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Abstract
The nature of skill acquisition has long been of interest to music educators. This study considers the research context
for relationships between aural dictation, sight singing, performance and composition skills. Then, relationships
between these skill areas are quantitatively investigated using data from the Australian New South Wales Music 2
2010 and 2011 HSC examination tasks, which take place in the final year of secondary schooling. The results from the
HSC data were analysed in three ways: raw results for each isolated skill, correlation analysis for each skill combination
and comparative analysis of only top-achieving students. The study found that the highest correlations were between
aural dictation and sight singing. Further analysis of top achieving students found that high achievement in multi-part
aural dictation was the best predictor of high achievement in the other skill areas.
Key words: aural dictation, sight singing, performance, composition, correlational analysis, Higher School certificate
Australian Journal of Music Education 2013:1, 34-52
34 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
To explore these questions I began to consider multiple skill development this is often on the
how these connections might be observed basis of unstated or untested assumptions. This
and quantitatively analysed in other musicians, discussion explores literature contributing to the
particularly young artists. My experience as nature of skill relationships in the areas of aural
a secondary school music teacher in NSW, and visual analysis, performance and composition
Australia, provided an educational context for skills.
these observations. It became apparent that the
students preparing for the Music 2 Higher School
Skills involved in aural and visual
Certificate (HSC) Examinations, as outlined by
analysis
the NSW Board of Studies Syllabus, are required
to develop all of these skills. These students Music educators and theorists strongly advocate
are expected to demonstrate musicological the importance of developing aural and visual
competence through various analytical tasks analysis skills. These skills have been described
including aural dictation, sight singing, presenting as the foundation upon which all higher level
a performance and submitting a composition. Of skills are built (Hansen, 2005, p. 5). Wheeler
particular interest was the way aural dictation and (2007, p. 35) further states that ear and eye
sight singing skills contribute to the composition skills are foundational to the whole enterprise of
process, and also success as a performer. music making. The purpose for fostering these
This study sought to explore relationships foundational skills is to develop in students
between aural dictation, sight singing, the ability to recognize and understand musical
performance and composition in a quantitative relationships Sisley, 2008, p. 15). The key idea
manner. Initially, an investigation of research conveyed here is that relationships exist among
relevant to these skill relationships was the many musical disciplines such as analysis,
undertaken. The qualitative nature of past research performance and composition. The development
provided a context for the quantitative nature of of aural and visual analysis skills is seen by
this study. The results from the NSW HSC Music Sisley (2008) to be an integral part in aiding the
2 Examinations are then presented in three understanding of these relationships. Klonoski
ways: histograms of the raw results for each skill, (2006, p. 56) claims that the goal of this training
correlation graphs for each skill combination and focus is to teach students to integrate the various
pie charts comparing only top achieving students. musical components of real compositions into
These results are then discussed within the a meaningful, informed listening experience.
context of the relevant literature, demonstrating This broadly based support for the importance
implications for educators. of aural and visual analysis is also advocated
For the purposes of this article, the term aural by Karpinski (2000, p. 4); music listeners who
dictation refers to the skill of hearing and notating understand what they hear are thinking in music.
music using traditional Western notation. The term Music readers who understand and auralise what
multi-part refers to dictations with two or more they read are thinking in music. This concept
layers of sound, of which one layer is to be singled of thinking in music (Karpinski, 2000, p. 4) or
out for notation. thinking in sound (Gordon, 2003) is audiation.
Audiation is a skill that encompasses a wide
variety of musical endeavours including many
Relevant literature aspects of performance and composition
The acquisition of a wide range of musical skills (Gordon, 2000, p. 12). Gordon (2003) argues
is of great value for the developing musician. that audiation forms the basis of musical
While much research advocates the benefits of development. He advocates the pedagogical
practice of teaching musical acquisition with the acquisition and aural analysis training. Telesco
same principles as language development. He (1991) also strongly claims that sight singing is
explains that audiation is to music what thought a vital way of improving aural analysis. Kodly
is to language (Gordon, 2003, p. 25). Audiation (1974) emphasises the importance of sight singing
is also described by Gordon (2000, p. 9) as the and choral part singing for the development
assimilation and comprehension of the sound of any musical student. Damschroder (1995)
itself or can be alternatively viewed as hearing and Cleland and Dobrea-Grindahl (2010) utilise
and comprehending music in the mind when this educational philosophy by providing aural
no sound is present (Hansen, 2005; Sisley, 2008). dictation texts where sight singing is strongly
Klonoski (2006) firmly upholds the development of integrated in the pedagogical approach.
critical listening skills. Essentially, music is sound. While the relationship between sight singing
Therefore the development of an attuned musical and aural dictation may be strong, many situations
ear will no doubt strengthen the development of where musicians will encounter aural dictation
all other musical skills (Gordon, 2007). exercises require the musician to remain silent
Hansen (2005) underscores the importance during the aural dictation process. These situations
of audiation as a foundational skill for the include high school and university examinations
development of analysis, performance and such as the Australian Music Examinations Board
composition. It is described as providing the (AMEB), Associated Board of the Royal Schools
basis for the variety of skills which are necessary of Music (ABRSM) and Trinity performance
for the rich development of musicianship (Cross examinations. Thus, the student needs to develop
& Hiatt, 2006). Audiation is considered a key skill the ability to complete aural dictations without
for enabling musicians to reach their full musical vocalising. This ability is described by Gordon
potential (Gordon, 1999). Therefore, audiation (2000, p. 9) as notational audiation, the ability
should not be considered a skill particularly linked to make musical sense of a score by hearing
only with aural and visual analysis, but rather a it internally (Hansen, 2005). This skill is also
foundation skill on which all other musical skills explained by Sisley (2008, p.15) as the ability
should develop. to mentally create or recreate auditory images
While singing is considered extremely valuable without singing, playing or otherwise outwardly
for the development of audiation (Gordon, reproducing the pitches. Kodly (1974, p. 192)
2004), and music education in general (Tacka quotes Robert Schumann on this point: The
& Houlahan, 1995), sight singing is one of the good musician understands the music without
foundational companion skills for aural dictation a score as well as understands the score without
acquisition. Harrison et al. (1994) demonstrate the music. The ear should not need the eye, nor
through the methodology of their research on the eye the ear. Pitch internalisation (Sisley, 2008)
motivation and musical aptitude, that aural and subvocalisation (Johnson & Klonski, 2003) are
dictation and sight singing are skills which are other terms which have been used to describe this
extremely closely related. Sisley (2008) also same skill. Johnson and Klonski (2003) encourage
emphasises the importance of linking the skills of musicians to experiment with silent whistling,
aural dictation and sight singing, recommending silent singing or humming in an effort to develop
students to develop a recognition of musical notational audiation skills. As well as notating
patterns through sight singing. Sisley (2008, p. music through dictation, notational audiation also
12) claims further that unless students can sing, refers to the ability to notate music from recall, to
they will not be able to build a vocabulary of tonal read music while creating unfamiliar music and
patterns that are imperative for aural dictation the process of notating improvised or composed
36 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
music (Gordon, 2001). Notational audiation is a (2010) place a strong emphasis on developing
vital skill for the completion of any aural dictation harmonic relationships in an effort to aid the
task. acquisition of melodic and multi-part dictations in
A firm understanding of tonality is also a tonal context. Portillo (2006) has further applied
important for the successful completion of this notion to post-tonal multi-part dictation by
any aural dictation or sight singing task. While exploring approaches to sequencing trichordal
Sisley (2008, p. 18) emphasises the importance and tetrachordal class sets.
of mastery of tonal and rhythmic patterns, For sight singing and aural dictation to be
Portillo (2006) also states that an emphasis on executed correctly, another vital skill is that of
post-tonal aural understanding is becoming memorisation. The development of musical
increasingly important. Hansen (2005) comments memory is complementary to notational
on the benefits of using vertical structures when audiation. Gordon (2003) explains that musical
analysing post-tonal art music of the late 20th memory assists audiation, and audiation
Century. However, Sisley (2008 p. 20) notes in stimulates the development of musical memory.
her brief review of textbooks for aural analysis, Sisley (2008) argues that long-term and short-term
that most texts contain a small amount of post- memory are both important aspects in completing
tonal music examples, though not enough to aural dictations. Further, the tonal and rhythmic
be significant. As pedagogical tools for aural patterns absorbed in the long-term memory
dictation have continued to be developed, more are instrumental for the successful function of
focus has been given to the inclusion of post-tonal the short-term melodic memory during an aural
aural development along with traditional tonalities dictation exercise (Karpinski, 2000). Musicians
(Cleland & Dobrea-Grindahl, 2010). have various ways of remembering the material
Another important skill that musicians need to needed to complete an aural dictation or sight
develop for the completion of aural dictations is singing task. Karpinski (2000) noticed that some
the ability to aurally identify single and multiple musicians remember specific pitch intervals and
parts as well as multiple timbres. Karpinski (2000) others remember the general melodic contour.
claims that multi-part dictation, although difficult, DeWitt and Crowder (1986) indicate that the mind
is an important component of musical training tends to differentiate between melodic contour
that is often neglected and underdeveloped retention and intervallic information. As a result,
in musicians. Gregory (1990, 1994) assessed many musicians have strengths in memorising
neurological processes and indicates that multi- certain aspects of a melody yet may need to
part dictation retention is enhanced when develop skills in memorising other aspects.
dictations are related in key and employ traditional Karpinski (2000, p. 71) recommends extractive
tonalities. Gregory (1994) also emphasises the listening and chunking. This is an approach
importance of timbre for listeners attempting to supported by Hansen (2005) encouraging
distinguish between parts. Multi-part dictations musicians completing aural dictations to first listen
are completed with much more ease by musicians to then memorise what they hear. Only when an
when there are a variety of timbres used in the excerpt has been memorised should it be notated.
excerpt, rather than all parts of a single timbre Kodly (1974) also suggests that it is important to
(Gregory, 1994; Hansen, 2005). The ability to practice the art of dictation to the point where one
complete multi-part dictations is based on a can write down a melody after just one hearing.
well-developed aural understanding of harmonic Clearly, the development of memory is an integral
conventions (Levin & Martin, 1998). Bowman and aspect of aural and visual analysis.
Terry (1994) and Cleland and Dobrea-Grindahl
Like most musical endeavours, the acquisition in polyphonic music when the keys of the tunes
of any skill can only take place through repetitive were identical or closely related. If the keys were
practice (Sisley, 2008, p. 18). Henry and Killian unrelated, participants benefited from repeated
(2005) investigated the benefits of practice for listening, and from hearing parts separately.
improving sight singing. High school musicians Sheldon (1998) found that error detection ability
were given two melodies to sight sing, one is improved with the development of sight
with a short preparation time and one without. singing and multi-part aural skills training. Error
Significantly higher accuracy was observed detection is therefore a vital skill for the successful
when students were given time to practice. completion of aural dictation and sight singing
Further, successful students were often involved exercises.
in a variety of other musical activities which, The process of completing an aural dictation or
explicitly and implicitly, provided opportunities sight singing task should be wholistic, drawing on
to improve sight singing skills. The large quantity a variety of skills (Klonoski, 2006). For a musician
and continued production of aural analysis text to successfully complete a task they will inevitably
books (Warburton, 1971; Bowman & Terry, 1993; use an integrated approach employing notational
Damschroder, 1995; Cleland & Dobrea-Grindahl, audiation, memorisation and error detection.
2010) clearly demonstrates a recognition that These skills are imperative for melodic and multi-
musicians need to practice in order to improve. part dictations. However, the ability to complete
For regular practice in aural dictation and sight multi-part dictations has been shown to be more
singing to be most beneficial, it is imperative difficult, requiring a high level of proficiency in the
that musicians develop the ability to detect skills identified in this discussion. The integrated
errors (Sisley, 2008). Crawley et al. (2002) found nature of the skills required for aural dictation
that musicians and non-musicians responded and sight singing imply the possibility of further
similarly to subtle changes in three-part listening relationships with other significant musical
challenges, indicating that many people develop disciplines such as performance and composition.
error detection skills without formal training.
Killian (1991) found that for high and medium
scoring sight singers, there were no significant
Skills involved in performance
differences between sight singing and error A wide range of sub-skills contribute to
detection ability. The ability to detect errors is performance skill acquisition (Parcutt &
an important skill for aural dictation and sight Macpherson, 2002). However, this discussion
singing. isolates research relating to the skills that are
Another important aspect associated with error primarily related to the other focus disciplines of
detection is the speed of acquisition. Sheldon this study.
(1998) researched the effects of multiple listenings The development of aural and visual analysis
on error detection for four-part multi-timbral skills are fundamental functions for any performer.
listening excerpts. Participants were given three Westney (2003) encourages performers to
listenings and after each they identified any recognise the aural implications of a performance.
mistakes noticed on a provided score. While most Westney (2003) also stipulates that performance
participants were able to find errors in the top practice is enhanced through a developed
two voices, most difficulty occurred when trying sense of aural awareness. Williamon (2004, p. 88)
to identify errors in the bottom voice. Further further advocates a balance between playing
difficulty occurred when excerpts were given in practice and non-playing practice where
a polyphonic texture. Bigand et al. (2000) found the well-developed ear will contribute to the
that participants were better able to detect errors practice routine through aural and visual analysis.
38 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
Therefore, memory is not only an integral part of technique with traditional harmony through
performance acquisition, but also a significant aural and visual analysis. Gorow (2009) also
contributor to the success of the performance. provides an example of a training method that
Improvisation represents an important incorporates aural and visual analysis as an
interdisciplinary link between composition and approach to composition. Gorow (2009, p. 4)
performance (Prouty, 2006; Keller et al., 2001). aims to combine the principles of music theory,
Improvisation is a skill that is important for the composition, orchestration and transcription
development of the performer and the composer into one coordinated system of integrated
(McPherson, 1996). Brockmann (2009) presents an techniques. Gorow (2009) recommends a variety
example of a pedagogical text which is built upon of skills for development including the ability to:
philosophically linking aural analysis, composition perceive and notate a large variety of musical
through improvisation, and performance. styles, excel in improvisation and composition
Brockmann (2009, p. viii) states that one of the processes, communicate effectively through music
main aims of his text is to show how to make notation, develop an efficient compositional
connections between music theory, aural skills sketch technique and notate musical ideas
concepts, and performance. Elliott (1995, p. 165) without the aid of a musical instrument. While
suggests that performance and composition this list encompasses a vast range of skills, there
are linked through the process of interpretation: is an underlying expectation that composition
Performing a musical work is analogous to students develop highly complex aural and visual
quoting someone elses words in order to assert analytical skills. Notating musical ideas without
something. A performer performs a musical the aid of an instrument combines confident aural
composition in order to express his or her personal dictation skills with notational audiation and/or
understanding of that composition. This process sight singing abilities. Kodly (1974, p. 191) states,
of interpretation requires an understanding of it is first and foremost the composer who needs
both performance and composition. Brindle an internal ear as keen as possible and he strongly
(2002, p. 2) explains, a performer should be able encourages musicians to compose away from
to compose well enough to know what is behind the piano, doing everything in your mind first
the notes like the scaffolds behind a stage (Kodly, 1974, p. 196). Cope (1997) also emphasises
set. Thus, composition is a highly beneficial skill broad listening, with scores, as a means of
for the performer seeking to develop insightful equipping and stimulating the composers musical
performances. imagination. Further, he encourages musicians
to develop the ability to read and notate music
quickly and be a avid sight readers using both
Skills involved in composition
notational audiation and instrumental assistance.
The multitude of skills that are needed for a Shoenberg (1967) encourages the development of
musician to develop as a performer can also be acute aural analysis skills to assist in self-criticism.
noted in the literature focusing on compositional Thus, the development of a range of aural and
development. Most researchers identify visual analysis skills are of vital importance for the
compositional strategies that are either aural or composer.
performance based. There are many aspects of performance practice
Compositional methods are often taught that can benefit the composer. One example
alongside a collection of other disciplines is the fusion of performance and composition
including aural analysis and the study of through the art of improvisation. Azzara (1993)
traditional Western harmony. Jamini (2005) found that the development of improvisation skills
provides a workbook integrating compositional
40 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
directly correlates with higher level performance of performance and compositional development.
skills. Historically, these benefits were particularly Therefore, this study is primarily concerned with
evident in those musicians who were both scrutinising the assumption that there are strong
composers and performers. Brindle (2002, p. 2) relationships between aural and visual analysis,
comments: performers may have to improvise. performance and composition. While much of
This supreme form of spontaneous composition the literature advocates the benefits of multiple
was once the greatest proof of musicianship. skill development, this was often through
During the nineteenth century if a performer qualitative research methods or through unstated
was not performing their own compositions, it assumptions. Therefore, quantitative analysis
was a common view that the performer should strategies were devised to further investigate
somehow take on the soul of the composer to relationships between these skill areas.
ensure the most successful performance (Hunter,
2005). Quality improvisation is an example of
Research methodology
acutely combined performance skills with aural
analysis, demonstrating a deep comprehension The advantages of the quantitative methodology
of compositional technique (Prouty, 2006). In chosen are best understood in the context of
many cases the skill of sight reading is upheld as the research aims earlier stated. The quantitative
an important aspect of performance which also method allows for the determination of
assists the development of the composer (Cope, numerical relationships between aural dictation,
1997; Jamini, 2005). sight singing, performance and composition. This
Performance experience can also have a study was completed through three processes:
positive influence on communication through collating the raw results from the NSW HSC Music
the compositional technique of score writing. 2 Examinations into histograms, correlation
The process of developing a score is described graphs devised for each skill combination and pie
by Elliott (1995) as being deeply culturally charts comparing only top achieving students.
contextual. The development of a score relies on The details of the quantitative method used in
expression within a particular way of thinking this project are outlined, along with the specific
that is common among a specific group of project design and instrumentation. This is
people. Score development not only conveys the followed by a discussion of the assumptions and
intention of sound, but also stipulates the actions implications relevant to this aspect of the study.
of the performers. It is therefore necessary for the
composer to have a sensitive awareness of the role Data collection strategies
of the performer.
This study was designed to investigate
relationships between aural dictation, sight
Implications for this study singing, performance and composition. The
This discussion reveals the interconnected nature quantitative research method was particularly
aural and visual analysis, performance and appropriate for analysing data obtained from
composition. However, while the relationships the NSW Board of Studies. The data collected
between these skills have been noted both for this research project is secondary data
pedagogically and professionally, they remain (Ackroyd & Hughes, 1992; Grix, 2010) in that it
empirically untested. While much literature was recontextualised, through analysis, with
assumes relationships between all four skills, a purpose different to that intended by the
aural and visual analysis skills are most often Board of Studies. Questions were selected from
implicitly identified as fundamental components the 2010 and 2011 Music 2 HSC examinations,
in accordance with the aims of this study. The composed in the past 25 years (NSW Board of
examination data was initially collected by Studies, 2009). For this research, 749 senior high
the Board of Studies at examination locations school students participated in 2010, and 729
around NSW. Examination scripts were sent to participated in 2011 (NSW Board of Studies, 2011).
HSC marking centres to be marked and collated. These large numbers of available participants
The researcher was subsequently given access provided a considerable statistical advantage.
to those marks once all student identification
had been removed. Once the results from these
Analysis strategies
questions had been obtained correlational
analysis was carried out for each of the six As previously noted, data from the Music 2
possible combinations of skill areas. As another examinations was analysed using three methods:
means of examining possible relationships, the histograms of individual skill results, correlational
results for the top achieving students were also analysis for each skill combination involving
isolated and analysed. the whole cohort, and comparative analysis for
each skill combination involving only the top
achievers. The second method involved the
Research instrument and determination of correlation coefficients. In
participants this study, Pearsons r was chosen as a means
The research instrument for this study utilised the of calculating linear correlation (Rodgers &
NSW 2010 and 2011 Music 2 HSC Examinations Nicewander, 1988). When using correlation as a
(NSW Board of Studies, 2012). Questions tool for analysis it is important to consider the
directly relating to aural dictation, sight singing, nature of positive and negative correlations.
performance and composition were selected. For example, if a has a positive correlation with
For the aural dictation questions in both years, b, then it would be expected that b would also
examiners gave marks out of five using no half have a positive correlation with a. Similarly,
marks. The 2010 aural dictation contained a if a has a negative correlation with b, then it
multi-part eight bar excerpt from the Petrouchka would be expected that b would also have a
Ballet Suite by Stravinsky. The 2011 aural dictation negative correlation with a. The strength of
contained the single-part opening nine bars of correlation is measured on a scale from -1 to 1
the Fugue in A major (from Prelude and Fugue BWV with 1 being a completely positive correlation
536) for Organ by J. S. Bach. and -1 representing anti-correlation. Both
Examiners marked the sight singing components outcomes can also be represented in graphical
out of ve and used half marks. Each examiner form with a regression line. For this study, the
chose one of three excerpts for each student. marks from particular questions were treated as
All passages ranged just over an octave and naturally occurring variables and all comparative
included 4/4 and 6/8 time signatures. For 2010, combinations were analysed for the strength of
two were in E minor and one in D major. For 2011, correlation.
passages were in D major, E minor and Bb major. The third method isolated just the top achieving
Passages were rhythmically simple with occasional students in each skill area. Once the number
semiquaver movement emphasising melodic and of top achieving students in each skill area was
intervallic interpretation. identified, analysis was carried out to determine
Examiners marked the performance and how many students were also top achievers in
composition components out of fteen with half- other skill areas. For example, from the students
marks. Students presented a live performance who were top achievers in aural dictation, the
and submitted a composition representing music researcher identified how many students were
42 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
also top achievers in sight singing, performance or between variables based purely on numerical
composition. This process was carried out for each significance. It is therefore important to draw
skill pair to determine whether any one skill may conclusions within the broad context of music
act as a predictor of success in other skill areas. scholarship.
Figure 1: Histograms
of 2010 and 2011 HSC
aural dictation results:
vertical axis shows
number of students,
horizontal axis shows
marking range.
Figure 2: Histogram
of 2010 and 2011 HSC
sight singing results.
Figure 3:
Histogram
of 2010 and
2011 HSC
performance
results.
44 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
Figure 4: Histogram
of 2010 and 2011 HSC
composition results.
Figure 5: Scatter
plots of aural
dictation and
sight singing.
Gordon, 2004; Sisley, 2008; Cleland & Dobrea- While some students may use compositional
Grindahl, 2010). methods involving aural dictation skills, it is
speculated that students use a performance-
based compositional approach. As with all other
Aural dictation and performance
comparisons so far, the 2010 results show a lower
skills
correlation, emphasising the influence of the
For 2010, the correlation was 0.31 and for more difficult 2010 aural dictation.
2011 it was 0.37 (Figure 6). With no change in
requirements for the performance component,
Sight singing and performance
the impact of the aural dictation results is
emphasised. These lower correlations could result For 2010, the correlation was 0.41 and for 2011
from the obvious differences in the examination it was 0.38 (Figure 8). These low results could
pressures for each skill. Students would likely convey the differences between each skill:
prepare for aural dictation with less intensity than where sight singing requires a performance
for performance due to the greater weighting environment with unseen material, the
given to performance and the unseen aural performance requires prepared material.
dictation material. Performance is a highly multifaceted skill
(Parcutt & McPherson, 2002) and this could also
contribute low correlations.
Aural dictation and composition
skills
Sight singing and composition
For 2010, the correlation was 0.26 and for
2011 it was 0.32 (Figure 7). Both correlations The correlation strength for 2010 was 0.34 and for
represent the lowest values in this study. 2011 was 0.35 (Figure 9). This skill combination
Figure 6: Scatter
plots of aural
dictation and
performance.
Figure 7: Scatter
plots of aural
dictation and
composition.
46 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
demonstrates the most consistency across years. as performers than they are as composers, likely
However, these correlation results are too low for utilising performance skills for the composition
conclusions of value. process.
Figure 8: Scatter
plots of sight
singing and
performance.
Figure 9: Scatter
plots of sight
singing and
composition.
Figure 10:
Scatter plots of
performance
and
composition.
never greater than 0.08. There is strength in this achievers in skill b. The chart on the top right
consistency and in the large sample sizes. While shows the converse: the top achievers in skill
the correlations may be considered statistically b, with grey indicating the subset of those who
low, in the educational context earlier mentioned, were also top achievers in skill a. The lower charts
particular notice should be given to the ordering show the same information for 2011.
of the correlation values. The results of this
study found aural dictation and sight singing
Aural dictation and sight singing
with the highest correlations followed closely by
performance and composition. Figure 11 compares the results for top aural
dictation achievers with top sight singing
achievers. In 2010, a large proportion of top aural
Comparative analysis of top dictation achievers were also top achievers in
achievers sight singing. However only a small proportion
For each skill, a method was devised to isolate of top sight singing achievers were also top
the top achievers. The selected data was then achievers in aural dictation. In 2011, a similar
analysed in each comparative area to identify any trend can be noted, although the difference is less
one skill acting as a predictor of success in others. signicant. The 2010 top aural dictation achievers
were most likely to also be top achievers in sight
singing. Thus, achievement in the multi-part aural
Method for isolating top achievers
dictation of 2010 may be a useful predictor of
In order to identify top achievers, the researcher success in sight singing.
devised separate marking ranges for each skill
(Table 1) based on the histograms in Figures 1, 2,
3 and 4. This method ensured that top achievers Figure 11: Pie charts comparing top achievers for aural
were identied to accentuate the level of dictation and sight singing.
difficulty for each task.
48 2013, No. 1
Aural dictation and achievement in music education
Aural dictation and performance aural dictation achievers were also top achievers
in sight singing. However, only a small proportion
Figure 12 compares the results for top aural
of composition top achievers were also top
dictation achievers with top performance
achievers in aural dictation. In 2011, there is a
achievers. In 2010, a large proportion of top aural
small difference between those who achieved in
dictation achievers were also top achievers in
one skill and those who achieved in both skills.
performance. However, only a small proportion
The 2010 top aural dictation achievers were more
of top performance achievers were also top
likely to also be top achievers in composition.
achievers in aural dictation. In 2011, there is a
Thus, achievement in the harder aural dictation
small difference between those who achieved in
of 2010 may be a useful predictor of success in
one skill and those who achieved in both skills.
composition.
The 2010 top aural dictation achievers were most
likely to also be top achievers in performance.
Thus, achievement in the multi-part aural General trends among top achievers
dictation of 2010 may be a useful predictor of The method of choosing individual marking
success in performance. ranges for each skill area resulted in a fairly
consistent number of students for each year in
Aural dictation and composition each skill. The only exception was for the 2010
multi-part aural dictation which resulted in
Figure 13 compares the results for top aural
signicantly fewer top achievers. The multi-part
dictation achievers with top composition
aural dictation question was therefore the most
achievers. In 2010, a signicant proportion of top
Figure 12: Pie charts comparing top achievers for aural Figure 13: Pie charts comparing top achievers for aural
dictation and performance dictation and composition
successful skill for isolating top achievers. Further, skill relationships which could be endorsed by
the 2010 multi-part aural dictation could be educators to assist student development.
used as a predictor of success in sight singing, The most significant point of congruity between
performance and composition. the literature and this study was the primary
role of aural dictation skills in the development
of other musical skills. The comparative analysis
Conclusion
of top achievers found that the multi-part aural
The interdisciplinary nature of musical dictation from 2010 could be used as a predictor
relationships is aptly captured by Gorow (2009, of success in sight singing, performance and
p. 8): when composing, be the listener; when composition skills. This suggests that developing
orchestrating, be the composer; when copying multi-part aural dictation skills may assist in high
or conducting, be the performer. This study achievement of other music skills. This finding
sought to investigate relationships between is particularly beneficial for music educators as
aural dictation, sight singing, performance and they strive to nurture young musicians. Further,
composition. The nature of these relationships the implications from this study suggest that
was considered through a discussion of relevant teachers are likely to notice student improvement
literature and quantitative analysis strategies. in a range of musical skills if they foster multi-part
An array of literature was explored to aural dictation skills.
consider research that had been conducted on When outlining the characteristics of a good
relationships between the focus skills for this musician, Kodly (1974, p. 197) emphasised
study. This investigation drew attention to the the importance of a well-trained ear. He then
multitude of sub-skills which are part of each of went on to express the benefit of a well-trained
the four chosen focus skills. Pedagogical texts intelligence, a well-trained heart and finally
conveyed philosophical links between these a well-trained hand. For the making of a good
skills, and many studies investigated the interplay musician all four must develop together. Music
between different musical skills. The literature educators play an important part in nurturing
is substantially made up of qualitative studies the development of their students into good
or pedagogical texts that indicate an assumed musicians. The findings of this study demonstrate
premise that strong relationships exist between that the development of multi-part aural dictation
aural dictation, sight singing, performance skills in particular, make a vital contribution to the
and composition. This study was concerned overall success of the musician.
with addressing these empirically untested
assumptions through quantitative analysis.
The data collected from the Australian NSW Acknowledgements
Music 2 HSC Examinations, in 2010 and 2011, I must first acknowledge the NSW Board of
represented the focus skill areas: aural dictation, Studies for their support in providing the data
sight singing, performance and composition. for this study. I also would like to thank Miss
The distribution histograms showed the 2010 Aleta King, Dr Daniel Reynaud and Dr Lyndon
multi-part aural dictation question as most Rogers for their assistance with this study. Further
difficult. The correlational analysis found aural thanks to Cameron Rogers for his assistance in
dictation and sight singing to be the skills most generating graphs and figures.
highly correlated, followed by performance and
composition. These correlations highlight strong
50 2013, No. 1
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Melissa Rogers is a Musicology and Composition Lecturer at Avondale College of Higher Education. She has had
considerable experience teaching music in Australian secondary schools, and enjoys researching the dynamics of
music education in secondary and tertiary settings. Melissa is an active performer and composer, with a number of
original piano works published.
52 2013, No. 1