Shell Intensive Training Programme

6.0 Electrical Methods

Electrical Methods involve the use of electric current (natural or artificial, direct or
alternating) introduced on the surface or into the ground to investigate the variations
of the electrical property of the subsurface materials (rocks). The expected variations
result in the build-up of varying potentials distributed according to the presence or
absence of conducting materials in the earth. The potential distribution so generated
can then be measured from the ground surface and these will provide information on
the form and electrical properties of such subsurface inhomogeneities.

There are many methods of electrical surveying such as Resistivity; Self Potential
(SP); Induced Polarization (IP); Electromagnetics (EM) and Magnetotellurics (MT).

6.1 Theoretical Background

6.1.1 Electrical Field and Potentials

The Electric field of a charge Q is a force exerted on another unit charge. Using
Coulomb's law the force is given by

F = Qq

4o r2 ---------- 6.1

where q is a unit charge

r is distance between Q and q

o is the electric permitivity of the mediun between Q and q.

The electric field is also representable by the number of lines of force per unit area.
A positive charge usually has imaginary lines of force going radialy outward from it
while the negative charge is usually inward. Hence, in the presence of a pair of
opposite charges, lines diverge from positive and converge on the negative.

From equation 6.1, the strength of the field is strong near the source but weakens
rapidly with distance.

In order to move a charge close to an identical one, work (energy) is required to

accomplish it. The amount of work/energy needed to move a charge from infinity to
any point within the area of the electrical field is called the Electric Potential.

Page 1 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

If we move a distance dr against the field E, the potential changes by an amount du

equal to the work done against E given by -Edr (work = Force distance).

du = -Edr ---------------------------- 6.2

E = - du ----------------------------6.3

dr

The electric field is equal to the -ve of the potential gradient.

From equation 6.2

r r

U= du = - Edr = - Q dr ..6.3

4o r2

U = Q/4or ----------------------- 6.4

The energy required to move a unit charge from one point to another within the
electric field of Q is the Potential difference between the two points.

6.1.2 Current Flow and Resistivity

Ohm's law established that

V = IR --------------------------- 6.5

The resistance (R) of a cylindrical material of length dl and cross sectional area dA
is given by

R dl/dA = dl / dA

= RdA / dl --------------------------------6.6

= resistivity of the material in ohm-m.

from equation 6.5 R = V/I = dV/I

= dv / dl . dA / I

dv/dl = . I / dA --------------------------6.7

Page 2 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

Eqn 6.7 can be rewritten as

E = ?J ------------------------------- 6.8

J = current density.

Using equation 6.7, the cross sectional area for an infinite half-space is 2r2 at a
distance r from source,

dv/dr = -?I / 2r2 --------6.9

Vr = ?dv = - ? ? I dr

2r2

Vr = I ---------- 6.10

2r

Equation 6.10 allows the calculation of the potential at any point on or below the
surface of a homogenous half space.

6.1.3 Types of Electrical Conduction and Conductivity of rocks

Electric current passes through a material by one of three different modes:

Electronic (ohmic) occurs in metals & crystals

Dielectric occurs in insulators

electrolytic occurs in liquids.

Most rock-forming minerals are insulators and electrical current is carried through the
rock mainly by the passage of ions in pore waters. As a rule of thumb, the resistivity
of rock is strongly influenced by the presence of ground-water which acts as an
electrolyte. In a saline solution, the molecules of NaCl dissociates into separate Na+
and Cl- ions. This solution which is an electrolyte has its ion mobilised by an applied
electric field. The electric current in the electrolyte involves the physical transport of
material (ions) which results in collision with the molecules of the electrolytes
causing resistance to the flow. Electrolytic conduction is therefore slower than
electronic conduction.

Electronic conduction is typical of metals, which usually have free electrons

that move with very high speed and collide frequently and randomly with the atoms

Page 3 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

of the metal. When an electric field is applied, the electrons move with a much
smaller common drift velocity in the direction of the field. If the atoms of the metal
cause many frequent collisions, the restistivity of the metal is high while fewer
collisions imply low resistivity.

Dielectric conduction occurs in insulators, which contain no free electrons.

The atom of the material (insulator) acquires an electric polarization and acts like an
electric dipole when exposed to an electric field. Changes in the electric permittivity
( ) of the material occur and the ratio of changed to initial o gives the dielectric
constant (k) of the material (k = ? /? o). However, dielectric effects are negligible in
constant or slowly varying current situations, used in most electrical methods. Note,
that high frequency varying current sources (MHZ to GHZ ) dielectric constants are
high and utilised.

As discussed earlier, in metallic ores, the resistivity can be very low but very
high in rocks that contain no water such as granite. The resistivity contrast between
an ore body and host rock is often large as anomalies arise when a good conductor
is present within rocks that have higher resistivities. The resistivities/conductivities of
different rocks and minerals vary widely and overlap with other rock types (fig 6.1).

Page 4 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

In porous sediments and sedimentary rocks, the resistivity is influenced more by the
pore fluid than by the matrix of the rock. Hence the resistivity decreases with
increasing amount of groundwater the rock contains. The resistivity ( ? ) of a rock
material in general depends on:

porosity (f )

water saturation (S)

resistivity of the saturating water (w)

type and quantity of dissolved minerals & salts in the water

= aw / m Sn -------- 6.11

and S are fractions between 1 and 0.

a,m,n are empirical constants determined in each case depending on (d)

above. ( a generally lies between 0.5 and 2.5, m between 1.3 and 2.5 and n
2 ). Equation 6.11 is Archies law for the resistivity () of rock.

6.2 Self-potential or Spontaneous Potential (SP) Surveying

Electrical investigations of natural electrical properties are based on the

measurement of the voltage between a pair of electrodes implanted in the ground.
Natural differences in potential occur in relation to subsurface bodies that create their
own electric fields. The bodies act like simple voltaic cells, their potentials arising
from electrochemical action, although the nature of the process remains obscure.

In studying natural potentials and currents, the investigator has no control over the
source of the signal. This restricts the interpretation, which is mostly only qualitative.
For this reason, this type of survey is not as useful as the controlled induction
methods, such as resistivity and electromagnetic surveys, but they are cheap and
fast.

The equipment needed for an SP survey is very simple. It consists of a sensitive high
impedance digital voltmeter to measure the natural potential difference between two
electrodes implanted in the ground. Simple metal stakes cannot be used as
electrodes because electrochemical reactions take place between the metal and
moisture in the ground, causing the build-up of spurious charges on the electrodes.

Page 5 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

To get around this problem, each electrode consists of a metal rod submerged in a
saturated solution of its own salt, such as a copper rod in copper sulphate solution.
The combination is contained in a ceramic pot, which allows the electrolyte to leak
slowly through its porous walls, thus making electrical contact with the ground.

Station spacing is generally less than 30 m apart and traverses may be made by
leapfrogging successive electrode or, more commonly, by fixing one electrode in
barren ground and moving the other over the survey area (fig 6.2a).

Most SP survey interpretations are qualitative, the anomaly minimum being assumed
to occur directly over the anomalous body, although it may be displaced towards the
dip direction (fig 6.2b). The anomaly half-width provides information on the attitude of
the body. Although a good quantitative interpretation is not possible, the method is
fast and cheap and can be used in rapid ground analysis for base metal deposits.

6.3 Resistivity Surveying

Page 6 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

In the electrical resistivity survey method, artificial generated electrical currents are
put into the ground and the resulting potential differences are measured at the
surface. The technique exploits the fact that there is a large contrast in resistivity
orebodies and their surrounding host rocks and between wet and dry sedimentary
rocks. The technique is in principle relatively simple. Two electrodes are used to
supply a controlled electrical current to the ground. The lines of current flow adapt to
the subsurface resistivity pattern so that the potential difference between two points
on the ground surface can be measured using a second pair of electrodes. Deviation
from the pattern of potential differences expected from a homogenous ground may
provide information on the form and electrical properties of subsurface
inhomogeneities. A simple direct current could be used but this can cause charges to
accumulate on the potential electrodes, resulting in spurious signals. A common
practice is to commutate the direct current so that its direction is reversed every few
seconds or alternatively use a low-frequency alternating current. In multi-electrode
investigations the electrode-pair and the potential electrode-pair are usually
interchangeable.

6.3.1 The general four-electrode system

Consider an arrangement consisting of a pair of current electrodes and a pair of

potential electrode (fig 6.3). the current electrodes A and B act as source and sink,
respectively. In this case there are two points (potential electrodes positions) where
we need to find the electric potentials due to the source (current electrode, A) and
also due to the sink (current electrode, B) and hence obtain the potential difference
between the two points.

Using equation 6.10, the potential at the point C due to A is +ve I / 2rAC and due
to B is ve I / 2rCB.

The combined potential at C is given by

Vc = I ( 1 - 1 )--------- 6.12

2 (

Similarly, the resultant potential at D is:

Page 7 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

VD = I ( 1 - 1 ) ------------------ 6.13

2 ( rAD rDB )

The potential measured by a voltmeter connected between C and D is:

1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -- -
V = Vc - VD = I
----- 6.14
2 rAC

All the quantities in this equation can be measured at the ground surface except the
resistivity , which is given by:

= 2V / I

1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -- -
----- 6.15

When the ground is uniform, the resistivity calculated from the last equation should
be constant and independent of both electrode spacing and surface location. When
surface inhomogeneities exist, however, the resistivity will vary with the relative
positions of the electrodes. Any computed value is then known as the apparent
resistivity ( a ) and will be a function of the form of the inhomogeneity. The above

Page 8 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

equation is the basic equation for calculating the apparent resistivity for any
electrode configuration.

There are practical limits on the depths of penetration attainable by normal resistivity
methods due to the difficulty of laying out lengths of cable and generation of
sufficient power. Depths of penetration of about 1km are the limit for normal
equipment.

Equation 6.15 can be rewritten as:

a = 2R 6.16

[(1/rAC -1/ rCB ) - (1/rAD-1/rDB)]

The denominator of eqn 6.16 is known as the Geometric factor ( G ) of the electrode
configuration or electrode spread.

G = [(1/rAC -1/rCB) - (1/rAD-1/rDB)] 6.17

Eqn 6.15 , 6.16 and 6.17 can then be generally written as

a = 2R/G .6.18

6.3.1b Electrode Configuration (Spread Pattern)

A number of different configurations of electrodes have been designed by various

workers but the most commonly used ones are the Wenner, Schlumberger and
Double-Dipole arrangements. In each configuration, the four electrodes are collinear
but their geometries and spacings are different (Fig 6.4).

In Wenner configuration (fig 6.4a) the current and potential pairs have a common
mid-point and the distances between adjacent electrodes are equal (rAC = rDB =a, and
rCB = rAD =2a). Inserting these values into eqn 6.17 gives G =1/a

For Wenner spread, the apparent resistivity is then given from equation 6.18 as

aw = 2aR ..6.19

Page 9 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

aw is apparent resistivity for Wenner spread.

In Schlumberger (fig 6.4b), the current and potential pairs of electrodes have a
common mid-point but the distance between adjacent electrodes differ

rAC = rDB = L/2 a/2 and rCB = rAD = L/2 +a/2

Substituting these in equation 6.17 gives G = 8a/ L2-a2

For Schlumberger, equation 6.18 yields

as = 2R/8a/L2-a2 = (R L2-a2 ) /4a 6.20

However, for most purposes, L2 >> a2, hence

Page 10 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

as = R L2/4a .6.21

The double-dipole configuration (fig 6.4c) is not very frequ

requires more electric current for its operations than the earlier two. The apparent
resistivity from this spread is given by

adp = R (L(L2-a2 )) / a2 .6.22

6.3.2. INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE

6.3.2a. Instrumentation

The very low levels of resistance commonly encountered in resistance surveys

means that the survey instruments must be both very sensitive and accurate.
Modern resistively meters employ low-frequency alternating current rather than direct
current in order to prevent polarisation effects at the electrodes and the possible
interfering effects of natural (Telluric) currents which cause regional potential
anomalies. The frequency of the alternating current used depends on the required
depth of penetration. A low frequency of about 10Hz penetrates to about 100m. For
very deep ground penetration of about 1km, direct current must be used and some
measures must be adopted to overcome the electrolytic polarization and telluric
current effects.

6.3.2b Measurement Procedure

Two main types of procedure are employed in resistivity surveys: Vertical electrical
sounding (VES; also known as Electrical drilling or expanding probe) and Constant
separation traversing (CST, also known as Electrical profiling).

Page 11 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

Vertical electrical sounding

VES is used mainly in the study of horizontal or near-horizontal interfaces. The
current and potential electrodes are maintained at the same relative spacing and the
whole spread is progressively expanded about a fixed central point. The technique is
extensively used in geotechnical surveys to determine overburden thickness and in
hydrogeology to define horizontal zones of porous strata.

Constant separation traversing

CST is used to determine lateral variations of resistivity. The current and potential
electrodes are maintained at a fixed separation and progressively moved along a
profile. This method is employed in mineral prospecting to locate faults or shear
zones and to detect localised bodies of anomalous conductivity. It is also used in
geotechnical surveys to determine variation in bedrock depth and the presence of
steep discontinuities. The results from a series of CST traverses with fixed electrode
spacing can be employed in the production of resistivity contour maps.

The Wenner configuration is used in such a way that current and potential
electrodes are maintained at equal spacing throughout all the measurements during
sounding (VES) or during profiling (CST).

During a VES survey the spacing ( a ) is gradually increased about a fixed central
point while in CST surveys the whole spread is moved along a profile with a fixed
value of a. With the Wenner configuration all four electrodes need to be moved
between successive readings. The efficiency of performing VES can be greatly
enhanced by making use of multicore cable to which a number of electrodes are
permanently attached at standard separations. A sounding can then be rapidly made
by switching between different sets of four electrodes. Such a system has the
additional advantage that, by measuring ground resistance at two electrodes array
positions, the effects of near-surface lateral resistivity variations can be substantially
reduced.

The Schlumberger configuration uses an inner pair of potential electrodes with a

spacing (a) which is a small proportion of that of the outer pair of current electrodes
(L). With this arrangement, several lateral movements of current electrodes may be

Page 12 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

accomplished without the necessity of moving potential electrodes. In VES surveys

the potential electrodes remain fixed and the current electrodes are expanded
symmetrically about the centre of the spread. However, with very large values of L, it
may be necessary to increase (a) also in order to maintain a measurable potential
difference.

By increasing the separation of the current electrodes, the depth penetrated by

the current lines increases. From calculation, it has been shown that full current
penetration is achieved to a depth Z when total current electrode spread L=3Z ( ie.
Z = L/3 ).

If the subsurface half space under investigation were to be homogenous, the entire
current introduced into the ground would flow through the homogenous layer and the
calculated resistivity would be the true resistivity of the layer. However, in real
situations, the subsurface is inhomogenous and consists of different lithologies and
structures and in such situations measurements would give calculated APPARENT
resistivity.

6.3.2. INTERPRETATION OF RESISTIVITY DATA.

Electrical resistivity data are difficult to interpret quantitatively especially in the

absence of any other geophysical data from same area. However, a mathematical
analysis for the calculations of models with varying resistivities and thicknesses is
very well developed and utilised for quantitative interpretation but because of the
realities of inhomogeneities of the subsurface, the values obtained from the model
system is either apparent or ambiguous or both. It has the non-uniqueness-inverse
problem as in gravity and magnetic modeling interpretation.

In general, after data collection, the apparent resistivity values are plotted against
electrode spacing. For VES, the spacing is half the current electrode spacing and
both axes are in log scale (usually a 3-decade bi-log graph). In CST the data is
plotted in linear graph.

6.3.2a QUALITATIVE INTERPRETATION

Page 13 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

The plots obtained from the resistivity data are examined and their form and
character noted in terms of the pattern of variation of resistivity with depth (for VES)
or laterally (for CST). In profile data (fig 6.5), the areas of high resistivity or low
resistivity are noted and described and perhaps attributed to the presence or
absence of conducting bodies below the surface at the point or areas of the
observation of the anomalies.

For VES, the type of curves obtained (fig.6.6) are also noted in terms of ;

A-type (continous increase of ? with depth)

Q-type (continous decrease of ? with depth)

H-type (3 layers in which ?1 > ?2 < ?3)

K-type (3 layers in which ?1< ?2 > ?3)

Page 14 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

6.3.2b QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION

Once the observed resistivity sounding curve has been identified as A, Q, K, H, the
number of layers is estimated (2, 3, 4 or more)

The resistivities and thicknesses of the various layers are obtained by CURVE
MATCHING. This process compares the field curve with a set or sets of theoretically
plotted curves using specific values of layer resistivities and thicknesses.

The scale (log-log) of both the field curve and the theoretical curve must be the
same and the axes of the two must be kept parallel while overlaying the field curve
on the theoretical curve. When a match (or a fit) is obtained, the layer parameters of
the matched theoretical curve becomes the quantitative interpretation of the field
curve.

The process which has both forward and inverse methods is now run by
computer programs as a routine. Hence the layer parameters are automatically
adjusted by the program if no match (fit) is obtained. Usually an error tolerance limit
is set for the program iteration and when this is achieved, the model match becomes
the interpreted layer parameters (fig6.6).

6.3.2c APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The electrical resistivity surveys are applied in the search for conductive bodies
such as Ore bodies; groundwater; saline/freshwater interface; in Oil wells to
delineate water saturation from Oil and gas saturation etc.

Although resistivity surveying is an efficient method for delineating shallow layered

sequences or vertical discontinuities involving changes of resistivity; it has its
limitations:

Interpretations are ambiguous. Consequently independent geophysical and

geological controls are necessary to discriminate between valid alternative
interpretations of the resistivity data.

Interpretation is limited to simple structural configuration. Any deviations from

these simple situations may be impossible to interpret.

Page 15 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

Page 16 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

Page 17 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

Topography and the effects of near-surface resistivity variations can mask the
effects of deeper variations.

The depth of penetration of the method is limited, the practical depth limit being
about 1km simply because of the maximum electrical power that can be
introduced into the ground and the practical difficulties of laying out long lengths
of cable.

6.4 INDUCED POLARISATION (IP) METHOD

If a standard 4-electrode resistivity spread is being used in a direct current mode and
the current is suddenly switched off, the voltage between the potential electrodes
does not drop to zero instantaneously (Fig 6.7). There is an initial large decrease in
voltage but this is followed by a gradual decay and it may be many seconds before it
falls to zero. The reverse occurs when the current is switched on. After and initial
sudden voltage increase, the voltage increases gradually over a distinct time interval
before reaching a steady state. The ground is acting as a capacitor and stores
electrical charge; i.e. it becomes electrically polarised.

If a variable low frequency alternating current source is used instead of a direct

current one, the measured ( ?a ) of the subsurface decreases as the frequency is
increased. This is because the capacitance of the ground inhibits the passage of
direct currents but transmits alternating currents with increasing efficiency as the
frequency rises.

6.4.1. MEASUREMENT AND FIELD OPERATIONS.

IP surveys involve monitoring the decaying voltage after the current is switched off.
Measurements are commonly made of chargeability, M, which is defined as the area
A beneath the decay curve over a certain time interval ( t1 - t2 ) normalised by the
steady-state potential difference ?Vc (Fig 6.7) M is then given by:

M = A / ?V c = 1 / ?V c ?t1 V(t) dt 6.23

Page 18 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

Different minerals are distinguished by characteristic values for chargeability.

IP equipment is similar to that used in resistivity surveys but is rather more bulky and
elaborate. Although any standard electrode spread can be employed, in practice the
Schlumberger configuration or one of the configurations specifically developed for IP
surveys is used. Traverses are made over the area of interest and then plotting the
IP reading at the mid-point of the electrode array. Unfortunately, IP surveys are
prone to noise resulting from a number of phenomena and this makes subsequent
analysis of the data difficult.

Page 19 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

6.4.2. INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATIONS

Quantitative interpretation of IP surveys is considerably more complex than for the

resistivity method. Consequently much IP interpretation is only qualitative. However,
simple parameters of the anomalies, such as sharpness, symmetry, amplitude and
spatial distribution can be used to estimate the location, lateral extent and depth of
the anomalous zone.

The IP method not only suffers from the same disadvantages as resistivity surveys,
but the sources of significant IP anomalies are often not of economic importance.
Field operations are slow and therefore more expensive than other comparable
ground methods. However it is commonly used for base metal exploration due to its
efficiency in detecting low-grade ore deposits such as disseminated sulphides.

6.5. ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEYING

Electromagnetic surveying methods utilise the response of the subsurface to the

propagation of electromagnetic fields, which are composed of alternating electric
intensity and magnetising force. Primary electromagnetic fields can be generated by
passing an alternating current through a small coil or a single large loop of wire. The
subsurface responds to this primary field by generating secondary electromagnetic
fields. These may be detected by the alternating currents that they induce to flow in a
receiver coil by the process of electromagnetic induction.

The primary electromagnetic field travels from the transmitter coil to the receiver coil
via paths both above and below the ground (Fig 2.4). When the subsurface is
homogeneous there is no difference between the fields propagated above and below
the ground surface, other than a slight attenuation of the latter with respect to the
former. However, if there is a conducting body in the subsurface, the magnetic
component of the electromagnetic field penetrating the subsurface induces eddy

Page 20 of 21 Univation
Shell Intensive Training Programme

currents to flow within the conductor body. These eddy currents generate their own
secondary electromagnetic field which travels to the receiver. The receiver then
reacts to the resultant of the arriving primary and secondary fields, so that the
response differs both in phase and amplitude to the response of the primary field
alone. These differences between transmitted and received electromagnetic fields
can be used to detect the presence of a subsurface conductor and may also provide
evidence on its geometry and electrical properties.

Since induction flow results from the magnetic component of the electromagnetic
field, physical contact of the transmitter and receiver with the ground is unnecessary,
as a result, surface electromagnetic surveys are faster than electrical surveys.
Furthermore, airborne surveys are possible.

6.5.1. LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

Various methods of electromagnetic surveying are available and these are

undoubtedly versatile. However, electromagnetic surveying suffers from a number of
drawbacks. Electromagnetic anomalies can be caused by non-economic sources,
including man-made features. Superficial layers with high conductivity, such as wet
clays, can mask the response of deeper conductors. Penetration is relatively low,
generally less than 500m in ground surveys and only about 50m in aerial surveys.
Finally, quantitative analysis of electromagnetic anomalies is complex and hence,
generally, only qualitative interpretations are made.

In spite of these drawbacks, electromagnetic surveying has a place in the exploration

for metalliferous ore deposits, where it is frequently combined with aeromagnetic
surveying during initial reconnaissance work. On a small scale, electromagnetic
surveying can be used in geotechnical surveys.

Page 21 of 21 Univation