Cecio: Soae of Aenea Specal Pape: 252 190 Chapter 1 Hydrology, mechanics, and geomorphic implications of erosion by subsurface flow ‘Thomas Dunne Deparment of Geoiogical Sciences. University of Washington. Seale, Washington 98195 GEOMORPHIC SIGNIFICANCE OF SUBSURFACE FLOW Hydrologic processes drive erosion by water: therefore. the study of grouncwater geomorphology requires @ review of the hydrology of subsuriae flow and the physical constrains on the ‘erosion that it accompishes. The principies of groundwater ny- drology are described in many textbooks (eg, Freeze and Cherry, 1979), ang only those aspects most specifically related 10 ‘erosion by flowing groundwater will be reviewed here, The role ‘of subsurface water in mass wasting will be reviewed in Chapter 2. However, in the past 20 years there has been an explosion of, research on shallow subsurface flow, with implications for the undersunding of erosion processes and landforms. Kirkby and Choriey (1967) and Kirkby (1978) pointed out thatthe evolution ‘of concepts describing sallow subsurface low and its relation to surface runoff has implications for understanding erosion proc- ‘exes. This recent research will also be reviewed in the present chapter. The review of erosion mechanisms will be restricted to processes operating in rocks which, although subject to chemical Weathering, are les soluble than those producing karst land- scapes. The mechanisms and geomorphic role of solution are reviewed in Chapters 6 and 7. GROUND-WATER STORAGE AND MOVEMENT Recharge Although some groundwater originates as connate or juve- nile water, the vast majority is meteoric, and the flux of water across the water table is defined in hydrology as the groundwater recharge. Thus, most geomorphological effects of groundwater ‘equire recharge by inflation and percolation to the water table, ven if the recharge was remote from the current time and place ofinterest (Lloyd and Farag, 1978). The magnitude of recharge is limited firs of al by the amount of rain that falls or snow that ‘melts at rates lower than the infiltration capacity of the soil ‘Water delivered to the soil at higher rates runs over the surface as Horton overland flow and is responsibie for surface erosion, as discussed in other geomorphological texts (Carson and Kirkby, 1972: Selby, 1982), which review the climatic, edaphic, and bio- tic controls on infiltration, runoff. and the resulting sbeetwash and gully erosion. Some of this runoff may accumuiate late in valley floors and recharge the groundwater. particulary in arid land- scapes. For many years the geomorphological literature concen- ‘rated almost enttely on the action of surface runofl except in soluble rocks. However, it has long been reponed in early ltera- ture from indonesia reviewed by Roessel (1950) and the writings of Hursh (1944) and his colleagues from the forested southern ‘Appalachians, for example, that, over large areas of Earth's sur- {face infiltration capacities almost always exceed rinill imvensity, and virally all runoff travels underground. This subsurface flow percolates through a shallow (vadose) zone, which may be saturated periodically but is unsaturated (i.e, the voids are only party filled with water) most of the time. in this zone the co-existence of air and water in void spaces is responsible for menisci and the resulting negative pressures (capil- lary effects) inthe pore water. At greater depths les the saturated zone where all voids are filled with water. In coarse-grained porous media and jointed rocks, the pore-water pressures in this saturated zone are positive with respect to atmospheric pressure, and the boundary between the saturated and unsaturated zones is efined as the water table, where the water pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. In fine-grained porous media, however, capillary effects fill pores with water to some height above the ‘water table, forming a capillary fringe or tension-aturated zone. In this case, the water table is stil defined as the level at which atmospheric pressure exists in the pore water, alternatively, itis defined as the height to which water stands ina well perforated throughout its length. Because water can only enter a well below the water table where pressures exoced atmospheric pressure, this zone is sometimes called the phreatc 2one, This term, as well as “vadose zone,” are falling into disuse, however, because seasonal fuctuations of the water table and the development of perched saturated zones over aquitards at shallow depth (see later) make the definitions confusing and useless. Duane T1990, Hydrology, mechanic. and geomorphic implications of eric by subeutae low, i Higin, C. Gad Coates. D. Rod, Groundwater ‘momorpbolgy, The roi of ubsurace wate in eareriace proces and lndlorms: Boulder, Colonie, Geolopeal Saciey of Ameria Spocal Paps 252.As water infiltrates the soi. 2 portion ofits stored in raising the soil-water content. and is later evaporated back to the atmo- sphere. The diflerence between the precipitation input and evaporative loss ses the magnitude of the groundwater recharge, ‘which therefore reflects climatic. edaphic. and biotic factors that are themselves linked. However. many aspects of erosion result- ing from subsurface flow are controlled not by the total annual recharge, but by shor-ierm rates of recharge during rainstorms. ‘melts, or wet seasons. Freeze (1969) used 2 mathematical model to examine the conditions that favor recharge of the groundwater and, therefore, water-iabie nse. Recharge is enhanced by (1) rainfalls or melts of low intensity (relate to the saturated hydraulic conductivity ofthe soil) and iong duration rather than shor, intense storms: (2) shallowness of the unsaturated zone above the water table; (3) wet antecedent conditions: and (4) soils with high conductivity, low rate of increase of moisture content with pressure, or high moisture content over a considerable range of pressureshead values. Percolation ‘The vertical motion of water in 2 homogeneous and iso- tropic soil is described by Darcy's Law (Rubin, 1966) eye -on = co [3E= 1] © where (2) i the vercal ux rate at any depth, 2; K(w) is the hydraulic conductivity, a function ofthe moisture content, w; is the total hydraulic head and Y is the pressure head, both func- tions of w. A complete list of the symbols used inthis chapter and their definitions is found in Appendix 1, As the soil is werted to progressively greater depths, the vertical moisture gradient, and therefore the pressure gradient, 3/42, declines, and 1(z) con- verges on K(w). Thus, the maximum valve that /(2) can attain after a long period of rainfall typically 10 to 60 minutes) is equal to the maximum value that K can attain, which is the saturated hyéraulic conductivity. Ifthe vertical fax rate is imposed at the surface by a fixed rainfall intensity less than ths saturated conduc- tivity, the moisture content, w, will increase until K (w) is suffi- cient to pass the water at the applied rate, The exact low path depends on the degree to which the hydraulic conductivity is homogeneous and isotropic (Zasiavsky and Rogowski, 1972), ‘but in many simple stratigraphic conditions is vertical. The rain- fall intensity controls the fox rae atthe surface from the begin- ning ofthe storm and at increasing depths ater in the storm as the ‘wave of moisture of constant w penetrates deeper into the sol. At ‘the end of the rainstorm, the surface influx stops, but water con- tines to drain out ofthe upper layers ofthe sol, so thatthe wave of vertical moisture flux is damped as water moves to lower levels (Youngs, 1958; Dunne, 1978; Sakura, 1983). ‘A succession of rainstorms generates waves of percolation, ‘ach becoming damped as it travels deeper into the unsaturated zone. Inter-storm differences of imensity, duration, andthe inter- vening evaporation usually mask this simple picture, but it is e T. Dunne river valleys with channels ata single elevation in & homogeneous iso- tropic aquifer (modified after Hubber. 1940), ‘useful for illustration. At sufficient depth, such as inthe saturated zone in a deep, permeable aquifer, one might observe only siow. seasonal changes in recharge, representing the highly damped influence of many rainstorms. In other cases. a saturated zone at @ depth in the range | 10 10 m may be recharged by e single large rainstorm. but many hours after the end of the storm and at arate Jess than the maximum infiltration rate (for examples see Dunne. 1970, p. 27: 1978, p. 287). Open fractures in bedrock or long, large openings in soil profiles may reduce both the delay and damping of these single waves of recharge. Regional groundwater flow ‘When the percolating water reaches the saturated zone, its ‘movement continues to reflect the spatial variation of the hydrau- lic potential, as expressed in the general form of Darcy’s Law: Ke a where Q is the specific fax (discharge per unit cross-sectional area), which in anisotropic homogeneous medium i paralle! and ‘opposite to the gradient of the hydraulic head ©, The saturated hydraulic conductivity, K, is constant at saturation (in most rocks and sols), but may vary spatially and with direction as a result of, lithologic and pedologic characteristics. The hydraulic head isthe sum of the elevation head, z, measured with respect to some arbitrary datum, and the pressure head, Y, measured as the height to which water rises inside a piezometer. Surfaces or contours of equal @ can thus be defined, and are called equipotentials. Equa~ tion 2 implies that low lines cross these equipotentais at angles, that depend on the degree to which K is homogeneous and iso- tropic but are 90° forthe simplest case. ‘Boundary conditions such as the presence of underiying aqui- tards, surface topography, and the locations of drainage outlets in stream depressions, as well as beterogeacous and anisotropic by- draulic propentes of the aquifer resulting from lthologic, stuc- tural, and stratigraphic characteristics, cause the flow lines to iverge from the vertical and to follow arcuate paths toa drain- age outlet. Figure | indicates the arcuate flow paths perpendicularImplicenons of erosion by subsuriace flow 220000 tt 295000 It = = = = Eau ——— Line ot PESz ntial line: interval 25 feet force to 41 12 19 48 18 16 20000 11. 17 48 1 20x1000 Standard datum Figure 2 Regional groundwater flow in anisotropic homogeneous aquifer beneath 2 sinusoidal wpog- raphy with drainage outlets at different elevations to equipotentil lines in a homogeneous isotropic aquifer beneath 4 simple periodic topography, underlain by an impermeable ‘boundary. The underiying aquicude and the venical flow divides ‘beneath the streams and ridge crests form the boundary condi- ‘ions, which together with the uniform distribution of recharge along hillslopes, force the ow lines to curve. For simple bound- ary conditions and uniform hydraulic characteristics, there are analytical methods for predicting low velocities and equipoten- tials. In more complicated sinuations, the flow net can usually be defined graphically (Cedergren, 1967), although complex prob- Jems are solved by computer methods (Wang and Anderson, 1982), Ifthe topography has 2 regional slope, with drainage lines at different elevations, the regional groundwater body develops a nested set of flow subsystems (Fig. 2), as illustrated by Toth’s (1962, 1963, 1966) mathematical analysis and interpretation of field measurements. As the amplitude of the topography in- creases, more ofthe groundwater flow is included in local systems between the ridge and the nearest depression, and less travels Jong distances to regional drainage lines. Freeae and Wither- spoon (1967) used finitediference computations to Mlustrate how geology can complicate these simple paterns. In most discussions and applications of Darcy's Law it is assumed that the water migrates through intergranular pores at Velocities that Keep the low bebavior well within the viscous (Toth, 1963). range. Fractured rocks, on the other hand, allow flow through cracks, joins fissures, and large solutional cavities, Ifthe fraczures are dense, narrow, and of roughly uniform size, Darcy's Law is usually adequate for describing the flow if is slow enough and if the hydraulic properties are specified for a sufficiently are, rep ‘esentative volume, although strong heterogeneities and anisotro- pies may be imposed by fracture deasities and orientations. Where groundwater flows through only a few large, widely spaced fissures, the continuum assumption implicit in’ Darcy's Law is not valid, and it may be necessary to consider the role of individual conduits. If the fractures are sufficiently wide, fow ‘behavior deviates from the linear behavior specified by Equation 2, and new empirical flow laws are presently being investigated for such complex, rough conduits. Unfortunately, for many as- Pees of groundwater geomorphology in massively joinied rocks for conduits in soils, such non-Darcian aspects of the flow are aramoust, and modeling based on Darcy's Law is not applicable. Shallow subsurface flow In many landscapes, the hydraulic conductivity of the near- ‘surface 2one decreases from the topsoil to the unweathered parent material. This decrease may be gradual or abrupt, and is not ‘necessarily monotonic, although for the sake of simplicity it will4 T. Dunne Rewtan | ' | Percolation Figure 3, In soll with a hydraulic conductivity that decreases with increasing depth, the rainfall intensity may exceed the saturated conduc- tivity ata level that depends on rainfall intensity. In (a), «low rainfall intensity can be conveyed to the bedrock suriace and thea downslope as Unsaturated flow (dashed arrows). At some distance along the hile, the increase of discharge caused by downslope ow and vertical pereola~ tion may saturate thin ayer (shaded and solid arows), in (ba bigher ‘rainstorm intensity generates a saturate layer at higher level inthe soi, ‘and saturated Dow cours into the subsoil as wells downslope. be treated as such here. As the downward-percolating rainwater encounters zones of diminishing vertical bydraulc conductivity, the moisture content of successive layers must be raised to ever- increasing ieveis to pass the water atthe applied percolation rae. ‘At some depth, moisture content will be raised to saturation. At this depth a “perched” zone of saturation develops, either above an obvious impeding horizon, or simply at some depth (varying between rainstorms) at which the saturated conductivity is les ‘than the rainfall intensity (Fig. 3). At these depths, water is di- verted laterally and percolates downslope through the colluvium fo bedrock to stream channels. The thickness of the resulting saturated zone and the pressure of water in it depend on the ‘venical percolation rate. initial moisture content bydraulic prop- erties of the medium. the gradient of the impeding layer, and hillslope fener ‘Kirkby and Choriey (1967) called this subsuriace flow “throughfiow,” which Chorley (1978, p. 374) defined as “down- slope flow of water occurring physically within the soil profile. ‘usually under unsaturated conditions except close to flowing streams, oocuring where permeability decreases with depth” Whipkey and Kirkby (1978) give 2 thorough discussion of throughflow under saturated conditions which is of greater signif icance for geomorphology. Because the definition of throughfiow is no more specific than the older term “interfiow.” which bad been rejected by hydrologiss as being poorly defined (e.g, Hew- lett and Hibben. 1967, p. 275), I will use only the term “subsurface flow” and will designate whether the flow is satu- rated or unsaturated, and whether the flow path lies through soi ‘or rock at shallow depth or deeper, when such issues are imporant In the simplest case of steady-state percolation down a long, straight hilisiope. the slope of the water table in Figure 3 is approximately equal to the slopes ofthe ground surface and the base ofthe saturated 2one. The flow lines, ths, are approximately parallei tothe water table, but the saturated hydraulic conductiv~ tty (K) may vary with height (F) normal to the base of the saturated zone, Darcy's Law reduces to atfh teresne f° Kayan ‘where gis the downslope discharge of subsurface flow per unit ‘width of hillslope, J’ is the recharge rate, x is the horizontal distance, a (~ 6, the hillslope angle) is the angle of the water tuble, and hy is the thickness of the saturated zone. Thus, the saturated layer thickens downslope, at a linear rate if K is con- stant with depth: Jz negli oo and more slowly if K varies, for example, with 2: (25) o Since flow lines parallel to the slope imply equipotentils normal to the slope (for an isotropic and homogeneous soil), the distribu- tions of hydraulic bead and pore pressure within the saturated zone can be obtained 25 shown in Figure 4. Beven (1982) and Tida (1984) demonstrated the prediction of water-tabe elevations con planar hillslopes at any time before steady state is reached. Lida also ilustrated the effects of nonplanar hilslopes on the water- table and pore pressure. Dietrich and others (1986) used the lida ‘method to calculate pore pressures in collvium fr their study of the effet of subsurface flow on mass wasting. ‘These methods predic thatthe saturated thickness increases ‘monotonically along the slope, and take no account ofthe draw- down of the water table by drainage out of a seepage face atthe‘nvitcanons of erosion ov subsurtace flow 5 Equipotentiat ‘Total head = elevation head ~ oressure head On =) necore! oe = 0 = hycosé Figure 4. Relation of hyéraulc head and pressure ead to flow lines ang waterabie elevations in 2 homogeneous wowropic soil on an infinite Slope. is the hycraulic hae, downstream end ofthe flow system. A very approximate solution for the shape of the steady-state water ible above a sloping impermeable boundary under uniform recharge, 1, can be ob- tained by using the Dupuit-Forchheimer assumptions (Freeze and Cherry, 1979) that the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic, flow lines are horizontal, and the hydraulic head gradient is equal to the slope of the water table. Then, in Figure 5, the discharge er unit width at some horizontal distance, x is ste nee fetben Kee where is the saturated thickness of the aquifer and z is the elevation of the water table. Is not necessary inthis analysis that x= O be set directly beneath the surface drainage divide if there is a stratigraphic control on the recharge area. Since z - {= (L-x) tan B jekete momen ‘and the slope of the water table is given by Sees « Except forthe case of = 0, which implies thatthe water table is parabolic, the solution ofthe differential equation is complicated ‘and does not yield much pbysical insight to this writer. However, for any 2, Equation 4 indicates that the water-ble slope, and therefore the magnitude of the hydraulic head gradiemt (/) atthe base of the hillslope (x = L) where = seepage face). is 2, (the eight of the #l me ‘The Dupuit-Forchheimer assumption of horizontal flow lines is 2 useful approximation only where the water-ble ‘gradient is small, and thus Equation 4 is particularly inaccurate for predicting the water table near the seepage face where it predicts unrealistically large water-able gradients. However. it :ncorporates the essential physics of the steady-state water-table response to recharge. and thus is used here for illusration ofthe effects of the major controls on the hydraulic-head gradient near the seepage face. It indicates that the hydraulicchead gradient at the seepage face is directly proportional to the recharge rate and drainage area. and inversely proportional to hydraulic conductiv- ity and height ofthe seepage face. which in Figure Sis equated 0 the depth of streamflow. The gradient of the underiving flow ‘ase, 6 snot included in the steady-state form of Equation 4 at x = L. but this is partly 2 limitation imposed by the assumption of horizontal flow lines. Inthe field. the magnitude off sets a lower limit on the angle ofthe water table at the seepage face. Also. the time required for atiining steady state. and therefore the peak discharge and water-ble gradient, in shorter events would in- crease with . Tida (1984) showed that in any recharge event shorter than the equilibration time for subsurface flow in a shal- Jow colluvial aquifer of uniform depth a tu sin pcs 8 6 where qo isthe peak discharge per unit width, p i the porosity, and ris uration of constant recharge entering the saturated layer. ‘Beven (1982) added the duration of unsaturated percolation to the analysis Ifthe soil and rock are sufficiently deep and permeable 10 conduct all the infiltrated water to the stream channel, the low path lies entirely below the ground surface. Field experiments escribing such subsurface flow were summarized by Dunne Figure 5. Steady-state water table under uailorm recharge, J using the ‘Dupuit-Forchbeimer assumption of horizontal flow lines over a planar aguiclude.6 T. Dunne (1978) and by Whipkey and Kirkby (1978). who summarized the hyGroiogical principles governing the resus. More recently there has been some debate about the relative contributions of rapid flow throug large voids, called macropores (see later), and ‘more diffuse. slower flow through intergranular and interpedal voids (Pearce and others. 1986: Sklash and others, 1986). The answer. suggested by soil physics (Beven and Germann. 1981. 19821 and by expenment (Horton and Hawkins. 1965), is likely to be that the relative importance of macropore flow increases ‘with rainfall tensity antecedent soil moisture, andthe linearity of the moisture content-tension conductivity relation, and that it ecreases with increasing depth of sol. In tur, these parameters vary with physical geography. and the field studies of Pearce and colleagues. Jones (1981). Gilman and Newson (1980), and others are currently mapping the geography of these relative contibu- tions. The issue can become very imporant for understanding erosion by subsurface low in some regions, as described in later sections of this chapter. (On footslopes and in valley bottoms where the water ible is close 10 the grouné surface at the beginning of the storm (Fig. 6). the tension-saturated zone may intersect the ground surface, and the addition of oniy a small amount of water to the surface ‘convers the soil-water pressures in this zone to positive values. s0 that the water table rises rapidly. As it rises, the water table slopes steeply toward the channel, driving an inrease in subsur- face low tothe chanoel often through a higbly permeable sil or sediment with abundant macropores. Ragan (1968) and Dunne (1978) demonstrated by piezometric, water-able, and soil- ‘moisture measurements that such rapid rises ofthe regional and local water table outcropping along a valley floor or footslope could cause the water table to rise in a ridgelike pater, sloping both toward and away from the stream. Sklash and Farvolden (1979) and Sklash and others (1986) have provided isotopic evidence ofthe relative contributions of runoff from this source to storm runoff, while Sakura and Taniguchi (1983) and Gillham (1984) have studied the process experimentally. ‘There i 2 limit to the amount of subsurface low that can pass downhill within a sol profile. The limit is governed by the hillslope gradient, the hydraulic conductivity, and the soi depth, as expressed in Equation 3, When /ty coincides with the soil surface, this limit is reached, and any downslope decrease in this capacity or further additions of moisture by rainfall must be sccommodated by overland flow (Fig. 6). Downsiope decrease in the capacity of the soi to transmit subsurface flow causes water to ‘emerge from the ground surface as return flow (Musgrave and Holtan, 1964; Dunne and Black, 1970b), also refered to as exfl- tration (Freeze, 1974). The water emerging from this fully satu- rated soil is augmented by direct rainfall or melt onto the saturated zone, and the sum is referred to as saturation overland flow (Kirkby and Chorley, 1967). This form of runoff i most likely to occur where topographic or stratigraphic conditions force flow to converge, or where gradient, soil thickness, or hydraulic conductivity decrease (Kirkby and Chorley, 1967; Dunne and Black, 1970a, b; Tanaka, 1982; Wilson and Dietrich, Figure 6. Shallow subsurface flow developing in perched saturated zone above the regional water able, which outcropped only at the ‘steam before the rainstorm. Downsiope percalation inthe perenedsatu- rated zone raises the perched water tabie to the soil surface on the footslope so that water exfilrates anc, augmented by rain falling on the expanding saturated area, travels to the stream as saturation overland flow (SOF). The expanding saturated zone is formed pany by conver~ sion of the regional near-sveam tension-saturated zone 10 4 zone of positive pressure by local rainfall and party by lateral inflow from upslope. 1987), Hence, the emergence of shallow subsurface low is most, ‘common on footslopes, in swales, and on thin soils with low conductivity. The emergence is associated with a lateral or downward component of the hydraulic head gradient in the ‘water, exerting an oppositely directed stress on soil panicles, ‘which may thus be eroded and carried downslope by the sarura- tion overland flow. The erosion mechanisms will be considered Tater inthis chapter Subsurface flow in soils and near-surface sediments above the regional water table also includes some non-Darcian compo- nents as a result of large passages, which modify the ow and pressure fields and in tum are altered by them. Such passages include root holes, the burrows of soil fauna, shrinkage cracks, cracks around landslide blocks, and tectonic joints. The origin and hydraulic characteristics of “macropores” in soils have been described by Jones (1981) and Beven and Germann (1982) Figure 7, developed from an original example in the latter paper, summarizes the influence of macropores on overland and subsur- face low and their interaction. Some larger passages develop as 8 result of the subterranean erosion processes described later, and may attain diameters of up to tens of meters (Parker and others, 1964; Carey, 1976). In these passages, the flow process is turbu- lent streamflow, and is similar to conduit low in large solutional ‘cavities described in Chapter 7. The complex geometry of these tortuous condhits has so far defeated any study oftheir bydrau- lics, but an indication of their roughness is given by 2 measure~ ‘ment of flow speed in an elliptical soil pipe (Tanaka and others 1982, p. 34) from which a value of approximately 4 ms"! can be calculated for the Chézy C-value for the smoothness of pipeJimpiicanons of erosion by suasurface flow 7 flow. Jones (1982) presents a thorough review of pipefiow meas- urements in Britain. The pressure at which water can flow from a porous me- ium and enter 2 macropore or a conduit such 2s an open joint epends on the sie of the passage, but for the large cracks and yoo! holes of interes here, water in the porous medium must be under positive pressure relative to atmosphenc pressure, Thus. overiand flow, which occurs over & saturated soil surface. may enter such & passage, falling freely or trickling siowly down the sides. depending on its surface velocity and the morphology ofthe ‘passage. If it falls freely, it may travel far down the macropore. before entering the porous medium. Ifthe flow nicks siowly down the margins of the passage through an unsaturated soil or rock. a portion of it willbe drawn into the unsaturated matnx by ‘the resulung pressure gradient (Horton and Hawkins. 1965; Bouma and others, 1978). For flow to continue along the macro- Pore. the influx must exceed the lateral loss, which decreases ‘through time as the matrix becomes wet and the pressure gradient decreases, Thus, Heede (1971) noted that intense rainsiorms in Colorado did not generate flow in tunneis: oniy longer snowmelt Penods could wet the tunnel margins sufficentiy 10 allow discharge. ‘Water that infiltrates the porous medium under unsaturated conditions migrates within the matrix, avoiding macropores, but if the soil becomes saturated, even locally, either from the suriace, ‘or above some horizon that impedes vertical drainage and forms ‘perched zone of saturation, or at the roof of the macropore if vertical percolation supplies water to that point faster than unsat- rated percolation can convey it around the cavity, the pressure sradient is reversed, and water flows from the matnx 10 the ‘macropore (Fig. 7), along which it can travel much faster than the ‘matrix flow. By this means, large passages provide paths through ‘which water can by-pass slow flow through the soil matrix and, «specially important, through horizons of low conductivity. Even ‘hin, discontinuous zones of low conductivity in the soil or rock ‘may force water into passages of various size and origi, Pierson Figure 7. Paths of water into and out of macropores (modified sher Beveo and Germann, 1982). Saturated zones are shaded with vertical nce Wig rows indicus percolation. Sigh rows indicat over 11983) has demonstrated experimentally thatthe local increase in conductivity associated with a macropore may cause an abrupt rise in pore pressure at the end of 2 blocked passage. Such a pressure increase coud lead to siope failure or seepage erosion under favorable conditions. Groundwater discharge Subsurface flow discharges from the ground surface where the topography is intersected by the water table in an unconfined guile, or lies below the piezomeinc surface of a confined aquifer that has become connecied to the surface by some breach (such as a fault) in the overiying aquiciude. Thus, topography, geologic structure and stratigraphy, and the recharge rate and size of the flow system determine the spaual distribution of seepage ‘The terms "seepage zone” or “seepage face" ate applied tothe area cf ground surlace over which the discharge occurs. These zones may be active perennially or ephemerally, depending on the tim- ing of recharge anc the geometry of tne flow system as described above. If one walks along a seepage zone. itis usually possible to discern variations in local discharge rates along a contour. Where the discharge is suficiently concentrated, the feature is informally called a spring. Fetter (1980), p. 165-167) illustrates some of the ‘topographic and geologic conditions that localize springs. Large springs, usually occurring ata stratigraphic and/or structural in- homogeneity, are easy to recognize, and the fact that they distor the near-surface flow field and drain large volumes of aquifer ‘cause them to dry out the neighboring hillside, but there is @ spectrum of spring magnitudes that grades impercepuibly into seepage zones. ‘Seepage is rarely uniform along a contour because inho- mogencities and anisowopy of aquifer properties, particularly porosity and hydraulic conductivity, cause concentrations of low within the aquifer and near the seepage face. The most obvious of these heterogeneities result from fractures that can have a range of widths from micro-cracks to master joints and solution conduits. ‘The effec ofthese properties on groundwater Now fields is begin- ning to receive study, but their consequences for low near seep- ‘age faces has not yet been examined. It is now known, however, that a formation previously characterized as spatially uniform is better thought of as having random spatial variations of hydro- geologic parameters (Freeze, 1975). Thus, a “homogeneous” formation bas highly correlated frequency distibutions of com- ductivity and porosity, the former usually being lognormally dis- tributed and the lazer being normally distributed. The formation is considered to be homogeneous if these frequency distributions do not change through space. If they do vary spatially, and espe- cially if they are multimodal, the formation is considered to be heterogeneous. Ifthe properties are swongly auttocorrelated spa- tially (eg, if master joins are spaced uniformly), the conceatra- tions of flow will be strong. Inson (1963), for example, showed that large differences of transmissviry (the produet of saturated thickness and hydraulic conductivity) occurred along the strike of8 T. Dunne the Chalk aquifer in southeaster England. The formation is a soft limestone with systems of fine fractures, but small faults and zones of concentrated fracturing along the axes of gentle anti- lines transverse tothe regional dip locally increase the tansmis- sivity more than tenfold. These maxima have a rougbly uniform spacing of 10 to 1S km. and valleys coincide with them. Howard (19866) incorporated random variability of the hy- Graulic conductivity into his two-dimensional mathematical ‘model of groundwater flow and resulting erosion, but he did not utilize any spatial autocorrelation parameter to reflect repetitive aquifer properties such as joint systems. Nevertheless, the altera~ tion of the shape of the seepage boundary by erosion in his mathematical and laboratory models caused low concentrations with a characternic spacing as the headward-eroding channels competed in draining water out of the aquifer (see later). Local increases in groundwater flux and exfitration can also result from the presence of buried features such as an anticline of fother protuberance of low-conductivity rock buried by more permeable sedimens. Such disturbances of the flow field often cause sufficient groundwater concentration to affect features such ‘s springs, seepage zones, or channel networks, and the presence of buried structure is often recognized from such drainage fea~ tures during map or photo interpretation. Concentrated sources of groundwater inflow can also produce concentrations of outlow ‘nearby, although the diffusion of groundwater tends to reduce the ‘concentration over greater flow distances. For example, near Ba~ ‘anal in southeastern Brazil I have seen lange gullies (vogorocas), which are eroding beadward through a valley fill (Coeiho Netto land others, 1987) branch and head toward concentrations of subsurface low emanating from bedrock hollows partially filled with deep colluvium on the valley sides In a later section ofthis chapter it will be emphasized that the flow direction and speed, and therefore the hydraulic poten= tial gradient in the outflow zone, are important characteristics governing the mechanics of erosion by water emerging from the ground. Construction of flow nets fr regional or local flow fields (using piezometric measurements or the graphical or mathemat- cal modeling techniques illustrated by Cedergren, 1967; Freeze and Cherry, 1979; and Wang and Anderson, 1982) indicates that these flow speeds and directions, as well as the location and extent of the discharge area, depend on: recharge rae; topog- raphy, and the stratigraphy, thicknes, lateral extent, and hydraulic properties of rock formations. Of particular importance js the transient response to high recharge rates, which is exceed ingly complex to compute (Freeze, 1971) for realistic landscape ‘geometries, and thus is usually defined by piezometric measure~ ‘ments. The timing and magnitude of the increased hydraulic gra- SABE o ‘where c is the cohesion per unit area. The critical hydraulic ‘Potential gradient thus depends on the thickness of the volume ‘that eventually separates. Near the surface, Az may be so small ‘relative to ¢ that the difference in hydraulic head (and therefore. she seepage force) is insufficient for erosion, With increasing ‘depth (2 in Fig. 8), the volume being mobilized by the seepage force (per unit volume), i, pr g, becomes so large that its move ‘ment cannot be resisted by the tensile strength of the material, ‘which remains constant as .\- increases. Failure occurs ata criti= cal depth Mc Teeth ETT ca) However, if is large, realistic values of i lead to thick failed layers, which would be unlikely to flow. On the otber hand. as ‘ze declines to the sie of fragments that commoniy flow, the Seepage gradient would have 10 be unrealistically high to cause liquefaction of material with a significant cohesion. Thus, al- though Equation 92 describes failure, it seems likely that the liquefaction of cohesive materials requires that the cohesive ‘bonds first be weakened considerably by weathering, gravity, or other forces near the seepage face. and the erosion process de- pends mainly on the condition summarized in Equation 7. The ‘esistance of cohesive materials to seepage erosion is probably the reason for Parker's (1963, p. 107) observation that tunnel scour is the most common mode of conduit formation in consolidated ‘materials Static liquefaction may also be impeded by plant roots, which can be viewed as resisting the vertical separation in the manner of a cohesion, or as providing an extra vertical oad when Toots tied laterally or vertically to sable ground are extended by dilation of the ground surface. This effect may be the reason why artesian pore pressures and swelling of the ground surface have been noticed before colluvium liquefied to produce debris lows in some forested bedrock hollows. Iverson and Major (1986) generalized the analysis of seep- age forces to account for static liquefaction and Coulomb failure due to water lowing in any direction within coluvium on bil- slopes. Thus, they took into account the conditions that produce ‘mass failure, debris-low initiation, and seepage erosion, which grade into one another and extend channels. Their analysis was strictly limited to homogeneous, isotropic, and cobesionless soils subject to steady, uniform seepage on a planar hillslope, but it ‘lustrates important conditions that are relevant to interpreting ‘most fel situations. Iverson and Major analyzed the influence of seepage on liquefaction ofa hillside defined in Figure 9a, where the seepage force i proportional to the hydraulic gradient, de- fined in terms of is magnitude i and the angle A, which it makes ‘with the surface normal. Liquefaction occurs under the condition summarized in Equation 7, which requires that Pacer Sa =p) mara ‘The magnitade i required for seepage erosion by liquefaction is therefore 2 minimum where A = ~2, which implies vericaly ‘upward seepage. However, if jis suficienty large, iquefacsion ‘an occur at other combinations of A and 0, as indicated by ‘Equation 10 and summarized graphically in the orginal paper. 9)Figure 9. (2) Definition of seepage vector magoitude forthe analysis by Iverson and Major (1986). (b) Free balance on a parce Iving on a sloping surface subjec: to a seepage force (F,), a shearing force due to surface runoff (F,), and gravity (F). Note that v = (90 ~ others, 1985.) Iverson ané Major showed tha the direction and magnitude ofthe seepage gradient also affect zh suscepibiity ofa hillslope to Coulomb failure. and that. even when water is emerging from tne suriace. this form of mass failure often preempts liquefaction or occurs when the hydraulic head gradient i insufficient for liquefaction. They demonstrate that the flow of water through colluvium and the attendant head gradient alter both the effective stress, which controls the friciona resistance, and the alongslope driving foree. Ifthe low vector is pointed outward and down- slope, for example, it reduces the frictional resistance and increases the downslope stress, whereas downslope flow parallel to te surface increases the driving stress but not the normal stress, Yielding the usual “infinitesiope” stability equation (Carson and Kirkby, 1972, p. 156). Other combinations are obvious from Figure 9, or from Equation 3 of the original paper. Modification of the force balance of saturated collvium on hillslope to take into account the effects of seepage magnitude and direction led Iverson and Major to summarize the condition for Coulomb failure of a cohesionless material as: sin(e- 0) mae a= ay where ¢ isthe angle of intereal friction of the porous medium. One particularly interesting result ofthis equation is that a spe- cific (not vertical) seepage direction (A = 90 ~ 4) requires the ‘minimum seepage magnitude to provoke failure, or yields the ‘minimum stable hillsiope angie fora given magnitude of i and Q. ‘The original paper investigates all conceivable combinations of hydrologic and geotechnical parameters of the model. Kochel and others (1985) and Howard and McLane (1988), ‘on the other hand, emphasized the continuity between seepage erosion and fluvial transport. They constructed a two-dimen- sional sapping chamber (Fig. 10) with walls 5 cm apart The intensity of groundwater flow through the sand hillsopes con- structed in the tank could be altered by adjusting the water levels in the reservoir at the rear ofthe tank and at the outflow, as well = 8) m0 Figure 9a, (After Kocbel and as the position of the screen separating the sand from the reser~ voir, which sets the length of the flow system. The authors re- ported that sapping over the seepage zone involved an intimate mixture of seepage erosion end overland transport. Seepage ero- sion dominated at the upper end of the seepage zone where tbe surface slope was steep, bydrauiic gradients in the emergent ‘groundwater were strong, and the surface flow was weak. Re- ‘moval of sediment from this zone triggered mas failure from the zone upslope. Further downstream, the hydraulic gradient de- creased in magnitude, but the overiand flow and resultant ftuvial ‘anspor increased. Sapping was most intense atthe upper end of the seepage face, causing headward erosion by slumping of sand, which then had to be transported downstream before the back- ‘wearing could continue. The fluvial transport required the devel- ‘opment of a surface gradient proportional to the amount of sediment eroding from the model landscape, and inversely pro- portional to the water discharge and thus to the average hydraulic ‘gradient through the bilstope. Kochel and others (1985) and Howard and McLane (1988) analyzed the interaction of surface runoff and emergeat ground ‘water by considering the balance of torques (Fig. 9) acting on particle that must rol! out of an intergranular “pocke:” over a rotation point. They considered four forces to be acting om the panicle: gravity (F,), cohesion (F.), the drag imposed by surface runoff parallel to the slope (Fy), and the drag imposed by emer- Figure 10. Longitudinal section of ‘age chamber. Ruled lines indicate sand, circles show saturated zone. (KRochel and other, 1985.)implicanons of erosion by suosuryace flow 3 gent seepage (F,). The forces are defined with respect to pantcie Sharactensucs as 1a Cie on ed? Fee CyoeiD? 3) Gro an a FG Dt ast and C3 represents the effees of rancle shape and packing, and Cy requires a specific measurement for cohesive soils. ‘The boundary shear stress > exerted on the grains by surface flow and the hydraulic gradient must also be measured or estimated independently from hydrologi considerations ‘Atincipient motion. the rouational point makes an angie, ¢, with the normal io the hillslope surface about the center of the panicle to be moved (Fig. 9). The average vaiue of this angie for tne loosely packed. granular material is approximately equal 10 ‘ne angle of intemai friction used in the formuiations based on mass wasting (see above). The balance of torques as erosion begins is defined by: F.D* Fy Deas 8+ F, Dees (0+ » = 9)~F, Dsin(e-6) (16) ‘The authors then showed that for cohesionless sediment with an angle and negligible surface flow, the maximum stable slope @ depends once again on the direction » and magnitude of the hydraulic gradient. Thus, for cohesioniess sediment with an angle ¢ and negligible surface Dow, failure occurs when: an Gm ‘The magnitude of i required for such failure is minimized when » = (@ ~ 8), which is equivalent to the condition in Equation (11) because, between Figures 92 and b, such a condition implies that 2+ @ = 90°, which also minimizes i The results of Kochel and others (1985) agree with those of Iverson and Major (1986) to the effect that a specific, nonvertical seepage vector will provide the critical condition governing erosion and retreat of the hill slope or spring head. This seepage vector is governed, in turn, by the geometry of the groundwater flow net, surface topography, hydraulic conductivity, and recharge rate. Morphological expression of seepage erosion Introduction. Other chapters in this volume describe the ‘characteristics of landforms generated by seepage erosion. How- ‘over, there are some generalizations about morphology that fol- ow from the principles of groundwater flow and seepage erosion ‘mechanics reviewed in this chapter. These generalizations will be ‘outlined here. Many recent studies have been motivated by a search for terrestrial analogs of Martian landscapes where, itis hypothesized, groundwater has been an imporant landforming agent. Thus, many investigators have focused their attention on terrestrial landscapes where the geomorphic role of groundwater is reiatvely free from complications by other influences. The field studies have concentrated on gently dipping aquifers in highly permeable or arid zones where surface erosion and shallow mass wasting are relatively slow. and where there is relatively strong structural control of landform evolution by major vertical joints. bedding planes. and strong contrasts in hydraulic conductive ity. The landscapes studied include beaches (Higgins. 1982), the Colorado Plateaus (Laity and Malin. 1985: Howard. 1986a), Hawaiian voicanoes (Baker. 1986: Kochel. 1986), and the Lib- yan desert (Maxwell. 1982) Itis likely that the geomorphic effectiveness of groundwater {s also widespread outside ofthese “model” landscapes. but that in other regions groundwater interacts wit the effees of hilislope erosion, oF is not quite So strongly controlled by structural fea- tures, Thus, some landscape characteristics interpreted by Laity and Malin (1985), Howard (1986s), and others to be diagnostic of the landforming role of groundwater may simpiy be the effects of groundwater in panicular geologic settings, such as gently dipping, massive, permeable rocks with linle weathered resi- dum, These characteristics include: elongate channel networks: theater-headed valleys; shor, stubby tributaries with large junc- tion angles; relatively constant valley width from source 10 ‘mouth; and strong structural control of channel orientation, wall ‘morphology, and longitudinal profiles. They may be found only in landscapes formed by emerging groundwater in certain geo- logic senngs, but seepage erosion may also develop channel nei- works without these characteristics in other geologic regions. For ‘example, Dunne (1970, 1980) proposed that less distinctive Ap- palachian channel networks, with only slight structural control (Newell, 1970), were also formed as a result of groundwater emergence that promoted seepage erosion of weathered rock and colluvium. DeVries (1976) proposed thatthe stream network of the Netherlands was formed as a result of the outcropping of regional water tables as groundwater invaded Pleistocene depos- its after deglaciation. Cariston (1963, p. C5) proposed a similar reason for the occurrence of streams. In these cass the geologic structure, climate, and hillslope erosion process favored the ‘development ofa landscape without some of the diagnostic char- acteristics listed above. Channel initiation and network growth. If a ground- water flow field of any extent or depth, is subject to a perturba- tion as the water emerges from the ground surface, there will ea tendency to focus weathering and erosion, and to notch the sur- face, creating the potential for elongation of the notch into a ‘channel and eventually a valley. The pertarbation may result from erosion of the boundary by some other process, such as river erosion (Fig. 11a) or it may result from the establishment of a ‘ew or larger groundwater flow field within a geologic deposit ‘with irregular boundaries formed by some other agent, such as a lacie, a river, or wind. DeVries (1976) described, for example, the expansion of groundwater seepage zones in Pleistocene fluvialFigure 11. Plan view ofthe perturbation of groundwater flow net that lead tothe extension of spring ‘heads to form a drainage nerwork Solid arrows are flow lines dashes indicate equipotentsls. (a) Concentration of low ata boundary perturbed by an outside agent. (b) Concentration of flow caused by «a small seepage failure localized by a lithological heterogeneity. (c) Increased convergence of flow lines ‘round neighboring spring beads that bave retreated into a land mass. Tributary valleys form as result fof secondary perturbations of the low Geld due to the same geometric or hydrogeologic factors ‘Convergence onthe spring heads leads to divergence of flow berween the valleys (After Dunne, 1980.) ‘and cotian sediments as precipitation increased during the Holo- cene. The flow tines converge on the re-entrants in the boundary as shown in Figures | and 11. Convergence of flow on the initial for eroded, concave boundary increases the water fux, Qin Equation 8, and therefore the hydraulic gradient and seepage forces in Equations 7, 10, 11, and 17. Thus, the probability of attaining the critical conditions for seepage erosion during a par- ticular storm or season is increased by disturbance of the boundary. Dunne (1970, 1980) also proposed that spatial variation in the hydrogeological properties ofthe aquifer could cause ether local increases of specific discharge, Q, or local reductions in resistance to weathering and seepage erosion. For example, there are autocorreated spatial variations of both hydraulic conductiv- ity and porosity in even homogeneous isotropic aquifers, as pre- viously described. These variations result from random and periodic differences in the factors controling petrogenesis, dia- ‘genesis, and deformation, which cause variations in grain size, ‘pore fillings, and in fractare widths and spacing. Other spatial variations in mineralogic composition result in variable resistance to chemical decomposition and therefore in changes of porosity, bydrauic conductivity, and tensile strength. Each of the spatial variations in hydrogeologic properties affects the flow field, causing local concentrations of discharge at a seepage face. The most obvious examples of this effect occur ‘where master joints provide narrow zones of high and anisotropic conductivity, which localize outflow and generate major springs (chick, 1965; Campbell, 1973; and Fig. 12), but in many other field situations itis difficult to identify visually the hydrological ‘parameter responsible for the concentration, and as far as I know, detailed instrumental measurements that might identify the effec- tive spatial patterns have not been made. On a larger scale, bow- ever, Ineson (1963) identified small faults and fracture zones along the axes of gentle anticlines as the primary controls on the distribution of transmissivity in the English Chalk. The local con- ceatration of outflow either accelerates weathering, lowering the resistance to seepage erosion, or increases the hydraulic gradient, increasing the seepage force (Equations 7, 10, 11, and 17). If seepage erosion occurs, it perturbs the boundary, and again in- creases the flow convergence (Fig. 11b), inreasing the probabi- ity of further seepage ercsion. As the head of the embayment retreats into the land surface or hillslope, this flow convergence will increase (Fig. 11¢),seting up a positive feedback loop that affects the growth of a new valley.Impiicanons oF erosion bv suosuriace flow 15 ‘The intial seepage erosion may produce oni a subterranean conduit rater than a valley. Howard (1986b, p. 134) observed the formation of temporary conduits in his experiments on seep- age erosion, presumably asa result of cobesion imposed by inter granular water inthe tensioo-saturated zone. Its dificult to point ‘unequivocally to published repos of conduits formed by seepage ‘erosion alone, because most reports do not consider the pipe- forming process in detail. and perhaps because cohesion resists seepage erosion, as indicated by Equation 9. However itis likely that in some cases the beads of conduits are extended by seepage ‘erosion, even if their roofs are maintained by cohesion and they are eroded by tunnel scour along most of their courses. Zaslavsky and Kassif (1965, p. 315-316) emphasized that survival of at arch over a pipe oF tunnel requires cobesive strength. which Presumably could be provided by both interpanicle forces and Plant roots. However. over long periods of geologic time, as the land surface is lowered above them, the roofs of conduits are ephemeral and they collapse to form gullies and valleys. In many situations. pipes do not form: the channel or valley forms as 2 direct result of seepage erosion and mass wasting into the sapped 1k is & common observation that spring heads or valleys formes by seepage erosion ata range of scales down tothe sizeof laboratory models (¢. Kochel and others, 1985; Howard, 1986b) exhibit a roughly uniform spacing. In some cases (e.g. the valleys studied by Campbell [1973], Howard [1986a}, and Laity ‘and Malin [1985] on the Colorado Plateaus or some of the large springs draining basalts on the Columbia and Snake River Pla- teaus),it is obvious thatthe uniformity is imposed by the roughly ‘equal spacing of master joints. However, there have been no formal quantitative studies ofthe relation between the hydrogeo- logic properties, the length scales of patterns in these properties, and the average spacing of channels formed by seepage. ‘The most general influence on the relatively uniform spacing of channels, occuring even in the absence of structural contol, is the competition of growing channel networks for subsurface flow. Figure 1c indicates that convergence of flow lines toward {indentations or alooves in a boundary or atthe heads of channels, ‘s compensated by divergence between these features. Divergence fof the flow lines causes a decrease in the local water ux, and therefore « lower hydraulic gradient and probability of erosion, ssabilizing the surface between the indentations. The growing indentations along the boundary compete with one another ia a be Figure 16. Drainage of conical swale to a channel bead with an apstream perimeter of 1 mand a width of 2 « sin (e/2) m.Implications of erosion by subsurface flow 19 is possibie to suggest the mos probable controling faciors. even if the exact funcuional relations cannot vet be defined. The drainage density, which is related io a rather complex way to the drainage area required for channe! initiation. is represented in Equation 22 by rp, ras and by «implicit in =, The most obvious control invoives the amount of water (J) available for seepage erosion. Ifthe rock is significantly weakened bby weathering before seepage erosion occurs. the total annual runoff may be an important control through is influence on rock decomposition (seepage weathering). However. the removal of the weathered residuum by seepage erosion is likely to occur during some shoner period of high discharge and hydraulic gra- dient. Thus, tol wet-season rainfall or spring snowmelt might be the critical variable in large groundwater flow systems. The deeper and more extensive the flow sysiem controlling the stream network density, the more susiained would the water input have to be to generate seepage erosion at the outlet. Shallower and smaller fow systems develop critical flow rates and hydraulic gradiems in shorter, more intense rainstorms. in Figure 12. the bedrock flow system feeding the springs at A. C, and D and ‘upwelling beneath the channel at F generale maximum pore Dressures during the spring snowmelt and sustained them for several weeks; inthe shallower flow systems in soils at sites B and E, peak hydraulic gradients direcied into the slope occurred in response to daily snowmelt cycies and large rainstorms (Dunne, 1970), tis difficult to isolate which bydrologic input is the domi- nant control of channel formation and drainage density by statis- ‘al analysis of morphometric data because ofthe high degree of ‘correlation among various measures of rainall intensity over dif- ferent time scales at one location. The reievant measure probably varies with the geometry and hydrogeological parameters (mainly hydraulic conductivity and porosity) of the flow system, since these are the factors affecting the transient response of ground- ‘water flow (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, p. 65). The fact that drain- ‘age density increases with some measure of precipitation in regions where runoff is dominated by subsurface flow has been ‘stablished by Chorley (1957), Choriey and Morgan (1962), Cot- ton (1964), and DeVries (1976) ‘The intensity and form of weathering and its effect om resis {ance to seepage erosion (c. 6, and p, in Equations 7,9, and 10) ‘must also affect channel formation and drainage density. These Processes are controlled in turn by climate, hydrology, and lthol- ogy, as discussed in Chapter 1. The bydrogeologic characteristics of the aquifer are important in seuing the drainage density. For a fixed rate of groundwater recharge () per unit area of catchment, the hydraulic gradient (2) at a seepage face intensifies as the hydraulic conductivity (K) dectines (Equation 22), decreasing the critical discharge and therefore drainage area necessary for seep- ‘age erosion. The effect of spatial variations in hydraulic conduc- tivity was also emphasized earlier asa factor controling gradients of hydraulic head (Rulon and others, 1985). Finally, relief and gradient should be important controls on drainage density. In a homogeneous isotropic aquifer the water table is a subdued replica of the ground surface (Fig. 1), and strong local relief causes high bydraulic gradients between chan- nels and the intervening drainage divides (Freeze and Chery 1979, p. 193-199), Also, a sloping aquiclude beneath an aquifer seepens the hydraulic gradient for a fixed recharge rate and ‘conductivity (Equations 18 and 22). Equations 10, 11, and 17 indicate thatthe critical bydraulic gradient required for seepage erosion also decreases as the hillslope angle increases. but this ‘angle is not in general, independent of the other controls dis- cussed here. However. itis possible to conclude that both relief and the dip ofthe aquiciude should be positively correlated witb Grainage density. DeVries (1976) pointed out that on Pleistocene sandy deposits inthe Netherlands, where he interpret the stream networks to result from the outcropping of groundwater, drainage density is inversely proportional to reliel. This result does not ‘conflict wih the assertions made above because DeVries does not call on seepage erosion to form the channels and valleys. Al- ‘though there is no explicit description of process mechanics in his paper, he seems to interpret the stream net as resulting from surface sediment transport (by Fy in Equation 16) wherever the recharge rae. hydraulic conductivity, and inital surface geometry have caused the water table to outcrop. Fora fixed recharge rate ‘and hydraulic conductivity, low relief and gentle gradients would increase the area ofthe seepage zone and the number of depres- sions intersected by the water table. Qhannel networks or scarp retreat. Another problem re- lates to whether conceatrated seepage erosion at a spring head ‘will produce a valley or simply sap the hillside along a broad, irregular front to produce an escarpment. As channels or valleys are eroded headward, as shown in Figure Ll, the intervening, unchanneled surface may also retreat as a result of mas failure ot undercutting by waves or streams. Up to this point it has been assumed thatthe former retreat rate far exceeds the latter, 0 that a channel network forms. This result is more likely where there are strong lateral gradients in hydraulic conductivity, porosity, ot susceptibility to weathering, and where there is some dominant ‘wavelength to the spatial pattem (such as regularly spaced master Joints) so that flow concentrations are strong. 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C, aod Hol, HE, 1988, Sapping features of the (Colorado Placa; A comparnive planetary geology Bld pide: Neioaal ‘Aeronautics and Space Adminisaton, Washington. D.C, p. 108. ‘contains a weath of welhThuratd material on groundwater siping. Prat in USA