnet) gin luqc thnh
mt diu gi khlc d0'n gin d'n khng ngd.

10.4 Cng thirc Gauss-Bonnet

Dinh 13? nn (161 ngu, me: ta d chfrng minh ducyc bng
m<f)t lap luzjn co hqc don gin, c th duqc pht biu lai d
tn) thnh dinh 13? Gauss-Bonnet. Cho nn sau cilng, ta
c
th dilng co hQc d chimg minh dinh 13? Gauss-Bonnet.

Chfmg minh. Ta bt du bng vic xc 1:51p b6i cnh ca cng

thirc Gauss-Bonnet: trn mt b mzfit l6i trong R3151 mt
hinh dia D duqc bao bi m(f)t dudng cong khp kin Y (hinh

I84
10.9). Xt mt meflt nn C duqc tao thnh tir nhung vc to
php tuyn n vfri D chgay dcpc theo Y, cilng vi mzflt nn (I61

ngiu C *. Theo dinh 13? nn d6ing1u:

A(C) + L(C*) = 21:. (10.5)

Theo dinh nghia ca dc} cong Gauss, K = a'A/dS , ta c:

MQ=hK_
Cn phi chi ra ring s6 hang thL't hai trong (10.5) l tich
phn cila d cong trzic dia. Ta hy r mint vc to php tuyn
don vi 11* E c* trong hinh 10.9(b) dn dim tuong tmg trn
, trong d
'y (hinh 1O.9(a)). Luu y rang L(C*) = I7 @(n*) (1;

60(l1*) vn t6c gc cla vc ton quanh phu'ong php tuyffn

1:21

n, khi dim P di chuyn vng quanh Y 6 v.'1nt6c d0'n vi. Bi

gc (p = L(n*, T) 151 mt hm tun holn trn s, ta c:

LwmUm=LwGM&
Cain ni ring nu ti di mrfat vng quanh )1, lL'1c niao cung
nhin thng phia truc, khi d mi ca ti s xoay m(f)t gc
dilng bng vi khi ti xoay du lin tuc trong su6t qung
duimg nhung min sao khi quay v mzflt vn huimg cimg mt
hufmg nhu khi khi hnh. Nhung a)(T) = k theo dinh nghia
cila dc} cong trc dia. Diu nly chi ra ring L(C*) = I7 k ds
v51 kt thc chirng minh ca cng thlic Gauss-Bonnet.

185
10.5 Btnh xe dap vt ele meftt nn d6i ngu
Y tutng v nhung mt nn (I61 ngu duqe gQ'i ra b'i mcf>t
ci bnh xe Clap. Khi ti dang v met ci sm xe dap bi thfing,
cu hi sau dy ehqt d'n: C6 th xoay mt bnh xe quanh
true khi chi em true eua bnh xe khng? Ban du, ci
bnh xe 6 trang thi nghi, ce 6 true hon hio, v bnh xe
duqe gifr czin bng, sao cho khng quay quanh true cua n.
vi du trong hinh 10.10 cho thy ring cu tr lri li
M<f)t

c th. Thue t6, bnh xe xoay mtjt gc cho b'i gc kh6i cua
mitt nn duqe true vaeh ra, nhu ta s chi ra.'
C6 th gi lzftp ehuyn dng trong hinh 10.10 vri mt
ezinh tay, nhu' sau.Duath1ngtay phi cua ban ra phia true
mzjt, nfim btn tay lai thnh hinh qu dim vt gift ngn czii
gio ln. Cnh tay 151 true eua m(f>t btnh xe gie'1tung,vt ngn
ei 121 met ei nan hoa lim diu trn bnh xe d, true giao vi
etnh tay/true. By git? thuc hin ba chuyn dcfmg nhu sau:
1. Dua enh tay ln qua khi du ban; ngn ei s chi v
phia sau. Gift sao cho e5 tay ban khng lue no bi xoay
(nhu 151 khi ban vein m<f)t ei tu6c no vit); diu nly gi6ng
nhu bnh xe khng xoay quanh true.

* Sit quay vng nziy eL'1:1 bzinh X0151 m()t biu hin cfta cz'1i-gQi~l5i holonomy
lin ddi php chuyn dich song song (cu6n [L2]). Mt din gii co hqc cfla
php chuy(':n dich song song lit nhu sau. Clio met vc to chi phlrong, urivng
urqng ring vc to niy lit mrjt ei nan hoa cfia ei bnh xe mi: vimh xc tiffp
xuc v(1i l)1ni_|tdtr(yng. Khngluc nio bnh xc xoay quanh true cfla n. Khi
bzinh xc duryc mang dqc thco mt duimg cong bi't trude trn be niefil dudng,
ezii nan hon bi di chuyn thco e:-ich mii duqc eu 6 trn chi ra. Dy lit mrflt
din gizii cu hqc efia php dich chuyn song song. Cho m<f>t dinh nghia chzfit
eh, xcm cu6n [ARN].

186
 2 9
l true D6-.
I

czii nan hoa lam

L)
diu

Hinh 10.10. Tn_1c n6i vgach ra mt hinh n()n c gc kh6i 1:/2; bnh xc xoay
mfpt gc 1t/2.

2. Ha cnh tay xu6ng vi tri nixm ngang phia bn phii ca

ban. Ngn ci vin chi v phia sau.
3. Vin gift nguyn cnh tay nhu' vafiy v51 di mt vng trn
mzfltphng nm ngang dn vi tri ban du. Ngn ci biiy
gib chi sang phi. Nhung n d xy ra, m ban khng
xoay 06 tay minh!

lufan ca chling ta dua trn vic sir dung qun tinh

Lzfip
ca bnh xe d hoxn thnh php dich chuyn song song.
D6 hon thilnh php dich chuyn song song cla mt vc
to dQc theo m<_)t dudng cong trn b mzflt phng, hinh dung
vc to ny nhu 151 mt ci nan boa ducyc dnh diu trn bmh

187
 Z
/.7
kgtjhlic C .dau V m C TIC , 11

/b. Q ktthnic
.>
1 Q '-_

jb<\% 27r\
Q\>"q 6/0*)

Hinh 10.11. Bnh xe quay vng trn mt mat nn C'x0ay mt gc 21: L(c')_

xe. Khi bnh xe ducyc mang di quanh dudng cong, sao cho
mt phng chL'ra bzinh xe lun tip xL'1c vc'ri b mzflt phng,
cli nan hoa tri nghim php dich chuyn song song.
Y tufmg v mt nn d6i ngu d d'n tit vic suy nghi v
m(f)t ci bnh xe nhu th-' ny. Hinh dung ci bnh xe khi
truc ca n qut thmh m<f)t hinh nn C (hinh 10.11). Bnh
xe thuc hin mt chuyn dng dung dua 15 lu. Vnh beinh
xe tip xL'1c moi lL'1c vdi mt mat nn gi tung trong khng
gian. Dy chinh xc lei maflt nn dfii ngu C'.
Bnh xe xoay mt gc bao nhiu sau khi truc ca n
thuc hin mt chuyn dng dang nn? Cu tr 161 c duqc
nhd quan slt sau.
Dinh 13?. Gi sfrmtphng ca bnh xe Iain trdn trn C ' m
khng trl1_0't,-khi dd ci nan hoa tijn xlic vdi C*1zi truc J61
xL?ng tc thdi ca chuyn dng quay ca bnh Xe.

Chfmg minh. Xem xt ci nan hoa tip xlic C tai mt thfri

dim niio d. Ceii nan hoa ny c vaf1nt6c bng khngz thuc
vzfay, vzfm t6c ca n theo phuung php tuyn vri mzflt phng

I88
 bng khng, b6'i mzflt nn C * tinh tip xL'1c vfri mt phng tai
1:21

dim dc). Thm nfra, vaf1nt6c trong mt phng l biing khng

bfri blnh xe khng xoay quanh truc nhfy vo 6 true hon
ho v51 nhd vo gi thit ban du bnh xe 6 trz_1ng thi nghi.

H qu. Sau khi truc ch;1yh'tmtv0nghinh n0'n C, bnh

Xe xoaymtgc oz = 271: L(C*).
Chfmg minh. ThL_rc vefly, ta hinh dung phix mt lrp son u'(yt
ln C. Sau khi bnh xe thuc hin mt vng ln quanh C*,
mt phn hinh quat ca bnh xe s liy miit ldp son ca C*.
B61 khng c chuyn dng trucyt, cung hinh quat c cling
d di nhu "plain hinh vy clia nn C, nhu duqc chi ra
trong hinh 10.11. Gc ca phn cung khng duqc scm 151

27! L(C*) d 151 gc m bnh Xe di xoay.

;

Ilinh 10.12. caiu k6. Din tich A = 002.

Theo dinh 137 nn C161 ngu ta kt luafm:

0: = A(C). (10.6)

189
 Diu ny nghia 121 ba'nh xe xoay mt gc bng vi gc
kh61'cLia hinh ndn m truc ca n khot Ia.

10.6 Din tich ca mt daft nu'c'rc

Theo (10.6), nu true cla m(_3t beinh xe khot ra mt nn
C,thi tit trang thi tinh blnh xe s xoay mt gc bng vi
gc kh6i A(C) ca nn. Sau dy lei mcfut (mg dung cla quan
st nixy.

Cu k Hinh dung mt qu cu thy tinh hru co, v'i m(_)t

cy kim nhon quay quanh tm; cy kim c th chi vo b't
ctr dim nlo trn qu cu. Cy kim cung dng vai trf) trL_1c
ca ci bnh xe v'i 6 true hon ho.

D0 din tich bn trongmt during congkfn ytrn mt cziu.

Ta dt cy kim tai dim xut phlt trn 7; vfri bnh xe Ciuqc
06 dinh, ta dnh d'u mt ci nan hoa trn blnh xe V51 ghi
nh vi tri cila n. Sau d ta dzin hung mi kim vng quanh
)4mang n tr v dim xut pht. Bing cch do gc a m
bnh xc vtra xoay, ta thu duqc din tich A bn trong )4

A = 0cR2,
trong d R121 bain kinh cfla mzfat cu.
D5 chinh xc, gc 0c durqc dinh nghia nhu mt bcfni s6 ca
21:, viz ta phi c chflt cin thzfin hon 6 d1y.Tuy nhin,
nu 7
duqc gicfri han trong mt bn cu, ta c th' chqn O < on < 21c.

I90
11

sua-*:|\1 P|uJr:. THAT LA

BUN GI/\N

11.1 Gii thiu

Trong churcmg nty ti trinh by mcf>t phn 137 thuyt v bin
phirc, bng trL_tc gic vzfat 137 nhung khng c chimg minh chlt
ch. Khng di hi b2_1n dcc tip xL'1c trufyc vi bin phirc.
Y

turfmg, ducyc sir dung 6* qu nira chu0'ng ny, 121 lin kt

hm
phirc bit kjr vi m(f>t luu chit 137 tung chy trn mitt phng
(chi tifft 6 muc 11.3). Nhd vo 3? tung ny, mt s6 khng
dinh co bn trong 13? thuyt hm phirc tr nn hin nhin.
Muc du tin v s6 phfxc di hi mt it kin th1'1'c cobn.
Phn ccn lai ca chuong c th tip ctn duqc vfri bit ctr ai
di nfim duqc khi nim tich phn theo duimg. Clc khi
nim v ton tit div vl ton tfx curl ducyc gii thich 6 mirc
di) ch\I1ng dutqc sir dung.
Sau dy 1:21 vi dim n61 bait.

1. Cng thfrc tich phn Cauchy, m<f)t kt qu nn tng, duqc

chi ra nhu mt dang ca luzfit bo tofm kh6i luqng khc.
Cng thirc pht biu ring: nfu luu chfit khng nn duoc
nlo C16 ducyc sinh ra tai mt dim bn trong vitng, mt

191
 luryng tu'0ng duong phi thot ra khi bin ca vng
(mL_1c 11.5).
2. Dinh 137 sinh xa Riemann, mt trong s6 khng dinh quan
trong nhfit cL'1a 137 thuy't hm phtrc, duqc th hin dufri
dang gin nhu hin nhin v('yim<f)tl2f1p lun vef1tl}?.Tr0ng
su6t mt thdi gian sau khi d hQc dinh 13? n1y,v1 c th
trinh bily chtmg minh ca n theo ai dc) yu cu, ti vin
khng th th1_1'c su 13? gii duqc tai sao dinh 13? lai ddng.
Din gii vzfit 1y ('7 muc 11.7 lm cho dinh I3? tr nn rit
dng tin vpn c th phin dich thnh mcfat chtrng minh
cht che.
3. Ci rit deing lu'u tml cng thirc n61 ting
1+1/22+!/32+~~-=rc2/6ci1aEulercth'ph1tbiu
dang: d6i vri dng chy trn mat phng ca mt
du'c'ri
luu chit khng nn duqc vi ngun v ging hilt, kh6i
luqng sinh ra tai ngu6n dng bng vi kh6i lucyng hip
thu tai ging hilt (muc 11.8).

11.2 S6 phfrc da duqc phlt minh nhu th nlo

On Iai tinh nhn. Lin diu duoc day ring (1)-(1)= 1, ti
vi ngufri ban hoc cm thfy b6i r6i vl nghi ring: Nu
v21

m li xiu, 151m th nlo nhn hai ci xu l2_1i thlnh ci

t6t? Rfit lu sau ti mi nhefin ra ring cu chuyn ny c
3? nghia hinh hqc. Mt s6 m,
duqc xem nhu mcfat vc to
trn dufmg thing, hqp thlnh mt gc Tc vri chiu du'0ng
c11atrL_1cx:A(l)= Ir, (hinh 11.1); (161 v'i mt s6 duong gc

chi U61 cfla n c th duqc lim thify trong m(>t cu6n sch xut
* Cc
siic ca
Ncvanlinna v Paatero [NP].

I92


ny 151 bng khngzl 4(1) = O, hay, ta cng cc) th ni, bi s6

nguyn ca 21:.

P
/.9
'1)

=-< T >*
-1 1

am.
Hinh 11.1. L(i.i)= L(i)+ 4(1) = rc/2 +1:/2 = rc,d1n1'2l%11n<f>ts6

Quy tiic php nhln, duqc din dz_1t mt czich

hinh kh6i,
thm vzio,
pht biu: Trongphp nhn, czic gc cng duqc
trong khi czic d_O Idn duac nhzin ln."
pht
Diu ny h hf) mt quy tc c v nhul:;1lf1ng duqc
biu truc d. Thuc th,

L((l)-(l)) = L(~l)+ L(1)= 7r+ 75 = 276,

sao cho (-1) (-1) niim dqc theo chiu duang tr1_1c x,
-
tL'1'cl1,

mt s6 duong.
Giii thiu s61'.V1y du dinh nghia hqp 13? cila s6 i nhu
151

15112 = i . i = -1? Quy tic

php nhn duqc pht biu 6 trn
php nhm, v
gqi ra cu tr 161: bi cc gc cng thm trong
bfri _4( 1) = 7: ta trng chi) 4(1) = rr / 2 Diu nly
,
din ta dn
!

gin nhu:
dinh nghia i nhu duqc chi ra trong hinh 11.1, don
nghia
151 dim (0, 1) trong mt phzlmgf Theo d ta d dinh
__i__i_l- duqc
(O, -1) . S6 d1 khng ghi vzfxy
Cng bin minh nhu vziy ta c th ni 1':
biwi vi c cm tm 117 c1"1achL'1ngtz1d6iv(1inhCrng ky hiu 51m.

I93
56 phirc don gin nh-it, i.
Mot s6 phL'rc tong qut duoc dinh
nghia ll mot dim (x, y) trong mefxt phng, duoc vit ra vi lj
do truyn th6ng, vi tinh tin lo'i, v theo cm quan chung,
nhu Z = x + iy; php nhn ca nhfrng s6 phirc duos dinh
nghia theo quy tic pht biu 6 trn: cc goo (hay cc dO'i
so cong thm, v51 clc do dli (cc khong cch dh g6c toa
do) nhn ln. Chi tit hon co th duoc tim thziy trong bit ky
cu6n sch ni1o v bin s6 phl1'C, chng han cu6n [NP], [Sp].

11.3 Hlm s6 nhu dong chy luu chit 13? tuong

Y turng don gin nhung khong quzi-hiyn-nhin sau dy
tao thnh mot lrong cc cu n61 gira bin phL'rc vl vt 1y;
Xem mot hzim s'f(z) nhumt tnrdng vc to trong mt
phzing, bng cch gain cho timg dim Z, vc to R5 , phc
Iin hop cdaf(Z) .

Tz_1i phlic lin hop? L3? do l trufmg vc

sao sfr dung mot
to J7 co tinh chiit dmg luu tm sau:
Nu_/(Z) lei mot heim kh vi V01 mot bih phc z, khi do
Iin hop ca no R5 , Xem nhumt trudng vc to, c suit
tiu tn" (div) bngkhng v vn t0'cx0y (curl) bzingkhng
(duos djnh nghla doan tib theo).

Vn tdcxoy (tmdnghop hai-chiu). Vefm t6c xoy ca mot

truong vc to V = (P(X Y), Q(X, y)) tai mot dim z co th
duoc dinh nghia nhu sau. Turng tuong dnh diu luu chiit
bng hai diu ggch tr1_rc giao cho nhau tai dim Z. Khi do

* Nguyn do cho vic six d1_xngn1tgi21trilinhqp duoc gii thich ngfin gon.
** Suit tiu tn duoc djnh nghia or muc 7.3.

194
vein t6c xoy V(z) 13 tfing ca clc vzfin t6c gc cla hai du
gach ny khi chilng bi cu6n di doc theo dng chy V. Theo
d vzfin t6c xoy 151 (hai lain) vein tc gc trung binh cla luu
chit tai m(f>t dim. D5 dng nhln thy vein t6c gc ca du
gach nfilm ngang bng 83% (diu nily l holn tom hin nhin,
bi dao hm ny do ludng G6 lch", d 121 su phu thuc ca
vn t6c phucmg d(_)c Q theo x); mcfmt cch tuong tL_r, vzfm t6c
gc cila du gach thng dirng 151 _%f. Theo d vain tfic xoziyc
Y

8 HP
V(X,y)=5%gy--

Theo lm don gin thuzfn ngu, luru cht hai chiu bait
kv chy trn mt phing v'i vzfan t6c V(z) = tai z cc) hai
tinh chft sau: (i) khi mcfmt phn luu chit tily Y bi cu6n di,
din tich ca phn d khng thay d6i, v (ii) vim t6c gc
ca luu chit l biing khng tai mqi dim. Luu chit nhu vzfly
duqc gcpi ll 137 tung.
Ci dng luu tm l tit c cc hm s6 ta h<_)c trong trufmg
phfi thfmg vii trong gii tich du c din gii dang luu chiit
n21y!Tinh kh vi ti nhiu 3? nghia vzfit Iv hon 1:21 ngudi ta tufrng.

Visao mai vn trfcxoziy f(z) = div]7(z) = 0 ?SL_r trit tiu cila

suiit tiu tn v51 v2f1nt6c xoy ca f(z_) thufmg duqc bit d'n
nhu 151 h phuong trinh Cauchy-Riemann vl cch chtrng
minh ca n c th tim thiy duqc trong biit kjr gio trinh
no v bin. Thay vi mt chirng minh, dy 151 m(f>t gii thich

* Vri mC>tngoz;1il(: hi'm

** Vi dL_1,
hoi, nhu 151 y =
cu6n [NP], cu6n [Sp]
.
195
 hinh hc_>c (m cc) th phin dich thlnh chttng minh cht ch
vdi mt chL'1t c6 gng). Bi ta c th ddi g6c tQa d(_) tfri dim
b:21'tk/, thnn gii quyt trudng hqp Z = 0151 d1'1.B6ifl1 kh
vi, ta c f(1)= cz + 5, trong d 151 ki hiu s6 hang bzflc cao
ca bi'n 1 trc 121 8/z + Okhi
-> 0. Th6 nn, khmg lm
z
mit di tinh tfing qut nu ta gi dinh rngfl tuyn tinh:
f(z) = cz = az +1'bz, trong d a v b 1:31 s6 thuc. Dim c6t 161
ll E du c suit tiu tn biing khng
chxing ti) riing c Z v51
vzi vn t6c xoy bng khng. Hinh 11.211m cho mqi vic kh
r6 rmg ring dy qu thuc 151 ton cn gii quyt. Chng
bzi
han, div Z = O du'Qc nhefln thy tit nhzfin dinh suthu nh ca
mt hinh vung tm dzf1tt2_1ig6ctQa df) theo phuongy bil lai
bng chinh su gian ra ca n theo phuongx.

Bi ton. Trong ddng chziy xoy tucmg ng f = i/z (hinh

11.2), mpi phn tit Iuu
chaff quay quanh gcfc tqa (TO theo
dung trdn. Khi dd Izim sao vn t0'c xoy, v6n thh1'_n vgin
t6'cg0'c1z?n cn ca 1u'u cheft, Igzi co th'b.ng khng?

Tr ldi. Mt mi tn nh tip tuyn vfyi duimg trdn dL'1ng

l xoay theo chiu kim dng h6. Tuy nhin, khng nn bf)
qua vic cc mi tn giao xoay nguoc chiu kim dng
trL_rc

116 vi vein t6c gim khi ta ddi ra xa gc tQa dc). T(ng ca hai
vain t6c gc (vzfin t6c xoy) thL_rc ra lei bng khng, nhu nit
ra tir nguyn 13? t6ng qut, hozflc nhu c th xzic minh bng
tinh ton true tip.

196
 "-11

./<z1=Z
\ Q1 1') = *2

K2) 1/Z

Z
ng116n cp

X051)! V()I1g
gi611gl11'11

111/(yng (3119
I,-(Z) __1/Z

i
f (1)

r<>=> 1

/11> = '1/Z rm = 1/1*

Ilinh 11.2. M51 1151111 s6_/'(z) sinh ra 111(>11ru<mg vc 10 N611 Y/' 1511 1g1i,

dfmg ch.1y11mng1'rngl khng quay v51 kl1O11g nn duqc. M(11 vng 11011 rng
1z_1i gfic 19:1 df) biu thi vzfm 16c bfmg khfmg; 11161 ch?1111 den bif111l11111(_11di61n

k1divri16c1(1 dfmg chy g5nbn1i(}111 c:f1n v6 cue.

197
 11.4 Y nghia vt 137 ca tich phn phl1C
Tich phn Lf(Z)1z ca mcfat hm s6 phircfdgc theo mt
dufmg cong khp kin C c m(_)t din gii d<;:~p, k't hqp hai
khi nim vlt 1)? trong mcf>t ki hiu nginz

_].Cf(z)dz = Luu s6 C ]7+i Thngluqng C (11.1)

dy luu s6 cfla mt truiwng vc to trn min C duroc

67

dinh nghia nhur tich phn ca thlnh phn tip tuyfn v

thng luqng du(_rc dinh nghia nhu' l tich phn cla thnh
phn php tuyn hufmg ra ngoli ca V:
u dul
Luu $6 C Vl=[_[CV-"ld.\-, Thngluqng L. V=J'CV-Nds,

trong d T vl N 151 cc vc to php tuyn vl tip tuy'n don

vi cixa C, v21 ki hiu tich v hu'ng.
-

Sau dy l m(f)t chfrng minh ngn cho ding thl1C (11.1).

G01 f = u + iv, dz = dx + idy. B6 qua m(f>tv1ibi'n (161 s6
hcpc, ta c:

f dz = (1/,v) - (dx, dy> + i(u, 1)) - (dy, dx>

(nhu trn, ki hiu tich v6 hung ca hai vc to), hay

-

fdz=}7-Tds+]7-Nds.

Ly tich phn din ra (11.1).

khng dua ra diu kin cu th min C phi thn. V61 yu cfiu ny ta chi
* Ta
cn
xem C nhun1()tdu(mg con kin bfmg phng khng tu-cfit l d.

198
Djnh 1)? Cauchy-Goursat. Cho dfn dy ta chua zip dzfxt gi
thit kh vi nlo c trnf. Nu by gicv gi slrfkh vi, V =
s tr thlnh mt trudng vecto khng tiu tan vz1 khng xovf
Khi d ta k't luzfm ring Luu s6 L. V = Thcng lucyng C V = 0
(dinh Iv Green, muc 7.3), v (11.1) suy ra k't qu l dinh 13?
Cauchy-Goursat:
Nll fl hm gii tich 6 trn vzi trong min C, khi dd:

1Cf(z)dz=0-
Nhu m(f)t su minh hQa luu chit ca dinh Iv, lu'u s6 vx
thng lugmg ca bait ctr luu chit nxo truyn di trong hinh
11.2 trit tiu, min sao chu tuyh C khng bao quanh diln
ki dj (dim tai dfl khng kh tich, la: dim Z = O trong
b6n vi dL_1 gin nhit).

11.5 Cng thfrc tich phn Cauchy thng qua

dng chy luu chfit
Cng thirc tich phn Cauchy cho bit gi tri ca mt hm
f
s6 kh tich tai dim bit kv Z0 bn trong mt duimg cong
khp kin C tinh theo cc gi tri ca trn C:

f(zO)=;it;_[CZi(ZZldz. (11.2)
_ O

Cng thirc ny khng hon toim hin nhin vi hu hft

ch_L'1ng ta. Pht biu vt Iv tuang duong sau dy c tinh
true
quan hon nhiu.

_i_i__i_-
* Din theo nhzfm xt trcng yu (1 Lrang 150.

199
 Ynghia vt I)? clia cng thL?c t1'ch phn Cauchy. Kho st
mt d0ng1u'u ch't1ytu0ngtrongmgitphng v61 mt dim'
ngun-xoy tai z = Z0 (hinh 11.3). K111 d (1')Iuang1u'u chit
sinh ra m51'g1'ziy taingun bzinglwongluu ch'tm01'g1'ybng
qua bin C vzi (ii) Iuu s'xung quanh mt ducmg tr0n v
cimg b bao quanh dizn ky d_1' Z0 ddng b5ng1u'u srfxung
quanh C.

Hinh 11.3. M61 ph2'1ch(_);1c('1a dng chiy f(Z) / (Z _ Z0) tuong (mg h2m1l2'iy
tich phncC1a(11.2).

Tim quan trong vt 1}? ca v' bn phi (1 1.2). Theo (11.1),

CZ
E Z0
dz: Luu s6 + iTh6ng luqng, (11.3)

trong d luu s6 v thng lucyng tuo'ng L'1'ngtruO'ng vc to duqc

" M(_')tc2'1chlrL_1'c quan, c th nghIv1n(_)ll('7p nurc mngxoy

hL_1l xu6ng mt
gifing hull (bfrc tranh cfla chfmg ta cho thify chuyn dng d thco hung
ngu(_yclz_1i).'l(t nhin, gi6ng}11'1tkh611g phi l mt vi du
t6t bri c ma st
v('yi daiy, Ck) dziy cL'1z\ce'1cl('7p nuc thay CI6i, vim vim.

ZOO
cho theo lin hqp cfla ham lay tich phan. Ta hay thr hinh
dung ban chat cL'1a dng chay d. Theo cng thtrc Taylor,
f(Z) = f(Z.O) + (Z Z0 )g(Z), Va ham liy tich phan tr thanh:

_f(_Zl: +g(Z):A_L._+B_L_+g(Z)'
Z_Z0 ZZ0 Z"Z0 ZZ0

f
trong dc) A + iB = (Z0) . Ta phat hin rang dng chay tuong
(mg ham 56 nay la mqt chng chap ca ngun cap I / (z Z0)
,

xoay nude i / (Z Z0), va mcjt dng chay khng nn duqc

@(z)j. Sq kt hqp duqc phac ra trong hinh 11.3.
Chi cc) dai hrqng ngu6n cap gp phan vao gia tri thng
luqng, Z15/1, va c dai luqng xoay gp phan vao gia tri luu
S6, -2153, nhu giai thich theo hinh 11.2. D0 RE}
la khng

quay va khfmg nn duqc khfip min khao sat, n khng gp

phan vao gia tri nao ca. Theo d (11.3) chuyn thanh:

LZl_%')dz = -27:12 +127:/1 = 27ri(/1 + 1'12) = 2m"/(Z0).

O

, ...

Dn day ta da hoan tat din giai ca cng thirc tich phan

Cauchy.

\
V11,
1st. z >
1.1_\NI'l
NONG

'

Hinh 11.4. Dung nn mrfmt ham kh tich : L4 + 1) tir1nC>tphiu1b6 nhit (ii).

201
 11.6 Dng truyn nhit V51 hlm gii tich
C6 din gii vt Iv dmg luu tm khc ca m()th1m'
m(_)t

gii tich, bn ce_1nh diu ti dz: nu 6 trn. Nu di lm qucn

v'i ton tit gradient ban s hiu r6 muc n1y h0'n.

Phn thuc u ca hm gii tich bait kv:

f(z) = w(x, y) + iv(x, y)

c th duqc vi nhu mt chi s6 nhit dc) 6n dinh cfia mt
ci
dia, nhu l mt tm kim loz_1i mng, trong khi phin 2'10 1) cc)
th duqc vi nhu thng luqng nhit truyn qua duirng cong
n6i dim cho tru'('rc O v'i (x, y). Cu th l nhu sau.
Xem xt mt dia phng mng dn nhit khng dng k
(hinh 11.4) vi dl_l nhu la: m(_3t t'm d6ng, phng, mng. Mzfit
trn vl melt dufyi cila dia duoc cch nhit, vl nhit chi cc) th
truyn vlo hay truyn ra qua vlnh dia. Bing cch c6 dinh
nhit dc} vnh v chd m<f)t thi gian dL'1 lu, ta thu duqc mt
phn b6 nhit dcf) 6n dinh; gqi u(x, y) 151 nhitd(f)t2_1i(x,y).

Hinh v cho thy cc dufrng nhit df) khng (161 (ding nhit),
doc theo dudng gn ciia nhfrng phn tit truyn nhit" hay
cu th hon, mt dudng thing vung gc vi tirng dufyng
ding nhit.
Ta gi dinh ring thng luqng nhit 151 Vu Diu ny c
.

nghia luqng nhit truyn qua m(f)t CI0e_1n thng v6 ciing b

1:51

ds cc) vc to php tuyn N diing bng Vu -Nds . Ni cch

khzic, ta dang chp nhzin d<f) din nhit ca ci dia l
ding
hu''ng v cc) d ln ll 1.

ZO2
 Dinh 1uzf1tb'10 ton nng luqng p dzfat m<f)t tinh chit dzfac
bicfzt ln u. Thuc vly, luqng nhit tfing ccfmg truyn vlo min

con bit ky l bng khngz '

JW-Nds=0, (11.4)
Y

trong d N 121 vcto php tuyn don vi ca )1, (161 vdi dufrng
cong khp kin )1 bit ky.
D5 dinh nghia v(x, y), ta hy n6i mt dim tily dinh
Z = x + iy vdi mt dim cho tru'('7c O nhd dufrng cong C,
v51 goi 1) nhit luqmg truyn qua C:
1:51

1)(x,y)=J-(_Vu~Na's. (11.5)

Tich phn khng phu thuc vino dung cong C nhd vo

tinh chat (11.4).
Ta b'y gidkhng dinh r1ngf= u + iv I21 mthm 1<hit1ch.

Phc boa chng minh. Liy tich phn (11.5) theo ttmg bin
vl sfr dung dudng khng phL_l thuc tich phn dc), thu duqc

UX = u), = -I/lX.D_1l1 n1yl1tu:0'ng duong phlt biu ring

, U),

divf = rotf = O, mx 151 dzfic tinh ca mt hm $6 gii tich

(muc 11.3).

Bi tlp. Lygii bngmtlgip Iun tgrnghim true uep vi sao

m61' Iin h_ ox = uy vy = ~ ux vein dxing.

11.7 Dinh 13? nh xz_1 Reimann cho bi dng

truyn nhit
khng coi lzfap lum dur'i dy 151 rn(f)tch1'1'ng minh chat
T61
ch ca dinh 1y nh xa Riemann mil chi c 3? dinh lm cho n

ZO3
 .
tr nn hin nhin mt each true quan. Nhfmg chi tit chat

$1
ch bi b qua 6 day c th duqc tim thay trong cu6n [NP].
Ki'n thuc co ban cho lzfip luan nay la khai nim gradient.

I 0 gs
11, 1 ~00 A

Hinh 11.5. Nliit t1"uyn vao qua bin cu:-1 D va bi6n niiil trong nhfrng ging
h1'1(('Y vim 16c Zn cal/giziy.

Dinh 13? anh xa Riemann. GQI D Ia min m trong mat

phngphuc c'1u'ac gidihan bimt dudng congkin c'l'0n C,
va gqi Z0 I21 mt d1'?m trong min D. T5n tai mt ham
gii tich f
ma nh xa 1-l D ln mt hinh dia don vi, v01"
f(Z-0) :0 V3 f(Z(>) > O '

Xc lap m0 hinh vgitly. Xt mt cai dia truyn-nhit du D

nhu ducyc Inf) ta trong hinh 11.6. Ta gift vanh dia tai nhit
d u = va gift lanh mt cai dia v6 cung nh tai g6c tqa
O ,

dc) dn n61 m6i giay cc) 27$ calory truyn qua dudng cong

kin bat kjl bao quanh dia. Nhit d duqc coi la van 6n dinh
va khng thay CI6i theo thfyi gian.

* Phin him niiy cua(iinl1lyli1y6l111on ph2'1tbicu16ng quatnhft,cz1ichi(iOi

hi iinh don lin cfxa D (xcm [NP]). Anh xaflrong dinh1yl1d<fJc nhz"it, nhu
b6 a Schwarz ngfun chi, nhung r day ta chi quan tam su t6n tai cfia n.

ZO4
H dingnhit. Vi mi dim 2 trong min D bay gid ta gan
cho hai chi s6: nhit d cua n u , va nhit lucyng truyn qua
mcfat dudng cong tit A dn 2 (hinh 11.5), trong
d A la mint
dim cho truc va c6 dinh. Nhit lucyng 0(2) nay duqc xac
dinh thng qua (11.5). Tuy nhin, duirng cong A2 cf) th
quay vai vng quanh gc toa (inf), va theo d 0(2) duqc xac
dinh la chi tuan hoan Z75, bi m6i vng tang thm s lay di
nhit lucyng Zn. Ham da-tri 0(2) cc) th duqc xem nhu mt
dang cua bi'n s6 gc. Bay gid, cai anh xa Riemann ma ta
mu6n chi don gin la:
eu(2)+iv(:)

Thuc th,

1 f la don-tri bat chap su thuc rang 0 duqc xc dinh dn

27:, bi 6 = 1 .

2. Vi 2 nam trn bin ciia D ta c \f(z)| = com) =

3. f(0) = @"*"" = 0.
D cf) duqc f'(O) > ta chon dim A (hinh 11.5) cc) qui
O

dao U = O hung vao tam theo phuong vung gc vi truc X .

Ci th1''u char Ch. Mt vai chi ur" chat Ch da bi lo di;

trong dc) quan trcpng nhat la su t6n tai ciia phan b6 nhit drfi
u. Su t6n tai cua phan b6 u nay, duqc gqi la Ham $0 Green
ci'1amin, la tuong duong su t6n tai cua mt each giai cho
bai toan Dirichlet mt bai toan duqc thao luin trong hu
ht tat ca tai liu v phuong trinh vi phan ring; vi du xem
cu6n [CH].

205
 11.8 Tinh t6ng Euler bng dng 1u'u chit
Muc tiu ca ti trong muc ny chi ra bite tranh ding 1:51

sau cng thirc Euler. Khng cc) chirng minh no duqc trinh
th ducyc tim thiy trong phn l'n gio trinh
bly; chL'1ng c
v bin phirc, vi du nhu cu6n [Sp].
Bing ceich thir nhirng helm s6 f(z) khzic nhau ta c th
kho st cc trudng vzfan t6c thu duqc. Mt truimg vein
t6c nhu vy, tuo'ng [mg hm s6:

f(z) = (11.6)
21

duqc chi ra trong hinh 11.6.

, , ~~
,4 .11:--,.:,
x. .-
H
,
.,
Y
....\,
:
'\>-_~-=1
-

_,.
9

,' '
'
'7

>,-A ..
14""
,\,,,..,.,.,..K,.~.
.,,,. J1
.

<
.'

mm
x
|

__.-.:z_\. :; =1=1=":I*::=.* 1*+==*~~l1;1"..=~.

q-'.~._'>_;- -_,A.,1.-1 :-=.,..;.~1 ;=; \:\;I\,lY-"~|)""$$$':; e/;.pmy-1i;'..:'.~!.;.

>

,7,
?'1',".;r
Iv"-~ -'
1,.....-=\_
~{".:'-1'W'I-,",1..
_, .
_,._1 1.5,
:'|I.'..-I -1. -":='~
_ ..__ Y?;,_,,
: -,-.
., .q,,.:.1.\.,1'_l-E:
_ .,_
;;-.,>-,;1;~-.;:.!,--
__U,mH,,,,__w_
e" "\@;-=~;-w<>?;f.='<@-,1,w1Z.s~;s= .1 ;-.>":1';.r3I_-@1?. "3"51:4-
A "Jr" ;.f.~,'.,;;=;:.> -,f1'--,;"w-'~:-- !=~:7

<>T~'e-f*'t~~\<,--~
1 1+: gm wk :..
V1"
.. @<_:- :,~.:;="r=W.-",~,-
I'.1'1f..3',;ia<.1...i:uit:1?11-:=%=sw>:i;<w.;@1.-41 '4 "V ~~?- M
,

'7 Y 1:
=='1w"11I-":?11;'i-%F'E,?!?i'W:-'rl'W--= 1~::v"~I.n>
\"-Iii?- -H!-L=v '1'!i?}*1~i*lf'i'i3~ '=-l3;>5,~V :
I
'
I--J57 '=1~I2' ?{=11}}~J,
.Jif-='12"3f'.v%'i31E"4.",Z~");7.;<;-7'-$1.?* ?f.:2Y'~'1ii~

1:
.
=,;=.

,
~41',~.\;\:@:~:'
1
.
em ....:.".=.. ~-'r
1-1'33:-:-$1..-{:::9.=}i2.4;: 1.7 1:4
'1 "'.' ; ' -'*1~_-" ", \= . ~

.~:=w=, 1 .1,
" "
?':~.~~-*-4 z M.
n -e,-.I. P51
.
44 'w~'-_*-.<;y.:";',. '1;-{'J:'1.\:.111'.-.',-...;; :.~'=~'
,g_5.1' ,-M. ./_I.W-"G1 '2
"
};-1:1,: -'_|.rngu_
.:! .
.-

njhu .
-;
;_
\
._I,i._ ~-
-<<:};'>._K~u!-.>:,;. 1; ' lf;:.',.l_ , _\ #

"~~;;:.".=;w- ~=:;"12,_=~1fz1.1?-+*' I. ,'_+;-I

V

'-'\
<
. -~~ -\ r
; J
:~-;1:|w

1
dimci ' -.-
~z }

'!v'_._"~' \

Hinh 11.6. Nhit luqng dinh nghia theo (11.6). M5i dim s6 nguyn n tao ra Hi,
don vi lu'u chit m5i giy. G60 tQa d6 hiip thL_1 712 / 3 don vi hru chfit mi giy.

Tz_1i g6c tqa dim, lu'u chit duqc dy ra theo phucmg x v

hip thL_1 theo phuong y .' Mcjt tinh ton (sir dung chu5i

* Vim t6c ti'nti v6 cuc tai ln can g6c tqa d(f>. M6 hinh dng duqc cho thiy
6 dfxy duqc gqi 13 ti: cuc.

2O()
Taylor) mil ti luqc b qua chi ra ring sq hip thu manh
hcm mt lucyng 7772 / 3. Diu ny nghia ll thng lucyng qua
mt duimg trn nh bao quanh g6c tQa dzf) 151 7z2 / 3 .M:1t
khc, m6i dim nguyn Z = I1 = il
= i2,..., 151 mt ngun
cfip c cudng (if) Nhu hinh v gqi ra, tzit (:51 luu chit di
12

ra tir cc ngu6n cgp v g6c tqa d, v do C16:

2
l
L=2(l+-"+*3+...),
1

3 2 3

trong d s1_x c6 mat cla thtra s6 2 suy ra tit vic clc ngun
cip hqp thnh nhfmg czfip d6i xrng in. Chia cho 2 ta c
duos cng thtrc Euler:

l+~l+i+
2 32 '6'
~52 (117)
'

207
F'l-il,.| LITJC-'
|<|EN "r|-|Ur: v/.'r LY BAN THIET

Phu lL_lC ngin ny bao g6m nhfmg bf) C16 ngh vzfat 13? ducyc
sir dung xuyn su6t cu6n seich.

A.1 L6 X0
B6 ngh cho nhfrng thi nghim gi tufmg ca chljmg
CI6

ta bao g6m hai l02_1i 16 xo: IO X0 tuyf-in tinh v 16 X0 cc) lL_rc

cng hing s6.
L0 X0 dn I151 cht. Mt IO xo dn h6i chzfit ll lb xo c luc
cng ti l trL_1'c ti'p v'i C16 dli ca n: ko cng mt lb xo nhu
vy dh mt d am x am hi m()t we kx. (J dy k 151 m()t
hing s6 (duoc goi 121 hng s6 Hooke), dc trung cho m6i lc)
x0 cu th. Gizi tri k nh nghia 121 16 X0 lng, trong khi k lfm
nghia 151 16 X0 cL'1'ng. Lu'u 3? ring dtf) di nghi ca l02_1i 16 x0
nly bng khng.

Tn NANG CUA MOT LO X0 DAN H61cHAT. Theo dinh nghia,

th nng cla m()t IO xo 151 cng cn thit d ko gin 10 xo
lit <16 deli nghi ((1 dy 151 biing khng) C1'n dc) di x. Cng
nly cc) th tinh duqc bng (luc ko trung binh do tay ti tlc

ZO8
dng) ><(kho2"1ng cch x ma} tay ti di chuyn). Luc ko trung
binh ducyc cho theo l(() + /(X) = L/Q-,v1theo d th nng l
2 2

1
P(x = kx2 .

) 2

Thay vi vzfly, cf) th tinh cng ny nhu tich phn ca luc

theo khong cch: P(x) = Ll-(/<x)ds = -kxz .
()

piston C
C

chain khng Q

<~ f > C

Hinh A.1. Hai m6 hinh thL_rc t6 cL'1a mt lb xo luc cng hiing s6.

Ld X0 c6 Igrc cng being s6. LO x0 c luc cng khng phL_1

thuc vlo d giin ciia n duqc gqi le1 10 x0 c 1z_1c cnghng
s. Ci 16 xo la lilng nly c th Ciuqc lm ttr m<f)t piston truqt

khng ma st trong mt 6ng xy lanh bi bit kin m(f)t du, v<'7i

chn khng bn trong, nhu cho thy trong hinh A.1. M(_3t
mf) hinh thuc t khc, duqc chi ra trong hinh A.1, bao g6m
qu nng C v'i ci rng r(_)c.

THE NANG CUA MOT LO xo LUC GANG HANG s6. Theo dinh
nghia, th nng 151 cng cn c d ko gin 10 x0 tit m(f)t d deli
tham chiu, ml ta chon 151 biing khng, dn mt d di cho
truc. Cng nxy bng luc ko C nhn cho khong cch x:

E = cx.

209
A.2 Mng X51 phng
Mlng X51 phng 1:21 m6 phng hai chiu ca lc) xo cc) luc cng
hiing s6. Mt mmg x phng nhu' la tung cla mt bong
bng xl phng c mt tinh chit ky la: trong th gii 13? tumg
ha ca chilng ta, sirc cng bf} mzit ca bong bng X21 phbng
khng thay d6i khi ta 151m gin ra hay co lai ci mng 13?
tuimg. Nhu khi ta th6i ph6ng m()t bng xix phng, sL'1'c cng
b mlt ca n khng dfii.
Sirc cng b mt, theo dinh nghia, lei cn cc) d gifr
1L_1C

nguyn dang m(f)t khe hf) cc) d dli d0'n vi. Nu ta hinh dung
vic khu khe h, luc lm giir nguyn dang ny ll t6ng sfrc
cng cila tit c dy chi trong dufmg kh1u.Vc'ri mng xii phbng,
src cng b mt 151 ding hu()*ng. Diu ny (:6 nghia ring sL_t
dinh hufmg ca khe hf) khng nh hufmg gi d'n sire cng
b mt. Trong khi d, sirc cng di hung xuzit hin 6 hiu ht
cc b mt nhu da, mng nhua cao su, vch cfla (ing nn,
bnh xe, vl cc veil liu phil.
Th-'nng ca mt mzing xii phdng ti l thufan vi din
tich mng A :

E=O'A, (A.1)

trong C16 6121 sire cng b meflt. M61 lin h ny khin mng
xii phng tr nn hru dung trong vic gii quyt nhfmg bi
ton t6i thiu ha din tich. D65 minh chirng m6i lin h
(A.1), xt ci khung trong hinh A.2; thanh thing trucyt doc
theo khung, ko mng xii phng v phia sau. Nu L 151 dim
dili phn ca thanh thing tiffp xc v'i mng, 1L_lC cn cc) d
di chuyn n F = 0'L.
1:51

ZIO
 i,_=A+=~LD,ii L FIUL

D
Ilinh A.2. Th6 nimg cfla min mng x51 phng vri sfrc cng b min khng di
0']?! 0A.

(Mt cch tucmg dunng, cung c th nghi v mt 6ng xy

lanh viri mt piston chuyn dng v hai hung, v'i chn
khng bn trong v vi p l1_rc 0' bn ngoli.) Theo dinh nghia,
nng lucyng ca h being vfri cng cin c d ko thanh dc) ttr
vi tri tham chiu, ml ta chqn vi tri din tich bng khng.
1:21

D5 ko thanh (hay piston) mcfat khong D s t6n cng

E= 0L D = GA,
.

minh chfrng cho nhzfan dinh.

/ ~
Bi ton. Cc ng dn bj dng dei Iun Iun mil" gay doc
thn. Vi sao?

Lri gii. Ta s thziy sire cng dcpc thn trong xylanh bi nn

lrn gip hai l:1n s1i:c cng theo phurong dudng kinh. Ta hy
so slnh cc lL_rc cn cf) d gift nguyn dang m(f)t v't nirt dpc
thn so vfyi m<f)t vt nL'1't ngang (hinh A.3).
Gqi p l zip lL_rc bn trong 6ng; ta gi sfr n ll ding hung.
(Thaflt thl m ni, ta thuc su dang gii thich tz_1i sao mt 6ng
din vri luu chit bi nn, chfr khng phi 6ng bi dng bng,
s bi nfrt giy dqc thn.) Nu ta cit 6ng din dc_>c theo dudng

Zll
kinh (hinh A.3) tfin lL_tc p 7rr2 d gift meflt cfit nguyn kh6i
s -

i
ch6ngl2_1i1plL_rc p ln din tich 7l'I2.L1,1'C ny durqc mang trn
d di 21rr cila meit cit, cho nn gi tri luc trn mt don vi
chiu di 151:

p]Zr2 1
0- thcophmmgngnng Z Z - pf '
27zr 2

[) - 1r1'2 7 -

6 ' 2;. -' ;"W

an:-1:.'4.@:-;:';i.,..
1' .'f'.!- Lg... -::'
-a>:'::v!1. * a;.'}1=},1;~~-~ -$3
->+;r:"=aw
\
'2} .-if-ll 1 bi" ~:-.?ii*.'fZ.1I3"l**..rl.*'-'5

I .;~.,:~'<=.2z!2 1255; 1 ~=i::1v .< NI'_.::.:4Y:";; V

.s<' ;uf<:{h:'.;'= ;=a;;!.f;,_:j;-;=_;. +'~i;=i._1-".=;1;f,';=; -~-,1?"-5

=12; Ti : :17? 2*;-12 '~%*~=-=1~:1#
urhx-1-'1 W/Hi- '=;\}~--"-1={~1!"-'~'" "" :?E~..-:5-*-:1<'-"1@%~<i-I=-W41
up--~wy/='h5J,=f.k1";'4j5'~W
1
=,i~'i I vE-?N.',~{<;=.l5.1'- "'3 5; 5'52"-' M iu;=~-T".:.~': 1ifI\!i
~--~\IL>'\ln.\.iiv|1|L,L:'~3A~
-*" ~.w *1 ~", ,.., 1:*1I'i"1 '*'~i-*1 "5"l!5?';.="m!
"5' I \4
"
. x 1 Y

n~:-5.1,, _.; .~\w- \-I

,..~
*1@22;&'-1-1%v;;:$>;i;~:;; r: ~
'\YlI\4~_:v|'>\ ~ - 34:13
':;'_.--=141;-..-,ra-v-,;:
1-1},-~;,~. .,~;4.i.v1-11:;
v-;,,,,;;.-\\..:,v.,.'.~1,u,::_;_. b
v==;;1.2,-{W,&t=:ta'2rI=-*'
~:<;~>>~:~:,&@~z~.="
I-"W ,1.-\. sw-
.

/\ J Y 1
;,m~.~"*-'=_:1v'--"
.,,...
:7theo ~2Tr'r H4"
phuong ngang

Hinh A.3.C1n bng luc dQc theo 6ng din v ciit ngang 6ng dn.

Nu ta ciit 6ng din dqc theo hai dufmg sinh vi d di L

m6i dufmg (hinh A.3), mt 1L_1'C c d lnp ><(L ><2r) s cn
c d gift khe nL'rt nguyn dang ch6ng lai lp ln din lL_rc

tich ca din hinh chit nh:1tL

ti-'t >< Zr. Chia cho mt don
vi din tich cila vt nirt ta c:

p><(L><2r)
GdQclh|1: :pr'
Ta nhn ra rimg 0' dwhan = 20' hmphmg gang. Ong din mitt
giy d(_)C thn vi sfrc cng doc theo dufrng sinh cila hinh tru
151 gip hai ln sL'rc cng doc theo dufmg kinh cfla n.

Z12
A.3 Khi nn
D5 cufin sch niy ta chi xem xt mt m6 hinh
phL_1c vt_1

dorn gin cia khi c zip suzftp khng d51' ngay c khi binh
chtta thayd51'k1'ch thudcz p = constant .C nghia dyli m(f>t
chit khi gi tung, mt thtr tuong tu nhu: miing xii phng,
ngoai trtr li stc cng 0' c gi tri m, nghich d6i vi zip l1_1'c:

p = o',o' < O .
Thnzing ca kh1nn.Xem xt mcf>t viing phng D bom
dy m(f)t cht khi hai-chiu. Nhc lai ring ta gi sir p suit
khng (161 khi vng phng thay d6i din tich. Thfi nng ciia
h niy l ~ pA . Chitng minh nhn dinh nzly chi lzfap lai
1:51

nguyn vn cia lzfzp luin tuong {mg cho sitc cng b melt.
Tu:0ng nhu th, th nng cla mt viing ba chiu c
tL_r

th tich V, bom dy khi tai ip l1_rc p, 151 p V.

A.4 Chain khng

Tung tuqng mcfit vting trn mitt phing, vi chin khng
bn trong vii khi nn r p lL_rc p bn ngoii. Cn mt cng
pA d tao thnh mcf>t ci bong bng chn khng nhu vy,
trong dc) A 151 din tich ca vilng. Thuc vy, xem xt mcfat
piston cf) chiu dii L trong xi-lanh, nhu trong hinh A.2.
Luc F = pL li cn thi't d di chuyn piston; d di chuyn
piston niiy mt khong D t6n cng FD = pLD = pA. Diu
ny chirng t ring dng nng cia bong bng 1:21:

E = pA,

it ra cho mt bong bng hinh chfr nh2_1t. Bait ky hinh dang no

213
ll57 d duos xip xi 6 cc mite dc) chinh xc my Y
*3 U15

|5""i "h~""1lhiI1h chfr nh_1tnh('),v21 kt qu 6 trn Vin

dng.
M91 ""118 b(3ng hai-chiu chiu p luc xung quanh
biing
I W'<Y'\i%<i\1'<Y"8v ITIZII tozin hqc vi mt mzing X51 phbng v'i
s(|"<1<tz111gl) mzjt 0- Z p,
WI "5" "y p 'dung cho khng gian ba chiu v51 cho
W")! ":" kl qua; th nng ca mcfat bong bng chn khng
" M """h Vchiu lp luc xung quanh bng p, dng bng
n
""111 :" hm/t d t2_10 thnh mt bong bng nhuvzf1y,v1
Ii I1; thu;_m v(')'i [115 tich;

E=pV ME

/\.[_) Moment quay

i'1h118'h73-Xem xt mcf>t1\_rc F tc dung vao dim A , v51 0
'5' <h(lT1h(.>ntru(yc, gqi ln dim true. Moment
quayca luc
I luimh mic O 151 tich vct0T = L >< F, trong
d L = 53

'5' Vi Ti mug (i6i ci'1aA tfvi O, ggi ll

cnh tay ddn. Moment
quanh
l".V C5118 d<_>'c nhc dn nhu 151 moment cla luc F
diln truc O.

lhiu1hphm
liun x()21y\$\ I,

>\____X
Hf \ L
A
L thmh phn
@: V

khong tc dung"

F >< l.||. I-Iung cim moment

1 lil1l1/\-1- D5 16' Wmmomcntquay(1-sma)1,= I-(I,sinrx)=
dqc. Dixy 15: hung chuyn dcfmng
ctxa
l\"Y 15 Chi Ya kmii m(1tgi'y v phia ngudi
mi 69 99 thco bu luong vdi duimg rcn hufmg-bim-lay-phi.

"-..
MN
M Z14
 Dinh nghia nly vira khit hon tom v(7i cm nhm cua ta
v cudng (if) xoay." Hinh dung ta dang c6 xoay mcf)t dai 60
bi k(;:t v'i ci kha vim. Chi thnh phn cua F truc giad vi
tay cm L 151 c ich. DC) ln cila thnh phn ny lt Fsin 06.
Khng chi luc, tuy nhin, mil cn dtf) dli L cfmg nh hung
d'n cung dc) cua vic xoay. Trong thurc t6, ci thuc su c y
nghia cho vic llm dai 6c hfit ket lt tich s6 (F sin 0)L Diu .

ny gii thich cho tinh hqp ly ca dinh nghia v d ltfm cua

:
moment quay biing T = ||L X F|| L(F sin 04). Nhung cng
c m()t truc tu nhin ci mt bu~l00ng c xit dai 6c trn
n, vung gc vi c L v F. Cng c m(f)t phuong tu nhin
d(_)c theo truc ny: phu'0'ng m dai 6c s di chuyn nu n

ht ket; dudng ren trn bu-loong dutyc coi nhu hu(yng-b1n-

tay-phi theo quy uc thng thudng.

A.6 Trang thi cn bng ca mt vaflt rin

Trong pham vi tho luzfm cua chung ta, m(f>t v:1t riin 151
mt tp hqp cua mtjt s6 hfru h2_1n cua nhfrng chit dim mk
c khong cch c6 dinh v(7i nhau.
Ap dung dinh lut 1 ca Newton cho mt vaftt rin din
dn nhn dinh sau:

Dinh ly 1. Nu mt vzfat trong trang thi cn bi1ng,t6ngtit

c luc v t6ng tfit c moment quay (quanh mt truc quay
no d) ttc dng ln vzfit phli biing khng.

" Ta trzinh thut ngfr luc xnay" ht"/i vi diu cf) y nghizl khfmg phili lit ltrc mix
dung hon l tich s6 cua luc via cnh my dim. Thzfml chi mt luc b ti cling
cc) th xoay mt dai 6c xi't chill vi cnh lay dim d1'1l('m.

215
 Neu tong luc la 2Fk = 0 ta co m chon truc quay nao
cung duoc boi vi khi do tdng moment quay khong co phu
thuoc vao sur lua chon truc quay. Thuc the, goi rk la vc to
vi tri cua chat dim toi g6c toa do, va a la vc to vi tri cua
truc quay. Khi do tdng moment quay quanh a cng y nhu
tong moment quay quanh g6c toa do:

TA:2Fkx(rka)=2Fkxrk(2Fk)Xa
=2FkXfk =T0,
nhu da khang dinh. Nhan xt don gin sau day da duqc sir
dung trong vai bai toan tim cuc tiu trong hinh hoc.

B6 d v ba luc dong quy. N'u vat duoi nh huong ca ba

khi do cac duong bin din
lu'c la trong trang thai can bang,
cua nhfrng luc nay la dong quy (nghia la, cac duong bieu
dien nay chay qua cung mot dim).

Chung minh. Tdng moment quay quanh dim truc bat ky

la bang khong, din theo nhan xt 6 trn. Ta hay chon giao
dim' P ca cac duong biu din cua F] va F2 (hinh A.5)
lam truc quay. van lua chon nay, cac moment quay cila Fl
va F2 quanh Pbang khong. Bod tdng tat ca moment quay
bang khong, moment quay cua F3 quanh Pcng bang khong.
Nhung diu nay co nghia la duong biu din ca F3 di ngang
qua P, chung to rang ba duong biu din la dong quy.

* (Io lh my |;| lruorng hop rang hai duong thing song song, khi do P ovo
t \||\|1
< |u||||'_ minh van dung nu ta hiu chinh ngn tu cua ta, bang cach
.|| |\ ,1---l.|~|\mngthzng song song dong quy (tai vo cung).

216
A.7 Dtjng lurqng gc
Dng lucyng gc 121 dz_1iluQ'ng m6 phng 6 dang quay ciia
dtfmg lurqng truyn thing. Vivi mt chit dim m chuyn
dng vi vn t6c 1) trn duimg trc>n bzin kinh V trong mzfat
phng, dng luqng gc duqc dinh nghia l mv r. Nhung -

gi nhu chit dim di chuyn theo mt cch no khc, nhtr

trn duirng thing, thi sao? Trong truiyng hqp dc), dinh nghia
vn nhu vly, ng0:;1i trir thay I) bi thilnh phn v21nt6c vung
gc vi vc to vi tri ca hat. Sau dly l dinh nghia cu th.

F\ P,/f
to
1
F2

F3

Hinh A.5. Moment quay tfing ctfmg quanh P151 khc khng n'ucz'1c duimg biu
din luc I51 khng dng quy.

Djnh nghfa. G<_)i r = r(t) 151 vc to vi tri ciia chit dim P ct)
khfii luqng m chuyn dng xung quanh dim O trong khng
gian. Dng luqng gc L ca P quanh O duqc dinh nghial
tich s6 cho ca cc vc to vi tri vii dzfang luqng truyn thing:

L=r><m1",

trong d fvift tit cho dr / dt .B:1ng cch dao hm hai v6, ta

thu duqc mt mt) phng dang quay cfla dinh lueflt Newton
F=mw
iL=
dt
r>< mi. (A.3)

Z17
 Dan theo Newton, = F la hcyp luc tac dung ln chat
m'r'
dim. Vbn phi r F = T la moment quay cua luc d ln
><

chit dim quanh O. Phuong trinh (A.3) khi d tn) thanh:

dz

la mt m6 phng dang quay cua dinh luat 2 cua Newton

p = F,trong d p = mv la dng luqng truyn thang. dt
D6i v'i m(f)t tap hqp chat dim, dng lu(_>'ng gc duqc dinh
nghia la tng cua dng luong gc cua cac phan ciu thanh.

B510toan dtfmg luqng gc. N'u t6ng tat ca moment quay bn

ngoai tac dung ln h chat dim bat ky bang khng, khi d
dcfmg luqng gc cua h la khng dfii.
Day la h qua cua (A.4) kt-it hQ'p dinh luat 3 Newton.

A.8 Tam kh6i

Tam kh6i cua m(f>t vat ran duqc dinh nghla la dim ma
('1 trn dc) vat ('7 trang thai can bang theo bat ky phuong nao

trong tu0'ng quan vdi m<f)t trudng trtpng luc khfmg C161. Nhu
da d cap trurc, ta xem vat ran nhu tap hqp chat dim v(7i
khoang each qua lai c6 dinh. Lap lun sau day c th hau
nhu giir nguyn van cho phan b6 kh6i luqng lin tuc ngoai
I
trut tng Z a m k phai duct: thay thf bang tich phan a(x) dm .
A,

Dinh 192. Tam kh6i F cua m<f)t h chat dim mk c vc to vi

tri rk duqc cho theo gia tri trung binh trong s6 ca nhfrng
vi tri nay:
m.
F:;_'7lr_*= zykrk ,tr0ngd m= Emk va ,ut,\. =W:.(A.5)
m

218
 Nho rang /Jk la ti l cua kh6i luong mk so vol kh6i luong
tong, nn thuc chat trung binh nay la tinh theo kh6i lucyng
ca moi dim_

Chung minh. Theo dinh nghia cua dim can bang T, tong
moment quay cua trong luc tac dong ln moi chat dim [d]
xoay quanh dim nay la bang khong:

Z(rk F)><(mkg)=O,
trong do g la vc to th-2' hin nh huong cua gia t6c trong
truong. Phurong trinh nay phi co vc to g bat ky, phn anh
su: kin rang vat phai can bang theo phuong bat ky; thay vi

xoay vat nguqc lai, ta co th hinh dung vic Ciao chiu cua
trong luc. Chinh la, ta chon h toa do gin voi chat dim.
Bat g lam nhan tit chung trong phuong trinh sau cung, ta
thu duocz

(Emkrk m?)><g= 0 trong do m= Zlk.

,

B61 g lavc totuyy, ta at han co Emkrk m? = 0 , diu

dem lai cong thirc (A.5).

A.9 Moment quan tinh

O day ta chi tho lum chi truong hop hai-chiu cua
-r
vzflt

phng quay trn mat phang cua no. Moment qun tinh la
mot don vi do cua quan tinh quay cflng nhu kh6i luong la
don vi do cua qun tinh tinh tin. Voi mot chit dim m
nm each mot khoang r dn dim O moment quan tinh

219
quanh O duoc dinh nghia la mrz voi ly do duoc gii thich
ngin gon sau. Voi mot tap hop nhfrng chat dim, moment
quan tinh quanh O duoc dinh nghia la tong (hay tich phan
nu phan b6 kh6i lu:o'ng la lin tuc) cua moment quan tinh
cua cac phan cau thanh. Dinh nghia 6 trn phat duqc gii
thich d co ma; sir dung. Ta bat dau vo'i mot chat dim m
nam each mot khoang I tinh tit dim O. Nghi v m nhu
duoc n61 bang mot thanh khong trong luo'ng co do dai I"
d'n tam, ma quanh do no co the quay. Ta hay tac dung mot
luc F vao dim nay, theo phuong vuong goc vfri thanh, d
tao ra gia t6c goo quanh O. Ta mu6n dinh luong quan tinh
quay cua chat dim trn thanh.
Quan tinh tinh tin duos luong dinh theo kh6i luqng
111:5 , ti so cua luc cho gia t6c. Duoc goi y bi su tuong
dong nay, ta dinh nghia moment quan tinh I nhu la ti l
cua luc quay, do la, moment quay, cho gia t6c goc:

IZ .Z:Z?-
4 rF
moment quay
gia toe goo
T
6 9

Sau khi th' F = ma = mr vao phuong trinh sau cung,

s6 hang trit tiu va ta thu duoc:

I = mrz.

ZZO
 F

TTL

7.

O 6

I-IinhA.6.Momcnt (1 untinhcitachitdilnzmoment q uaY /'iat6c g ()c=m,Z.

5-

Diu nly cho ta thy tai sao dinh nghia trn c() ich. D5 dtng
khiqu1tch0tru(mg hop n chit dim: gQi rk khong cch
1:21

tit dim O dn chit dim thitk mk ,k = 1, .... ..,n . Moment qun

tinh quanh dim O ca h cht dim duqc dinh nghia 151:

I=2mkri.
Dinh 1}? 3. (dinh 13? true song song) Goi C 151 tm kh6icC1a h
cht dim mk, via goi O 151 dim tixy dinh. Khi dc:

10 = 1C = mlOC|2,

I
trong d C via I0 lt cc moment qun tinh quanh cc dim
C v51 O. Cu th, IO 2 IC .Nghia lt, moment qun tinh xung
quanh tm kh6i 151 nh6 nht.

Chfmg minh. G01 rk 151 vc to [vi tri] tit O dn cht dim mk.
Goic = 0Cl21 vc to tix O d'n tm kh6i C; ta c c = 2/,L,_,lk.
Lc ny:

221
 IO = zmkrf = Zmk(rk c+c)2
= Z(r11k (rk c)2 +2mk (rk c)~c+mkc2).

Tdng cua s6 hang 6 gifra bi trit tiu theo dinh nghia cua
C, con lai hai so hang If va m|OC|2.

A.1O Cuong do dong

Xt mot dong din, tuc la "dong" cc electron truyn qua
mot day din. Chon ti't din bat ky ngang phuong truyn
cua day din. Xt luong din tich 61(1) bang qua tit din nay
tu luc ban du cho d'n thoi dim t. Khi do:

1=='r
dq
dt q()

cho ta van t6c tuc thoi la s6 din tich chuyn qua tit din
trong moi giay. Van t6c nay duos goi la dong, hay cuong do
dong din. Dong la nhu nhau cho moi tit din ngang cua
day din, boi (i) s6 electron gifra hai ti't din (:6 dinh la xa'p
xi bang s6 khong ddi nhfrng ion trong kim loai d duy tri
din tich tong bang khong cua day din, vii (ii) cac electron
khong thoat ra khoi lop v cua day din.
Dong din la khi nim mo phong chinh xac thong luqng
cua nuoc trong 6ng dan. Thong luong nay co the duoc do
bang s6 gallon moi giay, cung nhu dong din duoc do bang
s6 coulomb (don vi din tich) moi giy.

ZZZ
A.11 Din ap
Khao sat mt trudng t1nh din duqc tao ra bi mt hay
nhiu din tich. C6 dinh dim mfic O trong khng gian, va
gcpi A la dim khac bat kv. Dinh nghia din ap V(A) tai A

la th' nang, so vi O, cila din tich dcm vi tai A. Ni cach

khac, V(A) duqc dinh nghia la cng can cc) C15 mang din
tich don vi tit Odfn A:
A

V(A)=IE-Tds_
O

C) day E la luc tinh din tac dung ln m(f>t don vi din

tich va T la vc to chi phucmg cila quang dudng OA. Ghi

nhd rang dfiu trir O day phan nh sL_r kin ta phai tac dung
mt luc bil E d di chuyn din tich nguqc lai tac dcfmg cila
trufmg tinh din.
Lay gradient ca hai v' phu0'ng trinh sau cimg, ta c luc
E tac dung ln mcjt din tich don vi nhu gradient ca din
p V:

E=~VV.

Cng cc) th coi m6i quan h nay nhu la dinh nghia (ngam
hiu) cla V, tu0"ng duorng dinh nghia ta dua ra 6 trn.
Dinh
nghia nhu vay s gon, nhung km hin nhin h0n. Luu 37

* Tich phim nay khng phu thuc vao sir lua chgn quang duimg tir Odn A.
Si; dc lap nay suy ra ti: dinh lual bao toan nang luqng. Thirc vefiy, nu tich
phan dqc theo hai quang dumg khac nhau cf) chung dim Clau va dim cu6i
la khac nhau, tich phan cho ca mt vimg c duqc bang each chap hai quang
dudng s la khac kh6ng_ Nghia la khi (10 ta sf: 06 nufn trufmg lhuc hin cng
khac khng Lrong vic di chuyn mt din tich doc thco mt dumg kin,trz'1i
nguqc v'i dinh luat bao toan nang luqng.

223
 rang khong phi tit ca truong vc to la mot gradient ciia
ham vo huong. Truong duoc cho bod mot gradient cila mot
ham Vduoc goi la truong th', va ham Vduoc goi la ham th.
Diu nay duoc thao luan ky cang hon trong hau ht nhmg
tai liu gii tich vc to, nhu trong cu6n [St].

A.12 Cac dinh luat Kirchhoff

dinh luit Kirchhoff ap dung duoc cho bat ky mach
Cac
din nao, trong do co tn din, din tro, cuon cam, pin, diode
va v.v...
Dinh luat thL'r nhat Kirchhoff la phat biu lai, cho mot
truong hop dac bit, trn co so rang trong mot truong tinh
din, cong d mang mot din tich vong quanh mot dumg
kin se bang khong.

Djnh Iuat thiinhit czia Kirchhof. Tdng hiu din th' doc
theo dufmg kin bat ky ca mot mach din la bang khong.

Djnh Iut thhai clia Kirchhoff. Tdng dong vao mot nL'1t
bang voi tdng dong ra nL'1t do.
Dinh luzfit thL'r hai la h qua ciia dinh luat bao toan din
tich: cai gi dz vao nL'1t cfing du phi ra khoi do.

* Tl'LrCmg vzfin t6c cfia mot dia quay la mot vi dl_l cho mot truorng vc to khong
phi la gradient cfia ba't ky ham nao. Truong van t6c gio djch chuyn lch
tron diit lin hay bin lii mot vi di_1 khc: loaiv1nt6c V nay thdi theo phuong
nam ngang, voi van l6c tang theo chi6L1cao.L0aihiaL1lon sfrdnng ban chat
phi-gradient cfia tr1r(mg nay, do la, Sl_l' khong trit tiu cL'1a9V 111.-, dd rL'1t lay
><

niing luqng tir gio. Loai chim nay co th ctr ling canh mai ma khong ciin
nhfmg luong khong khi dziy chfing ln!

224
A.13 Din U6 V51 dinh lueflt Ohm
Lai xt mcf>t dng (in dinh truyn qua doan AB ca dy dn.
Dy din khng phi 151 mcf)t vtt din
tung ctc electron
137

va v10 ctc ion trn dudng di chuyn, mit nng lucyng khi va
cham; chL'1ng 15y lai nng luqng tit luc htit ca din tru(mg
tc dung dQc theo dy din. Diu nay gi6ng nhu czit roi qua
mt diy nhrng luri sng niim ngang. Cc hat dm sm vo
mit lufri, chefim lgi, r0*i qua, ting t6c nhd ve10 trqng luc, Va
vo lu'c'ri sng kf, v51 cfr vty ti'p tL_1c.D0 d cng khng c gi
dng ngac nhin nu cho riing khi tr(_)ng lL_rc gia ting, thng
lucyng ca ct s tng theo. Vfyi dng din cng tuong tu.
Din p ta tzic dung cxng cao, dng I cng manh ln; thzjt
ra, thuc nghim cho thy ring quan h ny tuyn tinh.
1:21

Dy l dinhluzf1tOhm:

7V = R = constant . (A.6)

H s6 R duqc gcpitri din trb. Thult ngft n1y l

151 gi
ha hqp vi cm nhzfm chung: mt giai trj din tr l'n biu
thi ring cn m(f>t din zip ldn zip dng nhu c. Dn theo
d<-:7

phuong trinh (A.6), R l din zip cn c d sinh ra mt don

vi cumg dtf) dng.

* Dinh lut niiy 151 chi xip xi dfmg, nhung d1'1 t6t chinh xc cho hz1uhC-'tv1t

d5n t2_1inhi<';td(} phfmg. Tu nhin khngphili lftc niao cng the hin nghim
ngt djnh luitt niiy.

Z25
A.14 Din tr song song
Gi tri din tr6' R cla hai trfr khng RI miic song V51 R2
song, nhu cho thy trong hinh A.7 l1 bao nhiu? Cu tr l()i
rfit don gin:

-:-+---hay
1 1 1

R R1 R2 R1+R2

Diu nly holn ton hin nhin: thL_rc vy, khi mic cc
din tr song song ta tng cuimg kh nng din din bng
cch tao cho dbng nhiu dufmg hon d di chuyn. Cng
thL'tc phlt biu ring, that ra, d din dn - nghich (L310 ca
gi tri din trfr tng. Sau dy chimg minh.1:31

<<
11

12

1 1 1

Hinh A.7.V('1i trudng hqp mic song song, cufmg dc) dbng bi chia gifra hai din
trb, trong khi din p nhu nhau. V61 trufmg hqp mziic n6i tip, dcng 12! chung,
trong khi din p t6ng cng bi chia giixa hai din trb.

Diu du tin nhefm thy 151 currng dc) dng bi chia nh,
din theo dinh luzflt Kirchhoff:
1 = 11+ 12. (A.7)

226
 Cung vzfiy, hiu din th' Vhai du c hai din tr r0 rng
I51 nhu nhau, val dinh lut Ohm cho ta:

1=v/R,1,=v/R,,12=v/R2.
Th dng sau cilng vlo (A.7) chimg minh duqc cng thfrc
din tn") song song.
Gi tri din tr ca
n 2 2 din tr song song RI , ..... .., Rn
duqc cho theo quy tic cng nhu' trn: %: R; + Rl.
| ,.

A.15 Din U6 I161 tip

Khi hai din trfr kt n61 thlnh hng (hinh A.7), gi tri din
tn) ca chimg cng thm:

R = R, + R2. (A.8)

Thuc vefly, hiu din th hai du mach k't hqp ll tfing

cila hiu din th giua mi thit bi din tr:

V= \/1 + V2. (A.9)

By gid dng qua c hai thi't bi din tr 151 nhu nhau theo
dinh lut Kirchhoff. Dinh luzfxt Ohm cho:

V=IR, v,=1R,,v2=1R2,
v21 thay vlo (A.9), se cc) kt qu 151 (A.8).

A.16 Cng hao phi trong mt din tr

Cudng d(f> dng I chuyn qua
din tr gy tht thot
mcfnt

nng luqng trong din trfr, 6 dang nhit. Cng suit hao phi

227
ca din tro, do l luong nhit trn mot don vi thod gian,
duoc tinh bng cong th\1'c:

P=1V,
trong do V ll hieu dien the-hai du din tro. Chirng minh
ca dfr kien ny ve co bin 151 su lzfap lai dinh nghia ca V
vt 1. Cu the nhu sau. Truoc tin chi xt mot electron di

chuyn tit diu nty sang du kia ca din trz Nhu' tri bong
btn, electron cu6n" theo lL_rc hilt cila din truong, dm
vto nhtrng ion v51 cho chtlng mot phn dong nng ca no,
lm chting dao dong vl theo do tao nhit. Nhin chung, cc
electron thozit ra khoi din tro khong nhanh hon khi chitng
v1o.Trn trung binh, cc electron cho ht tit c dong luong
chilng co duoc tit ltrc htit" din or dang nhit. Theo dinh
nghia ca din zip, nng luong ny bng (Aq)V , trong do
Ac] (lien tich cixa cc electron chay qua thi't bl din tro.
1:51

Chia cho mot don vi thoi gian, ta co:

A
L5/lV_=v=,v_
At At

A.17 Tu din vt dung khtng

Tu din 121mot thif-it bi bao gom hai tm bng din din
phn cch bod mot lop mtng cch din mong. Ta hy n6i pin
vto hai tim being cfla tu din. Pin sh11tmots6 eletron ra

khi mot t2"im bng v1 dly chting v phia tm con lai. Dien
tich tuong duong q cra nhung electron chuyn dich nty lt
ti l voi din zip Vcla pin:

228
 g: C = constant. (A.10)

He s6 C duoc goilei din dung. No co th duoc muong

tuong nhu 121 luong din tich mr tu din co the hip thu
trong khi ting din zip ca no ln 1; tl1uzf1tngfrdin dung
vi vly duoc gii nghia.
Lop c2'1ch din cng mong, thi din dung cng cao. Sau
d1y 151 mot cch gii thich don gin. Khi mot tim
bng co
quzi nhieu electron, chitng dy l1n nhau v1 c6 thot ra khoi
bng, qua dy din, qua pin, v v tiim bng bn kia,
ch2_1y

cng nhu mot khi nn trong binh rong; con pin, nhu ci
bom, gift chL'1ng 6 lz_1i bng bn nly. Tai sao khong cch
gifra hai tim bng lai nh huong uoc muon dlo tu cfla
electron? Tim bng con lai thi'u hut electron, tL'rc 121 no tich
din duong. No s hL'1t cc electron, ctng mz_1nh khi hai tim
bng cng gn. Nu cc tim blng r rit gain nhau, thi chi
czin mot din p nho l CIL1 <16 gift cc electron khong do
tiu. LL10 do, t1_1 co din dung lo'n.
Tu din mot thiet bl tuong tL_r nhu czii lo xo trong co
151

hoc, vl (A.10) 121 cong thfrc tuong tu nhu dlnh luzfit Hooke
F = kx cho motlo xo dim hoicht. Bo haidlnhluzflt V = C Mic]
d'n F = kx l1tu'o'ng xtrng vo'i nhau theo
titng so hang. CL_1
the, C ' do cfrng ca tn din, v1 tuong xfrng voi hing
121

s6 Hooke k, dai luong the hin do cirng ca lo xo. B61 vry

i
cng s hop I3? khi coi nhu' 151 dung khng cL'1a lo X0.

229
A. 18 Tinh tu cm: tinh tro ca dong din
T1nh ttr cm trong dongnuc. Xem nuoc chy trong mot
6ng din thng.Ta kho st trong diu kin 13? tuongz khong
nhot vt khong chuyn dong h5nloe_1n. Goi p 151 chnh lch
p giira hai ti't din ngang A vt B ca 6ng, v goi
1L_1'C 151 f
thong luong, do 1:21, luu lu'o'ng luu ch2{t trn mot don vi tho'i
gian truyn vuong goc qua mot ti't din ngang cila 6ng.'
Dinh luzfit thit hai Newton (F = ma) p dung cho kh6i luu
chit niim giua A vl B tat mot thoi dim no do cho:
d
P = H
dz f , (A.11)

trong do ,u daftc tinh tro trong phn irng voi su chnh

trurng
lch zip luc. Phu'o'ng trinh sau cttng suy ta tit dinh lueflt Newton
nhu sau. Luc tc dung ln kh6i luu chiit hinh tru gifra tit
din A vii B l duoc cho bng F = pS, trong do S l din
tich meit-cit-ngang ca 6ng din. Dinh luzfit thir hai Newton
p dung cho kh6i luu chit hinh tru nxy cho:

pS = (A.12)
%/
F

trong do v vein t6c1uu chit via h khong cch gira A

1:21 1:21

v B. Nhung Sv = f
151 thong luong (the tich trn giy), v

(A. 12) tro thnh pS = pltgf . Chia cho Sta thu duoc (A.l1)
voi ti = ph / S.
Din cm. Dong din cung co tinh tro nhu vefly. Qun tinh co
hoc ca dien tich chuyn dong dong vai tro, di nhin, khong

* Tier din khong phi biai ton f I51 nhu nhau cho tit c chfmg mot khi
nuoc 151 khong nn duoc.

Z30
dng k; hiu {mg chinh din ttr, cli duqc gii thich bi
1231

13? thuyt tuorng d6i gii han. Ta chi dua ra pht biu ton

h(_)c mi khng miu t hin tu'Q'ng vzflt 13? xy ra khi cdfmg

d dng thay d6i.

Bt ky thay d("i no ca dng qua mcfnt cun dy cfmg
di hi mt su chnh lch din zip gifra hai du cu(f>n; dy
l biu hin ca tinh cm. M6i quan h gifra din p v
'[L_Y

vln t6c thay c'i6i cila dng tuyn tinh. 1:21

V= Li. (A.13)

H s6 L duqc gqi l1 d6 tl_1 cm. Theo cng thrc nly, dxf) tu

cm L ll din zip cn cc) d tng dng ln 1 ampe m(3igi1y.

*""i?"T

Hinh A.8. Khi cng tiil m('r, dng phi ti'p t1_1ctruyn di do qun tinh" v
Khco d din sang co th.

V1'd1_1 din git. Tinh tu cm c th duqc sir dung d tao mt

cL'1 din gizfit dau d'n til: mcjt pin nh 06 1,5V loai AA. Xem xt

mach din trong hinh A.8. Khi cng tc duqc dng, hu ht

cufmg d dng di qua cng tic, vl chi mcjt phn nh khng
dng k rd ri qua ti. By gid diu gi xy ra khi cng tic hf)?
Dbng cc) quzin tinh v51 n khng thich bi dimg mt cch dt
ngt; n s tip tuc truyn di theo qun tinh" trong mcfat thdi

25]
gian qua di duy nhit l ti. Nhin theo mt cch khc,
161

vic m cng tic sinh ra mt cuimg dc} l'n,m1th6ng qua

(/\.13), sinh ra mt din p V l'n v dau dfm.
Nhu hu ht hin tuqng din, hin tucyng ny c mcf>t m6
phng dang co, cng dfm dau khng km l chain m(f)t ci
ha nhm vlo dinh biing ci mng tay. M(f)t su gim t6c
|<'rn 1) = a t2_10 ra m<f)t l1_rc tc dL_1ng1('>'n F = /111), diu c the-5

lixm dau.
Mt vi thit bi pht din dimg chung reo d baflt tic.
Khi bL'1a dao dng va vlo chung, cng tic lin tL_1c ht m6
r6i lai dng v51 ngufyi sir dung bit duqc th nlo 121 mt cL'1
din gizfxt lin hi.
Dy l kft thL'1c bli h(_)c dau dc'>'n ca chflng ta v df) tro.

A.19 B6 m6 phng din-bom

Tit c khi nim k trn - V, I, q, R,C vii L cf) mt
m6 phng don gin trong h th6ng 6ng nude (nhu l h
th6ng 6ng nuc trong nhil chng ha_1n!). Hinh A.9 tm luqc
sL_r tucmg d6ng nly.

vi khi nhn ra ring nu cng tic chim dirt su ti'p x11c,d6ng (:6 th
* Thzf1ltl1L'1
vn ti6p t\_1c truyn qua khng kl1inh\rm(>lliali'ra din. Mt hifgu irng c lin
quan duqc g<_)i 151 bfla mrfyc cfmg qucn thucjc vri nhfmg gia chii nghc tihg
(ting nude va v10 nhau khi mly gizfxt tz'it: dbng nude bi chzfm bfwi mt van sefxp
xu6ng ri{tnha11h,gy1"am(ptsyrlng vQt zip luc cfla nude, trong khi n vn
mu6n tip tuc chily.

2'52
 DIEN MO PII(')NG Inf; '1'u61\1G 6N0 NUOC

/
- Mimg dian h6i
I E] __\_/

_
P1 P2
- :5a1_'

V1 ' \/1

D6 sL_11 din zip V = V_, -- V, Dc} SL_Il'lpll_1'C[J =]I_,pI

51" Ch fl Th lich chim chcz) W

Duns khng C I//V 0(7) lng cL'1z1 mizng C ~ W/p
'

V3! liu xfip

1/1 V2

Cuimg am ddng din

--
I= 'lh6I1gl1rQng=
D1n trb 1?, = P

I
//V pg F
P1

D tl_rcz'1m L Im D6 UL 2
I

I'Iinh A.9 Tuong dvng dif;n~b0m

2'55
A.2O Bti rap
1. Xem xt mt din tich dim q dt ngay tai g6c tqa d.
Sir dung dinh nghia ca din zip 6 muc A.11, tim din
p t2_1i dim bit kjz trong khng gian.
Ba bi tzfip tip theo khng di hi ki'n thirc vu'(_yt qu
hiu bit v dinh nghia cila din p.
2. Sir dung dinh nghia ca din p ('1 muc A.11, tim vln
t6c ca cc electron va vo main hinh TV, bit din p
chnh lch V gifra cathode (noi mil tit d cc electron
biin vo phfin chn khng bn trong 6ng) v mn hinh,
kh6i lutyng W1, vii din tich q cL1a mt electron. Gqi Y:
Th' nng cfla electron lL'1c bit du phng duqc chuyn
ha thlnh dng nng khi kt thL'1c. V l chnh lch the
nng cho met dien tich dorn vi.
3. Mt tu dien cc) dung khng C dutyc tich din d'n din
p V. Tim th' nng ca tu.
L671 gii. Bi ton nty c the duos gii hing tich phn,

nhung (I dy mt czich d trnh chng. Hinh dung

1:21

ring ta tich din cho tu tit din zip bimg khng df-in V
bing cch n6i vdi mcfmt dng khng d6i. Din p trung
binh trong su6t qu trinh nfly 121 %V (bfri din tich, v
do vzfiy c din p, ting tuyh tinh theo thdi gian). Ta c
the theo dc) xem nhu: ring ngay c khi ta mang din tich
ttrng-ci-mt tit noi nay sang ncri khc, din p vain nhu
veftyz V / 2 Theo dc) cng tlng cng d tich din cho tu l
.

W=q .v/2=cv.v/2=cv2/2.
4. Pht biu sau d1yl1'ytir mt gio trinh trL_1'c tuyn: Tit
dinh nghia ca din zip nhu' nng lu'Qng trn m6i din
tich don vi, c the k3; vc_>ng ring nng luqng trfr trong tu
din 1y tufmg nziy s chi 13 qV. D6 151, tit c cng tiu

234
 t6n cho din tich d di chuyn n tit mt tim bng dn
tfim cn lai th hin nhu' nng lu'c_mg dL1'QC trfr. Nhung
thL_1'c t, cng thirc 6 trn (qV / 2) cho thy rng chi mt

nira ca cng d hin din nhu 151 ning luqng trfr trong
tu din. Vdi m(f)t gi tri din tn) hfru han, c th chi ra
ring phn nira nng lu'(_mg cung cp tir pin d tich din
cho tu bi hao phi 6 dang nhit trong thit bi din tr,
bit k kich c6 ca thit bi din tr."
Ban c th chtmg minh hay bc b6 pht biu ny khng?
5. Tim cng suit cin c d' pht sng mcfat bng dn trn
c din zip Vv gi tri din tr R.

gii. Chnh lch din p gitra hai du dy tc bng

L(Yi

dn 151 V. Theo dinh nghia ca din p, diu ny c nghia

ring din tich q ca electron tiu t6n nng luring qV khi
chuyn dng qua d51yt('>c.' Cng suit tiu thu 151 nng
luqng trn mt don vi thdi gian: P = qV /t = IV, trong dc
1 = q /t lei cufmg dc) dng (theo dinh nghia ca dng).
Theo dinh luaflt Ohm I = V/R,v21
2

P = IV = K -

R
Cng thtrc ny gii thich vi sao c ting n6 khi n6i tit ra
ngo:E1i:mOtgitriR nh t2_1o ra m6tgi1triPl(1n.

* Cc electron r0i" xufing mt th6 tinh din trzii diai thco d?1yt(>c.N5nglLrr_1ng
chL'1ngmit trong va chgun vi nhng ion trim lin hom tom vfri czic ion trong
dziy tc, trb thnh nhit v51 nh sng.

235
'rA| |_|$u THAM KH/1|:

[ARC] Archimedes, Geometrical Solutions Derived from

Mechanics, I. L. Heiberg dich, Chicago: NhaXua'tb'1n
Open Court, 1909. Tap tin PDF hien co tai dia chi
http://books.google.c0m/books?id=suYGAAAAYAA].
[ARC1] Ban thao cua Archimedes, http://www.archimedes
palimpsestorg/.
[ARN] V. I.Arnold, Mathematical Methods of Classical
Mechanics, K. Vogtmann va A. Weinstein dich, New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1978.
[BB] M. B. Balk va V. G. Boltyanskii, Geometriya mass (Tieng
Nga) [Hinh hoc chat dim], Bibliotechka Kvant [Thu
vin Kvant], 61, Moscow: Nauka, 1987.
[CG] H.S.G. Coxeter va S. L. Greitzer, Geometry/Revisite-cl,
Washington, DC: Hiep hoi Toan hoc My, 1967.
[CH] R.Courant va D. Hilbert, Methods ofMathematical
Phycics, t. 2, Partial Differential Equations, In lai cua
ban g6c 1962, Tu sch Tinh hoa Wiley, New York:
Wiley-Interscience, 1989.
[CL] Coddington va N. Levinson, Theory of Ordinary
Differential Equations, New York: McGraw~Hill, 1955.
[D] M. M. Day, Polygons circumscribed about closed
convex curves. Trans. Am. Math. Soc. 62 (1947), tr.
315-319.
[DO] M. DoCarmo, Differential Geometrical of Curves and
Surfaces, Englewood Cliffs, N]: Prentice-Hall, 1976.

Z36
[DS] Doyle va I. L. Snell Random Walks and Electric
P. G.
Networks, Washington, DC: Hiep hoi Toan hoc My.
[Fe] R. P.Feynman, QED, Princeton, N]: Princeton
University Press, 1985.
[F0] R. L. Foote,Geometry of the Prytz planimeter, Rep.
Math. Phys. 42(1-2), tr. 249-271.
GP] I. M. Gelfand va S. V. Fomin, Calculus ofltzriations,
Englewood Cliffs, N]: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
HZ] H. Hofer va E. Zehnder, Symplectic Invariants and
Hamiltonian Dynamics, Birkauser Advanced Texts/
Basler Lehrbucher, Basel: Birkiuser Verlag, 1994.
[K] B. Yu. Kogan, The Applications o Mechanics to
Geometry, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
[L1] -------- --, Minimal perimeter triangles, Am. Math.
M0nthlylO9 (2002), tr. 890-899.
[L2] M. Levi, A bicycle wheel proof of the Gauss-
Bonnet theorem, dual cones and some mechanical
manifestiation of the Berry phase, Expo. Math. 12
(1994), tr. 145-164.
[LS] Yu. I. Luybich va L. A. Shor, The Kinemtic Method in
Geometrical Problems, V. Shokurov dich, Moscow:
ban Mir, 1980.
N112 Xuit

LW] M. Levi va W. Weckesser, Non-holonomic effects in

averaging, Erg. Th. &Dynam. Sys. 22 (2002), tr. 1497-
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M] I. Milnor, Morse Theory, Annals of Mathematics
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{NP} R. N evanlinna va V. Paatero. In troduction to Complex
Analysis. Providence, RI: AMS Chelsea Publishing,
2007.
[P] G. Polya.Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, t. 1,
Princeton, NI: Princeton University Press, 1990.
[Sp] M. R. Spiegel, Complex Variables, Schaums Outline
Series, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.
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Mathematics, New York: Pergamon Press, 1961.

2'58
 THQ co KHI TQAN HOC
MARK LEVI
Huy Nguyn dich

Chill mic/1 nhim mi: bdn: NGUYEN MINH NHUT

Chin lrdc/1 nhim "<21 dung: NGUYEN THE TRUAT
Bin mp; HA1 vAN
Bia: BU] NAM
Mm/1 /ma bias LE TUNG QUAN

srm bdn m. THANH VIET

Ky thud! vi !inh.' MAI KHANH

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gidi v trong nuc dn ban d<_)c Vit Nam, dac bit Ia
ban dqc tr, gp phin thL'|c diy vic dqc sach, tinh thin
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CANH CUA M6 RONG!
ti! 30 dfn
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tq nhin; trudc mat c'u tao

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50 du sch.

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