Groundwater Hydrology TODD and MAYS

Groundwater Hydrology Thisd Edition David Keith Todd University of California, Berkeley and Todd Engincers Larry W. Mays Arizona State University ® WILEY John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Executive Editor Bill Zobrist Project Editor Jennifer Welter Senior Production Editor Valerie A. Vargas Marketing Manager Jennifer Powers Senior Designer Dawn L. Stanley New Media Editor Thomas Kulesa Cover Design David Levy Cover Image Photograph by Robert Morris, U.S. Geological Survey Production Management Services Argosy Publishing ‘This book was set in 10/12 Times by Argosy Publishing and printed and bound by Hamilton Printing. ‘The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corporation. On the Cover: Comal Springs. The highly productive Edwards aquifer, the first aquifer to be desig- nated asa sole source aquifer under the Safe Drinking Water Act, isthe source of water for more than | million people in San Antonio, Texas, some military bases and small towns, and for south-central ‘Texas farmers and ranchers. The aquifer also supplies water to sustain threatened and endangered species habitat associated with natural springs in the region and supplies surface water to users downstream from the major springs. These various uses ae in direct competition with ground-water devel- ‘opment and have created challenging issues of ground-water management inthe region. Photo and description from the USGS website: hup/watecusgs.gov/pubs/ciclcire1 186.html/gw_effect html isk id ma i pp: ‘Copyright 20050 John Wiley & Sons, Ine. Al sights reserved. [No prt ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina reuieval system, or wansmited in any form or by any ‘means, elecwoni, mechanical, photocopying, recording, seaming or otherwise, excep as pemited under Sec- tions 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior writen pemmission ofthe Pub- lisher or authorization trough payment ofthe appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, Requests tothe Publisher for pe mission shouldbe addressed tothe Permissions Department, John Wiley & Soas, In. 111 River Street, Hoboken, 1NJ 07030, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, E-mail: PERMREQ@ WILEY.COM. ‘To order books or for customer service plese cll 1(800}-CALL WILEY (225-5945) ISBN 0-471.05937-4 (lah) ISBN 0-471-45254-8 (WIE) Printed inthe United States of America 10987654321 In\ PREFACE to the 3rd Edition Water is essential for life on Barth, and the largest source of fresh water lies under the Earth's surface. Increased demands for water have stimulated efforts to further develop, and in many cases over develop, ‘our groundwater resources. In addition we have created pollution problems resulting from over develop- ‘ment of groundwater resources and the mismanagement of wastes. As a result investigations of the occurrence and movement of groundwater have advanced, drilling equipment has improved, new models have been developed, techniques for managing groundwater have advanced, and research has extended our understanding of the resource. Intended Audience and Introduction ‘This book is intended for a groundwater hydrology course in civil and environmental engineering, geology, or hydrogeology. It is appropriate for either a one or two term course atthe junior, senior, or gradu- ate level ‘The first edition of this book by David K. Todd was published in 1959 and the second edition was published in 1980, This third edition of Groundwater Hydrology has the same purpose as the previous ‘wo editions, to present the fundamentals of groundwater hydrology in a manner understandable to those ‘most concerned with such knowledge. Few people specialize in the subject, yet, because groundwater is ‘a major natural resource, the subject becomes important for students and professionals in many fields: water supply, the environment, agriculture, economics, mining, and the law, to name only the obvious ‘ones. Although itis impossible to presenta subject fitted to such a diversity of students the common need is an understanding of the fundamental principles, methods, and problems in the groundwater field. ‘Thus, this book endeavors to make available a unified presentation of groundwater hydrology. Since the earlier editions of this book, the groundwater resource field has made tremendous strides, Awareness of the environment, concems and competition for water supplies, contamination of ground- ‘water, and enhanced regulation of water resources have all focused attention on the subject. As a result cducational programs, research funding, and professionals actively involved in developing and managing groundwater have grown dramatically. The National Ground Water Association together with journals such as Ground Water and Water Resources Research has been instrumental in advancing groundwater knowledge. ‘New to this edition ‘We have attempted to develop this book, not only as a stand-alone work, but in partnership withthe Inter- net to serve as a portal to the vast resources on groundwater hydrology that now exist on the Internet. Hopefully this book will help guide the student, the professional, and the researcher to the general documents and other publications, program plans, field project details, software, and other information found on the Internet.vi Preface Internet References “Most of the web sites in the book are maintained by government agencies and nongovernmental organi zations so that they will tey continue in the future. Several end-of-chapter problems throughout the book are based upon Internet exercises. + Example Problems, Case Studies, Problem Sets The most significant change in ths edition has been the addition of example problems and case studies inthe text, and the addition of problem sets atthe end of each chapter. For educational purposes these problems enable a student to apply ‘material in the text to realistic everyday situations + Modeling with MODFLOW The second most noticeable change has been an entirely new chapter ‘on modeling (Chapter 9) featuring the U. S. Geological Survey MODFLOW model, which has become the standard modeling tool in the groundwater field. Chief among the new developments in the groundwater field is the role of computers, not only for organizing data and solving problems but also in managing groundwater resources on a basin-wide basis for known or anticipated inputs and outputs, ‘+ New Figures and Photos We have included over 300 new figures and photos. Many of the new figures and tables within the book have been taken from various Web pages, in particular the U. 8. Geological Survey. These items not only provide specific information but serve as samples of «graphics and tabulations available on the Internet making the style of this book mote variable than that of most textbooks. + References References have been updated and selected on the basis of significance and availability + Metric and US. Units Both metric and U. S. customary units have been used in the example problems. Metric units are used in keeping with their growing acceptance in the United States as well asin recognition of the wide use of this book throughout the World. U. S. customary units have also been used because ofthe continued use by many in the United States. ‘Student and Instructor Resources ‘The website for the book, located at www.wiley.com/college/todd, includes resources for both students, ‘and faculty: corrections tothe book, updates on changes in web addresses and new web pages used in the book, and other updates on material inthe book that are of value to students and faculty. These resources. are also included on the author's website at www.public.asu.edu/-lwmays/. Larry Mays can be contacted at mays@asuedu For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual for all homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the tex, in PowerPoint format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion. of the book's website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors, For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual forall ‘homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the text, in PowerPoint format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion ‘of the book’s website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors. Acknowledgements We are indebted to personnel of the U. S. Geological Survey for their numerous excellent publications on so many aspects of groundwater from which we have borrowed freely. We are deeply indebted to Sukru Ozger who prepared many of the problems and their solutions forthe solutions manual. Students at Arizona State University have been exposed to advanced drafts of this new edition and offered severalani- has Jem oly pler has sin bat ew :U, sof, han ail- Preface vil constructive comments. We want to thank the reviewers Scott Wolcott of Rochester Institute of Technol- ogy, Rameshwar Singh of San Jose State University, Rao S. Govindaraju of Purdue University, Albert J Valocchi ofthe University of Iinois at Urbana-Champaign, Jeffrey D. Caulfield ofthe University of Mis- sour at Rolla, and Mark Widdowson of Virginia Tech. for their helpful comments and suggestions David W. Abbott, Maureen Reilly, and Dan Rothman, PE. provided useful reviews of selected chapters. David Keith Todd Larry W. Mays Piedmont, California Scottsdale, ArizonaContents Introduction 1 LL Scope 1 1.2 Historical Background 2 121 Qanats 2 1.22 Groundwater Theories 2 1.23. Recent Centuries 4 1.3 Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use 5 14 Utilization of Groundwater 9 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 13 15.1 Hydrologic Cycle 13, 1.52 The Groundwater System in the Hydrologic Cycle. 15, 16 Hydrologic Budget 20 LT Publication Sources. 27 1.7.1 Intemet Resources. 27 1.72 US. Geological Survey Publications 27 173. Publications — 29 18 DataSources 29 18.1 NWISWeb Data forthe Nation 30 182 RealTime Data 31 Problems 32 References 33, Example Publications of Organizations and Government Agencies 34 2 Occurrence of Groundwater 35 21 Origin and Age of Groundwater 35 22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 36 221 Aquifers 36 222 Porosity 37 223° SoilClassifiction 40 2.24 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume 41 225. Specific Surface 42 23. Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 45 24 Zone of Aeration 46 24.1. Soil-Water Zone 46 24.2 Inermediate Vadose Zone 46 243. Capillary Zone 47 244 Measurement of Water Content 49 245 Available Water 50 25 Zone of Saturation 50 25.1 SpecificRetention 50 252 SpecificYield 50 2.6 Geologic Formations as Aquifers 52 26.1 Alluvial Deposits 52 262 Limestone 53 263 Volcanic Rock 55 264 Sandstone 55X Contents 265. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 55 266 Chay 55 2.7 ‘Types of Aquifers 56 27.1 Unconfined Aquifer 56 212 Confined Aquifers 56 273 Leaky Aquifer 57 274 Wdealized Aquifer 57 28 Storage Coefficient 58 2.9 Groundwater BasinsRegional Groundwater Flow Systems 59 29.1 High Plains Aquifer 59 29.2 Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer System 61 210 Springs 67 210.1 What Are Springs? 67 2.10.2. Edwards Aquifer—Discharge of Springs 70 2.11 Hydrothermal Phenomena 73 211.1 Thermal Springs 73 2.11.2 Geothermal Energy Resources _ 75 2.12 Groundwater in Permafrost Regions 76 2.13 Groundwater inthe United States 77 Problems 83 References 84 3. Groundwater Movement 86 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 Darcy’sLaw 86 3.1.1 Experimental Verification 86 3.1.2 Darcy Velocity 89 3.13 Validity of Darcy's Law 90 Permeability 91 3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability 91 3.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity 91 3.2.3 Transmissivity 92 3.24 Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials 92 Determinat 94 33.1 Formulas 94 33.2 Laboratory Methods 95 33.3. TracerTests 98 334 AugerHole Tests 99 33.5 Pumping Tests of Wells 100 Anisotropic Aquifers 100 Groundwater Flow Rates 103 Groundwater Flow Directions 105 36.1 FlowNets 105 3.6.2 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours 106 3.63 Flow Across WaterTable 112 3.64 Flow Across a Hydraulic Conductivity Boundary 114 3.65 Regional Flow Patters 115 Dispersion 119 37.1 Concept 119 3.2. Dispersion and Groundwater Hydrology 121 Groundwater Tracers 122 General Flow Equations 122 Unsaturated Flow 125 3.10.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Soils 126 3.10.2 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity 128 ail 3.12 Prot Rele a\s 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 Prob Refe 53 SA3.103 Vertical and Horizontal Fiows 133, 3.1 Kinematic Wave 133 3.12 Infiltration: The Green-Ampt Method 134 Problems 140 References 142, 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics 146 Contents xi 4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 146 4.1.1 Confined Aquifer 146 4.12 Unconfined Aquifer 147 4.13 Base Flow toa Stream 149 42 Steady Radial Flow toaWell 152 42.1 Confined Aquifer 152 42.2 Unconfined Aquifer 156 42.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge 43° WellinaUniformFlow 161 44 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Confined Aquifer 163 44.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation 163 44.2 Theis Method of Solution 168 4443 Cooper-Jacob Method of Solution 167 444 Chow Method of Solution 169 445 Recovery Test 170 45. Unsteady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 172 4.6 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Leaky Aquifer 177 4.7 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 180 47.1 WellFlow Near a Stream 180 4.7.2 Well Flow Near an Impermeable Boundary 186 4.73. Well Flow Near Other Boundaries 189 4.74 Location of Aquifer Boundary 191 48 Multiple Well Systems 192 49. Partially Penetrating Wells 195, 4.10 Well Flow for Special Conditions 198 Problems 198 References 204 5 Water Wells 206 159 5.1 Test Holes and Well Logs 206 5.2. Methods for Constructing Shallow Wells 206 52.1 DugWells 208 522 Bored Wells 209 523 DrivenWells 211 5.24 Jetted Wells 212 5.3 Methods for Drilling Deep Wells 214 53.1 Cable Tool Method 218 53.2 RotaryMethod 20 533 AirRotary Method — 220 534 Rotary-Percussion Method 221 53.5 Reverse-Circulation Rotary Method 222 54 Well Completion 222 S41 WellCasings 222 542 Cementing 223 543 Screens 223 544 Gravel Packs 226Contents 55 Well Development 228 35.1 Pumping 228 552 Surging 228 55.3. Surging with Air 228 554 Backwashing with Air 228 555 Hydraulic Jeting 230 556 Chemicals 231 55.7 Hydraulic Fracturing 231 558 Explosives 231 56 Testing Wells for Yield 232 5.7 Pumping Equipment 232 57.1 Total Pumping Head 232 57.2. Pumps for Shallow Wells 232 54.3 Pumps for Deep Wells 232 58 Protection of Wells 234 58.1 Sanitary Protection 234 582. Frost Protection 236 583. Abandonment of Wells 237 59 Well Relabilitaion 237 5.10 Horizontal Wells 239, 5.10.1 Inflation Galleries 239 5.102 Horiontal Pipes 240 5.103 Collector Wells 240 SIL Characteristic Well Losses 242 S11 Well Losses 242 5.11.2 Evaluation of Well Loss 243 5.12. Specific Capacity and Well Eficiency 248 5.13. Slug Tests 250 5.13.1 Definition 250 5.13.2 Design Guidelines 250 5.133 Performance of Slug Tests 251 5.1344 Methods for Analyzing Slug Test Data 253 5.14 Slug Tests for Confined Formations 255 5.14.1 Cooper, Bredehoef, and Papadopulos Method 255 5.142 Hvorslev Method 259 5.15. Slug Tests for Unconfined Formations 261 5.15.1 Bouwerand Rice Method 262 5.15.2 Dagan Method 268 5.153 KGS Model 271 5.16 Slug Tests for High Conductivity Formations 272 5.17 Well'Skin Effect 273, Problems 273 References 716 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences 279 6. Time Variations of Levels. 279 6.1.1 Secular Variations 279 6.12 Seasonal Variations 280 6.1.3. Short-Term Variations 280 62. Stwamfiow and Groundwater Levels 284 621 Bank Storage 285 622 Base Flow 286 623. Base Flow Recession Curve 289 63 Fluctuations Due to Evapotrnspication 29163.1. Evaporation Effects 291 63.2 Transpiration Effects 291 63.3 Evapotranspiration Effects 292 64 Fluctuations Due to Meteorological Phenomena 295 64.1 Atmospheric Pressure 295 642 Rainfall 297 643 Wind 298 644 Frost 298 65 Fluctuations Due toTides 299 65.1 OceanTides 299 65.2 EathTides 302 66 Urbanization 303 67 Earthquakes 306 68 Extemal Loads 308 69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 308 69.1 Lowering of Piezometric Surface 311 69.2 Hydrocompaction 315 69.3 Dewatering of Organic Soils 317 694 Sinkhole Formation 317 695. Crustal Uplift 319 69.6 Monitoring of Land Subsidence 319 (6.10. Effects of Global Climate Change on Groundwater 321, Problems 324 References 325 7 Quality of Groundwater 329 741 Natural Groundwater Quality 329 72 Sources of Salinity 330 73. Measures of Water Quality 335, 74 Chemical Analysis 337 74. Concentrations by Weight 337 742 Chemical Equivalence 338 743 Toa Dissolved Solids by Electrical Conductance 339 744 Hardness 339 15 Graphic Representations 340 76 Physical Analysis 345 7.7 Biological Analysis 345 78 Groundwater Samples 345 719 Water Quality Criteria 346 79. Drinking Water Standards 346 79.2 Industrial Water Criteria 346 79.3 ligation Water Criteria 347 7.10 Changesin Chemical Composition 348 TAL Dissolved Gases 349 712 Temperature 351 7.13. Saline Groundwater 354 Problems 356 References 357 8 Pollution of Groundwater 359 8.1 Pollution in Relation to Water Use 359 8.2 Municipal Sources and Causes 361, 82.1 SewerLeakage 361xiv 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 8.10 al Contents 8.2.2 Liquid Wastes 361 82.3 Solid Wastes 362 Industrial Sources and Causes 364 83.1 Liquid Wastes 364 83.2 Tankand Pipeline Leakage 364 833° Mining Activities 364 834 Oil-Field Brines 366 Agricultural Sources and Causes. 367 84.1 Irrigation Retum Flows 367 84.2 Animal Wastes 367 843 Fentlizersand Soil Amendments 367 844 Pesticides, Insecticides, and Herbicides 368 Miscellaneous Sources and Causes 368 85.1 Urbanization 368 85.2 Spills and Surface Discharges 370 853. Stockpiles 370 854 Septic Tanks and Cesspools 370 85.5 Roadway Deicing 370 85.6 Saline Water Intrusion 371 85.7 Interchange through Wells 372 85.8 Surface Water 372 Attenuation of Pollution 373 861 Filtration 373 86.2 Sorption 373, 863 Chemical Processes 374 864 Microbiological Decomposition 374 865 Dilution 374 Distribution of Pollution Underground 375 87.1 Hanford Site in Richland, Washington 377 ‘Mass Transport of Pollutants 378 8.8.1 Transport Processes 378 88.2 _Advection-Dispersion Equation for Solute Transport in Saturated Porous Media 382 883 Analytical Procedure 384 8.84 Transport of Reactive Pollutants 385 Monitoring Groundwater Quality 386 Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater 392 8.10.1 Remediation Goals 392 8.10.2 System Design 394 8.103 Hydraulic Containment of Groundwater 304 8.104 Groundwater Extraction Systems 396 8.105 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater 396 Conventional Pump-and-Treatment Systems 401 8.11.1 Pump-and-Treat Remediation Suategies 401 8.11.2 Characterizing Sites for Pump and Treatment Design 403 8.11.3 Capture Zone Analysis 406 8.114 Extraction/Injection Scheme Design 407 Problems 407 References 409 9 Groundwater Flow Modeling Techniques 413 9 92 93 94 Why Develop Groundwater Models? 413 ‘Types of Groundwater Models 414 ‘Steps in the Development of « Groundwater Model 415. ‘Simulation of Two-Dimensional Groundwater Systems 415 9.4.1 Governing Equations 415 a 98 99. 9 94 Ret 0 102 102 104 10s 106 10796 91 98 99 9.10 9. 94.2. Finite Difference Equations 417 943 Solution 419 944 Case Study 419 ‘Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow Model 420 95.1 Derivation of Finite Difference Equations 420 952 Simulation of Boundaries 427 953 Vertical Discretzation 427 954 Hydraulic Conductance Equations 429 MODFLOW-2000 Description 431 9.6.1 Model Introduction 431 9.62 Space and Time Discretization 432 9.63 External Sources and Stresses 433, 9.644 Hydraulic Conductance—Layer-Property Flow Package (LPF) 9.65 SolverPackages 440 9.66 Telescopic Mesh Refinement 440 Case Study: Using MODFLOW: Lake Five-O, Flora 444 9.1.1 Finite Difference Grid and Boundary Conditions 444 97.2 Model Calibration and Sensitivity Analysis 444 9.73 Model Results 448 Particle Tracking—MODPATH 449 98.1 Whats Particle Tracking? 449 9.8.2 Particle Tracking Analysis—An Application 449 Example Applications and Input of MODFLOW 450 Solute Transport Modeling—MOC3D 455 9.10.1 Solute Transport Equation 455 9.102 MOC3D Model 456 Groundwater Modeling Software Support 459 9.11.1 US. Geological Survey 459 9.112 U.S. EPA Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling (CEAM) 9.113 Intemational Groundwater Modeling Center (IGWMC) 459 9.114 Processors for MODFLOW 459 Problems 460) References 461 10 10.1 102 103 104 105 106 107 Management of Groundwater 464 Concepts of Basin Management 464 10.1.1 Managing Groundwater Resources 465 Groundwater Basin Investigations and Data Collection 466 102.1 Topographic Data 467 10.22 Geologic Data 468 102.3 Hydrologic Data 468 Yield 469 103.1 Alternative Basin Yields 469 10.3.2 Evaluation of Perennial Yield 471 CConjunctive Use and Watershed Management 473 Groundwater Management: Water Laws and Policies 477 105.1 Water Law and Policy 477 10.5.2 Arizona's Groundwater Management Code 477 1053 Texas GroundwaterLaw 478 ‘Case Study: Groundwater Management: Examples 479 106.1 Edwards Aquifer Management 479 10.62 High Plans Aquifer: Conjunctive Water Use on the High Plains Groundwater Management Using Models 481 10.7.1 What Are Groundwater Management Models? 481 436 459 480 Contentsxvi Contents 10.7.2 Optimization Methods 482 10.7.3. Types of Groundwater Management Models 482 108 Groundwater Management Modeling: Hydraulic Management Models 484 10.8.1 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Confined Aquifers 484 10.8.2 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Unconfined Aquifers 486 10.8.3 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Model for Confined Aquifers 487 10.84 Transient One-Dimensional Problem for Confined Aquifers 489 10.8.5 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Problem for Unconfined Aquifers 490 10.9 Policy Evaluation and Allocation Models: Response Matrix Approach 492 10.10 Optimal Control Groundwater Management Modeling 495, 10.11 Case Studies: Groundwater Management Modeling Applications 496 10.11.1 Optimal-Control Model for Barton Springs-Edwards Aquifer, Texas 496 10.11.2 Heuristic Optimization-Simulation Model for Groundwater Remediation Design: N-Springs Site, Hanford, Washington 497 10.11.3 Groundwater Management Model Using Response Matrix Approach: ‘Santa Clara-Calleguas Basin, Califomia 499 Problems S04 References 506 11__Surface Investigations of Groundwater 509 111 Geologic Methods 509 112 Remote Sensing $10 113 Geophysical Exploration 512 114 Electrical Resistivity Method 513. 115 Seismic Refraction Method $17 11.6 Gravity and Magnetic Methods 520 Problems 520 References S21 12 _ Subsurface Investigations of Groundwater 523, 121 Testing 523 12.1.1 Geologic Log 524 12.12 Driling-Time Log 525 122 WaterLevel Measurement 526 123 Geophysicel Logging 527 124 Resistivity Logging 529 125. Spontaneous Potential Logging 533, 12.6 Radiation Logging 533 126.1 Natural-Gamma Logging 533 12.62 Gamma-Gamma Logging 534 1263 Neutron Logging 535 127 Temperature Logging 535 128 Caliper Logging 536 129 Fluid-Conductivty Logging 537 12.10 Fluid-Velocity Logging 537 12.11 Miscellaneous Logging Techniques 538 1211.1 Television Logging 538 12112 Acoustic Logging 538 12.113 Casing Logging $39 12.12 Other Subsurface Methods 539 12.13 Case Study: Oasis Valley, Nevada 539 Problems S41 References 54513._ Artificial Recharge of Groundwater 547 IB.L Concept of Artificial Recharge $47 13.2. Recharge Methods $48 13.2.1 Methods 548 13.22 Recharge Rates 556 133 Wastewater Recharge for Reuse 559 13.4 Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) Systems 560 134.1 What Are SAT Systems? 560 1342 Operation of SAT Systems $63, 13.43 Modeling SAT Systems 565 135. Recharge Mounds 567 135.1 Perched Groundwater Mounds 567 1352 Steady-State Equations for Groundwater Mounds 135.3 Hantush Equation 570 1346 Stormwater Infiltration Basin Mound Development 576 136.1 Potential Flow Model fora Trench S76 13.62 Potential Flow Model for Circular Basin S78 13.63 Mound Growth 580 13.64 Mound Recession 582 137 Innovative Approaches $83, 1321 Wildwood, New Jersey 583 13.22 Orange County, California 584 13113 Long Island, New York 584 1374 Orlando, Florida 584 1375 Dayton, Ohio $84 138 Induced Recharge 584 Problems 585 References 986 14 Saline Water Intrusion in Aquifers 589 14.1 Occurrence of Saline Water Intrusion 589 14.2 Ghyben-Herzberg Relation Between Fresh and Saline Waters 143. Shape of the Fresh-Salt Wate Interface 592 144° Structure ofthe Fresh-Salt Water Interface 596 145 Effect of Wells on Seawater Intrusion 597 14.6 Upconing of Saline Water 600 147 Fresh-Salt Water Relations on Oceanic Islands 603 148 Seawater Intrusion in Karst Terains 605 149 Control of Saline Water Intrusion 606 14.10 Examples of Seawater Intrusion 608 14.10.1 Long Island, New York 608 14.102 Southern California 608 Problems 611 References 612 Appendix A 615 Appendix B 619 Appendix C 620 Index 625 Contents xvii 590Chapter 1 Introduction Groundwater hydrology may be defined as the science of the occurrence, distribution, and ‘movement of water below the surface of the earth. Geohydrology has an identical connotation, and hydrogeology differs only by its greater emphasis on geology. Utilization of groundwater dates from ancient times, although an understanding of the occurrence and movement of subsurface water as part of the hydrologic cycle is recent. ‘The US. National Research Council (1991) presented the following definition of hydrology: Hydrology is the science that eas the waters ofthe Earth, their occurence, circulation, and distribution, their chemical and physical propetes and their reaction withthe environment, including the relation o living things. The domain of hydrology embraces the ul life history of water on Barth Section 1.5 describes in further detail the concepts ofthe hydrologic cycle. ‘The importance of groundwater (hydrology) in the hydrologic cycle has been the subject of extensive technical research and publishing by many investigators over the past decades. Many ‘of these publications are introduced inthis book. Also, many books written on the subject ofthe fate of water have caught the attention of the general public, especially those interested in saving ‘our resources. These include books by Carson'® and de Villiers* among others. 1.1 SCOPE Groundwater (ceferred to without further specification) is commonly understood to mean water ‘occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum. This saturated zone is to be distinguished from an unsaturated, ot aeration, zone where voids are filled with water and air. Water contained in saturated zones is important for engineering works, geologic studies, and water supply developments; consequently, the occurrence of water in these zones will be emphasized here. Unsaturated zones are usually found above saturated zones and extend upward to the ‘ground surface; because water here includes soil moisture within the root zone, itis @ major cconcem of agriculture, botany, and sol scence. No rigid demarcation of waters between the two zones is possible, for they possess an interdependent boundary, and water can move from zone to zone in either direction. The interelationships are described more fully in Chapter 2. Groundwater plays an important part in petroleum engineering. Two-fluid systems, involving ol and water, and thee-fluid systems, involving gas, ol, and water, occur frequently in development of petroleum. Although the same hydrodynamic laws gover flows of these systems and groundwater, the distinctive nature of water in petroleum reservoirs ses it apart from other groundwater. Major differences exist in water quality, depth of occurrence, and methods of development and utilization, all of which contribute toa separation of interests and 12° Chapter | Introduction applications. Therefore, groundwater in petroleum reservoirs will not be treated specifically in this book. It should be noted, however, that groundwater hydrology has gained immeasurably from research conducted by the petroleum industry. 1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 12.1 Qanats Groundwater development dates from ancient times.°*""The Old Testament contains numerous references to groundwater, springs, and wells. Other than dug wells, groundwater in ancient times was supplied from horizontal wells known as qanats.' These persist to the present day and can be found in a band across the arid regions of Southwestem Asia and North Africe extending from Afghanistan to Morocco. A cross section along a ganat is shown in Figure 1.2.1. Typically, a gently sloping tunnel dug through alluvial material leads water by gravity flow from beneath the water table a its upper end to a ground surface outlet and irrigation canal at its lower end.!° Vertical shafis dug at closely spaced intervals provide access to the tunnel. Qanats are labori- ‘ously hand constructed by skilled workers employing techniques that date back 3,000 years.* Tran possesses the greatest concentration of qanats; here some 22,000 qanats supply 75 percent ofall water used in the county. Lengths of qanats extend up to 30 km, but mast are Jess than 5 kan.'* The depth of the qanat mother well (see Figure 1.2.1) is normally ess than 50 m, bat instances of depths exceeding 250 m have been reported. Discharges of qanats vary seasonally with water table fluctuations and seldom exceed 100 m'fhr. Indicative of the density of qanats is the map in Figure 1.2.2. Based on aerial photographs of the Varamin Plain, Jocated 40 km southeast of Tehran, this identifies 266 qanats within an area of 1,300 km?, 1.2.2 Groundwater Theories Utilization of groundwater greatly preceded understanding of its origin, occurrence, and move- ‘meat, The writings of Greek and Roman philosophers to explain origins of springs and ground- Endof Irigate| qanat Surface isles anal Figure 1.2.1. Vertical cross section slong a qanat (after Beaumont"), * Supeseripc numbers efer to references atthe end of th chapter * Qanar comes from a Semitic word meaning “to dig” There are several variants of teams including hare fg- ara, nd fla depending on locaton in to, there are numerous dereces i pling. + nastrave of te tremendoas human effort expended to construct a gaat is 2 clalton by Beaumont.” The longest qarat ear Zaren, Ian, i 29 kong witha mther wel depth of 96m and with 96 has long its Feng he oa volume of materi excavate is estimated 75,400lyin ably ‘ous jent jing ally, zath a0 ori. 5 han ay ‘en- ain, ve nd 1.2. Historical Background 3 water contain theories ranging from fantasy to neatly correct accounts.® As late asthe sev- centeenth century it was generally assumed that water emerging from springs could not be derived from rainfall, for it was believed that the quantity was inadequate and the earth too impervious to permit penetration of rainwater far below the surface. Thus, eatly Greek philosophers such as Homer, Thales, and Plato hypothesized that springs were formed by seawater conducted through subterranean channels below the mountains, then purified and raised to the surface. Aristotle suggested that air enters cold dark caverns under the mountains where it condenses into water and contributes to springs. ‘The Roman philosophers, including Seneca and Pliny, followed the Greek ideas and contributed litte tothe subject. An important step forward, however, was made by the Roman architect Vitruvius. He explained the now-accepted infiltration theory thatthe mountains receive large amounts of rain that percolate through the rock strata and emerge at their base to form streams. Figure 1.2.2 Map of qanats on the Varamin Plain, Iran (after Beaumont),4 Chapter! Introduction ‘The Greek theories persisted through the Middle Ages with no advances until the end of the Renaissance. The French potter and philosopher Bemard Palissy (c. 1510-1589) reiterated the infiltration theory in 1580, but his teachings were generally ignored. ‘The German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was @ man of strong imagination who likened the arth to a huge animal that takes in water of the ocean, digests and assimilates it, and i charges the end products of these physiological processes as groundwater and springs. The seawater theory of the Greeks, supplemented by the ideas of vaporization and condensation processes within the earth, was restated by the French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650). ‘A clear understanding of the hydrologic cycle was achieved by the latter part ofthe sev- centeenth century. For the first time, theories were based on observations and quantitative data. ‘Three Europeans made notable contributions, although others contributed to and supported these advances. Pierre Perrault’ (1611-1680) measured rainfall during three years and estimated runoff of the upper Seine River drainage basin, He reported in 1674 that precipitation ‘on the basin was about six times the river discharge, thereby demonstrating as false the early assumption of inadequate rainfall” The French physicist Edme Mariott (c. 1620-1684) made measurements of the Seine at Paris and confirmed Perraut’s work. His publications appeared in 1686, after his death, and contained factual data strongly supporting the infiltration theory. Meinzer™ once stated, “Mariotte . . . probably deserves more than any other man the distine- tion of being regarded as the founder of groundwater hydrology, perhaps I should say of the centite science of hydrology.” The third contribution came from the English astronomer ‘Edmund Halley (1656-1742), who reported in 1693 on measurements of evaporation, demon- trating that sea evaporation was sufficient to account for all springs and stream flow. 1.2.3 Recent Centuries During the eighteenth century, fundamentals in geology were established that provided a basis, for understanding the occurrence and movement of groundwater. During the first half of the nineteenth century many artesian wells were drilled in France, stimulating interest in ground water. The French hydraulic engineer Henry Darcy (1803-1858) studied the movement of ‘water through sand. His treatise of 1856 defined the relation, now known as Darcy's law, gov- ceming groundwater flow in most alluvial and sedimentary formations. Later European contributions of the nineteenth century emphasized the hydraulics of groundwater development. Significant contributions were made by J. Boussinesg, G. A. Daubrée, J. Dupuit, P. Forch- hheimer, and A. Thiem. In the twentieth century, increased activity in all phases of groundwater hydrology occurred. Many Europeans have participated with publications of either specialized or comprehensive works. There are too many people to mention them all, but R. Dachler, E. Ibeaux, K. Keilhack, W. Koehne, J. Kozeny, E, Prinz, H. Schoeller, and G, Thier are best known in the United States. + Pieme Perrault was a lawyer by profession and held administrative and financial poston inthe French gover- ‘ment ence hes ot wellknown in scientific circles. His interest in groundwater, leading to publication of De Origine des Fntanes in 1674, canbe taced to the stimulus of te Dutch mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, Christian Huygens, who was ten living in Paris and to whom te book is dedicated. Also, ere Perrault soften overshadowed by is fur dsinguished brothers: Jean c, 1610-1669), lawyer; Nicolas (1624-162), ote theologian; Claude (1613-1688, a physician, architect, nd scientist, who is regarded as one ofthe most eminent French scholars of his time; and Chares (1628-1703, author and cic, whois best known for bis Mother Goose ary ales.lof van the lis. che tes ev ver 13. Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use S American contributions to groundwater hydrology date from near the end of the nineteenth century. Inthe past 110 years, tremendous advances have been made. Important early theoretical contributions were made by A. Hazen, FH. King, and C.S. Slichter, while detailed field investigations were begun by men such as T. C. Chamberlin, N. H. Darton, W. T. Lee, and W. C. Mendenhall, O. E. Meinzer, through his consuming interest in groundwater and his dynamic leadership of groundwater activities ofthe U.S. Geological Survey, stimulated many individuals in the quest for groundwater knowledge. In recent decades the publications of M.S. Hantush, C. E. Jacob, G. B, Maxey, C. L. MeGuinness, and R. W. Stallman are nate- ‘worthy. Within the ast 40 years the surge in university research on groundwater problems, the establishment of professional consulting firms specializing in groundwater, the advent of the digital computer, and the extensive development of computer software have jointly produced competence for development and management of groundwater resources. 1.3. TRENDS IN WATER WITHDRAWALS AND USE ‘The U.S. Geological Survey® estimated the total fresh and saline withdrawals in the United States during 1995 to have been 402,000 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) for all off-tream water-use categories (public supply, domestic, commercial, irigation, livestock, industrial, ‘mining, thermoelectric power). This estimate is nearly two percent less than the withdrawal estimate for 1990. Table 1.3.1 and Figure 1.3.1 provide a comparison of total water withdrawals by water-resources region. This comparison indicates that the California, South Atlantic-Gulf, and Mid-Atlantic regions account for one-third of the total water withdrawn in the United States. ‘National water-use compilations began in 1950 and are conducted at five-year intervals. Estimates in Table 1.3.2 and Figure 1.3.2 summarize the water use—withdrawals, source of water, reclaimed wastewater, consumptive use, and in-tream use (hydroelectric power)—at five-year intervals. Figure 1.3.3 illustrates the trends in water withdrawals by water-use category and total withdrawals for 1960-1995. Table 1.3.2 also illustrates the percentage change in the 1990 and 1995 summary estimates. Estimates indicate thatthe general increase in water use from 1950 to 1980 and the decrease from 1980 to 1995 can be attributed in part tothe following major factors: ‘+ Most of the increases in water use from 1950 to 1980 were the result of expansion of intigation systems and increases in energy development. + The development of center-pivot irigation systems and the availability of plentiful and inexpensive groundwater resources supported the expansion of irigation systems. + Higher energy prices in the 1970s, and large drawdown in groundwater levels in some areas increased the cost of irigation water. Inthe 1980s, improved application techniques, increased competition for water, and a downturn in farm economy reduced demands for irigation water ‘+ The transition from water-supply management to water-demand management encouraged more efficient use of water. + New technologies in the industrial sector that require less water, improved plant effi- ciencies, increased water recycling, higher energy prices, and changes in laws and reg- Ulations to reduce the discharge of pollutants resulted in decreased water use and less water being retumed to natural systems after use. + ‘The enhanced awareness by the general public of water resources and the active conservation programs in many states have contributed to reduced water demands.6 Chapter | Introduction ep sod suoye8 = ps “ep sod suoyte® vor = pe3}y Buypunos wapuadepus jo asne00q E00 PPE OW Aes sam folios s2amos ‘0809 CONTTFE OOrOL ORT «BOO'LS. re oshz 8s, gst st sate vwes9at72 ze om ese art eae ut ue 0n9's§—wos'9e se oW0'ze 661 0809 vt 096" 1 ozs 9 9 61's oou'et vez oor'st sc 0009 ° est ° st sth ° ° oos'or 8's oo te ° cove oust te ° ° o's ast @ ° corse one u coves so core ost oF oou'ztoor'ze covet oov'sz ore ot ooe'0e 009'te one oo6'eE 06 oor's oe oos's Rez LSC aues gOS ema — oo BIERPUROD (oss0} sau Gantoa uone it sapnjout) (PSA) sTEMEAPTIAN 2 pr soon he S661 ‘Wor Ey SsamnOsI SIEM AQ OST TEM WESNSHO MAL PET AGEL5915661 “UoT#a1 ssosnosassoiem £4 SfeMeIpIAU JOreM TwIeL “ET aaa 1.3 Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use 78 Chapter 1 introduction ‘Table 1.3.2 Trends of Estimated Water Use in the United States, 1950-95 Percentage Year change loso! 1955! 1960" 1965 1970" 1975* 1980" 1985* 1990 1995" 1990-95 Population (illions) ‘150.7 1640 1793«1938 «2089-2164 «9G © A453 HT Offseeam use Total withdrawals 1802402701037 aag 99 wes Public supply a 17 mK G5 RS OD Rural domestic 36 «3636 4S AD 5H 779789889 and livestocle Irsigation 9 10 0m 30h Industrial Thermorlecric = 4072172002187 S DB pomeruse Other induswinluse 37-398 GSS BOSD Source of water ‘Ground Fresh co a7 50 ao 6B 2 83 B2 94 64 4 Saline Oo 6 4 $s 1 1 9 62 Im om 9 ‘Sustace Fre 40 180190210250 200 HHS] kD Saline re Rechimedvasewaer = 89-2 6 TS SSS LRH Consumptive use © © 8 7 BF 96 He? 923" 4? 0? as Taseam use Hydcoeecrc power 1,100 1500 2,000 2300-2800 3300-300 30503290 3,160 ' 48 States and District of Columbia * Revised ? 50 States and District of Columbia * Data not available. 3 50 States and District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico ” Freshwater only “© 50 States and District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Isinnds Source: Solley® POPULATION (WILLIONS) WITHDRAWALS (THOUSANDS OF Matron GALLONS PER DAY) 49501985 a0 "1965" 70 "1995" vasa aos "3000 ras Figure 1.3.2, ‘Trends in fresh groundwater and surface-water withdrawals, and population, 1950-95.tage 95 36 14 Utilization of Groundwater 9 0 i =i ie wh £8 we 92 u fa i e* 35 e wo 5 vwea "1965. 979" 9075 90" has 1990 HS Figure 1.33, Trends in water withcrawals (fresh and saline) by water-use category and total (fresh and saline) withdrawals, 1960-95 °° 1.4 UTILIZATION OF GROUNDWATER Groundwater isan important source of water supply throughout the word. Its use in irrigation, industries, tounicipalites, and rural homes continues to increase. Fighre 1.4.1 strikingly illustrates the dependence of an Indian village on its only water source—groundwater from a single dug well. Cooling and airconditioning have made heavy demands on groundwater because of its characteristic uniformity in temperature. Shortages of groundwater in areas where excessive withdrawals have occurred emphasize the need for accurate estimates ofthe available subsurface resources and the importance of proper planning to ensure the continued availability of water supplies. There is a tendency to think of groundwater as being the primary water source in arid regions and of surface water in humid regions. But a study of groundwater use in the United States, for example, reveals that groundwater serves as an important resource in all climatic Figure 1.4.1. Villagers laboriously lifting and carrying water from deep dug well in northem India (photo by David K. Todd).10° Chapter 1 Introduction zones.* Reasons for this include its convenient availability near the point of use, its excellent quality (which typically requires lite treatment), and its relatively low cost of development. Furthermore, in humid locales such as Barbados, Jamaica, and Hawaii, groundwater predom- inates as the water source because the high infiltration capacity of the soils sharply reduces sur face ninofl, Figure | 42 illustrates the relative proportion of water source and disposition and the gen- ral distribution of water from source to disposition for 1995. Table 1.4.1 ists the total offstream water use by state for 1995—breaking down the withdrawals into groundwater and surface water and subdividing these into fresh and saline water. The total groundwater withdrawal was 77,500 Mgalid and the total surface-water withdrawal was 324,000 Mga. Table 1.4.2 lists the groundwater withdrawals by water-use category and water-resources region for 1995. The significant proportion of groundwater used for irrigation purposes is clearly indicated by the fact that 49,000 Mgal/¢ of the total 77,500 Mgalid is used for irrigation, SOURCE USE DISPOSITION Figure 142. Soarce, use, nd disposition of freshwater in the United States, 1995. For each ‘ater ase category, his diagram shows the relative proportion of voter source and dspesiton and the general distibution of water from source to disposition. The lines and arows indicate the dis bution of water from source to dis- postion foreach category; for example, surface water was 77.6 percent of toa feeshwater with draw, ad going from “Souree" to “Use columns, te ine fom the surface-wate block othe domestic and commercial block indicates thet 08 percent ofall surfce water withdrawn was the source for 48 percent of total water (sefsup- plied withrawals, public-suply elvis for domestic and commercial purposes. Inston, soing from the “Use” to “Disposition” columns, he line fom the domestic and commercial ‘block tothe consumplive use block indicates that 19.2 percent ofthe ‘water for domestic and commercial purposes was consumptive use; this represents 8.0 percnt of total consumptive use by all water use categories ‘Table 1.4.1 Total Offstream Water Use by State, 1995,14 Utilization of Groundwater 11 zs oman) FE “ 1 oma) new) sour pouinion sae Bsesa ‘one8) — Gpuernon) —Saeepma ——— iemyse4ywoneyndog spews ‘opeo}05) ‘eos seeny euozny exsey surgery wort12 Chapter 1 Irsoduction ssfoItos s90n0s sep sod suoqted = pte *hvp 20d soot won = pe urpunos wuopuodopul Jo asneo0g sei Ob PPE OU Kew Sum Gorse cz GOO _o0w 09 Ooowree —OOL'GS OUTeE GOEL ONT oOwSL oReT —— SBOE een ° ° we ot ot ‘ ros eet spon wig sta ors’ ose'z osez ssi 0 Sst ast SLE cong ousea owe 6 owe st ° see tate ow sa, 6 osteo ° a z's ssuooryn ° ws s ° ort ov a 2M, ° ome ae se ose't oct eoiduse, ° oss ose oos'z ss ase ag © 8 ° 0s os oun, opp AST en ost out 0 co oos'se one's ose'y one oes sere, s corar 0 ° sev ser soso ° wr 0 ° ast Lat wore m0 ° ors ° me we = 0$ o up siz six 2 Zz spot vr ows 0 ° 098 09s een ssuueg ° olse ° oso't os0'r 0519 ° owe 6s ° ot 656 swo¥e0 ° oosot 0 ° 06 06 onto ° orto ° zt zt era won or osr's 03st oss't ses ses eon ON, ° cows o0s'9 o0s'9 owt oor os 210K man ° ose 0 ° ooet oovt ono oonayy man, i ors ose ones os 0 Sate song oN moras a wo = Javea SOREN Tiemann ey oom TOT ai i a Rr ees (Goi sone nto won papa) (OMe TERED Pa S66 “ans Aa asf eM URANSO [HAL (PIRUAUOD) THT aqEL,15. Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 13 ‘Table 1.4.2 Groundwater Withdrawals by Water-Use Category and Water-Resoutces Region, 1995 Public Commer Live Theme Region supply Domestic cial nigaton stock Industrial Mining cece Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Saline Fresh Saline. Fresh Fresh Saline New England 3B A 20S Mid-Atantic 120 4852178] South Adanic-Gulf 2760 71914228088 8TH Great Lakes re a bio so ww] THRO Tennessee ms 4 36 8S a7 0 Bo Upper Mississippi 1503119480 IG KR Lower Mississippi 74)—=s BS 69] MDG 31000 ®t Souris-Red-Rainy 3417 2 8 1 woo 4 o uso Missouri Basin 63 B79 80% 283K DD Arkansas-WhiteRed 378 105166660980 7B 87a Texas-Gulf os IS M4 SMH 505.9503 Rio Grande 36ST S88 Upper Colorado 3 oo sé B42 kta LowerColoado = 46 ## 2D HS 8000 Great Basin 30309 TID PacificNonhwest 917283374000 w#SIS 65 0S Ss California 2m 127 gsm SO 1615136 14600 BS Alaska wo 83 1 138 0 0% 42 BOS Haat m 24s 3% 8 5 0 6 3S 6 Caribbean 9 64 13 BS Kk 2 Tal 15100 3350 939490002260 409 151070101065. 764400 1,110 Figures may not add to ttals because of independent rounding Al values in milion gallons per day Source: Solley* 1.5 GROUNDWATER IN THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 15.1 Hydrologic Cycle ‘The central focus of hydrology isthe hydrologic cycle consisting of the continuous processes shown in Figure 1.5.1. Water evaporates from the oceans and land surfaces to become water ‘vapor that is carried over the earth by atmospheric circulation. The water vapor condenses and precipitates on the land and oceans. The precipitated water may be intercepted by vegetation, become overland flow over the ground surface, infiltrate into the ground, flow through the soil as subsurface flow, ot discharge as surface runoff Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation directly from soil and vegetation surfaces, and transpiration through plant leaves. Collectively these processes are called evapotranspiration. infiltrated water may percolate deeper to recharge groundwater and later become springflow or seepage into streams to also become streamflow. ‘The largest single demand for groundwater is itigation, amounting to 67.3% percent of all groundwater used in 1995, More than 90 percent of this water is pumped in the western states, where arid and semiarid conditions have fostered extensive irigation development.14 Chapter 1 Introduction u 160 Ai 29 7) Moisture overland Preciptaton on land ] 285 ‘ Precipitation § ‘on ocean Evaporation ‘tom land Evaporation ang cevapatranspiation ‘et Evaporation ‘rom ocean, SS t Groundwater Figure 1.5.1. Hydrologic cycle with global annual average water balance given in units relative to a value af 100 for the rate of precipitation on land.” A hydrologic system is defined as a structure or volume in space, surrounded by a boundary, that accepts water and other inputs, operates on them internally, and produces them as out- puts2!?? The structure (for surface or subsurface flow) or volume in space (for atmospheric ‘moisture flow) isthe totality of the flow paths through which the water may pass as through- put from the point it enters the system tothe point it leaves. The boundary is a continuous surface defined in three dimensions enclosing the volume or structure. A working medium enters the system as input, interacts withthe structure and other media, and leaves as output. Physi- cal, chemical, and biological processes operate on the working media within the system; the most common working media involved in hydrologic analysis are water, air, and heat energy. The global hydrologic cycle can be represented as a system containing three subsystems: the atmospheric water system, the surface water system, and the subsurface water system as shown in Figure 1.5.2. Another example is the storm-rainfall-runoff process on a watershed, which can be represented as a hydrologic system, The input is rainfall distributed in time and space over the watershed and the output is streamflow at the watershed outlet. The boundary is defined by the watershed divide and extends vertically upward and downward to horizontal planes, Drainage basins, catchments, and watersheds are three synonymous terms that refer to the topographic area that collects and discharges surface streamflow through one outlet or mouth, Catchments are typically referred to as small drainage basins but no specific area limits have been established. The drainage basin divide, watershed divide, or catchment divide is the line dividing land whose drainage flows toward the given stream from land whose drainage flows away from that stream. Think of drainage basin sizes ranging from the Mississippi River drainage basin toa small urban drainage basin in your local community or some small valleynas tal uth, ave line ver ley ‘Atmespheric water ‘Subsurface water 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 15 $$$} evaporation Interception >| Transpiration unof to steams ‘and oovan 1 ' ‘ I Al o| Subsutace || 2 initration peuface 1 . I I | | I Groundwater | Groundwater || recharge tow ft ' Figure 1.82, Block-dagram representation ofthe global hydrologic system? 1.5.2. The Groundwater System in the Hydrologic Cycle Groundwater constitutes one portion of the earth’s water circulatory system known as the hydrologic cycle. Figure 1.5.1 illustrates some of the many facets involved inthis cycle, Water- bearing formations of the earth's crust act as conduits for transmission and as reservoirs for storage of water. Water enters these formations from the ground surface or from bodies of surface water, after which it travels slowly for varying distances until it returms to the surface by action of natural flow, plants, ot humans. The storage capacity of groundwater reservoirs com- ‘bined with small flow rates provide large, extensively distributed sources of water supply. Groundwater emerging into surface stream channels aids in sustaining streamflow when surface runoff is low or nonexistent. Similarly, water pumped from wells represents the sole water source in many regions during much of every year. Practically all groundwater originates as surface water. Principal sources of natural recharge include precipitation, streamflow, lakes, and reservoirs. Other contributions, known as artificial recharge, occur from excess irigation, seepage from canals, and water purposely applied to augment groundwater supplies. Even seawater can enter underground along coasts where hydraulic gradients slope downward in an inland direction. Water within the ground ‘moves downward through the unsaturated zone under the action of gravity, whereas inthe saturated zone it moves in a direction determined by the surrounding hydraulic situation, Discharge of groundwater occurs when water emerges from underground. Most natural discharge occurs as flow into surface water bodies, such as streams, lakes, and oceans; flow to16 Chapter 1 Introduction the surface appears as a spring. Groundwater near the surface may return directly to the atmosphere by evaporation from within the soil and by transpiration from vegetation, Pumpage from wells constitutes the major artificial discharge of groundwater. In this section we will discuss in general some ofthe aspects of the movement of ground ‘water in the hydrologic cycle. The groundwater flow system comprises the subsurface water, the geologic (porous) media containing the water, the low boundaries, the sources (outcrop areas, streams for recharge tothe aquifer), and the sinks (springs, interaquifer flow, and wells for flow from the aquifer). Water flows through and is stored within the groundwater system. Under natural conditions, the travel time of groundwater can range from less than a day to ‘more than a million years. The age of the water can range from recent precipitation to water trapped in sediments that were deposited in geologic time. Chapter 3, Groundwater Movement, discusses the mechanics of groundwater movement ‘The water that is withdrawn from a groundwater system initially comes from storage. The effects ofthe withdrawal from storage are propagated through the system, overtime, as water heads (the water table) decrease at greater distances from the point of withdrawal. Ulkimately, the effect of the withdrawal reaches a boundary such as a stream. At the stream, either increased recharge (water added) to the groundwater system occurs or increased discharge from the system occurs, Figure 1.5.3 shows the sources of water supplying pumpage from ten major regional aquifer systems in the United States. The figure illustrates the variability of aquifer response to long-term pumping and the extent to which changes in recharge and discharge can exceed changes in storage. Ii important to quantify recharge, despite the difficulty of that undertaking ‘Typically, most water from precipitation that infiltrates does not become recharge, but instead is stored in the soil zone and is eventually returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and plant transpiration? The percentage of precipitation that becomes diffuse recharge is highly variable and depends upon many factors, such as depths tothe water table, properties of surface soils, aquifer properties, and many other factors. Interactions of surface-water systems with groundwater systems depend upon many factors, including positions of the surface-water systems relative to the groundwater systems; characteristics of the surface-water systems and their underlying materials; and the climate set- ting.*®” Figure 1.5.4 illustrates the effect of transient recharge from precipitation on the configuration of a water table and the associated groundwater flow. The exchange of water across the interface between surface water and groundwater can result from downstream movement of water in and out of streambeds and banks, a illustrated in Figure 1.5.5. Other exchanges result from tides, wave action, filling or draining of reservoirs, and transpiration from vegetation atthe edges of wetlands and other surface water sources. Most studies of exchanges have focused on streams. Flows within groundwater systems can be on a local, intermediate, and regional basis, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.6. The recharge and discharge areas in a local system of groundwater flow are adjacent to each other. The recharge and discharge in an intermediate groundwater ‘low system ate separated by one or more topographic high and low. In regional groundwater ‘low systems, recharge areas are along groundwater divides and discharge areas are located at the bottom of major drainage divides. Not every aquifer has each of these types of flow systems." In an aquifer system, the largest amount of groundwater flow is commonly in the local flow systems which are mostly affected by seasonal variations in recharge. Recharge areas ofthese local systems make up the largest part ofthe surface ofa drainage basin, are relatively shallow, and have transient conditions. Regional groundwater flow systems are less transient than local and intermediate flow systems. ‘A conceptual model of an aguifer system, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.6 for the Midwest- em Basins and Arches aquifer system (see Figure 1.5.7 for location), i a simplified qualitative Fo ter So 9s (oe ret 8vot dis. ulty tion eis ties face ms; set- one cent ges sae sas iter er ter at ys the 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 17 Great Pine 23 Easton Snake Northern Midwest fine Pain Catlorna Conta! valoy “Coal” EswardeTenty ult Coastal Plain Coastal Plan Increased recharge Decreased dlacharge HI induced recharge Wi vttaien otivonson * Figure 1.53, Sources of water that supply withdrawals from major aquifer systems in the United States are highly variable, as shown by these rests from model simulations for various periods Jolston, 1997). Tae Floridan and Edwards—Trinity aquifer systems, which equilibrate rapidly after pumping, were simulated as steady-state with no long-term change in storage. In contrast, the ‘Souterm High Plains (with most natural discharge oecuting fer ftom pumping wells) and the deeply buried Great Plans aquifer system have had substantial changes in groundwater storage. The distinction between changes in recharge and changes in discharge is a function of how the system was defined (.e, again to one system may result ina loss from an adjining system). For exemple, sroundwater withdrawal from confined aquifers (Northem Atantic Cosstal Plain, Gulf Coastal Plan) can eause flow tobe diverted (techarged) into the deeper regional flow regime that would otherwise discharge to streams in the outcrop areas or cause vertical leakage across confining units. Groundwater recharge ina region canbe increased as2reslt of human modifications, such as retum flow of excess irigation water (California Central Valley). Noe that the areal extent of the Southeastern Coastal Plain aquifer system overlaps the areal extent ofthe Flocdan and Gulf Coastal Plain aquifer systems ”18 Chapter | Introduction description of the physical system.*? Conceptual models may include a description of the aquifers and confining units that make up the aquifer system, the boundary conditions, flow regimes, sources and sinks of water, and general directions of the groundwater flow Conon eae agen Sne gsr an aaa ee a ° wc - « “ Se} tnt ge ea cent Ware ma ae net rot tie U| SEEEEEESSCesE wy we -_ B ts of cage oe oll ne le isa oo 7 | cleat tegen ae en, oS ipl pone cee ie J N t aL sn -_ e Conditions aftereffects of recharge event Grutor ichags to sree water des a - + D Pests gna oe = ac a cil hin lees ‘goundeater foe eters " 2 aero! Figure 1.54, Diagrams showing the efect of transient recharge from precipitation on the configuration of a water table and assoc- Figur ated groundwater flow.”? with 1the 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 19 Direction of ee) ine Sa a Figure 15.5. Local goomorpic features such as streambed topogrephy, streambed roughness, mean ‘ering, and heterogeneities in sediment hydraulic conductivities can give nie to localized flow systems within sueambeds ad banks. The nea-steam subsurface envionment with active exchange ‘erweensuriace water and groundwater is commonly referred to a the hyporteic zone, although the ‘ransiton between grounduater and surface water represents a hydrologic continuum, preventing a soe | oe | | | | | dt | Noto scale [Bi ciecial deposts — Local groundwater fw path arbenateock aquler «+= Intamediate groundvater fow path Hi bse conning unit ~<— Ragionel groundvate flow path “= Incstes flow simulated by the regional groundwater “<= fiow model constructed for his investigation Figure 1.86. Diagrammatic conceptual model ofthe Midwestem Basins and Arches aquifer system showing flow paths associated with local, intermediate, and regional flow systems” and low systems simulated bythe regional groundwater flow model. ®20. Chapter | troduction Lake Michigan chicago i Stuy area = Boundary of modeled ares Figure 1.5.7, Midwestern Basin and Arches aquifer system in Paris of Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Iinos.?® 1.6 HYDROLOGIC BUDGET A hydrologic budget, water budget, ot water balance is a measurement of continuity of the flow of water, which holds true for any time interval and applies fo any size area ranging from local-scal areas to regional-scale areas or from any drainage area tothe earth asa whole. The hydrologists usually must consider an open system, for which the quantification ofthe hydro- aBSN cm SS “ ‘Stream inflow OH" eanonar ‘ome Guns on fthe from The idto- 16 Hyicologic Budget 21 Figure 16.1. Componeas of hydrologic cycle in au open system: the major inflows and outflows of water from a parcel of land Source: WM. Marsh and J, Dozer, Landscope: An Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright © 1986 by Wiley. Groundwater Reprinted by permission of Joka Wiley & cation Sons In. logic cycle for that systean becomes a mass balance equation in which the change of storage cof water (dS/dt) with respect to time within that system is equal to the inputs (P to the systern minas the outputs (0) from the system. ‘Considering the open system in Figure 1.6.1, the water balance equation can be expressed for the surface water system and the groundwater system in units of volume per nit time sep- stately, or for a given time period and area, in depts. Surface Water System Hydrologic Budget P+0.,- Oo + Q,- where P is the precipitation, Oy isthe surface water flow into the system, Qay is the surface ‘water flow out of the system, Q, isthe groundwater flow into the stream, E, is the surface evaporation, 7; isthe transpiration, fs the infiltration, and AS, isthe change in water storage ofthe surface water system, 1, AS, (16.1) Groundwater System Hydrologic Budget 14 Gy Gog Op Ep T= Sy (1.62) where Gi isthe groundwater flow into the system, Gog is the groundwater flow out of the sys tem, and AS, is the change in groundwater storage. The evaporation, E,, and the transpiration, Ty can be significant ifthe water table is near the ground surface. ‘System Hydrologic Budget ‘The system hydrologic budget is developed by adding the above two budgets together: Pou ~ Og) — (E, + By) ~ (1, + Ty) ~ Gour~ Ga) = MS, + 5) (1.63) Using net mass exchanges, the above system hydrologic budget can be expressed as P-Q-G-E-T=aS (164)22 Chapter 1 Introduction EXAMPLE 1.6.1 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 1.6.2 SOLUTION @ oie wwe Figure 1.6.2 Diagrams ilusrating water >, eae cre budgets for a groundwater system for ey predevelopment and development cond tions. (a) Predevclopment water budget ciagram illustrating that inflow equals ution. (6) Water-badget diagram show: ing changes in flow fora groundwater system being pumped. The sources of 0 bere ‘water forthe pampage ere changes in recharge, discharge. and the araount of sr < Some water stored. The nial redevelopment values donot directly enter the bodget = Sows | Repiteat eat p calculation. Hydrologic budgets can be used for numerous studies related to groundwater including + Estimating groundwater exchange with lakes "+9 44.68.6872 + Estimating surface water and groundwater interaction 2 * Computing recharge from a well-hydrograph data." A diagram illustrating water budgets for a groundwater system for predevelopment and development conditions is presented in Figure 1.6.2. A groundwater budget for part of Nasse and Suffolk Counties, Long Island, New York, is shown in Figure 1.6.3. Both of these water budgets assume equilibrium conditions with litle or no change in storage During 1996, the water budget terms for Lake Annie in Florida"? included precipitation (P) of 43 ineh/yr, evaporation (E) of 53 inch/y, surface water inflow (Q,) of 1 inchly, surface outflow (Qgy) of 173 {nh/yr, and change in lake volume (AS) of -2ineh/yr. Determine the net groundwater flow (the ground: ‘water inflow minus the groundwater outflow). the water budget equation (1.64) to define the net groundwater flow forthe ake is G=AS-PHE-Oy + ou Assuming 43453-14173 = 180inchiyr . During Janvary 1996, the water budget terms for Lake Annie in Florida! included precipitation (P) of 1.9 inch, evaporation (E} of 1.5 inch, surface water inflow (Q,) of inch, surface outflow (Q,,) of 17.4 inch, and change in lake volume (AS) of O inch, Determine the net groundwater flow for Fanvary 1996 (the groundwater inflow minus the groundwater outflow) ‘The water budget equation to define the net groundwater flow for the lake is G=AS~P+E~Qq+ Ogg = 0-19 +15~0+ 17.4 = 17 inch for January 1996 . Fy Ish buwand assau water ely, 173 “ound. eis of 19 inch, S (he 16 Hydrologic Budget 23 OVERALL PREDEVEL OPMENT ‘GROUNO-WATER PREDEVELOPMENT WATER BUDGET ANALYOSS ‘WATER SUDGET ANALYSIS fretonro Lon a0 auc) [reiowrorowsismn | URE Montes avs Ears [Groowe ore ears pros} 2a 7 Gad 12 ‘uTFLoW Frou Lona AND UTRLOH row Loss once srs SmuNouareR Sara | 7 Beparmagnin oesoion 7 Gomi dae bans | 20 5 Genoa owe [etme acts been 7a [Santon acura [ie Eerrecnon pn wie) 25 5 tment ol ponds pes = Teal aaion Figure 1.63. Groundwater budget for part of Nassau and Suffolk Counties, Loag Island, New York.’ Block diagram of Long. Islend, New York, and tables listing the overall water budget and groundwater budget under predevelopment conditions. Both water ‘odgets assume equilibrium conditions with litle or no change in storage. ‘The components of hydrologic budgets are either measured, calculated, or estimated Evaporation, for example, may be obtained from measured pan evaporation data or calculated from the energy balance method, the aerodynamic method (such as the Thomthwaite-Holz- ‘man equation), ora combination ofthese methods (such as the Priestley~Taylor evaporation method), Detailed discussions of these methods are presented in References 22, 49, and 52 Precipitation data are measured or is obtained from recorded data, and in some cases are esti- tmated based upon recorded data for other time periods of interest. Depending upon the time period of the budget, average monthly values could also be used. Inthe case when the hydrologic budgets are of lakes, lake volume changes are needed and they can be computed using actual jake-stage measurements and relationships between lake stage and lake volume. Using estimates of lake volume changes, evaporation, and precipitation, estimates of net groundwater flow to a lake can be made. The individual components of net groundwater flow are the24 Chapter 1 Introduction groundwater inflow to the lake and the leakage from the lake, which can be determined through groundwater simulation models. Groundwater simulation models (Chapter 9), how: ever, need to be calibrated, which requires the monitoring of groundwater levels (hydraulic heads, Chapter 2), lithographic data (Chapter 12), results (hydraulic conductivities) from pump tests (Chapter 4), of slug tests (Chapter 5). With a calibrated groundwater flow model, the groundwater flow into a lake and the leakage from a lake can be determined using simulated ‘groundwater flow fields, CASE STUDY Lake Five-O, Florida Grubbs" deserbed the bydeologic budgetary analysis that was performed for Lake Five-O (a seepage Take), located in Bey County in norhwestem Focda (ee Figures 1.6.4 and | 6.5). This hydrologic badget (Table 1.6.1 and Figure 1.66) was determined using both collected data and mode simulation resus (see Chap ter) Lake Five is leate in an area characterized by coastal terace depesis that have been modified by extensive kerst devel- ‘opment Sos in the area ae deep, excessively étsined, and consist of very permeable, Lakeland series sands, Maximum lake depth range from 13.5 m to 15.4 m. Surface are ranged from 104 to 11.3 hectares, and the lke volume ranged fom 9.09 x 10° to LILx 10a The net groundvater Now (groundwater inflow minus leak: age) was determined by the water balance approach utilizing measurements of precipitation, lke evaporation was determined using the energy budget method, and lake volume changes were estimated from lake-stege measurements and a relationship ‘between lake stage and lake volume. The analysis was utilized to _make qualitative assessmens ofthe signiicence of lake-ground water exchanges during the study period. A groundwater simula ‘ion model was used to determine the groundwater inflows and seepage from the lake, The simulation model was developed using lithographic data to define the three geohydologic units, # net ‘work of monitoring wells to define the hydraulic heads over the time ofthe hydrologic budget, previously published data, and lia- ited slug tests to elp determine hydraulic conductivities. The analysis made it possible to develop quantitative estimates of mis imum groundwater inflow and leakage rates not only during the study period, but also for long-term average concitions ‘The hydrologic budget for Lake Five-O is expressed as As. B+, Ona The hytrologic budget by Grubbs?” showed thatthe ground. ‘water inflow tothe ake and leakage from the lake tothe groundwater system are the dominant components respectively, in total inflow (precipitation plus groundwater inflow) aod total outflow (evaporation plus leakage) budgets ofthe Take, The groundwater ‘movement, including the head distribution and groundwater flow ‘near Lake Five-O, is discussed in Section 3.6.6 LOCATION OF BAY COUNTY Figure 1.64. Location of Lake Five-O study area.” 0 | wxnomereRs:ow. lic amp the and sing et the The the and. and- total ater ow + STAFF CAGE ELEVATION REFERENCE Pont ok WELL AND OENTIRER. 4 camare sranion ‘conrmous ecornen 620 END OENTIFER ‘ wine —— obs mucwerens sw sey 1.6 Hydrologic Budget 25 Figure 1.6.5. Location of data- ‘collection sites in the Lake Five-O study area.” Table L641 Monty Net Groundwater Flow to Lake Five-O, 1989-90 Standard | deviation (percent ‘Average lake Change intake Net groond- Standard of net ground Month volume, volume Precipitation Evaporation water low deviation __water flow) 1989 Jan. 989,200 26,100 3.800 3.200 26.700 2.300 9 Reb, 94,000 21,900 6,900 4100 24.700 2,600 10 Mar. 943,300 -13,900 17;700 7900 23,700 3,300 Apr. 935,200 8,700 10600 11,000 8.300 2,800 4 May 922,500 14,700 8.900 13,800 -9,500 2,900 2 June 945,600 68,100 56,800 12,000 24,400 9300 38 July 1,024,800 66,700 26.300 13,300 53,100 5.400 10 ‘Aug. 1,068,400 26,200 20900 12,300 17,600 3,700 2 Sept. 109,800 22,300 21,500 16,800 17700 3,700 2 Oc. 1,103,400 3.100 15,100 13,000 1,000 2,700 20 Nov. 1,108,200 4,100 13,800 9.400 00 2,300 70 Dee. 1,102,700 1,000 13,500 7,900 4,500 2,300 50 (continues)26 Chapter 1 Introduction ‘Table 1.6.1 (continued) Monthly Net Groundwater Flow to Lake Five-O, 1989-90 Standard Aeviation (percent ‘Average lake Change in lake Net ground: Standard of net ground Month volume volume Precipitation Evaporation water flow eviation water flow) 1990 Jan, 1,107,000 3,100 3,800 3,300 -3,500 1,500 43 Feb, 1,108,000 4800 5,100 4800 5.800 1,300 2 Mar. 1,092,000, 9,600 8600 16,500 2,000 2 Ape 1,076,100 12,000 11,100 -18,700 2,400 B May 1,058,600 9,400 15100 16,300 2,400 15 June 1,041,300 23,700 14,300 -18,500, 4.200 B July 1,046,400 31,300 15,000 1,600 5,300 330 Aug, 1,055,600 16,000 15,600 -2800 3,600 130 Sept 1,033,300, 3,900 17900 21,600 2,900 B ct. 998,600 9500 15400 25,200 2,800 n Now. 963,200 800 11300 25,100 2,600 10 Dee. 932,000 7,000 7400 28,500 2,600 9 ‘All units are in cubic meters, unless oerwise ated. Standard deviation isthe eror component ofthe wet groundwater Now estite, Negative ‘values of net groundwater fw indicate that leakage exceeded groundwater inflow, pied ‘VOLUME (CUBE METERS) ‘VOLUME (cuBe METERS) i 5 5 ® 5 i ‘988 1990 Figure 1.6.6. Monthly hydrologic budget components for Lake Five-O, 1989-90.” uy 47.cont & 1.7.2 US. Geologi 1.7 Publication Sources 27 ‘The components of a hydrologic budget, whether they are measured or calculated, have associated errors. These errors are based on the degree of uncertainty of the measurements, limitations of methods, and the assumptions made to calculate the values. In many situations information on the rainfall, surface outflow, and withdrawal for supply may be the most reli able, Calculated values of lake evaporation and lake storage may be less reliable because off- site pan evaporation and estimated pan coefficients are used, Lake stage data may be less reliable because of the uncertainty in assessing the surface area of the lake, Groundwater flow is typically the least reliable. When the messured or calculated components are used in the budget calculations, imbalances between the inflow and outflow components, called residuals, occur. The residual term in a hydrologic budget is an accumulation of all the errors in the com ponents ofthe budget. The previous hydrologic budget equations do not reflect residual terms; however, the analysis by Grubbs* describes the residuals in detail. 1.7 PUBLICATION SOURCES 1.7.1 Internet Resources ‘The Internet has changed the availability of sources of information on groundwater hydrology. Now we can access many types of data and publications very rapidly through the use of a computer. Appendix A provides a list of U.S. government and nongovernmental organizations’ Web sites “Much of this book has been developed to serve asa portal to the vast resources on ground- \water hydrology that now exist on the Intemet, Hopefully this book will help guide the student, the professional, and the researcher to the general documents, program plans, field project details, software, and other information found on the Internet. Many of the new figures and tables in this edition have been taken from various Web sites in particular the U.S. Geologi- cal Survey site, These items not only provide specific information but also serve as samples of, ‘graphics and tabulations available onthe Internet, making the style ofthis book more variable than that of most textbooks. The majority of Web sites referenced inthis book are maintained by government agencies and established organizations, and therefore should be accessible for ‘many years to come. Several end-of-chapter problems throughout the book are based upon Intemet exercises. 1 Survey Publications In the United States, « majority of the field measurements and investigations of groundwater have been conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Most work has been on a coop- erative basis with individual states, Results are published by the Survey as circulars, digital data series, fat sheets, hydrologic atlases, open-file reports, techniques of water-resources, ‘water data reports, water-resources investigation reports, professional papers, and water-suply papers. Table 1.7.1 describes the various types of U.S. Geological Survey reports, and Table 1.7.2 describes how to find and reference on-line USGS water resources reports. Since 1935 records of groundwater measurements in key observation wells have been published in ‘water-supply papers under the title Groundwater Levels in the United States. The U.S. Geo- logical Survey publishes at imegular intervals other papers on the geology and groundwater resources of local areas. Invariably, these intensive investigations concer areas containing ‘important groundwater problems and are carried out in cooperation with local agencies.28 Chapter 1 Introduction ‘able 1.7. Types of U.S. Geological Survey Reports Circulars—Purpose: To present to general or scientific audiences short summaries or articles of short-term, popular or local interest. Digital Data Series—The Digital Data Series encompasses a broad range of digital data including computer programs, interpreted results of investigations, comprehensive reviewed databases, spatial datasets, digital images and animation, and multimedia presen- {ations that are not intended for printed release. Scientific reports in this series cover a wide variety of subjects and facets of U.S. Geological Survey investigations and research that are of lasting scientific interest and value. Releases in the Digital Data Series offer access to scientific information that is availabe in digital form; the information is primarily for viewing, processing, and (0) analyzing by computer Fact Sheets—Purpose: To describe Water Resources Division (WRD) programs, projects, products, and watertesources topics to either a general or professional audience. Water Fact Sheets are concise and timely publications that increase the understanding and visibility of WRD activities and accomplishments. Hydrologic Atlases—Purpose: To present reports on hydrology or geohy ology in map format to a wide range of hydrologically oriented audiences. Open-File Reports—Purpose: To make available (1) data reports, (2) reports preliminary findings that would be of interest to few persons other than the cooperating agency, (3) reports and maps pending publication elsewhere but requiring immediate release, and (4) timely information describing programs, project, products, and water-resources topics Professional Papers—Purpose: To present comprekensive or topical reports on any field inthe earth sciences. This series is com- 1 ‘monly used for summaries of wide popular, scientific, or geographic interest, and for significant scientific contibutions—generally on fopies other than hydrology. Techniques of Water Resources—Purpose: To present fo technically oriented audiences reports on methods and techniques used in collecting, analyzing, and processing hydrologic data, Water Data Reports—A series of annual report thet document hydrologic data gathered from the U.S. Geological Survey's and ‘cooperating agencies" surface and groundwater data-collection networks in each state, Puerto Rico, and Trust Territories. These records of streamflow, groundwater levels, and water quality provide the hydrologic information needed by state, local, and federal agencies, and the private sector for developing and managing our Nation’ land and water resources. Water-Resources Imestigations Reports—Purpose: To (a) present to interdiscipinary audiences comprehensive or topical interpre tive reports and maps that are mainly of loal or shor-term interest; (b) provide a medium of release for repots and maps that would not be feasible in any other series or journal or that would be published quickly. Water-Supply Papers—Purpose: To present significant interpretive results of hydrologic investigations of broader than local interests. Water Errata Sheets—Changes made to reports after publication sat lene ‘Source: hapvatec uss gowpub hi ‘Table 1.7.2 How to Find and Reference Online USGS Water Resources Reports Many USGS reports on water resources topics are now being served online. You can access them by their series and number. For ‘example, to see Circular 1123, you should enter CIR 1123 in the search box at the following URL: hitp:/water.usgs.govipubs. Constructing a reference ‘Use one of these prefixes for the report series, followed by the report number. Dashes and underlines are permitted (and ignored), but blanks are not allowed. Case is insensitive. Report Series Preferred Prefix Altemate Prefix(es) Allowed Fact Sheet FAC FS FACT FS_ Open File Report FR OF Water Resources Investigation WRI WRWRIR Professional Paper PRO PROF PP Water-Data Report WOR WDDATA ua Circular cR circc ‘Water-Supply Paper ‘wsP ws Bulletin BUL BULL ‘Techniques of Water-Resouroes Investigations TWRI TWRI18 Data Sources 29 Table 1.72 continued) How to Find and Reference Online USGS Water Resources Repors ind wuld but Referencing pars of a document Using only the series and number will reference the home page (index.html) of the document. You also can reference a specific part cof adocument in html format even if i's not on the home page. For example, to find the section named HRD4 ina file of Circular 1123 called overview hom, use this URL: ttp:lipubs water usgs.govicirl 123/overview.html#HDRA, This technique will work for any sub-page or figure ofthe hum document ‘The “pubs water usgs.gov” reference is persistent! ‘The USGS is committed to supporting ths referencing system forthe indefinite future. This means you can safely incorporate a “pubs. water usgs gov” reference in your Web pages and even in your printed documents and it will tll work many years later. ‘When viewing @ document, your browser's location may show you another URL that corresponds tothe current physical location of the document. Do not use this physical location asa “persistent” reference! As our system grows, thse locations will change bu the “pubs. water usgs.gov” reference will no ‘Source: pater uses gow/ubstefrencing nl 1.73 Publications ‘The following journals provide articles on various topics of groundwater: Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society Ground Water, National Ground Water Association Groundwater Management, Water Well Journal Publishing Co. Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation, Groundwater Publishing Company Hydrological Science and Technology, American Institute of Hydrology Journal of the American Water Resources Association, American Water Resources Association Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, Elsevier Scientific Publishers Journal of Hydraulics, American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Hydrology, Bisevier Scientific Publishers Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, American Society of Civil Engineers ‘There have been many books published on the subject of groundwater Earlier books include References 4, 5,7, 17, 19, 23, 26, 2-31, 40,41, 43, 6, 8, 59, 61, 67, 70, 73, and 74 ‘Over the past three decades there are several previous books that have been published on groundwater including Applied Hydrogeology"; Aquifer Hydraulics", Contaminant Hydroge- ‘ology™; Groundwater; Ground Water Contamination: Transport and Remediation, Groundwater Engineering**; Groundwater Hydrology'®, Groundwater Hydrology; Ground- water Hydraulics and Pollutant Transpor™; Groundwater Mechanics; Groundwater Sci- ence**; Groundwater Systems Planning and Management"; The Handbook of Groundwater Engineering"; Hydraulics of Groundwater'®, Manual of Applied Field Hydrogeology"®; Mod- eling Groundwater Flow and Pollution''; Principles of Groundwater Engineering"®, and Quantitative Hydrogeology.*' 1.8 DATA SOURCES ‘Table 1.8.1 lists the principal types of data and data compilations that are required for the analysis of groundwater systems, The lists are for the physical framework, hydrologic budgets and stresses, and the chemical framework. One of the sources of data used frequently by groundwater hydrologists isthe U.S. Geological Survey NWIS system.30 Chapter 1 Inroduetion ‘Table 1.8.1 Principal Types of Data and Data Compilations Required for Analysis of Groundwater Systems Physical framework ‘Topographic maps showing the stream drainage network, surface-water bodies, landforms, cultural features, and locations of strue- tures and activities related to water Geologic maps of surficial deposits and bedrock Hydrogeologic maps showing extent and boundaries of aquifers and confining units Maps of tops and bottoms of aquifers and confining units ‘Saturated-thickness maps of unconfined (water-table) and confined aquifers ‘Average hydraulic conductivity maps for aquifers and confining units and transmissivity maps for aquifers ‘Maps showing variations in storage coefficient for aquifers [Estimates of age of groundwater at selected locations in aquifers Hydrologic budgets and stresses Precipitation data Evaporation data Streamflow data including measurements of gain and loss of streamflow between gaging stations “Maps ofthe stream drainage network showing extent of normally perennial flow, normally dry channels, and normally seasonal flow Estimates of total groundwater discharge to streams Measurements of spring discharge ‘Measurements of surface-water diversions and retum flows ‘Quantities and locations of intesbasin diversions History and spatial distribution of pumping rates in aquifers ‘Amount of groundwater consumed for each type of use and spatial distribution of return flows ‘Well ydrographs and historical head (water-level) maps for aquifers Location of recharge areas (areal recharge from precipitation, Iosing streams, irrigate areas, recharge basins and recharge wells), and estimates of recharge (Chemical framework Geochemical characteristics of earth materials and naturally occurring groundwater in aquifers and confining units Spatial distribution of water quality in aquifers, both areally and with depth ‘Temporal changes in water quality, particularly for contaminated or potentially vulnerable unconfined aquifers Sources and types of potential contaminants ‘Chemical characteristics of artificially introduced waters or waste liquids Maps of land cover/iand use at different scales depending on study needs Streamflow quality (water-quality sampling in space and time), particularly during periods of low flow Source: Alley eal? 1.8.1 NWISWeb Data for the Nation ‘The U.S. Geological Survey isthe principal federal water data agency in the United States. The USGS collects and disseminates about 70 percent of the water data currently being used by numerous state, local, private, and other federal agencies to develop and manage water resources. The National WATer Data STOrage and REtrieval System (WATSTORE) was established in 1972 to provide an effective and efficient means for the processing and maintenance ‘of water data collected through the USGS and to facilitate release ofthe data tothe public. In 1976, the USGS opened WATSTORE to the public for direct access. ‘The US.GS. National Water Information System (NWIS) has replaced WATSTORE and is referred to as NWISWeb (http://waterdata.usgs.govinwis). NWIS is a very large collection of data and information onthe water resources of the United States. This database contains current and historical water data from more than 1.5 million locations across the nation. The data cate 1.8218 DataSources 31 ‘gore are real-time data, ste information, surface water data, groundwater data, and water qual ity, Real-time data includes data transmitted from selected groundwater sites. Site information includes descriptive site infotmation, inchuding latitude, longitude, well depth, aquifer, and site use. The groundwater database includes groundwater site inventory, groundwater level data, and water-quality data, The groundwater site inventory consists of more than 850,000 records of ‘wells springs, test holes, tunnels, drain, and excavations inthe United States. The groundwater date can be obtained at hitp://waterdata.usgs govinwis/gw. 1.8.2 Real-Time Data Real-time groundwater data include data that are automatically collected, transmited, and made available tothe public atleast once a day according to the U.S.GS. Fact Sheet 090-01, Decem ber 2001). These data can be transmitted by land-lined telephone, celfular telephone, land- based radio frequency (RF) technology, satellite telemetry, or a combination of these technologies: Within the U.S.G.S., satellite telemetry isthe most common method for real-time data transmission. Water levels are the most common data transmiited in real time by the USGS. Figure 1.8.1 illustrates a real-time data collection and transmission system. With this method, water-level data are recorded by a data-collection playform (DCP) (see Figure | 8.2) and transmitted, often on a four-hour schedule, by satellite telemetry to a US.GS. ground station. The data are then displayed at hitp:/vater usgs.gov/nwisvgw. Real-time data have many inberent advantages over data collected and distributed by t2- ditional means, including timeliness, data quality, data availability, and cost. Additional information on real-time groundwater data can be obtained at hitp:/waterusgs.gov/nwislgw or from the following address: Office of Groundwater, U.S. Geological Survey, 411 National Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, Virginia 20192, 703-648-5001 GOES PP can U.S. Geological Retires Ltt Ground et eed ett) Sci) platform arse Cel Figure 1.8.1. Real-time data collection and ansmission system.32. Chapter 1 Introduction Figure 18.2. Multiple sensor data-collection platform (DCP) installation in Kansas * PROBLEMS 1.631 Using the data for Lake Five-O in Table 16.1, show tat the x groundwater flow for December 1989 is 4,00 cubic meters. 1.62 Using the data for Lake Five-O in Table 16.1, show that the net groundwater flow for December 1990 is 28,50 cue meters. 1.63 Determine curlatie net groundwater low for Lake Five- 0 during 1989. 1.64 Determine cumulative net groundwater flow for Lake Fve- 0 daring 1990. 1.7.1 Pesforma search of the U.S. Geological Survey online publications (including circulars, fact sheets, qpenfle reports, professional paps, water resources investigation reports, and water supply papers) to determine what studies, if any, have been performed onthe regional aquifer system closest where you live. 1.12 Develop an inventory of wells the county where you lve using the USGS datasources for your sate, Select a well that has 4.Gme history of water levels ar print the hydrograp 1.7.3 Pesform 2 search of U.S.G.S. publications for the topic “ydrologic budget and water budget." To perform the search, go tohitpsfusgs-georef.cos.com. How many publications are listed? 1.74 Perform a search of U.S.G.S. publications for the High Plains Aquifer. To perform the search, go to hitpi/usgs-geo tef.cos.com. How many publications are listed? 1.78 Perform a search of U.S.G.S. publications forthe Edwards ‘Aquifer To perform the search, goto hitp/usgs-geore.cos.com. How many publications ae listed? 1.76 Perform a search of U.S.G-S. publications for the topic of karst terrains. To perform the search go to hitp:/fusgs-geo ref.cos.com. How many publications ar listed? 1.7.7 Go wo the site hup:/fwatercusgs gov/software and obtain a list of the groundwater software thal the U.S.GS. has availble 1.78 Write a description of the U.S.G.S. Ground-Witer Resources Program. Use the ste hup/waterusgs govlogwiGWRPhim). LA 2A song 3A gov 4A Eng 5. Ar val 6B regu cal U 7. Ba usc 8 Be 9, Be You, 10.8 1B Rede 2B Geoes BB v6, 4B 1994 15.3 348 pr 16, B 1B 48075 18. wc Wiley 20.0 Presi 2.01 no 2. Newy mc 27-4, 3.0 us.6 26 Sons, 27.icof “#00 He, References 33 REFERENCES 1. Adams, FD, Origin of springs andivers-an historical review, Fema, 50, 0, 1, 16. 1928 2. Alley, W.M, R. W. Healy, J. W. LaBaugh, and: E. Reilly, Flow and "orage in groundwater systems, Science, v.206, lune 14, 2002 3, Alles, W.M, T-E. Reilly, and O.L Franke, Sutanabily of Ground ‘water Resources, US. Geological Survey cireulr 1186, hipwater usps. _govlpubsirlie 186, U.S. Geological Survey, Dever, CO, 1999 4. Ames. Soe. Civil Engrs. (ASCE), Ground Water Management, Mamal Bagg, Practice 40, New York, 216 pp, 1972 5. American Water Works Assoc. (AWWA), Ground Water, AWWA Man ‘tal M21, New York, 130 p, 1973 6, Baker, M. N., and R. E, Horton, Historical development of ideas regarding the origin of springs and ground-water, Trans. Amer. Geophys cal Union v.17, pp. 395-0, 1936, 1, Baldwin, G. V, and C. L, McGuinness, A Primer on Ground Water, US. Geological Survey, 26 p., 1963 8, Batu, V, Aquifer Hydraulics, Wiley Interscience, New York, 1998. 9. Bear, J, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Ames. Elsevie, New York, 1972. 10, Beas J, Hydraulics of Groundwater, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1999. 11 Bear, and A. Vera, Modeling Groundwater Fow and Polaion, ‘Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1987 12. Beaumont, P, Qanat onthe Vata Plain, Ian, Tans. Inst. British Geographers, Publ no 45, pp 169-199, 1968, 1. Beaumont, P, Quat systems in an Bull. Ini. Asso. Se. Hydrology, 1.16, pp. 39-80, 971 14, Bodient, PB, H.S. Rf, and C.J. Newell, Ground Water Contam ation: Transport and Remediation, Prentice Hall, Englewood Clif, NI, 194, 15. Biswas, A. K, History of Hydrology, Amer. Elsevier, New York, 348 pp. 1970, 16, Bouwer, H, Groundwater Hydrology, MCraw-Hil, New Yor, 1978 17, Bureau of Reclamation, Ground Water Manual, US. Dept. Interior, 480 pp, 1977 18, Carson, R, The Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1962 19, Cedergren, H.R, Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Net, 2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 534 pp. 1977 20, Charbeneau,R1, Groundwater Hydraulics and Plltant Transport, Prentice Hal, Upper Sade River, NJ, 2000. 21. Chow, V.7 (ed), Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, [New York, 1453 pp, 1964 22. Chow, VT, D. R. Madent, and L. W. Mays, Applied Hydrology, ‘MeGraw-Hil, New York, 1988, 23. Collin, RE, Fow of Fluids through Porous Materials, Reinhold, ‘New York 270 pp. 1961 24, Cressey, G.B., Qanats, are and fogaras, Geog: Review, v.48, pp. 714, 1958. 28, Cunningham, WL, Real-Time Ground-Water Data for the Nation, US. Geologial Fat Sheet 090-01, Dee. 2001 26, Davi, §. N, and R. J. M. DoWiest, Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, New Yk, 463 pp, 1966, 27, Daler). We, The Handbook of Groundwater Engineering, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1999. 28. De Villiers, M, Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource, Mariner Books, Hooghion Mifi, Boston 2000. 29. DeWiest RJ. M, Geoldology, fbn Wiley & Sons, New York, 366 pp 1968 30. DeWiest RJ M.(e), Flow hough Porous Media, Academic, New York, $30 pp, 1969. 31, Domenico, P.A., Concepts and Model in Groundwater Hydrology, “MeGiaw-Hil, New York, 45 pp, 1972 32, Duwelius, RP, Hydrologic data and hydrologic budge fer Sumit Lake Reservoir, Henry County, east-cenal Indiana, water years 1989 sd 1990, 1993. 33. Bhers $. M, and L.L. George, Regional Groundwater Flow and Geochemistry in the Miieste Basins and Arches Aquifer System in Parts of Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Minos, US. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1423-C, 200. 34, Fer, C. W, Contaminant Hydrogeology, 2nd eto, Prentice Hal, Upper Sale River, NI, 1999, 35. Fetter, C. W, Applied Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle Rive, NI 2001 36, Fits, C.R., Growsdwater Scene, Academic Press, San Diego, 2002 37, Freeze, RA, and JA. Chery, Groundwater, Pretice Hal, Engle ‘wood Cis, NI 604 pp, 1979. 238, Gronberg, JA. Mc, and K.R, Belz, Estimation ofa Water Budget for ‘the Central Far of he Westen San Joaquin Valley, Calfornia, US. Geo- logical Survey Water Resources Investigation, WRL91-4192, 1992 28. Grubbs J. W, Bialuation of Groundwater Flow and Hydrologic Bud- {for Late Five-O, A Seepage Late in Northwestem Florida, US. Geo- logical Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 94-4145, 1995, 40. Harr, ME, Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill, New York, 315 pp, 1962. 4, Heath, RC. and FW. Trainer, Intraducton to Groundwater Hydra ‘ogy, Fon Wiley & Sons, New York, 284 pp, 1968. 42, Hedman, E.R, and Jorgenson, Surface- and Ground-water Interac ‘ion and Hydrologic Budget of the Missouri River Valley Aquifer Berween Yankton, South Dakota and St. Lows, Missouri, US. Geological Survey Hydrologic investigations Atlas, HA-OT2, 1990, 43, Huisman, L,, Groundwater Recovery, Winchester Press, New Yotk, 336 pp, 1972, 4, Tohaston, RH, Hydrologic Budgets of Regional Aquifer Sytems of the United States—Predeelopment and Development Conditions, US. Geological Survey Profesional Paper No, 1425, 1997. 45, Kashef, A.A, Groundwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1986, 46, Lee, T.M, and A. Swancar, The Influence of Evaporation, Grown ‘water and Uncertainty nthe Hydrologic Budge of Lake Lucerne, Seep- ‘age Lake in Polk Coun; Florida, US. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 49,197. 47, Lightfoot, D.R, The origin and difasion of ganas in Arabi: New evidence from the nothem and soubem peninsula, Geogr Jou, v.16, pp. 215-226, 2000. 48. MacKichan,K A. Estimated use of water inthe United Sates, 1955, Jour Amer Water Works Asso. v.49, pp. 369-391, 1957 49, Maidment,D.R, ed, Handboot of Hydrology, MeGraw-Hil, New York, 1993,34° Chapter 1 Introduction 50, Mars, W. M, and J. Dozier, Landscape: An Introduction to Phys ‘al Geography John Wily & Sons, New Yor, 1986 51. Masily, de G., Quamtiarve Hydrogeology, Academic Press, New York, 1986. ‘52. Mays, LW. (ed), Water Resouces Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New ‘York, 1986 53. Mays, L. W, Water Resouces Engineering, Joho Wiley & Sons, [New York, 2001 54, Meinze, 0. The history and development of groundwater hydro gy, Jour Washington Acad. Sci ¥. 24, pp. 6-32, 1934 58. Muray,C.R. and EB. Reeves, Estimated Use of Water the United States in 1975, U.S. Geological Survey Civcalar 765,39 pp. 1977 56. Muskat, M, The Flow of Homogeneous Fluide through Porous Media, McGraw Hil, New York, 763 pp. 1987, 57. Perrault, P, On the Origin of Springs, tans. by A. LaRocque, Hater, New York, 209 pp, 1957 58. Polubarinova-Kochina, PY, Theory of Groundwater Movement, Princeton Univ. Pres, Princeton, NJ 613 pp, 1962. 59, Raudlivi,A.J,and R.A. Callander, Analysis of Groundwater Flow, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 214 pp, 1976 60, Sacks, LA.,A. Swancar, and T. M. Lee, Erimating Groundwater Exchange with Lakes Using Water Budget and Chemical Mass Balance ‘Approaches for Ten Lakes in Ridge Areas of Polk and Highlands Cour ties, Florida, US. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report, WRI SE-A133, 1958, GL. Scheidegge, A.B, The Physics of Flow through Porous Media, 3rd 4, Univ of Toronto, Toros, 353 pp, 1974 62. Shade, P.1, Water Budget forth Lahaina District, Island of Maxi, Hewat, U.S. Geological Survey Water sestigations Report, WRIS6- 4238, 1996, (63. Skrobialowski, S.C. and M.J Pocazi, Hydrologic Characteristics ‘and Wer Budgets for Swift Creek Reser, Virginia, 1996, US. Geo- logical Survey Open Fie Report 97.0229, 1997. 64, Skrbialowski S.C, Hydrologic Characteristics and Water Budget {for Swift Creek Reservoir, Virginia, 1997, US. Geological Survey Water Resources vestigations, WRL98-8122, 1998, 65, Soley, W. B, Preliminary Estimates of Water Use in the United States, 195, US. Geological Survey Open-File Revor 97-0645, Reston, Va, 1997. (6, Suack, 0. DL, Growndwoter Mechanics, Premtice Hall, Engle woods Cliffs, NI, 1989. (61, Thomas, HB, The Conservation of Ground Water, McGraw-Hil Neve York, 327 pp. 1951 (68. Tuner A. Hydrogeologie, Springs, Vienna, 350 pp, 1967 (68, Todd, D.K., Groundwater Hydrology, 2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, ‘New York, 1980. 70. Tolman, C.F, Ground Wier, MeGraw-Hil, New York, 593 pp, 1937, 71. Toth A theoretical analysis of groundwater in small drainage basins, Jour Geophys. Res, v.68, pp 4795-4812, 1963. 172. Tromme, J.T, M.J-DelCharco, and BR Leweling, ater Budget and Water Quality of Ward Late, Flow and Water- Quality Characteristics ofthe Braden River Estuary and the Esfectsof Ward Lake onthe Bde logie System, West-Cenral Florida, US. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 98-4251, 199, 173, Veriljt,A., Theory of Groundwater Flow, Gordon and Breach, New York, 190 pp, 1970. 74, Walton, W. C., Groundwater Resource Evaluation, McGraw-Hill, New York, 64 pp, 1970, 75, Walton, W.C, Principles of Groundwater Engineering, Lewis Pob Tishes, Chelsea, MI, 199, 16, Weight, W.D., and J. L. Sonderegger, Manual of Applied Feld ‘Hydrogeology, MeGraw-Hil, New York, 201 77, Willi, R, and W. W-G. Yeh, Groundwater Systems Planning and Moragemens, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cis, NS, 1987. 78. Winter. C, Uncerainces in etimatng the water balance of aks, Water Resources Bll, ¥. 17, p. 82-115, 1981, 79, Winter, T. C., The interactions of lakes with variably saturated porous media, Water Resources Research v.19, pp. 1203-1218, 1985. 80. Winter, .C, J.W. Harvey, 0. L. Franke, and W.M. Alley, Ground water and Surface Water: A Single Source, US. Geological Survey Cir cular 139, hp:vater uses golpubscitlciel139, Denver, CO, 1988. 81, Wulf, H.B, The ganas of Iran, Sei. Amer, v. 218, pp. 94-100, 105, 1968, EXAMPLE PUBLICATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES American Water Works Assocation, AWWA Standard for Disinfection of War Wells, ANSUAWWA C554, Denver, CO. ‘American Water Works Association, AWWA Standard for Water Wells, ANSUAWWA A100, Denver, CO. American Water Works Association, Manual 21, Groundwater, Dever, C0, 1989 orc, M.A. S.A. Smith, and L.N, Noble, Evaluation and Restoration ‘of Water Supply Wels, American Wate Works Associaton and Amed- ‘can Water Works Association Research Foundation, Denver, CO, 1983. US. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water, Local ‘Fnancing for Welltead Protection, Washington, D.C, 1989. US. Environmental Proetion Ageney, Office of Drinking Wate, Cit ‘21n's Guide 1 Ground- Water Proection, Washington, DC, 1990 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Drinking Water, Guide 10 Ground-Water Supply Contingency Planning for Local and State Governments, Washington, DC, 1991 US. Environmental Protection Agency, Otice of Drinking Water, Pro tecting Local Ground Water Supplies Through Wellhead Protection, Washington, DC, 1991, 1a 24il, Sons, 1937, inage sdget ro ‘wer. New Hil, Pub. Field cit. Side Sta Pro Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater To describe the occurrence of groundwater necessitates a review of where and how groundwater exists; subsurface distribution, in both vertical and areal extents, needs to be considered ‘The geologic zones important to groundwater must be identified, as well as their structure in terms of water-holding and water-yilding capabilites. I hydrologic conditions furnish water to the underground zone, the subsurface strata gover its distribution and movement; bence the important role of geology in groundwater hydrology cannot be overemphasized. Springs, hydrothermal phenomena, and water in permanently frozen ground constitute special round- water occurrences. 2.1 ORIGIN AND AGE OF GROUNDWATER ‘Almost all groundwater can be thought of asa part ofthe hydrologic cycle, including surface and atmospheric (meteoric) waters. Relatively minor amounts of groundwater may enter this cycle from other origins. ‘Water that has been out of contact with the atmosphere for atleast an appreciable part of a geologic period is termed connate water; essentially, it consists of fossil interstitial water that ‘has migrated from its original burial location.” This water may have been derived from ‘oceanic or freshwater sources and, typically, is highly mineralized.” Magmatic water is water derived from magma; where the separation is deep, the term plutonic water is applied, while volcanic water designates water from relatively shallow depths (perhaps 3 to 5 km)" New water of magmatic or cosmic origin that has not previously been a part ofthe hydrosphere is referred to as juvenile water And finally, metamorphic water is water that is or has been associated with rocks during their metamorphism. The diagram in Figure 2.1.1 illustrates te inter- relations of these genetic types of groundwater ‘The residence time of water underground has always been a topic of considerable specu lation. But with the advent of radioisotopes, determinations of the age of groundwater have become possible. Hydrogen-3 (trum) and carbon-I4 are the two isotopes that have proved ‘most useful. Tritium with a half-life of 12.33 years is produced in the upper atmosphere by ‘cosmic radiation; caried to earth by rainfall and hence underground, this natural level of tr- tium begins to decay as a function of time, such that A=A,e™ QL.) ‘where A is the observed radioactivity, A, is the activity tthe time the water entered the aquifer, ‘Lis the decay constant, and tis the age of the water. Carbon-14 has a halflife of 5,730 years ands also produced at an established constant level in the atmosphere. This isotope is present in groundwater as dissolved bicarbonate originating from the biologically active layers of the 3836 Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater vane water (Cnau” water Magmate water (octrom magma: Plutonic i deo: volar ehalon) cwancua Fo low Meuse wae cancer toreentyton fe _,(earastes ‘he atmosphere) certian Carns water (fossil water cerry et ones) Figure 2.1.1. Diagram illustrating relationships of genetic types of water (courtesy The Geological Society of America, 1957) soil where CO, is generated by root respiration and the decay of humus.® Tritium is appli- cable for estimating groundwater residence times of upto 50 years, while carbon-14 spans the age bracket ofa several hundred to about 50,000 years. Applications of the age-dating techniques have revealed groundwaters ranging in age from a few years or less to many thousand years.” Measurements of water samples taken from deep wels in deserts ofthe United Arab Republic and Saudi Arabia indicate ages of 20,000 to 30,000 years.** This period is compatible with the Wisconsin ice ag, when these desert areas last possessed a high rainfall capable of recharging the underlying major aquifers 2.2 ROCK PROPERTIES AFFECTING GROUNDWATER 22.1 Aquifers Groundwater occurs in many types of geologic formations; those known as aquifers are of ‘most importance. An aguifer may be defined as a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs." This implies an ability to store and to transmit water; unconsolidated sands and gravels are a typical example, Furthermore, it is generally understood that an aquifer includes the unsaturated portion of the permeable unit. Synonyms frequently employed include groundwater reservoir and water- bearing formation. Aquifers are generally areally extensive and may be overlain or underlain ‘The fallout of bomb ium and C-14in precipitation since the advent ofnclear weapon testing in 1952 has really complicated much ofthe dating of groundwater because recent evels realy exceed the prebomb level, 22val pli- age om 9t0 es 22.2 Porosity 22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 37 by a confining bed, which may be defined as a relatively impermeable material stratigraphi- cally adjacent to one or more aquifers. Clearly, there are various types of confining beds; the following types are well established inthe literature: 1, Aquiclude—A saturated but relatively impermeable material that does not yield appreciable quantities of water to wells; clay is an example. 2. Aquifiege—A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting water, solid granite belongs inthis category. 3. Aquitard—A saturated but poorly permeable stratum that impedes groundwater movernent and does not yield water freely to wells, that may transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent aquifers and, where sufficiently thick, may constitute an important groundwater ‘storage zone; sandy clay is an example." ‘Those portions of a rock or soil not occupied by solid mineral matter can be occupied by groundwater. These spaces are known as voids, interstices, pores, or pore space. Beceuse intr- stices serve as water conduits, they are of fundamental importance to the study of groundwater. ‘Typically, they are characterized by their size, shape, irregularity, and distribution. Original interstices were created by geologic processes governing the origin of the geologic formation and are found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Secondary interstices developed after the rock ‘was formed; examples include joins, fractures, solution openings, and openings formed by plants and animals. With respect to size, interstices may be classed as capillary, supercapillary, and subcapillary. Capillary interstices are sufficiently small that surface tension forces will hold ‘water within them; supercapillary interstices are those larger than capillary ones; and subcapillary interstices are so small that water is held primarily by adhesive forces. Depending on the connection of interstices with others, they may be classed as communicating or isolated. ‘The porosity of a rock or sil is « measure of the contained interstices or voids expressed as the ratio of the volume of interstices to the total volume. If cis the porosity, then y_V-¥, (2.24) voy where V, isthe volume of interstices (voids), Vis the volume of solids, and V isthe total vol- ‘ume (bulk volume). Porosity may also be expressed by (2.2.2) Pm ‘where Pais the density of mineral particles (grain density)" and p, isthe bulk density ‘The term effective porosity refers to the amount of interconnected pore space available for fluid flow and is expressed as a ratio of interconnected interstices to total volume. For uncon solidated porous media and for many consolidated rocks, the two porosities are identical Porosity may also be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the right-hand side of Equa- tions 2.2.1 oF 2.2.2 by 100. The terms primary and secondary porosity ate associated with original and secondary interstices, respectively. “The word aquifer canbe traced ots Latin ergin. Agi is combining frm of agua wats”) and fer comes from fer ("to beat). Hence, an aguifer is a water bear The sufi clude of aquclude i derived from the Latin claudere to shut or close”). Silay, the sufi fue of aqufuge comes fom fugee ("to dive avay"), while he suffix tard of aqutard follows fom the Latin aru slow”) "The densi of oid ock vais with he tye of mineral For alluvium where quarts the predominant mineral, value of 2.65 pe’ is typical imestone and grant fal in the range 27-2. gfe’, and basal can agprosch 3.0 cm.38. Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater @ sow o “e te EXAl © 0 Figure 2.21. Examples of tock interstices and the relation of rock texture to porosity a) Well-soried sedimentary deposit hing high porosity. (5) Poorly sorted sedimentary deposit having low porosity (6) Well sone sedimentary deposit consisting of pebbles that ae themselves porous, 50 thatthe deposit as a whole has a very high porosity. (2) Well-srted sedimentary deposit whose porosity has been diminished bythe deposition of mineral mati inthe interstices. (c) Rock rendered porous by solution. () Rock rendered porous by facturing Figure 2.2 shows several types of interstices and their relation to porosity, In tems of : groundwater supply, grenular sedimentary deposits are of major importance. Porosities in these deposits depend on the shape and acrangement of individual particles, distribution by size, and degree of cementation and compaction, In consolidated formations, removal of mineral matter by solution and degree of fracture are also important. Porosities range from near 2zer0 to moce than 50 percent, depending on te above factors and the type of material. Repre- sentative poraity values for various geologic materials are listed in Table 2.2.1. It should be recognized that porosities fora particular soil or rock can vary considerably from these values. In sedimentary rocks subject to compaction, measurements show that porosity decreases with depth of burial >” Thus, a typical relation has the form o,=0,6% (223) Table 2.2.1 Representative Values of Porosity (after Morris and Johnson’) Material Porosity, percent Material Porosity, percent Gravel, coarse 28 Loess ry Gravel, medium at Peat a Gravel, fine 3a Schist. 38 Sand, coarse 8 Siltstone 35 Sand, medium 6 CCaystone 8 Sand, fine 43 Shale 6 silt 46 Till, predominantly silt 4 chy 2 Till, predominantly sand 31 Sandstone, fine grained 3B Tuff 41 Sandstone, medium grained 37 Basalt a Limestone 0 Gabbro, weathered a Dolomite %6 Granite, weathered 45 Dune sand 45 These values ae for epacked samples all ater re unditrbed,red iy. sof sin nin- EXAMPLE 2.2.1 SOLUTION: 22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 39 ‘where isthe porosity at depth zy, is the porosity atthe surface, a is a constant, and eis the base of Naperian logarithms. ‘An undisturbed sample of a medium sand weighs 484.68 g. The core ofthe undisturbed sample is 6 em in diameter and 10.61 cm high. The sample is oven-dried for 24 hrat 110°C to remove the water content ‘Atte end of the 24 hr, the core sample weighs 447.32 g. Determine the bulk density, void ratio, water content, porosity, and saturation percentage ofthe sample, ‘The dry weight of the sample is W, = 447.32 g and the total weight is W; = 484.68 g. The total volume ofthe undisturbed sample is V,= Rh = (3 cm)"(10.61 cm) = 300em* “The bulk density is defined as the density of solids and voids together, after drying. Thus, Wy _ 44732 Savant Siedem Pes Assuming quartz isthe predominant mineral in the sample, then py = 2.65 gfem? ‘Thus, the volume V, of the solid phase of the sample is W,_ 47328 Pn 2.65 fem: 1688.¢m? “Thus, the toma volome of voids in the sample is ‘With tis information, we can calculate the void ratio ¢ of the sample is ¥,_13120m* V,~ 168.8em' ™m ‘The volumetric water content of a sample isthe volume of the water divided by the volume of the sample (W-Wa)/Pence _ 484.68 p~ 447.329 vy 300m? Nig lem’ ‘where W, isthe total weight ofthe undisturbed sample before drying, ‘The gravimetric water content ofthe sample is We Wy 9p - 884.68 8447.32 09g 355) 47 100 ‘The porosity ofthe sample is 300.cm?—168.8cm? Sem" <100=43.73% 300em Finally, the saturation percentage of a sample is defined asthe percentage of the pore space thats filled by wate, %100= 28.47%40 Chapter2- Occurrence of Groundwater ‘EXAMPLE 2.2.2 SOLUTION SOLUTION ‘The void ratio ofan unconsolidated clay sample i 1.19, Determine the porosity of the sample. and substituting V, = V,~ Vy, ‘ 19 100 = 109-5434 OTe 14119 TSH ‘The porosity of a quartz sand sample is 38.41%, Determine the bulk density ofthe sample. ‘The bulk density and porosity of an undisturbed sample are defined as p, ae Srning ey wiht fa aml W, pn he bk deseo ee al epost For quart sand, p, =2.65 fem? the bulk density is A ».=09I- 2} 2.2.3 Soil Classification ‘Unconsolidated geologic materials are normally classified according to thei size and distribution, A commonly employed system based on particle, or grin, size is listed in Table 2.2.2 Evaluation of the distribution of sizes is accomplished by mechanical analysis. This involves sieving particles coarser than 0.05 mm and measuring rates of settlement for smaller particles in suspension. Results are ploted on a particle-size distribution graph such as that shown in Figure 2.2.2. The percentage finer scale on the ordinate shows the percentage of material smaller than that of a given size particle on a dry-weight bass. ‘The effective particle size isthe 10 percent finer than value (d,. The distribution of particles is characterized by the uniformity coefficient U, as U.= deldyy (2.2.4) where dg is the 60 percent finer than value, A uniform material has a low uniformity coefii- ‘cient (the dune sand in Figure 2.2.2), while a well-graded material has a high uniformity coefficient (the alluvium). 2.2.4x100, e have distri. 22.2. volves ticles wn in. aerial par 22. Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 41 ‘Table 2.2.2 Soil Classification Based on Particle Size (after Mortis and Johnson*®) Material Particle size, mm chy <0.004 silt 0.004— 0.062, Very fine sand 0.062 0.125 Fine sand 0425-025 Medium sand 025-05 Coarse sand 05-10 Very coarse sand 10-20 Very fine gravel 20-40 Fine gravel 40-80 Medium gravel 80-160 Coarse gravel 160~32.0 Very coarse gravel 320-640 109) 20] ‘hvium 60) Percent finer 40} 20) ot pe, ot 002 005 010 020 060 .100 200 600 100 200 5.00 Partie size, mm Figure 2.2.2. Paricle-size dstibution graph for three geologic samples (data from U.S. Geological Suneey). ‘The texture ofa soil is defined by the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay present in the particle-size analysis, This can be expressed by the soil-textural triangle in Figure 2.2.3 Note, for example, that a soil composed of 30 percent clay, 60 percent silt, and 10 percent sand constitutes a silty clay loam. 2.2.4 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume ‘We can define porosity in a spatial field asa function, o(2), at any point x using spatial averaging over a representative elementary volume (REV). Consider a porous medium with diferent sizes of averaging volumes, V*, centered at point . The point value of potosity (volumetric Porosity) is associated with an averaging volume centered at that point, expressed as!* ie 24)2 Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater igure 2.2.3, Triangle of sil textures for describing various combinations of sand sit, and clay (ater Soil Survey Saf, where X() is an indicator function for void space: X(f) = 0 if point is located in the solid space or X(f) = 1 if point x is located in the void space. V* is the averaging volume centered on the point, with the estimated porosity value as a function of averaging volume size. Ifthe volume is too smal, the average value is not well defined and the limit approaches either 0 or 1. There may be a range of volumes surrounding point for which the average is well defined, and if the averaging volume is too large, then soils with different textures may be included, resulting in a deviation from the average. 2.25 Specific Surface ‘The water retentive property ofa soil or rock is markedly influenced by its surface area. This area depends on particle size and shape and on the type of clay minerals present. The term specific surface refers tothe area per unit weight of the material, usually expressed as mig, Relative ‘methods for measuring specific surface are based on retention of a polar organic molecule such as ethylene glycol; these have been related to absolute values derived from statistical calculations of surface area.° Clay particles contribute the greatest amount of surface area in unconsolidated formations. Nonswelling clays such as kaolinite have only an extemal surface and exhibit specific surfaces inthe range of 10-30 mg; however, swelling clays such as montmorillonite and vermiculite have internal and external surfaces that yield specific surface values near 800 mg. ‘An illustration ofthe importance of particle size to specific surface is presented in Table 2.23. Here, considering only uniform spheres, it can be seen that when a given volume is transformed into 100 small spheres totaling the same volume, the specific surface increases by «factor of 100, Furthermore, itcan be shown that when the volume is deformed into rod, disk, or plate shapes, specific surface increases even more.* SOLty \isarea pecific elative such lations lidated it spe- ite and wig Table ame is ses by + disk, 2.2 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 43 ‘Table 2.2.3 Relation of Surface Area to Particle Size for Uniform Spheres Diameter of Soil Namberof Teal surface particle, mm classification particles per em? area, om? 0 Medium gravel 1 34 i Coarse snd bei? 34 01 Ver ie sand L108 aia am Sit 125x108 1570 0.002 Clay 1.25 x 10"! 15,700 ‘Nore: Rectangular packing i assumed ina cubic entane 1 em on a side o that the total volume, and weigh, of spheres remains constant at m6 cn’ EXAMPLE 224 Using the tabulated results ofa grain size distribution test on afield sample, perform the following tasks: (8) Prepare a grain size distribution curve fortis sample, (b) Is this a well-graded or poorly graded sample? (©) Classify the sample using Table 2.2.2. (@) What would be reasonable porosity values fr this sample? US. Standard Sieve Number Mas retained (g) 38 4995 4 26.70 8 25.29 16 5058 30 nst 40 25.50 109 33.60 200 133 Pan (passes through #200 sieve) 828 ‘Total sample weight 300.00 SOLUTION () The given data are analyzed as shown inthe table below. Note that the particle size (sieve opening) corresponding to each US. Standard Sieve number is given in the table. Te results yield the grain- size distribution curve shown in Figure 2.24 Sieve Grain size (mm) Mass retained (g) Percent finer by mass 38 95 49.95 83.35 4 475 26.10 7445 8 2.36 25.29 66.02 16 118 50.58 49.16 i 30 06 7257 97 | 40 0.425 25.0 1647 100 01s 33.60 S27 | 200 0075 133 216 | Pan <0.015 8.28 ‘Total sample weight, 30044° Chapier2. Occurence of Groundvater % T 0 7 rh 2 oo | Fal If ay Fo} + - ++ fx 10 | Figure 22.4 9 | Graisizedssibu- bor 7 10° tiomeurve for 20,00 Exunple 224 {b) From the grain-size dstibation curve: Jo 16mm — and dp =0.23 mm From Equation 2.2.4, the uniformity coeficient is dg 16mm _ 4 dy 023 mm Since U, > 6, the sample can be described as well graded (Le, Jow uniformity). (©) The percentage of clay and silt in the sample is approximately 2-3 percent, while about 60 percent ‘of the sample is sand, The remaining 37-38 percent is composed of very fine to coarse gravel (©) The porosity of the sample could be somewhere between 20 and 35 percent based on our classifica tion in part (), 7 ‘The following data ae obtained from ahydromter tit to determine the gradation ofa sample of fine sediments (@) Prepare a grain size distribution curve for this sample (©) Isthisa wel-graded or poorly graded sample? (©) Classify the sample using Table 2.2.2 (8) What would be reasonable porosity values for his sample? escent finer than 100.00 98.90 88.50 19.40 1030 090 0.125 000 0.088 oe 0.0625 0.00 (@) Using the given data, the grain size distribution curve is plotted for this sample in Figure 2.25stribu- >ercent L ssifica- . of fine 23. Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 45 ETT yt =/ela] [ss ea] alm a Figure 225, Gain 9.100 1,000 size distribution curve Peril size, mm for Example 2.2.5, Percent finer oSBBERSIBE M (b) From Figure 2.25, dj = 0.36 mm and dy tion 2.24 25 mm, the uniformity coefficient is given by Equa 036 mm 0.25 mm Lad Since U, <4, the sample can be classified as poorly graded (ie, highly uniform). () From the given data and the soil classifications of Table 2.2.2, the sample consists of 11.5 percent coarse sand, 78.2 percent medium sand, and 10:3 percent fine sand. Thus, the sample can be classi fied asa medium sand with some proportions of coarse and fine sand, (@) Based on the classification in part (c), the porosity of the sample would be inthe range of 35 to 45 percent. . 2.3 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER ‘The subsurface occurrence of groundwater may be divided into zones of aeration and saturation. The zone of aeration consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially by ait In the zone of saturation, all interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure, On ‘most of the land masses of the cath, a single zone of aeration overlies a single zone of saturation and extends upward tothe ground surface, as shown in Figure 2.3.1 In the zone of aeration, vadose water’ occurs. This general zone may be further subdi- vided into the soil water zone, the intermediate vadose zone, and the capillary zone (Fig ure 23.1)" ‘The saturated zone extends from the upper surface of saturation down to underlying impermeable rock. Inthe absence of overlying impermeable strata, the water table, or phreatic surface, forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation. This is defined as the surface of atmospheric pressure and appears a the level at which water stands in well penetrating the aquifer. Actually, saturation extends slightly above the water table due to capillary attraction; however, water is held there a less than atmospheric pressure. Water occurring in the zone of saturation is commonly referred to simply as groundwater, but the term phreatic water is also employed. “Vadose is derived from the Latin vadosus shall"). "Phreatc is derived from the Grek phrar,-atas (a wel)46 Chapter2 Occurrence of Groundwater Ground sutace 3) semaine 3 3 vase g : = i ater toe waterue || g 2 3 as 3 aa 5 3! § | oS seme | Impemeabierock | i ' 2.4.3 Figure 2.3.1. Divisions of subsurface water 24 ZONE OF AERATION 24.1 Soil-Water Zone ‘Water in the soil-water zone exists at less than saturation except temporarily when excessive water reaches the ground surface as from rainfall or irrigation, The zone extends from the ground surface down through the major oot zone. Is thickness varies with soil type and vegetation. Because of the agricultural importance of soil water in supplying moisture to roots, agri- cultursts and soil scientists have studied soil moisture distribution and movement extensively. ‘The amount of water present in the soil-water zone depends primarily onthe recent exposure of the soil to moisture. Under hot, arid conditions, a water-vapor equilibrium tends to become established between the ambient air and the surfaces of fine-grained soil particles. As a result, only thin films of moisture—known as hygroscopic water—remain adsorbed on the surfaces. For coarse-grained materials and where additional moisture is available, water also forms liquid rings surrounding contacts between grains, as sketched in Figure 2.4.1, This ‘water is held by surface tension forces and is sometimes referred to as capillary water. Tem- porarily, the soil-water zone may contain water in excess of capillary water from rainfall or irrigation; this gravitational water drains through the soil under the influence of gravity. 2.4.2 Intermediate Vadose Zone ‘The intermediate vadose zone extends from the lower edge ofthe soil-water zone tothe upper limit ofthe capillary zone (Figure 2.3.1). The thickness may vary from zero, where the bound-cessive om the I vege- s,agri- sively. expo- nds to les. As on the. also This Tem- fall or upper ound- 24 Zone of Aeration 47 243. Capillary Zone Figure 241, Ilustation of vadose water held at contact points of particles in the unsaturated ing zones merge with a high water table approaching ground surface, to more than 100 m under deep water table conditions. The zone serves primarily asa region connecting the zone near ground surface with that near the water table through which water moving vertically downward must pass. Nonmoving vadose water is held in place by hygroscopic and capillary forces. Temporary excesses of water migrate downward as gravitational wate, ‘The capillary zone (or capillary fringe) extends from the water table up tothe limit of capillary rise of water. Ifa pore space could be idealized to represent a capillary tube, the capillary rise h, (Figure 24.2) can be derived from an equilibrium between surface tension of water and the weight of water raised. Thus, cosh eat) ‘wheres surface tension, ys the specific weight of water, isthe ube radius, and is the angle ‘of contact between the meniscus and the wall ofthe tube. For pure water in a clean glass, 2.= O, and at 20° C, t= 0.074 gicm and y= 1 g/cm’, so that for r in cm, the capillary rise (in cm) is ous 242) Itfollows from Equation 2.4.2 that the thickness of the capillary zone will vary inversely with the pore size of a sol or rock. Measurements of capillary rise in unconsolidated materials shown in Table 2.4.1 bear out this relationship. Furthermore, for a material containing innumerable pores of a wide range in size the upper boundary of the zone will form a jagged limit when studied microscopically. Taken macroscopically, however, a gradual decrease in ‘water content results with height, That is, just above the water table almost all pores contain capillary water; higher, only the smaller connected pores contain water; and stil higher, only the few smallest connected pores contain water lifted above the water table. Ths distribution of water above the water table is shown in Figure 2.4.3 from a drainage test on a sand, The visual capillary rise is invariably less than the actual capillary zone as defined in Figure 2.4.3.48 Chapter? Occureace of Groundwater SOLUTION 60) T TT I ° ' : Introd lrmedite | i ‘ates Eat| ‘om id a \ g i+ | Figure242. Riseof = 244 water in a capillary tube pilley ‘Figure 2.4.3. Distribution 010 2030 Percont moisture ‘content by volume 0 of water in a coarse sand above the water table after rainage (after Pri”) ‘able 241 Capillry Risen Samples of Uncosoated Mates (fer Lohman?) Material Grain size (mm) Capillary rise (erm) Fine gravel 52 25 Very coarse sand el 65 Coarse sand 1-05 BS ‘Medium sand 05-02 m6 Fine sand 02-01 28 silt 01-0005 105.5 Sil 095-002 200" ‘Note Capillary se measured afer 72 days; all samples Bave vitally the same porosity oF Al percent. stil rising after 72 days ‘Assuming uniform spherical grain of evbic packing, approximate the capillary rise ina sil sa function ofthe grain diameter. Using this relationship, estimate te capillary rise for each material io Table 2.4.1 ‘The accompanying figure shows atypical arrangement of cubical packing with spherical grains of equal ameter. It can be shown, using geometry, thatthe radius ofthe pore space between the grains is 0.2 times the grain diameter, Assuming that this poe space could be idealized to represent a capillary tbe, r = 0200 can be substuted into Equation 2.42 yieding h, = 245-045. 3action 241 equal i802 can be 244 24 Zone of Aeration 49 Material Grain size (mm) Estimated capillary Actual capillary rise (cm) rise (em) _ Fine gravel 52 15.3.5 25 Very coarse sand 2 315-15 65 ‘Coarse sand 1-05 75-15 IBS Medium sand 05-02 15375 246 Fine sand 02-01 315-15 428 silt 1-005 75-150 0s.s silt 0.05-0.02 150-375 200 . Measurement of Water Content Determination of the water content of soils can be accomplished by various direct methods based on removal of the water from a sample by evaporation, leaching, or chemical reaction, followed by measurement of the amount removed." Thus, the gravimetric method involves ‘weighing a wet soil sample, removing the water by oven-drying it and reweighing the sample. Indirect methods consist of measuring some soil property affected by soil-water content. Specifically, electrical and thermal conductivity and electrical capacitance of porous materials vary with water content, Another useful instrument for measuring soil moisture is the neutron probe. When low ered in a small-diameter tube in the ground, determination of soil moisture can be made as a function of depth. The instrument contains a radium-beryllium source of fast neutrons and a detector for slow neutrons. The fast neutrons are slowed by collisions with hydrogen, and because most ofthe hydrogen in soil is associated with water, the intensity of slow neutrons measured yields, after calibration, the local soil moisture content.° Within the vadose zone a negative-pressure head of water exists, often referred to as suction, oF tension ina positive sense. This tension can be measured by a tensiometer; Figure 2.4.4 shows a tensiometer installed in a soil column, The depression Ad in water level measures the local soil tension. Such instruments function in the range from atmospheric pressure (near 1,000 cm of water) to about 200 cm of water (800 cm water tension). Calibration data for soil suction and water content reveal that the relation between the two variables isnot single valued; instead, sol structure and compaction, as well as effects of wetting or drying, influence the results Suction head, tone Unsaturated porous medium Figure 2.44, Mlustation of a tensiometer for measuring water tension in unsaturated porous media,50 Chapter2. Occurrence of Groundwater 24.5. Available Water Soils absorb and retain water, which may be withdrawn by plants during periods between rainfall ot irigations. This water-holding capacity is defined by the available water, which is the range of plant-available water, the moist end being the field capacity and the dry end the wilting point, Field capacity can be defined as the amount of water held in a soil after wetting and after subsequent drainage has become negligibly small. The negligible drainage rate is often assumed after two days; however, different sols possess varying drainage rates so that quantitative values may not be comparable. The wilting point defines the water content of soils when plants growing in that soil are reduced to a permanent wilted condition. Because factors such as soil type, volume, plant type, and age influence wilting point, this moisture content can also be variable. 2.5 ZONE OF SATURATION In the zone of saturation, groundwater fills all ofthe interstices; hence, the (effective) porosity provides a direct measure ofthe water contained per unit volume. A portion of the water can bbe removed from subsurface strata by drainage or by pumping of a well; however, molecular ‘and surface tension forces hold the remainder of the water in plac. 25.1 Specific Retention 2.5.2. Specific Yield ‘The specific retention $, ofa soil or rock isthe ratio ofthe volume of water it will retain after saturation against the force of gravity to its own volume. Thus, (25.1) ‘here w, isthe volume occupied by retained water’ and V, is the bulk volume of the soil or rock, ‘The specific yield S, ofa soil or rock isthe ratio of the volume of water tha, after saturation, ‘can be drained by gravity to its own volume."” Therefore, (2.5.2) where w, is the volume of water drained. Values ofS, and S, can also be expressed as percent- ages. Because w, and w, constitute the total water volume in a saturated material, it is appar- ent that 253) or (254) where all pres are interconnecting. Values of specific yield depend on grain size, shape and distribution of pores, compaction of the stratum, and time of drainage.*” Representative specific yields for various geologic materials are listed in Table 2.5.1; individual values fora soil or rock can vary considerably from these values. It should be noted that fine-grained materials yield litle water, whereas ‘coarse-grained materials permit a substantial release of water and hence serve as aquifers. In should be noted that he terms field capacity and retained water refer to the same water content but ifr bythe ‘zone in which they ocr. SOLsnrain- vis the wilting dafter ‘sumed values Hype, iable. poros- ‘eran ecular 1 after 25.1) ation, 15.2) cent par- 53) 54) ation ogic ably s.In SOLUTION 25 Zone of Saturation SI ‘Table 25.1 Representative Values of Specific Vield (after Johnson?) Material Specific yield (percent) Gravel, coarse 23 Gravel, medium m4 Gravel, fine 25 Sand, coarse a Sand, medium 2% Sand, fine B silt 8 Chy 3 Sandstone, fine grained 2 Sandstone, medium grained 2 Limestone 4 Done sand 38 Loess 18 Peat “ Schist 6 Siltstone 2 ‘Til, predominantly silt 6 ‘Til, predominantly sand 16 ‘Tl, predominantly gravel 16 Tutt a ‘general, specific yields for thick unconsolidated formations tend to fallin the range of 7 to 15 percent, because of the mixture of grain sizes present in the various strata; furthermore, they ‘normally decrease with depth due to compaction. Specific yield can be measured by a variety of techniques involving laboratory, field, and estimating techniques. 7° Methods based on well-pumping tests, described in Chapter 4, generally give the most reliable results for field measurements. Estimate the average drawdown over an area where 25 million m? of water has been pumped through a ‘number of uniformly distributed wells. The area is 150 km? and the specific yield of the unconfined aquifer is 25 percent. ‘The volume of water drained is w, = 25 x 10m. Bq. 25:2 sued to determine the blk volume, V, of the aquifer to exact this volume of water: 25x10° m* an? 0252 Ey, urden, static ‘quifer dition, water- quite com ough a water ficient iteon- essure soefii- water d. chum 28.1) 2s Md, as 29° Groundwater Basin/Regional Groundwater Flow Systems $9 Unit cross-sectional area Unitdeatne of piezometic surface Piezometic surace Unit deine of Unit e0ss-setonal area water table | Water table — Impermeable| @ $14 Aquiter ‘Aquite Impermeable defining the storage coeicient of (a) o ‘confined and (b) unconfined aquifers. 2.9 GROUNDWATER BASINS/REGIONAL GROUNDWATER FLOW SYSTEMS A groundwater basin may be defined asa hydrogeologic unit containing one large aquifer or several connected and interrelated aquifers. Such a basin may or may not coincide with a physiographic unit. In a valley between mountain ranges, the groundwater basin may occupy only the central portion ofthe stream drainage basin. In limestone and sandhill areas, drainage and groundwater basins may have entirely different configurations. The concept ofa groundwater basin becomes important because ofthe hydraulic continuity that exists forthe contained ‘groundwater resource. In order to ensure continued availability of subsurface water, basin- ‘wide management of groundwater, which is described in Chapter 10, becomes essential. ‘A regional groundwater flow system can be comprised of subsystems at different scales and a complex hydrogeologic framework, illustrated in Figure 2.9.1. The Edwards Aquifer, ilustrated in Figure 2.6.2, i a regional groundwater flow system, Two regional groundwater flow systems, the High Plains Aquifer and the Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer system, ae illustrated in Figure 2.9.2. 2.9.1 High Plains Aquifer An example ofa groundwater basin isthe High Plains Aquifer (Figures 2.9.2 and 2.9.3), which underlies an area of about 174,000 square miles extending through parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming. Approximately 20, percent ofthe irrigated agricultural land in the United States overlies the High Plains aquifer, “Inprastice the term groundwater basin is loosely defined; however, it implies an area containing groundwater ‘reservoir capable of furnishing substantial water supply60 Chapter2. Occurrence of Groundwater Unsaturated zone Surtace-water body Figun EBB Hoh hyarausc-concuetivty aquitor @® Local groundwater subsystem Low tyra conduetaty contning unt . ot (7Very low hydrautie-conductivity bedrock @ su rogoralgroundater subsystem = Diecton of goundate few @ agonal goundwatesubystom Figure 2.9.1. A regional groundwater flow system that comprises subsystems at different scales and a complex hydrogeologic framework (modified from Sun”), Significant featuces of this depiction of part of a regiousl groundwater flow system include (1) local groundwater subsystems in tho upper water-table aquifer that discharge to the nearest surface-water bodies (lakes or streams) and are separated by groundwater divides beneath topographically high areas; (2) a subregional groundwater subsystem in the water-table aquifer in which flow paths originating atthe water table do not discharge into the nearest surface-water body but into a moze distant one; and (3) a deep, regional groundwater flow subsystem that lies beneath the water-able subsysteras and is hydraulically connected to them. The hhydrogeologic framework of the flow system exhibits a complicated spatial arrangement of high hydraulic-conductivity aquifer units and low hy¢raulic-conduetivity confining units. The horizontal scale of the figure could range from tens to hundreds of miles, and about 30 percent of the groundwater used for icigationis withdrawn from the aquifer (U.S. Geological Survey", The aquifer boundary approximates the boundary of the Great Plains Physiographic Province, which is characterized by 2 fiat to gently rolling land surface and ‘moderate precipitation, The region is underlain by sedimentary rocks that dip gently tothe east and are uptumed with their contact withthe Rocky Mountains and other dome mountains, such asthe Black Hills. Figure 2.9.3 shows the regional subdivisions ofthe High Ptains Aquifer: the Northern High Plains, the Central High Plains, and the Southern High Plains. ‘The altitude and configuration of the water table in the High Plains Aquifer is affected mostly by the altitude and configuration of the underlying bedrock surface, the transmissivity of the aquifer, and the rate and distribution of recharge and discharge, Large areas of the aquifer are not continuously saturated or ae saturated only in isolated channels in the bedrock surface. The water table in other parts of the aquifer is continuous and slopes eastward at gra- 29229 Groundwater Basins/Regional Groundwater Flow Systems 61 Figure 2.9.2. Location ofthe High Plains Aquifer andthe Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer system*® 10mss ‘Second 1-10 mss, Third Ol mis Fourth 10-1008 Fifta 110 Us Sixth Os Seventin 10-100 mils iehth Does no nla irigation discharge Bexar, Medina, and Uvalde Counts. “Does not include discharges for domestc supply, stock, ad miscelaeovs use » Does not inlae discharge rom Kinney Conny Source: Stary and Thomas 2.11 HYDROTHERMAL PHENOMENA 2411 Thermal Springs ‘Thermal springs discharge water having a temperature in excess of the norinal local groundwater. The relative terms warm springs and hot springs are common. Waters of thermal springs axe usually highly mineralized and consist for the most part of meteoric water that has been modified in quality by its passage underground. Hydrothermal phenomena involving the release of water and steam are nearly always associated with volcanic rocks and tend to be concentrated in regions where lage geothermal gradients occur. Also, by implication, aquifers must be present that permit water to percolate to great depths—oen 1,500 to 3,000 m. This water, heated from below, forms a large con- vective current that rises to supply hydrothermal areas (see Figure 2.11.1). ‘A geyser’ isa periodic thermal spring resulting from the expansive force of superheated steam within constricted subsurface channels (see Figure 2.11.2). Weter from surface sources “The word seers desved from be Leland word gear meaning egw o rage74 Chapter? Occursence of Groundwater Descending cool surface water — “\ Fj Wate begins to Mears bail near ground yound sulace sutaca because tS an amigingen eres eB faut or rece Surace (meteor) pressures 5 crater seo evas Be ee A Darna a8 much as—* > wn Pemeatie ore 3000 meters botow 1 ators at Figure 211.1. Schematic diagram of a hydrothermal system (after Keefer") (round. Heated far Above Its normal bois ing pol, it begins to risa toward the sur face 4 2 - ‘Figure 2.11.2. Eruptions of {he Midway Geysersin Yellowsione National Park, Wyoming (after Keefer) and/or shallow aquifers drains downward into a deep vertical tube where itis heated to above the boiling point. With increasing pressure the steam pushes upward this releases some water at the surface, which reduces the hydrostatic pressure and causes the deeper superheated water to accelerate upward and to flash into steam, The geyser then surges into full eruption for a short interval until the pressure is dissipated: thereafter, the filling begins again and the cycle is repeated ‘Another kind of hot spring, known as a mudpot, results when only 2 limited supply of water is available. Here water mixes with clay and undissolved particles brought tothe surface, forming a muddy suspension by the small amount of water and steam continuing to bubble to the surface, A farole”is an opening through which only steam and other gases such as car- “The word farce stems from the Latin fama, ening rok.‘am ofa fer". above water water fora cycle ply of face, sible to wscar- 2.11 Hydrothermal Phenomena 78 igure 2.11.3. Thermal springs in the United States (after Waring) bon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide discharge. These features are normally found on hillsides above the level of flowing thermal springs; water can often be heard boiling underground. ‘Thermal springs of various kinds are found throughout the world notable areas exist in Teeland, New Zealand, and the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia, Figure 2.11.3 shows the regional distribution of thermal springs in the United States. Yellowstone National Park in ‘Wyoming, which contain literally thousands of hydrothermal features, possesses the greatest concentration of thermal springs in the world.” This area mark the site of an enormous volcanic eruption 600,000 years ago. Today, temperatures of 240°C exist only 300 m below ground surface. 2.11.2 Geothermal Energy Resources Heat within the earth flows outward at an average rate of 1.5 x 10° cal/em/s" and creates an average geothermal gradient of 1°C/50 m. But in areas of volcanic and tectonic activity, heat flows several orders of magnitude larger than normal have been found. These tremendous reservoirs of heat close to ground surface have been recognized as invaluable sources of energy." * But most important from a hydrologic standpoint is the fact that utilization of these geothermal resources invariably involves water as the mechanism for extracting heat. Four types of sources are generally recognized: 1. Dry Steam Field—Permeabilty isso low that groundwater reaching the heat source is limited and is fully vaporized Wet Steam Field—Sulffcient groundwater reaches the heat source so that a mixture of water and steam is produced. 3. Low-Temperature Fields—Temperatres in the range of 50-80°C are found at shallow depths, enabling the groundwater to be employed directly for heating purposes.76 Chapter 2 Occurence of Groundwater 4, Dry Rock-—In some areas at depths exceeding 3,000 m, temperatures are found in the range of 200-500°C without the presence of groundwater; by injecting water into fractured rock zones through one drill hole, steam can be produced from an adjacent hoe, Geothermal resources exist through the world, but they have been developed in only a few Tocalities” Most homes in Reykjavik, Iceland, are heated by naturally occurring hot water Notable power plants generating energy from geothermal resources are located in Italy, New Zealand, and the western United States. we 2.12 GROUNDWATER IN PERMAFROST REGIONS: Permafrost, or perennially frozen ground, is defined as unconsolidated deposits or bedrock that continuously have had a temperature below 0°C for two years to thousands of years." Fig. ‘ure 2.12.1 illustrates the upper and lower limits of permafrost in terms ofthe depths at which 20°C ground temperature oceurs. Regions of permafrost in the Northem Hemisphere are vse shown in Figure 2.12.2. In the continuous-permafrost zone, permafrost is present everywhere to depths of 150-400 m; while in the more southerly discontinuous-permaftost zone, per- tmaftost is perforated by unfrozen zones that depend on local conditions. Frozen ground creates an impermeable layer that restricts the movement of groundwater, acts a8 a confining layer, and limits the volume in which liquid water can be stored. In many areas of frozen ground, shallow aquifers are entsely eliminated, thereby requiring that wells be drilled deeper than in similar geologic environments without permafrost, Groundwater can ‘occur above, below, and locally within permafrost." In the continuous-permafrost zone, the [Mean annual ground-surtace temperature Ho 200 % Permafrost table Minimum annual Maximum annwal temperature temperature Level of 290 Depth below ‘annual ampittude ‘ground surtace Permafrost — 213 Figure 2.12.1, Location of per airs below ground surface in relaion to ground temperature (after Williams”), “Ichas bee eat thatthe total stored heat in he canto depth 3 km amounts t02 x 10" car het one preentor2% 10” ea, ofthis can be commercially recovered4 in the to frac vole, yatew water, New ck that Sig which ve are where 2, per- water, many wells ercan the 2.13 Groundwater inthe United States 77 Figure 2.12.2. Distribution of permafrost in Sautwn inte coninausprtiot Sout init of dzone perma. the Northern Hemisphere (after Wiliams"). best sources of water are in unfrozen alluvium beneath large lakes, in major valleys, and adja~ cent to riverbeds. Inthe discontinuous-permafrost zone, groundwater can be produced locally from shallow aquifers; however, because of potential pollution from ground surface, sources beneath the frozen layer are preferable. GROUNDWATER IN THE UNITED STATES Productive aquifers and withdrawals from the wells in the United States are shown in Figures 2.13.1 and 2.13.2. These maps show regions in which moderate to large supplies of water can be obtained from wells. Unconsolidated and consolidated aquifers are indicated in addition to primary geologic formations. Blank areas delineate generally those regions not known to pro- duce yields of more than 3 Vs (48 gpm) toa well ‘Areal distribution of groundwater in the United States can best be described by dividing the conterminous United States into the groundwater regions shown in Figures 2.13.1 and 1 summary of the principal physical and hydrologic characteristics of the groundwater regions. Brief geologic and groundwater summaries for each ofthe 15 regions are provided on the following pages.78 Chapter? Occunence of Groundwater ATLANTIC OCEAN Figure 2.13.1. Groundwater regions in the United States, (The Alluvial Valleys region (region 12) is shown on Figure 2.13.2) 1. Western Mountain Ranges ‘This mountainous region serves as the principal source of water inthe western United States because the bulk of precipitation falls here and thereafter supplies streams and aquifers by its runoff, Rocks are mainly hard and dense; they shed water rather than absorbing it, although weathered surficial rock may locally yield limited groundwater. Some aquifers are tobe found in alluvium contained in small intermontane valleys. Because ofthe thinness and rapid draining of the mantle rock, itis not easy to obtain groundwater from wells. Small springs, wells in valleys, and small surface reservoirs meet most domestic water supply needs. 2, Alluvial Basins ‘The basins inthis region consist of vast depressed areas bounded by adjacent highlands. They ace partly filled by erosional debris in the form of alluvium and serve asthe storage volumes, for water flowing from nearby highlands, The alluvial fil functions as an ideal aquifer end ere- ates the opportunity for development of high-yielding wells. Because of the prevailing ard cli ‘mate, groundwater development for irigation is much in demand, Replenishment rates usually are far less than withdrawal rates, so groundwater levels dectine as storage is depleted. Locally, atifcial recharge (see Chapter 13) has helped to alleviate this problem of overproduction,213. Groundwater in the United States 79) | awe vate BERS Figure 2.13.2, Alluvial Valleys groundwater region of the United States”? 3. Columbia Lava Plateau ‘This area is formed principally by extrusive voleanic rocks, mainly lava flows, interbedded with or overlain by alluvium and lake sediments. Water originates chiefly from mountains on the perimeter of the region. The lava rocks tend to be highly permeable as a result of tubes and shrinkage crecks and thus form highly productive aquifers. The large volumes of groundwater discharge as major springs oras streams with sustained base flows. Because ofthe great thickness of the lava flows, groundwater is most readily available in valley bottoms; however, in the higher plateau areas, deep wells are required to extract groundwater for itigation 4. Colorado Plateau and Wyoming Basin ‘This region consists of sedimentary strata, chiefly interbedded sandstone and shale; these are _generally horizontal but in places are folded, tilted, or broken by faults. The plateaus are rather high, dry, and deeply dissected by streams, Prospects for large-scale groundwater development ‘are poor; nevertheless, small water supplies for domestic and livestock purposes are widely available. Most aquifers are sandstone beds, although limestone and alluvium yield water in & few places. $. High Plains Here allavium forms avast plain extending eastward from the Rocky Mountains. The bulk of itis classified as a single stratigraphic unit, the Oxallala Formation, which covers older rocks‘Table 2.13.1 Summary of the Principal Physical and Hydrologic Characteristics of the Groundwater Regions of the United States 3 cetmmen] [> => 1 z ee B | swwvenpeonios | [x 35 | [__ eseooreomnenmstaes| ><) [x] |x] =| [x| =] [=|] =] x] * h a ‘spaq 6uuyju0> yBnana abeqee7 * x) | x) x ue camnioen |x Pe] xe 8d | ~wemaomnen x eee bee ee] § (eae an on x ali 9 uenessame x x Y iy) | ease xx x x[x yale ‘cawwowzdeim] [==] T= xx px 3/28 ‘oie ele) fete se) F once wenn | z x xp 3|? |@ tooem| | x x x[x x ints es x x eo ec x[e z x a wens =| xT x[= aC | eames x] aE x nrejpesancea| x| |x| x x x ix| x % ~ | ean ue son x x E [eo remmmemnes una =UTz & ‘dep payepyosucoun ul saiog | x | x | x x x x) x | «| «| «| x yy emmemmaia | [xf | x * Es : ‘enue me x PET Sores seston on | xp EE repens x xp § _epb auorpan weno wu x £ |]g( sesamin) [x[x |= [= x x B58 verosaen| xx : ? Tats eon x iG a cinovwvomtnar| [P| xe 7 9 [eerie wine x [|x| * 8 rent empha | > x x 7 ‘aptramma] [= x x[e[e x H waren tan inommba can | |_| xfelel=| [x 5 ania toot x i a| lee} {a a j a ; 3/8 3 5 * 2) |S) ks Ela tle z 5 fal: hi ale (8 ]El8 [8/88] | |e Aah Pliana PiGa # ~ o| <«|olo elo) elt] seit) 2LL del de} | | Pel ‘sland ‘Sour: Haan | Rims, 2 nave 2.13 Groundwater in the United States 81 to thicknesses exceeding 150 m, The sand and the gravel of the formation consitute an aquifer yielding 10 Vs (151 gpm) to more than 60 Us (451 gpm)of water from individual wells. The region is generally semiarid so that groundwater recharge from precipitation is extremely small. The productiveness of wells has encouraged pumping of groundwater, especially for intigation in Texas. This water is derived from storage; a a result, water tables have declined substantially for many years 6. Nonglaciated Central Region ‘This is a large, complex area characterized by plains and plateaus underlain by consolidated sedimentary rocks, Alluvial deposits of substantial width and thickness form good aquifers but only along major streams, Aquifers in most of the region are dolomitic limestone and sandstone with low to moderate yields. The region includes some of the least productive aquifers in the United States because of low yield, saline water, or both. Wells in some of the karst areas penetrate caverns and exhibit highly variable yields 7. Glaciated Central Region Although hydrogeologically similar to the previous region, this area differs fundamentally by the presence of glacial drift deposited by the ice and meltwaters ofthe continental glaciers. The drift consists mostly of fine-grained rock debris together with beds of water-sorted sand and ‘gravel, In portions of the area, the drift is more than 300 m thick and forms an important aquifer. In this glaciated region, large-diameter wells will yield sufficient water to meet domestic needs ofa family. Excellent aquifers can be found along watercourses where rapidly flowing meltwaters removed fine materials and left behind permeable deposits of sand and gravel. 8, Piedmont and Blue Ridge ‘This mountainous area consists of varying parallel highlands with differing geologic struc- tures, including crystalline rocks, limestone, dolomite, sandstone, and shale. Groundwater productivity ranges from small to moderate or is erratic. Shallow wells can usually obtain small yields for domestic supplies from the weathered rock. Wells of highest average yield ‘occur in the valleys because rocks are more intensely fractured and because of groundwater 3.2.2.is appli- propor- nable to nd other alto vis- ence, by tibed by id 17 tic) vis- oxity is diame. tended; ly upto of val- sullence vturbu- smaller second appli such as stone!” ple has 120°C, which ater at 3.2 Permeability 91 1.005 10" kg/ns (998.2 kg/m? (0.00037 m) 0.00272 ms =235 miday ‘Then Darcy’s law wl be valid for Darcy velocities equal to or less than 235 mia for this sample. Thus, the answer we have found in Example 3..1 is valid since v= 7.67 mfday < 235 mid. . 3.2 PERMEABILITY 3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability ‘The permeability of arock or soil defines its ability to transmit a fluid. This isa property only of the medium and is independent of fluid properties. To avoid confusion with hydraulic conductivity, which includes the properties of groundwater, an intrinsic permeability k may be expressed as Ki Ps 621) where K is hydraulic conductivity, is dynamic viscosity, p is fluid density, and g is acceler- ation of gravity. Inserting this in Equation 3.1.5 yields w k=-— 8.22) a(dblal) 22) Which has units of (ke/ms)(mis) 8.23) (ko'm')(aus?) (rum) ‘Thus, intrinsic permeability possesses units of area. Because values of kin Equation 3.2.3 are so small, the U.S. Geological Survey expresses k in square micrometers (yum)? = 10-'2m?. Inthe petroleum industry the value of kis measured by a unit termed the darcy, defined as (4 cenipoise)( em’) 1 darcy ae 24) By substitution of appropriate units it can be shown that 1 darcy = 0.987 (um)? G25) so the darcy corresponds closely to the intrinsic permeability unit adopted by the U.S. Geological Survey. 32.2 Hydraulic Conductivity For practical work in groundwater hydrology, where water isthe prevailing fluid, hydraulic conductivity K is employed. A medium has a unit hydraulic conductivity if twill transmit in unit time a unit volume of groundwater at the prevailing kinematic viscosity" through across ‘Kinematic viscosity equals dynamic viscosity divided by Mid density92 Chapler3 Groundwater Movement 3.2.3. Transmissivity EXAMPLE 3.2.1 SOLUTION section of unit area, measured at right angles to the direction of flow, wader a unit hydraulic gradient. The units are ia _ diddl whee miday 6.2.6) indicating that bydraulic conductivity has units of velocity. ‘The term transmissivity Tis widely employed in groundwater hydraulics. It may be defined as the rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through @ unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient, I follows that T= Kb =(nlday)(m) = mday G27) ‘where b is the saturated thickness of the aquifer. ‘A leaky confined aquifer is overlain by an aqutard that i also overlain by an unconfined aquifer. The estimated recharge rate from the unconfined aquifer into the confined aquifer is 0.085 mn/year. Pizo- ‘metric head measurements inthe confined aquifer show thatthe average piezometric headin the confined aquifer 6.8 m below the water table of the unconfined aquifer. Ifthe average thickness ofthe aquitard is 4.30 m, find the vertical hydraulic conductivity, K,, ofthe aquitad, What type of material could this possibly be? Given » = 0.085 miyear = 2.329 x 10" muday, Equation 3.26 is used to compute the vertical bydravlic conductivity of the aguitard » 2.32910 miday 4 Y= SHOT ley 475,10" ml Gia (68 w/4.30 m) y From Table 3.2, the aquitard is composed of clay. . 3.24. Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials ‘The hydraulic conductivity of a sol or rock depends on a variety of physical factors, including porosity, particle size and distribution, shape of particles, arrangement of particles, and other factors.°*”” In general, for unconsolidated porous media, hydraulic conductivity varies with particle size; clayey materials exhibit ow values of hydraulic conductivity, whereas sands and gravels display high values. ‘An interesting illustration of the variation of hydraulic conductivity with particle sie is shown by data in Figure 3.2.1, Here conductivities were measured for two uniform sieved sands. These two sands were then mixed in varying proportions, and the corresponding hydraulic conductivities were again determined. Results show that any mixture of the two sands displays a conductivity less than a linearly interpolated value. The physical explanation lies in the fact thatthe smaller grains occupy a larger fraction ofthe space around larger grains than do uniform grains of either size ‘Table 3.2.1 contains representative hydraulic conductivities fora variety of geologic materials. It should be noted that these are averages of many measurements; clearly a range of val ues exists for each rock type depending on factors such as weatheting, fracturing, solution channels, and depth of burial32. Permeability 93 ‘draulic Porcentage of coarser sand anh 8 $0 25 o 626) 100% of sand retained on seve wih openings 2 of 100 mm $600 4 3 5 ¥ 100% of sand tare ined Zool cnsieve wih openings _| sidth of | o7tmm 2 ’ 627) 8 ' i | anda ot een er | haw i= 367 sy i Figure 321. Hydraulic fen The ! conductivity of various Piezo- A 1 1 1 proportions of two uniform confined ° 25 50 75 700 sands (courtesy Iinois aquitant Percentage offer sand State Water Survey) vu his ‘Table 321 Representative Values of Hydkaulic Conductivity (after Morris and Johnson) Yeraulc Material Hydraulic conductivity (widay) ‘Type of measurement Gravel, coarse 150 R Gravel, medium 20 R Gravel, fine 450 R . Sand, coarse 45 R Sand, medium 2 R Sand, fine as R silt 0.08 H Clay 0.0002 H includ- Sandstone, fine-grained 02 v sand Sandstone, medium-grained 31 v varies Limestone 094 v ssands Dolomite 0.001 v Dune sand 20 v size is Loess 0.08 v sieved Peat 37 v onding Sehist 02 v be two Sate 0.00008 v anation Til, predominantly sand 049 R grains “i, predominantly gravel 30 R Tutt 02 v mate. Basalt oot v of vak Gabbro, weathered 02 v siution Granite, weathered 14 v "His horizontal hydrauli conductivity, Ris a epacked sample, and V is vertical hydraulic conduct94 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement Unconsolidated Frocks deposits k k K K K (darcy) (om?) (emis) (mls) (galldayit?) 10° 109 10? 1 6 ° [ vo! 10% 10° 10 10" | 10 10° 10-5 1 10? g 3 10 3 | EE bw 1or® 10 L109 tl go “10 ga: | 3 | wo bro? biz bro £2 335 zo 10 | abe 5 1 wo? bio? Lio § 223 ; 12 0 & ges Lo g@ to Fo? bo | 0-* 1 Be Bi 3 | 1 # 2 1? fr bo L107 il we ey Fs wo? bio bioe Lio 5 : J 88 102 € ° 4 yn12 7 -s | ge a 10 10 10 10° Bo G| w | a8) 5 10 wo bro 33 | 7 + Lag Pt 323 0 wo? bt 225 -s £ | 107 bro bro Lye 1? 53 + | we Lio Lio Liew tO 107 Figure 3.2.2. Range of values of hydraulic conductivity and permeability (Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J. A., Groundwater, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1979.) ‘Magnitudes of hydraulic conductivity for various classes of unconsolidated and consolidated rocks are shown in Figure 3.2.2, 3.3. DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY Hydraulic conductivity in saturated zones can be determined by a variety of techniques, including calculation from formulas, laboratory methods, tracer tests, auger hole tests, and pumping tests of wells. 3.3.1 Formulas ‘Numerous investigators have studied the relationship of permeability or hydraulic conductivity to the properties of porous media. Several formulas have resulted based on analytic or experimental work. Most permeability formulas have the general form kad 3.1)33. Determination of Hydrautic Conductivity 95 where ¢ is a dimensionless coefficient, or ka hfee G32) whee fis a grain (or pore) shape factor, fis @ porosity factor, and d is characteristic grain diameter. © * Few formulas give reliable estimates of results because of the difficulty of including al possible variables in porous media, For an ideal medium, such as an assemblage of spheres of uniform diameter, hydraulic conductivity can be evaluated accurately from known porosity and packing conditions. Because ofthe problems inherent in formulas, other techniques for determining hydraulic conductivity are preferable 33.2 Laboratory Methods In the laboratory, hydraulic conductivity can be determined by 8 permeameter, in which flow is maintained through a smell sample of material while measurements of flow rate and head loss are made.!”” The constant-head and falling-head types of permeameters are simple to ‘operate and widely employed ‘The constant-head permeameter shown in Figure 3.3.1a can measure hydraulic conduc- Livities of consolidated or unconsolidated formations under low heads. Water enters the ‘medium cylinder from the bottom and is collected as overflow after passing upward through the material. From Darcy's law i follows that the hydraulic conductivity can be obiained from VL th 3.3) ‘where V isthe flow volume in time t, and the other dimensions, A, L, and hare shown in Fig- ure 3.3.14, It is important thatthe medium be thoroughly saturated to remove entrapped air. Several different heads ina series of tests provide a reliable measurement. rentice =~ continous supply >onsoli- Overtow niques, sts, and orzonal area of sample, A Porous plato ductiv- Figure 3.31. Permeameters ylie or for measuring hydraulic conductivity of geologic samples. (q) Constant head 631) | CO (© Faling head9% Chapter Grounduster Movement EXAMPLE 3.3.1 SOLUTION A second procedure utilizes the falling-head permeameter illustrated in Figure 3.3.1b. Here water is added lo the tall tube; it flows upward through the cylindrical sample anc is col lected as overflow. ‘The test consists of measuring the rate of fall of the water level in the tube. ‘The hydraulic conductivity can be obtained by noting that the flow rate Q in the tube Q=mrjdhldt G34) SOLUTH rust equal that through the sample, which by Darcy's law is Qa m2 hiL G35) After equating and integrating, nf 636) fy where L, r, and r, are shown in Figure 3.3.1b, and ris the time interval for the water level in the tube to fall from hy 10 hy. Permeameter results may bear litile relation to actual field hydraulic conductivities, ‘Undisturbed samples of unconsolidated material are difficult vo obtain, while disturbed samples experience changes in porosity, packing, and grain orientation, which modify hydraulic conductivities. Then, too, one or even several samples from an aquifer may not represent the overall hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer. Variations of several orders of magnitude frequently occur for different depths and locations in an aquifer. Furthermore, directional properties of hydraulic conductivity may not be recognized. SOLUTIC A field sample of medium sand with a median grain size of 0.84 mn willbe tested to determine the hydraulic conductivity using a constant-head permeameter. The sample has a length of 30cm and a diam ler of Sem, Por pure water at 20°C, estimate the range of piezometric head differences io be used inthe test ‘The maximum allowable Darcy velocity (assuming Nj = 1) for d= 0.84 mm is : Vas 2 EOS H10" Fas 019 mvs = 103.6 may 9D [988.2 kp’ 0.00084 m) ‘Taus, the Darcy velocity inthe test mast be equal or less than 103.6 mv/day so that Darcy's law will be vali, so that (1036 m/dayY0.30m) ah v= KF 103.6 miday ~ fH] s a la Kk For the representative value of hydraulic conductivity for medium sand given in Table 3.2.1, (103.6 m/day(030 Tmlday 260em K=12mvéay, then [dis Ue shoud be noted thatthe K valve for clean sand ranges approximately from 0.1 miday to 4.320 sldny. See Figure 3.2 Therefore, the easy series of tests must be conducted with relatively low piezo rec head ciferences if posible. After analyzing the results of eal test data a better estimate ofthe maximum allowable piezometic head ference can be made using the above inequality. .33.1b. Lis col- cdraulic G34) B35) 336) level in ivities. dsam- dravlic ent ihe de fre- 1 prop- sine the diane inthe aw will (EXAMPLE 3.3.2 SOLUTION xAmrne 393 SOLUTION 33. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 97 Ifthe feld sample in Example 3.3.1 is tested witha head difference of Oem and 200 ml of water is col. Jected at the outlet in 15 min, determine the hydraulic conductivity of the sample. What should the max- Jum allowable piezometric head difference be fora series of tests? Equation 3.3.38 used to compute the hydraulic conductivity ina constat-head permeameter test (ene) sger9 eae 587 ley ae (22 [sn $\soen) 7 aa) Based upon this estimate and referring to Example 33.1, the maximum allowable piezometric head ifference for tests should be approximately ja (O86 mln (0.30 0 053m=53em 387 muday 8 . A 20cm long field sample of silty, fine sand with a diameter of 10 cm is tested using @ flling-head permeameter. Te falling-head tube has a diameter of 3.0 cm andthe intial head is 8.0 em. Over period (of the ead in the tube falls to 1,0 cm, Estimate the hydraulic conductivity ofthe sample. Equation 3.3.6 is used to compute the hydzauli conductivity ine fallin-head permeameter tes: (1.5.m)"(20 em) phon 5 Bhyyh les 288 ae" ek 0112 12 hy (5 em}(8x3600se) LOE . | sample owe force Ground surface Hole 8 Hoe A Water tdbie Figure 33.2. Cross section of an ‘unconfined aquifer iustrating & ‘racer test for determining hydraulic ———_ . ——_+ ‘conductivity. |98 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement 3.3.3. Tracer Tests (EXAMPLES 34 SOLUTION Field determinations of hydraulic conductivity can be made by measuring the time interval for a water tracer to travel between two observation wells or test holes."82540.577.75.1 For the tracer, a dye, such as sodium fluorescein, or a salt, such as calcium chloride, s convenient, inexpensive, easy to detect, and safe. Figure 3.3.2 shows the cross section of a portion of an ‘unconfined aquifer with groundwater flowing from hole A toward hole B. The tracer is injected as.a slug in hole A after which samples of water are taken from hole B to determine the time ‘of passage of the tracer. Because the tracer flows through the aquifer withthe average interstitial velocity v,, then 3.3.7) aL G37) where K is hydraulic conductivity, cis porosity, and h and L are shown in Figure 3.3.2. But v, also is given by 33.8) where ris the travel time interval of the tracer between the holes. Equating these and solving for K yields ot ht K (339) Although this procedure is simple in principle, results are only approximations because of serious limitations in the field 1. The holes need to be close together; otherwise, the travel time interval can be excessively Jong, 2. Unless the flow direction is accurately known, the tracer may miss the downstream hole entirely. Multiple sampling holes can help, but these add to the cost and complexity of conducting the test. 3. Ifthe aquifer is stratified with layers with differing hydraulic conductivities, the first arrival ofthe tracer will result ina conductivity considerably larger than the average for the aquifer. ‘An alternative tracer technique, which has been successfully applied under field condi tions, isthe point dilution method. Here a tracer is introduced into an observation well and thoroughly mixed with the contained water. Thereafter, as water flows into and from the ‘well, epeated measurements of tracer concentration are made Analysis of the resulting ditution curve defines the groundwater velocity; this, together with the measured water table gradient and Darcy's law, yields a localized estimate of the hydraulic conductivity and also the direction of groundwater flow.*® Additonal references on tracer tests include Barth et al.” on heterogeneous porous media; Mull et al.”® on carbonate aquifer systems; and Novakowski” on divergent radial flow fields. A new Efficient Hydrologic Tracer-test Design (EHD) has been developed by the US. Environmental Protection Agency (BPA). A tracer testis conducted to determine the hydraulic conductivity of an unconfined aquifer. The water levels in the two observation wells 20 m apart are 18.4 m and 17.1 m, The tacer injected inthe first well arrives atthe Second observation well in 167 hours. Compute the hydraulic conductivity ofthe unconfined aquifer given thatthe porosity of the formation is 0.25. Given a= 0.25, L=20m,h= 184 m~17.1 m= 1.3 m,1= 167 hours = 6.96 days, Equation 3.3.9 used to compute the hydraulic conductivity ofthe aquifer: 334 A Table 3.3. 10 50 100 |al for "Por the venient, on of an injected the time ve inter- 3.7) Buty, 638) solving 639) ause of ssively mhole xily of anival quite. condi- on well om the erwith raulic ertests ‘stems; vertest oes isused 33. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 99 (0.2520 m)* he” (131m) 696 days) 1. miday 3.34 Auger Hole Tests ‘The auger hole method involves the measurement of the change in water level after the rapid removal of a volume of water from an unlined cylindrical hole. Ifthe sol is loose, a screen may ‘be necessary to maintain the hole. The method is relatively simple and is most adaptable to shallow water table conditions. The value of K obtained is essentially that for a horizontal K, G43) then forthe two-layer case from Equations 3.44 and 3.4.11 Kathe. ate aty 44% G44) KR, which reduces to >0 4.15) BxAL SOLU 35ait hori- 3.46) 3.4.7) 48) B49) 3.4.10) 34.11) 3.4.12) mally e deri- 54.13) idl4) AS) EXAMPLE 3.4.1 SOLUTION 35 Groundwater Flow Rates 103 Because the left side is always positive, it must be greater than zero, thereby confirming that p Ky ai 416) Ratios of K,/K, usually fallin the range of 2to 10 for alluvium,’ but values up to 100 or ‘more occur where clay layers are present. For consolidated geologic materials, anisotropic conditions are governed by the orientation of strata, fractures, solution openings, or other structural conditions, which do not necessarily possess a horizontal alignment. In applying Darcy's law to two-dimensional flow in anisotropic media, the appropriate value of K must be selected forthe direction of flow. For directions other than horizontal (K,) and vertical (K,), the K value can be obtained from 1 _ cos’B 417) ‘where Kis the hydraulic conductivity in the direction making an angle B withthe horizontal. An unconfined aquifer consists of three horizontal layers, each individually isotropic. The top layer has thickness of 10 m and a hydraulic conductivity of 11.6 miday. The middle layer has a thickness of 4.4 ‘mand a hydraulic conductivity of 4.5 miday. The bottom layer has a thickness of 6:2 m and a hydraulic conductivity of 2.2 m/day. Compute the equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities. Equation 3.45 is used to compute the equivalent horizontal hydraulic condactivity Katka t Kits ata ty _ (11.6 lay 10-m)+(45 mlday{ 4 m)+(22 mlday)\62 ~ (lom+44 m+62m) 7.25 mlday ‘The equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity is computed using Equation 3.4.12: ataty 42 miday [Note that the equivalent hydraulic conductivities above are computed based on the assumption that cach layer is individually isotropic, that is, K, = K, in each layer. . 3.5 GROUNDWATER FLOW RATES From Darcy's law it follows that the rate of groundwater movement is governed by the hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer and the hydraulic gradient. To obtain an idea of the order ‘of magnitude of natural velocities, assume a productive alluvial aquifer with K'= 75 m/day and a hydraulic gradient dil = -10 m/1000 m = -0.01. Then from Equation 3.1.5, v2 KD = 19-001) =0.35 miday 5.)104 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movernent ‘Steam Ground surtace f tf wWatertao 1 Figure 35.1. Cross see- som ton of pica allvial fonda contsng sn pt unconfined aquer wits around ate fling pe ‘onl foliose Impemeable stata (wot seal This is approximately equivalent to 0.5 mun/min, which demonstrates the sluggish nature of natural groundwater movement. If the above flow occurs within and perpendicular to the large alluvial cross section ‘sketched in Figure 35.1, then the total flow rate is Q= Av= (50}(1000}(0.75) = 37,500 m day (3.52) Which, when converted to usual streamflow units, amounts to only 0.43 ms, Thus, ground- ‘water typically can be conceived of as a massive, slow-moving body of water Groundwater velocities vary widely depending on local hydrogeologic conditions; values from 2:m/year to 2 m/day are normal. Usually, velocities tend to decrease with depth as porosities and permeabilities also decrease. Velocities can range from negligible" to those of turbu- lent streams in underground openings within basalt and limestone. Mechanisms such as wells ‘and drains act to accelerate flows. Anillustration of one-dimensional vertical flow is shown in Figure 3.5.2. Here an aquitard sepacates an overlying unconfined aquifer from an underlying leaky aquifer. The water table 3 3—_, r$ Figure 352, Diagram illustrating spplica- tion of Darey’s law for vertically downward flow. “all groundwater wih he hydrologic yc shouldbe regarded asin continuous motion, akthongh, it must be rated some of i lows at entremely sal ates,sec. vial gan sith 3 per ion ture of section (35.2) round values porosi- turbu- swells quitard srtable oplica- ‘ward EXAMPLE 3.5.1 SOLUTION 3.6 Groundwater Flow Directions 105 stands above the piezometic surface so that water moves vertically downward from the unconfined aquifer, through the aquitard, and into the confined aquifer. Determine ig and the vertical velocity for the situation shown in Figure 3.5.2. ‘Assume steady-state conditions, Writing Darcy's law from point Ato B withthe dimensions indicated in Figure 35.2, we have a 2 53) and from point B to C, Solving these yields, fy = 26.8 mand v = 007 miday. . 3.6 GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTIONS, 3.6.1 Flow Nets For specified boundary conditions flow lines’ and equipotential lines can be mapped in two dimensions to form a flow net. The two sets of lines form an orthogonal pattern of small squares. In a few simplified cases, the differential equation governing flow can be solved to ‘obtain the flow net. Flow net analysis techniques have been applied in a number of ways for ‘groundwater studies. Hollett* and Fenemore’? used flow net analysis to provide initial transmissivities prior to trial-and-error numerical model calibration. Rice and Gorelick applied flow net analysis to three field problems and demonstrated the value of the method for the conceptualization of flow systems. Other applications include Scott and Thorpe™ and vanTonder.'% Consider the portion ofa flow net shown in Figure 3.6.1. The hydraulic gradient is given by G61) and the constant flow q between two adjacent flow lines by a= «a dm (362) for unit thickness. But forthe squares ofthe flow net, the approximation dm (3.6.3) can be made so that Equation 3.6.2 reduces to q=Kdh 64) Kt shouldbe noted hat the piezometer open atthe bottom ofthe unconfined agifer (8) displays a water evel below the wate table (A) because ofthe Red los associated with verial ow though the aquifer “A flow line is defined here as ine such that he macroscopic velocity vectors everywhere tangent to i106 Chapter 3 Groundwater Movernent ,/+—Equipotetil line Flow tne Figure 3.6.1. Porton of an orthogonal flow net formed by flow and equipotential lines Applying this to an entire flow net, where the total head loss h is divided into n squares between any two adjacent flow lines, then (3.65) If the flow is divided into m channels by flow lines, then the total flow _ kink O=mq 6.66) ‘Thus, the geometry of the flow net, together with the hydraulic conductivity and head loss, enables the total flow in the section to be computed directly In anisotropic media, flow lines and equipotential lines are not orthogonal except when the flow is parallel to one of the principal directions * In order to calculate flows for this situation, the boundaries of a flow section must be transformed so that an isotropic medium is obtained. For the typical alluvial case of K, > K,, all horizontal dimensions are reduced by the ratio /K, /K, . This creates a transformed section with anisotropic medium having an equivalent hydraulic conductivity K’= KK, 667) With this transformed section, the low net can be drawn and flow rate determined, ‘After te flow net has been defined, it can be converted back tothe true anisotropic section by multiplying all horizontal dimensions by JK, /K, . Figure 3.6.2 illustrates the procedure for an earth dam as well as demonstrates the distortion created by anisotropy in an ‘element of the flow net. The technique can also be extended to anisotropic two-layer systems. Figure 3.63 shows contrasting flow nets for channel seepage through layered anisotropic media ‘Computer-assisted flow net analysis techniques have been developed and evaluated by Scott. 3.6.2 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours ‘Because no flow crosses an impermeable boundary, flow lines must parallel it, Similarly, if no flow crosses the water table of an unconfined aquifer, it becomes a bounding flow surface. Thefan med al quares 365) 3.6.6) oss, when situ unis oy the -auiv- 36.7) ifno ‘The Flow net ‘lement forms a paralelogram Flow net ‘element forms a square bk. —1 b+ ] Ke fit | Rahat @) (0) J o 3.6 Groundwater Fiow Directions 107 Figure 3.62. Dluseation of fow net analysis for anisovopic hydravlic conductivity man ‘earth dam. (a) True anisotropic section with K, = 9K, (2) Transformed isotopic section wit K, = Figure 3.63, Flow nets for seepage from ‘one side ofa chanel tough two diferent anisotropic two layer systems. (a) Ky/Ky = SO (b) KK, = 50 The anisotropy ratio forall ayers is K/K, = 10 (fier Tod and Beat*),108 Chapter Groundwater Movement ‘energy head ig, of fluid potential, from Equation 3.1.2 at any point on the water table can be approximated by hepa Eee (3.68) my 0 that by letting the atmospheric pressure reference be zero, p =0, and he = % Therefore, under steady-state conditions, the elevation at any point on the water table equals the energy head and, as @ consequence, flow lines lie perpendicular to water table contours, Similarly, flow lines within a confined aquifer ae orthogonal to contours of the potentiometric surface. With only three groundwater elevations known from wells, estimates of local groundwater contours and flow directions can be determined as demonstrated by Figure 3.6.4, From field measurements of static water levels in wells within a basin, a water level contour map can be constructed. Flow lines, sketched perpendicular to contours, show directions of movement. An example appears in Figure 3.6.5. Contour maps of groundwater levels, together with flow lines, are useful data for locating, new wells, Convex contours indicate regions of groundwater recharge, while concave contours are associated with groundwater discharge. Furthermore, areas of favorable hydraulic conductivity can be ascertained from the spacing of contours. The procedure can be illustrated by treating two adjacent flow lines as impermeable boundaries because there can be n0 flow across a flow line. Ifthe aquifer is uniformly thick, the flow at sections 1 and 2 in Figure 3.6.5, equals 49> Wi = Wa 3.69) where v is velocity and W is the width of the flow section perpendicular to the flow. From Darcy's law WiKi = Wiki (3.6.10) which can be rewritten a a (3.6.11) where Kis hydraulic conductivity and jis hydraulic gradient, The ratios W/W, and if can be estimated from the water level contour map (see Figure 3.6.5), For the special case of nearly parallel low lines, Equation 3.6.11 reduces to Water table levation et2 Groundwater contours 618 igure 3.64. Estimate of grounds water contours and flow direction from water table eleva tions in three wellscan be 3.68) sefore, energy silarly, arface. indwa- mfield can be ent. An rating intours © con- ited by 0 flow 2365 (3.6.9) From 4.6.10) 56.11) ‘iy can ase of >und- from sells, 3.6 Groundwater Flow Directions 109 contours of groundwater surface ie 3.65. Contour map of a groundwater surface showing flow lines. 6.12) Which may be inteppreted as indicating that in an area of uniform groundwater flow, areas with wide contour spacings (flat gradients) possess higher hydraulic conductivities than those with narrow spacings (steep gradients). Therefore, in Figure 3.6.5, prospects for a productive well are better near section 2 than 1. ‘Where a contour map of groundwater levels contains closed contours around a group of wells of known total discharge Q, the transmissivity of the regional aquifer cen be calculated ‘Figure 3.66 illustrates such a situation resulting from heavy groundwater pumping in and near Savannah, Georgia in 1957. Ifa flow net can be constructed, Equation 3.6.6 in the form ng. mh 6.13) ccan be applied where h represents the difference in elevation between any two selected closed contour lines. The typical irregularity of groundwater contours often makes construction of an accurate flow net difficult. As a convenient alternative involving contours but no flow net, Lohman®® suggested the equation 20 (L.4£,)ahlar G64) where L, and L, are the lengths of any two concentric closed contours, Ais the contour interval, and Aris the average distance between the two closed contours, Natural permeable boundaries of aquifers include surface water bodies and the ground surface. In a surface water body, the energy head is constant everywhere within the water body and equals the elevation of the water surface; consequently, aquifer flow lines must intersect normal to such a bounding surface. For the ground surface, this does not apply, as only atmospheric pressure exists a the ground surface. Hence, in Equation 3.6.8, by letting p =0, hg= z, which is identical to the case fora water table boundary,

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