HVDC Power ees ees ey Sysfems Technology and System Interactions K R PadiyarCopyright © 1990 New Age International {P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition : 1990 Reprint : 2005 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4898/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at: wwwnewagepublishers.com Offices at: Bangalore, Chennai, Cochin, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai and Ranchi This bock or any part thereaf may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher, This kook cannot be sold outside the country te which it is consigned by the publisher without the prior permission of the publisher. Rs, 200,00 ISEN : 81-224-0102-3 1415 16 17 18 19 20 Published hy New Age International (Pi Ltd, 4824/24, Ansari Rond, Daryaganj, Now Delhi-110 002 and printed in India at Nisha Enterprises, New Deili-110 O61.Contents 3.5 Characteristics of a Twelve Pulse Converter 61 36 Detailed Analysis of Converters 65 4 Converter and HVDC System Control 4.1 General 76 42° Principles of DC Link Comtrol 76 43 Converter Control Characteristics 79 44° Systcm Control Hierarchy 82 45° Firing Angle Conaol 84 46 Curent and Extinction Angle Control 89 47° Starting and Stopping of DC Link 90 4.8 Power Control 93 49° Higher Level Controllers 94 4.10 Telecommunication Requirements 96Conteris 8. Converter Faults und Protection 1. Bl 42 Introduction 97 Converter Faults 97 3.5 Surge Amesters 106 3.6 Protection Against Overvoliages 107 Td 12 ‘Transient Over Voliages In DC Line 118 Protection of DC Line 121 ‘DC Breakers 122 Monopolar Operation 126 ‘Effects of Proximity of AC and DC Transmission Lines 127 . Reactive Power Control Introduction 130 Reactive Power Requirements in Steady Sta 130 7.3__Sources of Reactive Power 136. 14 1S Staic Var Systems 138 Reactive Power Contral During Transiens 144 Harmonics and Filters a 82 83 Introduction 145 ‘Generation of Harmonics 145 Design of AC Filters 149 84 DC Filters 154 85 (Carrier Frequency and Rl Noise 157 Multiterminal DC Systems. 91 92 93 a4 95 Inqroduction 159 Potential Applications of MTEC Systems 159 ‘Types of MTDC Systems 160 ‘Conmrol and Protection of MTEXC Systems 164 Study of MTDC Systems 169 Component Models for the Analysis of AC/DC Systems 10.1 General 172 145 172il. 14, Contents xi 10.2 Converter Model 172 10.3 Converter Control 179 10.4 Modelling of Dt Network 181 10,5 Modelling of AC Networks 182 Power Flow Analysis in AC/DC Systems: 18 LLL Gencral 188 11.2. Modelling of DC Links 188 U3 Solution of XC Load Flow 192 14 Discussion 192 15 Per Unit System for DC Quantities 193 11.6 Solution of AC-DC Power Flow 194 1L7 An Example : Five Terminal DC System 19 ‘Transient Stability Analysis 19 21_Iniroduction 199 12.2_Converter Model 199 12.3 Convener Controller Models 201 124 DC Network Model 201 12.5 Solution Methodology 204 12.6 Direct Methods for Suability Evaluation 208 12.7 Transient Stability Improvement Using DC Link ‘Control 209 21 ‘Oscillations : Basic Principles 211 13.3 Practical Consideration in the Application of Power Modulation Controllers 214 13.4 Gamma of Reactive Power Modulation 219 13.5 Power Modulation in MTDC Sysicms 220 13.6 Voltage Stability in AC/DC Systems 220 13.7 An Integrated Dynamic Model for AC/DC Systems 224 ‘Harmonic and Torsional Interactions Zl 14.1 Introduction 231 14.2 Harmonic Interaction 232 14.3 Torsional Interactions 237 144 Torsional Interactions with HVDC Systems 242 14.5 Counter Measures to Torsional Interactions with DC Systems 249xii Consents 15. Simulation of HVIM? Systems 252 15.1 Introduction 252 152 Siren Seman Phkemohy bod Teale 154 San ar Tiy Det eramns tabloid Dat ‘Simulation 259 16. Digital Dynamic Simulation of Converters and DC Systems. 264 16.1 General 264 16.2 Valve Model 264 163 Gate Pulse Generation 265 164 Generation of Control Voltage 266 165 Transformer Model 267 16.6 Converter Model 270 16.7 Transient Simulation of DC and AC Systems 278 Appendix A 2a Mee1. DC Power Transmission Technology 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The industrial growth of a nation requires increased consumption of energy, particularly ebctrical energy. This hag led te increase in the generation and wansmigsion facilities to meet the increasing demand. In U.S.A, till the early scventics, the demand doubled every ten years, In developing counties, like India, the demand doubles every seven years which requires considerable investment in electric power sector. ‘The ineperative of supplying energy at reasonable. costs coupled with the depleting re serves of non-renewable energy sources has led to the establishment of remote geacr- ating stations - predominantly fossit-fuel fired thermal stztioes at pit head. Environ mental considerations ales semelimes dictate the siting of power stations at remote Jocations, Large hydra sutions are invuriably st distances of hundreds of kilomeues from load centres. The need to economize on costly investments in generaLion reserves, sharing of benefiss in utilising variability in generation mixes and load patterns have: given rise lo interconnection of neighbouring systems und development of lunge power grids. Remote geferation and system imierconneciions lead 1 a search for effictent power iransmission at increasing power levels. The increase in voltage levets is notalways fea- sible. The problems of AC transmission particulary in long distance transmission, has Jed to the development of DC rmnsmission, However, as generation and utilisation of power remain at alternating current, the DC iansmisiion requires conversion at two ends, from AC to DC at the sending ond and back to AVC at the receiving end. This conversion is done at comverter onions - rectifier station at the sending end and inverter sation a the receiving end, The converers are satic-—using high power thyristors connected in series to give the required voltage ratings. The physical ‘process of conversion is such that tie sac skaion can switch from rectifier oo inverer by simple control action, thus facilitating power reversal, The HY DO ranamission made a mexdtest beginning in 1954 when a 100kV, 20 MW DC link was established between Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland, Unit 1970, the coererter stations utilised mercury arc valves for eextification, The successful use of thyristors for power como! in industrial devices encouraged its adoption in HVDC canverters by development of high power semiconductor devices. The largest device faling is how in the range of 5 kV, SO0GA. The highest transmission volage reached is bE) RY, The reladive merits of AC and OC wansmission are reviewed in the mext sectien,2 H¥DC Power Transmission Syrian 1.2 COMPARISON OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION The relative merits of the two modes of transmission (AC and DC) which need to be: considered by a system planner are basnd on the following factors: 1} Econaraics of iransmisson 2) Technical performance: 3} Reliability. A major femure of pawer systems is tie coninugus expansion necessitated by in= creasing power demand, This implres that the establishment af a partionlar line must be considered as a par of an overall long term sysem planning, 1.2.1 Economics of Power Transmission ‘The costof a transmission ine includes theinvesinent and aperational costs, The iaivest- iment includes costs of Right of Way (RoW), iansmission lowers, conductors, insula- lors ind tariuinal equipment. The opersicnal aosts include mainly the cost ef losses, “The characteristics of insulators vary with the ype of voltage applied, For sanplicity, if itis assumed that the insulator charnclerisics are similar for AC and DC and depend onthe peak level of voltage applied with respect to ground, then it.can be shows that fr lines designed with the same insulation tevel,a DC line can camry as much power with two conductors (with positive and negative polarities with respect to ground) as an AC line with 3 conductors of the same size, This implies that for a given power level, DC line requires less RoW , simpler and cheaper towers and reduced conductor and insulator cots, The power losses are piso reduced with DC as there are oly two conductors (about 67% of that for AC withsame current carrying capacity of conductors). The absence of skineffect with DC is also beneficial in reducing power losses marginally. The dielectric losses in case of power cables is also very fess for DC transmission. The Corona effects tend to be less significanton DC conductors than for AC and this also leads tothe choice of economic sizeof conductors with DC transmission, The other factors that influence the line costs are the costs of compensation and wrminal equip- men. DC lines do not require compensation but the terminal equipment oust ars incrensed due to the presence of converiers and filters, OSTANCE — d%. break-even distance Fig. 1-1 Variation of coats with fine length,DC Power Tranemianion Tecknatogy a Figure 1.1 shows the variation of casts of transmission with distance for AC and BX transmission, AC tends ao be more eoonosnical than DC for distances less than "break even’ distance and cosilies for longer distances, The break even distances can vary frome 500 to 800 km in overhead Lines depending on the per unit line costs. 12.2 Technical Performance The DC mansmission has some positive features whieh are lacking in AC mansmis- sion. These are mainly due is the fast controllability of power in DC lines through oon- verter conirol, The following are the advantages : 1. Full comrol over power iransmitted 2, The ability w enhance irensicat ami dynamic stability in associated AC networks. 3, Fast conmol to limit fzultcurrents in DC lines, This makes it feasible to avoid DC breakers in two terminal Dt" links. In addition, the DC wansmission overcomes some of the problems of AC oansmis- eon, These ane described below: Staditity hemi ‘The power transfer in AC lines isdependeaton tht angie difference between the volt- age phasors at the ovo ends. For a given power level, this angle increases with disuance. ‘The maximeam power transfer is limited by the considerations of sseadly stave and grin- Fig. 12 Power tranfer copebiltty vi. distance sient slabélily, The power carrying capabiligy of an AC line asa function of distance is shown in Fig. 12. The same figure also shows the power carrying. capability of DC fimee which is unaflected by the distance of transmission. Votage control ‘The volge controlin AC lines is com plicated by the line charging and inductive wolt- age drops, The vallage profile ina AC line is relatively flat only forafised tevel of power ransfer conresponding.in surge impedance loading (SIL). The-vollage peodile vaties with the Jine inading. For constant voltage at the tine terminals, the midpoint voltage is re-4 HVDC Power Tranumisnon Sysen duced for line loadings higher than SIL and increased for Jondlings less than STL. This ig shown in Fig. 1.3. Pak Poh, Wav Vy Pet Wav we distence om the seg cing ee | Jeiength of tha line. Fig, 1d Variation of wohage along the line, ‘The maintenance af constant voltages af the two-ends requires reactive power conuod from inductive to capacitive as the Line loading is increased. The reactive power require- ments increase with the increase in line lengths. Although DS? converter stations require reactive power related to the line loadings, the: Line usell does mot require reactive power, ‘The stealy-suve charging curren in AC lines pose secsous problems in cables. This Puts the breakeven distance for cable transmission around 49 km. Line Compensation For reasons mentioned earlier, AC lines require shunt and series compensation in long distance transmission, mainly to overcome the problems of line charging and stability limitations. Series capaciiors ancl shund inductors ase used for this purpose. The: increase in power transfer and volage contol is also possible through the use of Static Var Systems (SVS), In AC cable transmission, it is necessary to provide shunt compensation at regular intervals. This is a sezious peoblem in underwater cables. Prolems af AC interconmection ‘When two power systems are connected thrsagh AC ties (synchronous intescomnec- (G09), the automatic genenition conmol of both systems have w be. coordinaied using tie~ line perwer and frequency signals. Even with coordinated cesiral of intercommectod sys- tems, the operation of AC tes can be problematic dwe to (i) the presence of large power oscillations ‘which can lead to frequent wipping (ii) iacrease in fault level (tii) wans- mission of disturbances from ome system to the orher. “The controllability of power flow in DC lines eliminates all the above problems. tn addition, for asynchronous DC ties, there is no nced of coordinated control. This. obvious that two systems which have different nominal frequencies cannot be imterconnacted directly with AC ties anc requare the use of DC links.DC Power Trantmixrian Technology 5 Ground impedance In AC qansmission, the existence of ground (zem sequence) current cannes be per- mitted in steady-state due to high magnitudes of ground impedance which will nos only affect efficent power transfer, bot also result in telephone interference. The ground im- pedance is negligible for DC currents anda DC link cant operat using one conductor with ‘ground retum (Mcnopetar operation), The graund retumn isobjectionable only when bus: ied metallic structures (such as pipes) are present and are subject to corrosion with DC current flow. This to be noted that even while operating in the monopolar mode, the AC network feoding the XC converter station operates with balanced voltages and curren. Hence, single pole operation of DC transmission systems is possible forextendedperiods, while in AC transmission, single phase operation (or any unbalanced operation} is not Feasible for more than a second. Disadvantages of DC transmission ‘The scope of application of XC wansmission is limited by the following factors : 1. The difficelty of breaking DC currones which results in high cost of DC breakers 2. Inability to use transformers 10 change voltage levels 3. High cost of conversion equipment 4. Generation of harmonics which require AC and DC filters, adding w the cost of converter stations 5. Complexity of contr! Over the years, there have been significant advances in DC technology, which have Wied w overcome the disadvantages listed above excep for (2). These are 1. Development of DC breakers 2. Modular construction of thyristor valves 3. Increase in the ratings of thyristor cells that make up a valve 4, Twelve pulse operation of converters 3. Use of metal oxide, gapless arresiors 6, Application of digital electronics and fiber optics in contal of canveriers ‘Some of the above advances have resulied in improving the reliability and reduction of conversion costs in DC systems, It can be said without exaggeration that complexity af control docs not pose:a problem and can actually be used to provide reliable and fast control of power transmissios: not only under normal conditions buatalgo under abnormal conitions such as ting and converter faults. This has removed the need for DC cument intezruption in two terminal links, Even few malii-terminal operation, ibe réquiremenis of current ratings of DC breakers. are modest dae io effective converter contol. 1.2.3 Reliability ‘The reliability of DC transmission systems is quilé good and comparable to that of AC systems, Anexhaustive recordol existing HVDC links inthe world is available from which the reliability stitistics can be computed. It mast be remembered that the performarice of thyristar valves is much more relisble than mercury arc valves aud further developments in devices, conarol and protection is likely w improve the reliability level. Forexampts, the development of direct light triggered thyristors (LTT)6 HVDC Power Transmission System: isexpected 19 improvereliability because of elimination af high voltage pulse wansfocm- ersand auxiliary supplies for tuming on the devices. "There are ewo measures of overall system reliability-energy availability and wansieat iability Energy availability ‘This is defined ac equivalent oumge time Energy availability = 100 (1- ) We total time: where equivalent outage lime: is the product of the actual outage time and the fraction af system capacsly lost due to Outage. Transient reliability ‘This is a factor specifying the performance of HVDC systems during recordable fauls on the associoed AC sysiems . cobitiey AIX No.of times HVDC systems performed as designed Tet ei Na. of recordableAC faults Recordable AC system funds arethoer faults which couse one or more AC bus phase: voltages to drop below 90% of she vollage prior inthe faut Li is assumed that uke short circuit level after the fault is nat bebow the minimum specified for satisfactory converter operation. Boh energy availability and iranstent reliability of existing DC systems with thyris- for valves ts 95% or mare, ‘The average failure rate of thyristors in a valve is tess than 0.4% per operating year. itis common practice to provide redundam thyristors in the series string composing 2 HVDC valve, so that failed thyristors can be replaced during scheduled maintenance {once or twice a year). The mainiercince of lnyristor valves is also much simpler than the carlier mercury arc valves. Table 1.1 MVDC Outage Statlsties SE SS ‘Thytiator group Int ol Converter tanuiorser Wit 170 Smoothing reactor Tas v0.0 DE fitter Ww? 19 AC ther ne 33 Minter control 2.0 ao Pie cae 90 an Pais ow 1.251000 ban is DC line 1412 1 MITE 2 Mean sine te Faifrre MITE © Mean tiene to sepaie Some ofthe HV EX. qutage statistics is giver in Table §. 1. Incomparing the reliabilily od various alternatives, il must be kept in mind that bipolar CAC line can be as reliable ws adouble circuit AC line with the sume power capability. This is because of the faca thatOC Power Tranenission Teckuology 7 failure of one pole does not affect the operation of the other pole (with ground rela). Tfthe DC line conductor has adequate overload rating and if the converterson the failed pole can be paralleiad with the converters on the healthy pole, the pretankt power level can be mainuined cven with permancm outage of aoe pale, LI APPLICATION OF DC TRANSMISSION The detailed comparison of AC and DC transmission in terms of economicsand tech- mical performance, leads to the following areas of application for CXC iansmissson: 1. Long distance bulk power transmission 2. Underground or underwater cables 3, Asynchronous interconnection of AC systems operating at different frequencies orwhere independent control of systems is desired 4. Control and stabilizationof power flows in AC Hes in an inte graled power system, ‘The first two applications are dictated primarily by the economic advantages of DC transmission, where the concept of breakeven distance is important. To be realistic, one Prustalso assign a monetary valve for the iechnical advantages of DC (or penalty costs: for the drawbacks of AC), The problem of evaluation of the coonomic benefits is furiher complicated by the various alternatives that may be considered in solving problems of AC (ransmission - phase shifters, static var sysiems, series capacilors, single pole switching etc. ‘The technical superiority of DC transmission dictates its use for asynchronous inter- connections, even when the iransmission distances are negligible. Acusally there arc many “beck to back’ DM? links in existence where ihe rectification and inversion are carried out in the same converter sialon with no DC fines. The advantage of such [xt Links lies in ihe reduction ef the overall conversion costs and improving the reliability of DC system. Thealternative to DC ties may require strengthening of existing AC network near the boundary of the two systems. This cost can be prohibitive if the capacity of ue tic re- quired is moderate compared to the size of the systems interconnected. In large interconnected systems, power flow in AC ties (particularly under distur- ‘bance conditions} can be uncontrolled and fead to overloads and stability problems tus endangering sysiem security, Strategically placed DC lines can overcome this problem dus tothe controliability ofpower, The planning of DC transmission in such apphicaikens requires deuailed sundy so evaluate the benefits, Presenily the ournber of DC lines ina power grid is very stall compared tothe num. ber of AC lines. Thes indicates that DC transmission is justified only for specific appli- cations, Although advances in technology and introduction of multi-erminal DC (MTDC) systems are expected io increase the scope of application of [XC iransmission, fis not anticipated that AC grid will bereplaced by DC power grid in future, There are two major reasons For this. Firstly, the control and protection of MTDC systems is very complex and the inability of vollage transformation in DC networks imposes ecagomic penalties. Secondly, tbe advances in DC technology have resulted in the improvement of the performance of AC transmission, through introduction of static var systems, static phase shiflers, etc,8 HVDC Power Transmission System ‘The rate of growth of DC transmission was show in the beginning. in over 16 years, aly 6000 MW of DC systems were installed using mercury are valves. The introduction. of thyrisior valves overcame some of the problems of system operanon mainly die to ibe: are backs in mercury are valves. Since then, the rate of growth of DC cansmission ca- pacity has reached an average of 2500 MWycar. “The details ofthe HV DC transmissiog schemes in existence or under construction are: given in Table 1.2, 1.4 DESCRIPTION OF DC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM 1.4.1 Types of DC Links ‘The DC links are classified inter three types which ae defined below : (eh HOMGPOLAR Fig. 1.4 EXC tink configurations. L. Monopolar tink [see Fig. 14 (a)! has cae conductor usually of negative polarity and uses ground oF sea return, Sometimes metallic return is abso used.aL TE ONDE List bos bee esc - = = (Hommpeems “Bt tat ose Ong: ost ore a ore (sr) eueg arebs Lr sULLEL Sur me gt. 7 ech temo ANC) Ta samc, yl SLL as! ‘OSL ERS wLet a virt Ca DOne onody - army maar “fh a, snoonnpaniry Leb ou mI 1s - - Cyan MH Fd rE LNLAT oe 0s onze ore at en (xem weuatens cy 4] analy tant oe ote oom = = = (NOD) BATH PA TL funds re, Le beet od os sac co a 0 ‘ao Yuasa =| eDteat ear oral oe ‘OBR a a6 a) 1 sede] seshy vom oy ‘oeeT oral Oost aoe ‘ie a tet (on omengy ey 5 eapseT ne zie were ca ee pane (NCIS) Pad seancoany, 1561 mE or we ‘tir HL Tet, BURTON METRE eREES -L 5961 - oor oF 608 a aus Cd pg 9 soe Or nx erete = = - igmumms 5 S951 az on ose. vel as i (sae) weg B So TabE tL ome oure one 6 our qs) cemgngy patting g 3 198 oT Ont oMlt oo cs) o Great 1 RoR ADT = Use te te 051 6 6 0 PUM IPERS PURO 1 £ muselg aayea suet “y i = “Ras aay an a nr rey FHF PHYRAQ) a on fewer pet OAD ee Una KAMEN a funy RaOSIUWE) SBcHURWES per ato, a 6 ? 7 Pay soueretp Ueeetin 3 ‘ ne aoe & Pests yD IRONY) WHERE JepUN ao FOPLIAG USM CLA A TTSyorem: HVDC Power Th io saisne wont tar te 0 CERO) T Pe HOLD De am noenayany Swot Osos O0eT aE a ost isn) ea ere “6 Ai seoueuyeutry sR6l Or Lay = - = ent ang Nae aU mousrypury Sa Ost rr = = - Nag) FEET “LE ay mmoomaysatey 0 we = = = wetting -¢ abt os oor _ - - Wer eny oe a1, snaeayailey aot oss sri a = =] Gy) orem wet Ee sitet our 0g ~ - = Cer area sien oe a1 srineriandy Peel oor aw Be, = cal (sn) ware Te teseal woes Teaser | REL sates Carat) eon 15 24 oneauey eae oon on = - - (Neo) Aeeeenmey ie Pe5E Sebi opEt wae SOREL, (ga) eden “ez. ay noonputsy east one a — = a (want eo Appa “gz east oot tet ost a6 16 L PURE HEPENE TPR “LT aA tener Pr ed vss ane - - = (vb mpeg -9¢ EBs _ cd ones OL! a oes (eMrves saeug ay gz a snouuysutsy ca6r - a cs see - - ed Perr wss) eta Fr Last - eat sernOr vo 0 — yen) wanes emtoog Pa Cr Fu OH aS Teel - % ot - = - (ao-Aal Meaeay Tz Osi. ft we wae ae a1 * rl Af HRURRL-SRHRIOH “1 su6l out e001 one bt6 a OL tsetenedesmny poosuspan) sy ge BLBL 01 06 oset 46 a 088 (NC) 2 Ode seer WORRY “GL gorge ee se 7 =i pe cy od r PPL aD peel) mp duedes feds AN Wee SEAL“ suse hemp menos oy HI, mW 1S eye Prey ST era EE,DC Power Transminsion Techaolagy 136) oe Ab, Poumon ean Hh Srowainotiy 78 “8 gegeegggeg eu eannegee Ba *9REEE os sd sul oe mapas 15 PUR OE “g ost cy 56 = Pee Ng Cc PUNO TP ze t | 1 a z* 7 Li SgngeeeR ies las ; HH12 HVDC Power Transnission System 2. Bipolar link [see Fig. 1.4 (b)] has two conductors, one positive and the ober nega- live, Each may bea double conductor in EH lines, Each terminal has two secs of converters of identical matings, in series on the DC side. The junction between the two sets of converters ie grounded at one of both ends, Normally, both poles op- ‘crate at equal currents and hence there is zero ground current flowing under these conditions, 3. Homopotar Link [see Fig. 1.4 (c}] has two or more conductors all having the same Polarity (usually negative) and always operated with ground or metallic eeu. Because of the desirability of operating # DXC link without ground return, bipolar links are mostcommonty wel Homopolar link has the advantage of reduced insulation costs, ‘baw the disadvantages of earth revuen outweigh the advantages. Incidentally, the corona effects ina DC line are substantially less with negative polarity of the conductor as com pared lo the positive polarity. ‘The monopolar operation is used in the fins stage of the development of a bipolar line, as the investnents on converters. can be deferred uml the growth of load which reguizes: bépolar operation at double the capacity of a monopolar link, 1.4.2 Converter Station The major components of a HY DC transmission system ar converter stations where o —™—+— a @ bbe Pete 2 a Pune comemeer ‘TWorntormer Sreatting onattors De Falters Tuned ME Pins, we at Pate Fig. 1.4 Seheraue diagrams of a typical [VDC converter stationBC Power Transmission Teckusiogy 13. ‘conversions from AC 1a DAC (Rectifier station) and (rom DC to AC (levertes station) are: Performed. A PEt to poi ransmissicn requires two-converter sutions, The role of rec~ Lifer and inverter stauions can be reversed (resulting in power reversals) by suizable cor- ‘worter contol, Atypical converter station with ovo 12 pulse converter units per pole, is shown in Fig. 1.5. The various components of a convener station are discussed below. Converter unit ‘This usually consists of to three phase converter bridges connected in series te form a 12 pulse converter unit as shown in Fig. 1.6, The total sumber of valves in suck 3 unis are twelve, The valves can be packaged as single valve, double valve or quadrivalve AC Bus ‘Fig. 1.6 A Tutive pulae cemvestse elt airangemenis. Each valve isusedtoswitch in asegmeatofan AC voltage waveform. The canverier is fed by converter tansformers connected in stuar/siar and star/delta arrange merits. The valesare cooled by aiz, oil sexier or Freon. Liquid cooling using deionized water ismore efficient.and results in the reductiona! sation losses. The ratings of a valve group are limited more by the permissible short circuit currents than steady state load require- menis. The design of valves is based on the modular concept where each module con- tains a limited cumber of serits conmected thyristor levels, Valve firing signalsare generated in the converter control at ground povential and are tmnsmilted to each thyristor in ihe valve through # fiber optic light guide system. The tight signal received af uke thyristor level is converted wan electrical signal using gave drive amplifiers with pulse transformers. : The valves are protected using smubber cirouits, protective firing and gapless surge arresters, Some of the details of the control and protection of thyristor valves are given in chapter 2,4 VDC Power Praumisrion System Converter Transformer ‘The convener rransoomner can have different configurations - (i) three phase, nwo winding, (ii}single phase, three winding, (i}single phase, two winding, The valve side windings ane connected in starand dela wath neutral point ungrounded. Ga the AC side, the transformersare connecied in pazailel with peutral grounded. The leakage reactance: ‘of the taneformer ix chosen bo limit the short circuit currents through any valve. The converter insformers ace designed to withstand DC voltage sucsses and in- creased eddy current lasses due to harmonic currents, One problem that can arise is due to the DC magnetization of the core due to unsymmetric firing of valves, In hack taback links, whichare designed forlow DC voltage levels,an extended delia configuragion can result in identical rainsiormers being wed in twelve pulse converver units, This result: in the reduction ofthe spare capacity required. However, de perform ance of extended delta transformers in practice ts still no be tested, Filters ‘There are uiree types of filters used ¢ 1, AC Mthers : These are passive circuits used to provide low impedance, shunt paths. for AC harmonic currents. Both tuned and damped filter arrangements are used. 2. DC filters: These are similar to AC filters ancl are used for the filtering of OXC har- mori. 3. High frequency (REPLC) filters: These are commected between the converter transformer and the station AC bus bo suppress any bigh frequency currents, Sometimes such filters are provided on high-vollage DOC bus connected between the DC filter and TAT line and also on the newsral side. Reactive power source Convener stations require reactive power supply that is dependent on the active power lowing (about 50 10 60% of the active power). Fortunately, part of this reactive power requirement is prowided by AC Iihers, In addinon, shunt (switched) capacitors, asynchronous condensors and sialic var 4ystieme are used depending on the. speed of control desired. Smoothing reactor A sofficiently large sores mactor is used on DC side to smooth DC current and also for protection. The reacioris designed 28a lineer reactor and isconnectedon the tine side, neutral side ov at intermediaic location. DC switchgear ‘This is usually a modified AC equipment used tw interrupn small X¢ currents (em- Ployed as disconnecting switches). XC breakers or metallic return wansfer breakers: OMRTR) aire used, if required for interruption of rated load currems. In axkdition te the equipment described above, AC switchgear and associaied equip- ment foe protection and megsuremen are alsn part of the converter station,DE Power Tranmissian Technology 18 LS PLANNING FOR HVDC TRANSMISSION ‘The system plannermust consider DC alternative in imeismiasion expansion. The fae - tors 1 be considered are {i} cost, (ti) technical performance, and Gi) reliability, ‘Generally, the last two factors are considered 2s constraints w be met and the smininvom cost option is selected among various afiematives that meet the specifications ‘on technical performance and reliability. For submarine, cable transmission and inlerconnecting two systema of different nominal frequencies, the choice of [XC isebvinns. Inorber cases, the choice isto be based ‘on detailed techno-economic comparison. ‘The considerations in the planning for DC depends on the application. Two applica tions can be considered as representative. These arc: 1, Long distance bulk power transmission 2, Imerconnection between two adgacent systems: Tn the first application, the DC and AC alternatives for the same level of system se- curity and reliability are likely to have the same power carrying capability. Thus the cost comparisons would form the basis for the selection of the DC (or AC) alternative, if the requirements regarding technical performance are: nest critical, (ol TWO TERMINAL OC LINK Ib) BACK TO BACK GC LINK ALONG with AC | FEEDER Ie [eI BACK TO BACK DC Line AT BORDER Fig. 1.7 Different comfipscntions for aryechernous iiiexcemnection.16 AVC Power Transnderon System Tn the second appaitadon, AC imeerconmection pases several problems in certain cases. For the same level of system security {and reliabitity), the required capacity of AC interconnection will be much more than that for DC (even ignoring the beneficial aspects of DC power modulation), Thus the choice for DxC interconnection will be based on the: following considerations. 1, Smail Quctuarons in the volungeand frequency donot affect the power flaw which can be setat any desired value. 2. The system security can be cahanced by fast coniral of DC power. Having seuted on the TAT link for interconnection, thers are three possible configu- 1, A bwo germinal wansmission where each terminal is located at a suitable place somewhere within themerwork and connected by a DC overhead line or cable. 2. Abackio back HVDC sation (also calied HVDC coupling station) focased some= where within oneal thesetworkandan AC line from the ether network to be com noon station. 3. Aback to back sunion located close tw the border between the two systems, This isa special cage of the above. ‘These are illustrated in fig, 1.7. Inthe choice between the first and secand configuration, itis to be npted that converter ‘costs are bess for the common compling station anel the AC line cosisare greater than the: (DO line costs. Lf the distances involved are bess than 200 kom, the second configuration is to be preferred. [f the short circuit ratio (SCR) is acceptable, then the third alternative: will be the most economic. ‘The specifications and design of DC system require an understanding of the various interactions between the DC and AC systems. The intercaption (or reduction) of power in a DC ink can eecur due to ()) DC line finalts {ii} AC system finales, The speed of recovery from transient DC lines faultsis of concern in maintaining the iniegrity of the overall system. The power Dow and stability siodies are used in this contest. The recovery of DC link from AC system faults is more complex. The: depression of AC voltage atthe inverter buscan lead to commutation fuilure and loss of DC power. The DC power is ramped up on the clearing of the fault, Too fast an increase in DC power output can lead so the reduction of AC woltage and failure of commutation (due to comesponding tnerease in the var demand), An optimnam rate of increase in DC power can be determined from stability study. This is mfluenced by control strategy and system characteristics. ‘The following aspects aly require a detailed study of the sysiem interactions 1. Var requirements of converter stations 2. Dynamic overvoliages 3. Harmonic generation and design of filters 4, Damping of low frequency and subsynchronous torsional oscillations: > 15. Cartiee frequency interference caused by spiky currents in valves {atthe beginning of conduction) duc to the discharge of stray capacitances and snubber circuits. ‘The converter control play? a major role in these inveractions and the conwel craugy should be such as to improve the overall system performance. Digital simulation and HVDC simulators are used for planning and design studies.DC Power Transmission Technology Choice of volage level 7 For long distance bulk puwes transmission, the voltage level is chosen to minimize the total costs fora given power level (P). The total costs include investment (C_) and cost af losses (C*,). The investment costs per unil lengih are modelicd as C, 2A, +4, nV +A, ng where Vis the voltage level with respect to ground isthe number of conductors isthe wota! cross-section of each conductor A, A, and A, are constars, The cost of losses per unit lengih is given by CC, [APiaVY pTLphig where: = condocsn resistivity T= total operation time in a year = joss toad faceor P® COM per uni enesgy C, can be simplified as C, (A, (PV Ppling cOsTS L i i minimum cost total} 1 WOLTAGE LEVEL converter cost CONVERTER COSTS. Fig, 148 Selecsion of Opcimam Sysiem Vodage for A Fixed Power Transits, {Li uy (3)18 HAVOC Power Tranumisron System. By minimizing the sum of C, and the third seem in €,, we have, age f(A SA PM) (4) d= Pimgyy © Pe (13) where J is une current deasizy. The wotal costs, using (1.5) can be written as CaCO + CSA + AMV? Ja,a, 0[2) (1.5) ‘The voltage level Vis chosen weninimize C. The equation {1.6}ignores the variation of terminal costs wilh the voltage, Figure 14 shows the selection of eptinum sysem: voltage to minimize the sum of convener and line cosis. Tn case of back wo hack DC tics, the line costs are ahsem, Hence the voltage level is chosen to minimize converter costs. This level is eeaeraliy mach lnaer them that in the Presence of an everhead fine, L6 MODERN TRENDS IN DC TRANSMISSION “The continuing technofogical developments in the arcas of power scmiconductor devices. digital electronics, adaptive comirol, EXC protection equipment have increased the pace of application of DC transmission. The major contribution of these develop- ments is to reduce the costef converter stations while improving the reliability and per- formance. Power semiconductors and valves “The cost of the converters can come down ifthe number of devices to be connected in series and paraliel can be brought down, The size of the devices has genc up wo LOO mm (in diameters} snd there is no need for parallel connection. The increase in the ‘current rating of the devices has made it possible io provide higher overload capability at reasonable costs and reduce the lower limits on transformer leakage impedance thereby improving the power facior. The voliage ratings are also on the increase. The development of light triggered thyristors should alsa improve the reliability of converter operation. The cost of the valves is also reduced by the applicadion of zinc oxide gapless arresters and protective Firing meabids, ‘The power rating of thyristors is increased by beuor cooling methods. Deionized water cooling has now become a standand and results in reduced losses in coming. Two phase flow using forced eaporization is also being investigated as a means of reducing, thermal resistance between the head sink and the ambient. Aa forced commutaicd converters operuting at high vollages arc uneconomic, the development af devices that can be tumed off by application of a gate signal would be desirable, Gare tum off (GTO) thyristors are wircady available at 200 V and 20K, However, the main disadvaniage of GTO's is the large gate current needed to warn them: off. MOS (inctal oxide semiconductor) controlled thyristor of MCT appears ta be a Promising technology, An MCT would consist of'un MOS integrated circuit created on the top sisface of a high power thyristor, In jhis device, avery large line current can be switched off by asmatl pai corre The weal time of MCT isaleo fess than one third that of GTOs. However, MCTs are still in the carly slages of developmeat, The cout of siticaa used in the manulacwire of power semiconductor devices cn be brought down (by 1$ to Mpercend) from the usc of magnetic C2 (Czochralski method,(OC Power Transmission Technology 9 instead of the conventional PZ (fiat zone) methed!, Research is also underaay iv reducing this packaging cost of a device. (Converter Control The develogment of micro-compater based convener conbol equipment bas now made it possible io design systems with completely redundant converter control with automatic transfer between gysiems in the case of a matfunction, New oaly is the forced Outage nile of contol equipment reduced bol il is also possible io perfomn scheduled ‘preventive maintenance on the stund-by system when the converter is in operation. The use of a mini-simudasor will make in feasible to check vital control and proaection functions. The micro-compater hased control also has the Mexibility to ery adaptive contra algocithens or even the use of expen. systems dor fault dingnosis and poouction, DC breakers With the developmend and testing of prototype DAC breakers, it will be possible to-go in for tapping an existing DC tink or the development of new MTDC systems. Parallel, Father than series operation of converters is likely as itallows certain flexibility im the: planned growth of a system. The DC breaker ratings are not likely toeaceed the full load ratings as the control intervention is expected to limit the fault current. ‘The control and protection of MTDC systems is not a straightforward extension of that used in tbe two-terminal DC systems, The possibility of decentralized control necessiueed by communication failure, the coordination of control and protection arc: same of the issues currently being studied. Conversion of existing AC lines Theconstraints on RoW are forcing some utilities lo look inte he option of converting existing AC circuits to DC in order to increase the power transfer limit. There could be ssime operational problems due lo electromagnetic induction frum AC circuits openiting in the same RoW, Alvexperimental project of converting. single circuit of a double circuit 220 KY line is currently under commissioning stage irs India. Operation with weak AC sysiems The strength of AC systems connected tothe terminals of a DC link is measured in terms of shor circuit ratio (SCR) which ts defined as scp — Short ciscuit level at the converter buy Rated DC power TSCR is leas than 3, the AC system is said in be weak, The comvendional constant extinction angle control may not be satisfactory with weak AC system. The recovery of inverters Following the clearing of fault in the connected AC system can also be problematic. Constant reactive cument control or AC wollage control have been suggested 1 overcome some of the problems of weak AC systems, The use of Lust reactive power20 HVDC Power Trangsissicn System conte! a the converter bus by applying staiic var systems is anodver alternative. Limiting dynamic overvoltages through converter control during load rejection is becoming a standard practice, ‘The power modulation techniques used to improve dynamic stability of power systems will have io be movtified im the presence of weak AC systema. Coordinated reactive and active power modulation has bees suggested to overoene the problenisaf voltage variations that can limit the effectiveness of power modulagion. References and Bibllegraphy . [MT ©. Adamson and N.G. Hingoniei, High Veltage Direct Current Power Tranmisticn {London} Gareway, 1900, [3] EW. Kindsatk, Divert Comera Tesnsmission, Vol { (New York) John Wiley, 1971. 2) E Uhimans, Power Transmission by Pkiren Current, (Bertin) Springer Veriag, 1974. [4] J. Anillaga, igh Voltage Direc Curent Tremarnission, (London) Petes Peregsinus, 1943. IS] V5. Lava, “Ae Annousied Hottiography: of High Voltage Direct Curent Trnanisian", Portland, Oregon : Bonneville Power Administration, 168 1965-1953, U8] BA. Cory, “High Voliage Dinest Cumem Prmer Conveners and Symes, London: McDonald, 1965, (7) Ad. Moredith eal, "Mathodology for Lexegratiog of HVDC Laake in Lange AC Spaces - Phage tl: Reegereore Macual. Final Report L108, KP 1954-1, Blecsric Power Rescach Enstiene, March 1983. [8] LE. Handy, etal “AC or DCT Gee Utilities Approve’, IE Conf, IMbticaios No. 208, December 136). 19) L Carlsson, "Recent Developments in HVDC Convener Sation Desige’, [BRE Truss. Vol. PAS-103, Mo. 8, pp 2168.71, sAmguat 196,2. Thyristor Valve ZLINTRODUCTION HVDC converters are an asiembly of valves which have the property of conducting im the forward direction and blocking in the reverse direction, The term "valve", carried ‘over from ihe mercury are vaive days, is applied even now for thyristor valves which are fade up of series and parallel connection of mamy thyristor cells or devices, ‘The majarproblem walhthe mercury arc valves isthe occurrence of are backs (or back fire) which results in the destruction of the rectilying property of the valves, Arc hacks arerandom phenomena which result in failure to block in the ceverse direction. Although the incidence of arc backs cam be reduced by carefully controlling the factors thut influence them, compicce eliminagion is impossibic and the valve cost is also increased. Furthermore are backs are non self.clearing and result in Hine to Tine faults which stress wansformer windings amd anodes in the valve. The maintengnce requirements for the valves go up andl lead to poor reliabitity. Thyristor valwes which were developed in the late sixties have eliminated all these problems. They have now completely displaced mercury arc valves in HYDC transmission. Thyristors that constitute the valves are ats not perfect devices. The major problem is that their ratings cannot be exceeded even for shor durations. However, there: is continuing development in the field of power serniconductors which has brought down the cost while improving the reliability, This chapter reviews the principles of operation, characteristics and control of thyristor devices. Some of the design aspects, protoction and testing of thyristor valves for DC transmission applications are also presented 22 THYRISTOR DEVICE 2.2.1 Description Thyristor is now defined aa generic term applicable to the whole range of four layer (PNPM) semiconductor switches, it is also known commercially as silicon coniralled CATHODE ‘GATE | ANODE 4s Fip 2). Symbol and sims of a thysitor22 HVDC Power Transmission System rectifier (SCR). The structure of a thyristor with the three terminals and its ebectrical symbol we shown in Fig. 2.1 The device cam carry current only in one direction from anode to cathode and the instant of initiation of conduction cam be controlled by the gate. The voltage nating ofa thyristor (the abiligy to withsemd, when jumedd OFF) is new in the range of Sk¥V while the current meting has gone up to 3000.4. While the current ratings available now are adequate, thus avokling the necessity of parallel connection, the ‘voltage rating is insufficient to make upa high voltage valve. Thus, sesies connectionat devices to make opa thyristor valve is nocessary and introduces some problems that have to be considered in the design of valves and protection. Increasing the voltage rating of a thyrisior is Feasible, but it is at the cost of increased feases, wum-off dmesand redhuced peak allowable junction wemperauires. The capability ofathyrisior ta withstand high valages critically depends on the quality af siliconerystal from which the device is made - the more uniform the crystal, the beter the voltage ‘withstand capability. The imadiation of silicon crystal using low energy neutron or gamma rays results in light, precisely controtled doping. 2.2.2 Principle of Operation ‘The principle of aperanon of thyristors can be explained by whe two transistoranalogy shown in Fig. 2.2 Here 4 ihyzistor is replaced by a PNP and a NPN transistor connected Fig. 2.2 Two tonsistor analogy for a trystor. in regenerative fodback. If the gate curem /,, is injected into the hase of transistor T,, its collector current J, amplifies the collector current /,, of Imunsistor 7). This in turn reinforces the gare curreng/,. Eventually, 7, and 7, go into compleye saturakion and all the jpanctions become forward biased, ‘The equations for the two wansistors are: | Jt I logy yp beg = 0 be * Hegeg (22) alte a3)Thyristor Vaive B where @, and o, are the common-base current gains and. and fare the common- base leakage currents of 7, and 1, respactively. From (2-1) wo (2.4), we have mii +t +H y = Sale * lean * toe 4) oe) A silicon tramsisto has the property that ccis very low at low emvitiee current and rises rapidly as the emitter current builds up. When the device isaff,/,, = 0, and /, willbe the Teakage current, If itis possible to raise the emitter currents of T, and T, such that (cz, 2, ) approaches unity, then the device miggers into saturation. “There ane several reacts of achieving this: 1, Injection of gate curent (naemal nart-ar) 2. By increasing the forward voltage above. limit, V¥_ culled beeak-aver voltage. In this case, the minority-carricr leakage current at middle junction increases due w avalanche effect, 3. By increasing the anode volinge at erase such thar the depletion layer capacieance -ot the middle junction will create 2 displacement current (wee tute-on), 4, Ala high enough junction lemperatuee, the leakage current increases and causes a wm-on, §. Direct irmadiabiom of light on silicon creates clectron-hote pairs, which tinder the influcnce of electric fickd result in a current to trigger the thyristir. Triggering the device into saturation is called tora-on.Commolied turn-on without damaging the device is only feasible through gated turn-on. The device remains in a conducting state until ibe current is maintained by the circuil action, above the holding current, During this period, the gate has no contro! on the conduction, The wrn-off process which results in the deiwee regaining is blocking stale is achieved either by ° (i) bine commutation or (ii) forced commutation, In both cases, the circuit voltage source 1s reversed whieh in turn will drive the current to zero, After a time lapse of the turn-off tne, the wolage can be: reversed again, whem the device regains its blocking siake. 2.2.3 Device Characteristics ‘The device cam be in one of the thoes Following seams: i) Forward biased and blocking Forward biased and conducting (i) Reverse biased and blocking. ‘The tramsition free che First so the second state is called turn-on, while the transition from the. second ithe third sue is called wurn-off. The characteristics of tne dewiee refer to the parameters of the device both in sieady-state and transient conditions (during the transition of state}, Steady state characteristics Off State: The volt-ampere characteristics of the device are shown in Fig. 2.3. During ihe off-state (both forward and reverse blocking), only a small magnitude of teakagea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Thyrisior Valve a thyristors are used to limi: didi, panicularly arising ftom the discharge of current duc to stray capacitances and snubber circuits, ‘There are three phases of turn-on shown in Fig. 2.6. Thedelay time is associated with the establishment of regenerative action in responie to the gale curren, lis duration depercis upon the level of the gate drive. Regeneraiicm is well established during the rise time, The current cominues to increase during ihe spread-time, The losses during the spread time can result in increase of 10-20% of that predicied for aormal conduction using on-siaie votlage of the thytistor. The spreading phase may lastover hundred micro- seconds. ‘Ungated turn-on can occur due io overvoliage, dvjdior incompicr forward reeovery. ‘This is to be avoided because of the damage il can cause to the device, Prosective wm- on by applying a gale pulse whenever the possibility of ungated turn-on is detected, ts usually adopeed, Tura-off > All the three junctions are forward biased during on-state and the base: regions contain excess minority and majority charge. This charge must either be swept ‘Gut by an cloctric field or decay through regeaerative processes within the silicon. ‘When the circuit voluige is reversed, the current falls 10 zero al a cenwin cate, Once the current reaches zero, the flow reverses, since the minority comier concentration at the junctions can support this curreat by diffusion without build-up of depletion layer. The peak value of this reverse current is reached when the excess hole concentration at the anode junction has fallen vo zere. AL this time, the volage across the thyristar reverses with the development of the depletion layer and the current decays inanear eaponerstial manner a a result of charge recombination within the a-base region, The decay of current is dependent on the mean life-time of carriers in the a-base region. The lum-olf Process is shown in Fig. 2.7. Fig, 27 Tura-off characeiistics Immediately after current zero, a thyristor is unable wo suppost forward volage. Gradually, the thyristor acquires some forward blocking capability but its ability to withstand forward dvjat is severely limined. Off-swie avid capability is anained only afer a millisecond or so has elapsed from current zero, Thischaracteristic is circuit anda ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Thywinar Vale nu ‘Thus cach thyristor level is independent, sharing only a duplicated light source: at the ground peeniial. ‘The valve comma unit also includes many monitoring and protective fanctions. The return pulse system coupled with shart pulse firing scheme is used in present day valve Control units. A separate light guide is used io send a return pulse whenever the vollage aczoss.a thyristor is sufficient and the pawer supply unitis charged, Jf et whos time, firing pulses are demanded from the valve control, the light signals are send to all the thyristor cuntrel units simultaneously. ‘During normal operation, only one set of light pulses are generated ina cycle foreach valve, However, during operational low direct curreans, many light pulscs are generated due to discontinuous current. 23.4 Valve Design Considerations The design of the valve must consider che voltage and current suresses that occur during normal and sboormal conditions. The overvolages across a valve may be genevaled internally during switching action or tee result of extemal causes suchas short circuits. on AC and DC sysicms. The fundamental frequency dynamic avervolage is crucial in determining the voliage ratings and Unis arises when the load is thrown off due to blocking of converters. The magnitude of the dynamic overvoltage is dependent on the AC system strengih, ‘The overcurents in a valve arise from short circuits across @ valve ora converter bridge. The surge current rating of a valve is ited both by transformer leakage ancl system impedances. The wansformer leakage impedances have been reduced to. 12 pu wig higher rated devices, The overtoad nating ofa valve isa function of the sizeof the device as weil as ambient temperuture and the cooling system. For example, it is possible to increase che direct current by 20% fora decrease in ambient temperature by 8°C, with waler cooling. ‘The losses in a valve include @) the losses during on-state and switching losses, (li) damper and grading circuit Insses and (iii) losses due:tp auxiliary power required! for cooling, The resistances of the damper and grading circuits arc also watercooled. Thear Josses ane functions of converter delay and overlap angles. ‘The calculation of incernally generated ovesvoltuges and the design of valve compo- nenis such as damper circuits is facilitated by digital computer programmes which can tpet al, iss fined — Fig. 2.12 Vetuape on test firing Gryzistora ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Thyrinior Valve a5 ‘The typical current wavedorm in the damper circuit is shown in Fig. 2.17. This shows that the current is. appreciable only around the voltage jumps which are & in number in acych. & g 2 DAMPING CIRCLAT CURRENTIAI o * S io So 20 250 300 350 wniDEGREES) Fig. 217 Compunied daspatg carl caren wavelor 23.5 Valve Protection Overvattage Protection A HVDC valve must be desayned to withstand (a) internal and (b) external overvolt- ages. The causes for the intemal voltages have been mentioned in the previous section. The external sources of overvoliage across a valve can be due to (i) fighining, and switching surges, (ii) dynamic overvoltages caused by load rejection, (iit) low order harmonic resonance in the AC system, and (iv) injection of AC volage on the DC line tue to converter faules, Zinc caide, gapless DC surge arnesiers across a valve can prosect the valve agains transient overvollapes. The overvoltage in the forwarel direction can be controlled by Protective Griny of Uhe Unyrislors in a valve, This is achieved by utilizing the. volume sensitive switching action ofa high voltage break-cver diode across each thyristor. The Protective firing tus is incependent for each thyristor level, If there is sume malfunction nthe main firing sysiem, the protective firing circuit is designed lo work asa back-up, working continuously unt) the next maintenance perc, The overvoliages in the forward direction can also arise from partial recovery of walve following trm-off process, (in inverters). In bypass pair mode operation, uneven disinibution of voltage in a series connected saring can arise due to dispersion in the holding current (/,,) of the thysisiors, In such cases, forward awe! provection is alse required by sensing the ctu measured across a level and turning on the devige if the threshold isexceeded, The threshold dual! Jevel can be made a function of the junction temperature.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,‘Thyristor Valor ww ‘The criteria for thet success of a type leat are the following : 1, Not more than £% of thyristors have failed 2, No failure of electronic or other components 3. Thereare nodisruptive discharges across dielectric manezial, cooling tubesor light guides. 2.5 RECENT TRENDS The recent developments are expected to improve reliability and reduce the cost of HVDC valves. These: are mainly : i. Development in high power semicomducir devices - these inchode direct light triggered thyristors (LTT) and metal- oxide semiconductor controlled thyristors (MCT) 2, Betisr cooling techniques such as forced vaporization (twophase flow) as ameans of reducing thermal resisiance berween the heat sink and the ambient, 3. Suspension of quadrivalve assembly from ceiling ue withstand seismic Fores. Light Triggered Thyristor [3, 4, , 18) Both in USA and Japan, high power, high voltage LTT have been developed and tested. LIT has the following advantage over electrically wiggered diyristors (ETT). 1. Infinite gare isolation ‘2. Tovad noise immunity for the control cizewit 3, Faster durian time 4. Elimination of high voliage pulse transformers and auxiliary power supplies. ‘The light sources used are either gallium arsenide lighi emitting diudes (LED) orlaser diodes, One of the problems af LTT ts the reduced dif eating, This problem can be sokved by Gi) a separate pote LTT to fre an ETT oe fii) contredled LTT wum-wn. The electrical equivalent of the later is shown im Fig, 2, 1, Fig. 2:08 Light sriggered eeyritaor Although the power supply circuits (at the thyristor bevel) in LTT are eliminated, the averveliage protection circuits are still requised. To improve the system reliability, it would be aclvantagenus to eliminase these also. With this objective, a novel LTT witha ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Aaahsals ef HVDC Converters ga voliages one the DC circuit. One possible configuration for a "p' pulse converter is shown in Fig. 3.2. A valve can be treated as a (controllable) switch which can be turned OO af any instant, provided the wolkawe across i is positive. A diode is an umconerolied switch which will Urn oa immediately after the volkage becomes positive whereas the thyristor switching can be delayed by an angie @ (alpha). The voltage sources are actually obtained from the transformer secondary windings, The opeaing of the switch (beh for diode and thyristor) occurs al the current zero (neglecting the tum-off time). ‘The ourput voltage’, of the converter coasisis af a DC component and a ripple whase frequency is determined by the pulse number, 3.2 CHOICE OF CONVERTER CONFIGURATION The configuration fora given pulse number is selocied in such a way that both the valve abd bransionme: (feeding the converter) utilization are maxbmintd_ The configuration shown in Fig. 3.2 is now the best. In general, a convener configu mtign can be defined by the basic commutation growp and the number of such groups Fig. 32 Convener mante eppef series and pasa cromsiton uf commoration gros connected in series and panillel (src Fig. commutation group and + of these are connect series, then IF there ae “g” valves in basic in parallel and sof them connected in prers (3.1) (Note: 4 commutation group is defined as the group of valves in which only ene {neglecting overlap) conducts at = time}a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Analysis of HVDC Converters a sane Averge de voltage =, -2 j WEE, sin (we + 0) dow BE, cose 2. oH 83) Equation (3.8) indicates that for different values of c, Vis variable, The range of ex is 180° (from 0" to 180°) and ccmespondingly ¥,, cam vary from V,, t= ¥,.. Ths the same converter can actas a rectifier or inverter depending upoa whether the de voltage is positive ar negative. [tis to be noted that this is based on the assumption of continuous conduction of current by any valve over the 120° interval. DBC Volwge Waveform Thede voltage waveform contrins a ripple whose fundamental frequency is six times the supply frequency. This can be analysed in Fourier series and contains harmonics uf the order henp where p is the pulse number and nis an imeger. ‘The rms value of the h* order harmonic inde vollage is given by ‘ 2 viav, = GoGt-p so al G9) kon The waveform of the direct voltage for different values of mo are shown in Fig. 3.5. ‘The waveforms of the valve voltage are also shown in the same figure. The figure shows Fig 2.5 DC and vales voltage waveforms:a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Analysis of HVDC Converters ETT Note that the solution given in (3.20) is obtained from the initial condition (ore gat (3.22) Atol=a+u,i,=1, Thisgives i.e f [eos a~cos (a+ a] (3.23) ‘The waveforms of direct voltage and the valve currents during commutation for & rectifier and an inverter are shown in Fig. 3.9(a) and 3.9(b) respectively. Iris to be noted that during commutation, the instantaneous de voliage is =e, instead of (¢, - ¢,). 2 Fig. 3.9 Voluge and comem wuvelons durisg firing of a valve {a} recifier {hj Inverter Average Direct Voltage The average direct voltage cam be obtained as a ei v, <3! J e,dtar> J ge-ey¢ wor ie otto ede ae, af e, duary- | 5 sw] =v, owas J VEE, sind (ory a ae cma ge VEE, [cose ~ ons (2+ #)] (B24) ia ia el vos “Stes tens (atu (3.25)a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Analysis of HVDC Converters 55 The harmonics in the divest voltage are also alicred due to overlap. [t can be shown thal Ys Lege oct = metre +G'-2FG cs Qaruy} aay) where cos (a + 1 eos te - Fea G= aay (340) Fig. 5.14 Variation of [96 voltage barons rity evertap . Figure 3.14 show: | fordifferent values of wand a. s fii) Three ond Pour valve conduction mode Although twoand three valve conduction mode is the normal mode of operation, during DC line faulis. cra dip im the AC voltage, if is tikely thot the overlap angle would be larger and may exceed 60°, When the overlapangie exceeds 6". the minimum number of valves conducting arc three and there are tervals when four valves are conducting. Thes is because whena cammutalion process is slarted, ihe previdias commutation process is net yel completed. For example, when valve 3 is fired, the vulves 1, 6, and 2 are sill conducting. The equivalens cireuit for this condition is shown in Fig. 3 Fig. 2.08 Bigaivalent cdroul far four wabve cundueticna ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Analar of HVDC Comerters 50 For mode (2) « = 60°, Foe w= constant, the characteristics are elliptical amd the equation is given by «1 {3.53} Equation (3.53) follows from the following relations y = } bess eos (ee +a) = conf + Shea 54) =F feo cos (atu it sin (a+ 4) sin 355) Fig 3.19 Convener ¥, - fy characseriasies The boundary for the rectifier operation is shawn in Fig. 3.19, The coordinates af points A, B,C, Dand Eon the boundary are given in Table 3.2, The point Ecoresponds. io the maximum power output of the converter, Table 3.2 Noundary of Rectifier Churacteristics a “ 5 vy o o a la a 8 or ans 07s © ur cor ve va 1 i uy ™ Wo « i / 2a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Analysis of HVDC Converters 8 Effect of Source Reactance on converter withant AC filters ‘When the source reactance is not zero and no AC [ilters are provided (see Fig. 3.22}, the operation of either bridge is affected by the commutation process taking place inthe Se HE Fig, 1.22 A 12 Pola cemvemer unit with soune sracunce incloded other bridge, Tn this case, the operation of the twelve pulse convener is. quite complex and there cowkd be two additional modes (i) $ valve conduction and (2i} §-7-8-7 valve conduction. Also there could be a new mode of 5-6-7-6 valve conduction fimscad of 6 valve conduction}, depending oa the value of a coupling factor K defined by a Roy 16: “¥,*3, oe The different modes of operation as a rectifier are summarized in Table 3.3, The invener operation has only 4 major modes with 3 sub modes corresponding to the first Jmodes. The various modes forthe invencr operation arc summarized in Table 3.4, The: effect of the common source inductance for the two bridges results an additional dents, in the valve vollige waveforms, caused by the commutaian in the adjaccal bridge. A, gk aa I50",uoIS°, 5 218” Fig. 325 Vale Volige 4. Valke Condaction Made af inversion - typical valve wollage wavefaem is shown in Fig, 3.23 D° and Di are the two additional dents caused by the onmmon source reactnce.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Anatynis of HVDC Converiers ” where C= (0: 1] From considerations of symmeiry, we have x, @=(5.)2,7) 2.70) where 5, is a constant matrix. ‘Afler some manipulations, we get 4 @=C'g a7} where Qe= [nn -5, ote] 1 =[5 {La (ry hPa gry + tay so] and ¢, is deaermined from the nonlinear equation ici {ax (ry +e [oe - 2c] } =a em ‘Once ¢, i cabculnted, the initial condition x,(0) and the steady-siaie solution using equations (3.66 and 3,67) can be obtained. This is best achieved through a digital computer program in which the state transition matrix e” and the forced response xx( 1) ‘are evalusied. Anaiysis for a six pulse convertor with Filters ‘The methex! outlined! earlier i¢ iluserated with the analysis of o six pulse convert system shown in Fig. 3.24. At the converter bus, four single tuned and a high pass filler Fig. 3.24 Six Pulse convener eneloding AC Filtersa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Analysis of HVDC Converters aL id) 57H HARMONIC CURRENT le) 7TH HARMONTC CURRENT (f) 1TH HARMONIC CURRENT 04 (g) 13TH HARMONIC CURRENT (h) CURRENT IN HIGHPASS FILTER Fig. 220 Steady-state cuteent wavelorme wa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Analysis of HVDC Comertors 5 * -4. by Bas f =e = 60 Ke The wavelorns of AC and DAC voltages across the capacitors tn the flier arms are shown in Fig. 3.27. The waveform of DC current and consoquentJy the valve winding current is also depentcnt on the source impedance. This is brought oul by varying the source impedance. For the 3.different values of tee source impedances, the currentin the valve winding isshown in Fig, 3.24. The detailed analysis ofconverter iscomples and requires knowledge of the AC and DC system parameners. Also, che solution is obtained Numerically which varies with the system parameters, Except in situations where an sccurate calculation of harmonics is required, i is adequate to use the results of the simplified analysis. Hiferences and Bibliography 1, LitFrens, “Eifect of interaction among groups is amulii groop tnaverter", Proc. IEE, Wal. 114, Ne. 7, July 1967, pp 305.973, 2. BLT. Qui, Mesumtis Mand Nakra LLL "Fast eady.-cats sotanon fer HVEXC convertees’, HEE Tans., PAS-90, 19HO, 3455.59. 2. KR, Padiyer and Kalta PK. “Ausiysie of HVDC conwenter wilt Finke smocming reactor, Past L ‘Aalyaie of sin-pulee converter, Part [1 - Analysis of a bwelve-qulse convener’, Bleue Power Syaiema Reseseoh 11, 1986, pp 171-153. 4. EW, Kimbase, “Direct corrmt transmission’, Vol. J, (New York), John Wiley. 1TH 3. E Uninann, ‘Power tracaminion by direct current’, (Hectin), Springer-Veriag, 1975,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Converter and HVDC System Control w tansition from CEA te CC takes place whenever the link current starts falling, To avoid: the clash of pwocurrent controllers the currentrefenenee atthe inverter is kept below that atthe rectifier by an amount calied the “current margin", This is typically sbout 105 of the rated current. “The power reversal in the link can wake place by the reversal of the [oC woltage, This is done easily by increasing the delay angle at the station initially operating as the recofiers, while reducing thedelay angle a the station imitially operating as the inverter. Thus, itis necessary to provide both CEA and OC controllers at both terminals. ‘The ca-load fap changer control at the inverter is used mainly to maintain a constant DC voltage (when the invertcris in CEA control). The tap changer corttrol at the rectifier is designed ip maintain the delay angle seithin cerutin Limits (say 10° es 210°) tn order to maimagn certain voltage margin for the parposes of carrentcomrol A volage mazgin of 3% is generally considered tobe adequate to meet any sudden demand for the increase in the fink current, The feedback consrel of powcr ina DC link is motde-sirable for the following reasons: 1, Avhow DC yokages, the current requires) is excessive to maintamibe required level ‘of power. This can be counter productive heeause of the excessive requirements on the reaclive power, which depresses the voltage further. 2. The consuunt power characteristic contributes to negative damping and degrades dynamic stability. 4.3 CONVERTER CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS: 43.1 Basic Characteristics ‘The basic principles of the control of DC link have been stated in the previous section. The contol charicteristics of both stations are illustrated in Fig. 4.2 which shows the Fig. 42 Converter crmuniier charsciniitic DC voltage ai the station If versus DC curent, Bach staiion characteristic has dire paris as given below: Station f Station I Type ah kg minimum ce be af CORSAAL CUNFERL ed & minivan oya ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Converter and AVI Sytem Coatrit a Communication SESS by remote termine voc ] [vse] vec | NGC = Valve Grou Control Wig. 4.7 Mierarctical Connol Suructure for a DC link ‘The pole control also incorporates pole protection, DC line protection and optional converte: paralleling anddeparalleling sequences. The master controller which oversces the complete bipole includes the functions of frequency control, power modulation, AC voltage and reactive Power contro! and torsional frequency damping conarol, It also Disturbing Magnitude Ma Centretier 14 rot ‘fi margin Swileh closed tor inverter Fig 48 Block diagram of pole and converte corarollecsa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Converter and HVDC System Controt Ere Fig, 4.1) Block dingram of BPC mate ‘The output pulses of the generatordrive the ring counter and wlso reset the integrator. The instant (7,) of the firing pulse is determined from the folluwing equations: | RW O+M de =e, ay where ¥, is. bias (constant) voluge and V, is propomional tw she system period, In steadly-slage, V_= 0, and from Eq (4.10) we gee KV) 8 ¥y a) Since 4 = Unf, 44.12) in steady-state, the gain A’, of the integrator is chasen as Kai, 19) ‘The circuit shown in Fig. 4.11 does not incerporue frequency correction (when the system frequency deviates from f.), The frequency conection according wo Ainsworth is obtained by deriving V, as shown in Fig, 4,12, Prom Fig, 4,12, we have VWeVylAbST I. Ve KM Gh) From pulse generator Pig 4.12 Praqueney commetion fox PECa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Converter and HVDC Syetem Contre! a1 ‘The bypassing of the bridge can be done wilh dhe help of a separate bypass valve or by activating abypass pairin the bridge (two valves in thee sane arm of the bridge)."The ‘bypass valve was used with mercury arc valves where the possibility of arc hacks makes iL impractical to use bypass poirs. With thyrisior valves, dhe use of bypass pair is the practice as it saves the cost of an exwra valve, ‘The process of deenergizationof abridge isexplained with reference woFig 4.15, The valves 2 and 3 are assumed to be conducting initially when the blocking osmmuand és Fig 4.14 4 convener hedge with tnolators given, With the selechon of bypass pair | and 4, the commutation from valve 2 bo 4 is inthe ususl mannes, butthe commutation from valve 3 to valve 5 is prevented. Inthe case of a predeiemmined choice of the bypass path, the time lapse between the blocking comimand and the cucrent cansfer ko bypass pathcan vary from 4)? wo 180° for arectilier bridge, This tine can be reduced (From &f° to 120°) ifthe bypass pair is chosen such that the valve with the lower valve umber carrying current at the instant of blocking is included in the bypass pair. In the inverter, there is no Lime tag Involwed in theactivation of une bypass pair. The vollage waveforms for the reclifier and the invener are shown in Fig. 4.16(a) and (b) respectively. The overtap is neglected here, sl ig. 4.16 Vokuge wavatonns dining deenergieation fot reetifier and eivenee ‘The current from the bypass pat is shorted toa mechanical swtich 5). Wath the and af the isolators §, the bridge can now be isolater!, The isolator poir $ and swinch 5, are imeslocked such that one of both are always closed. ‘The energization of a blocked bridge is donein two stages. Theeurrem is first cliveeted from 5, to the bypass pair. Forahis io happen, 5, must generate the required are volkage and to minimize this voltage, the circuit induectance must be small. In case the bypass paira ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Converter and HVDC System Control 3 large that the link cannot be expected to influence the frequency of either, it ig poudent to Incomponaie an clement of frequency comin winch in the event of a partial break-up ‘of a system, will prevent overspeed or underspecd. 4.9.2, Stabilization of AC Ties When a DC te is connected toa system with weak AC Les wo meighbouring systems, 1C link power can be varied quickly and automatcally to balance the load Nows and Mutiniain stability Wf one af the AC te trips, ADC tis used in paraliel withan AC Ge conbeemplayed wo damp the low frequency imerarea cecillagions inthe AC te. The contro! signal ased cam be the rate af changre of AC tie line power (or current) or the phase angle difference across the AC tie. The DC tie can alse provide frequency control for one end if the AC tie becomes disconnected and can thus permis resynchroniaigion of the AC de. 4.9.3, Emergency Control Tran AC tie: line, the power flow is determined by conditions in the systems which it interconnects, lone of the systems suffers adistarbance there are only two options; toailow the disturbance leaflectihe- other system also, possibly resulting macatastrophe for both or to wip the tie in which case the system in difficuliy may lose one of the main infeed: on which it is dependent even before the disturbance. AHYDC linkoo the other handeven withsimplest controls, buflers one system from distarbances on the other. Power flaw can continge at worst unchanged but the opticn is available to vary power flow to assist the system in rouble to the extent to which the healthy system can allow without patting itself in difficulty, subject only tothe rating of the Link. In general, with suitable contral, a disturbance originating in etther system can be shared ina predetermined marmer ane! the oscilladons occurring inthe wo systems can be damped simultaneously. Substintial damping can be achieved witha very small amount of DC power modulation. However, if a lange degree of modulation is required with the DC line already operating close to its full capacity, it is found that significant results can be achieved simply by reduction of DC power ai the appropriate instants. 4.9.4 Reactive Power Control ‘The reactive power control is important, particularly in weak AC systems in reducing, the dynamic overvolages. Also in inverters, the fast reactive power conmrol can belp in allowing the injection of increased parece at mes of need tc-impeowe the stability of the receiving end AC sysiem. 4.9.5 Subsynchronous Damping Control Aradial HVDC link consecsed loa thermal generating station can combibute ty the negative damping of the torsional osciliauons at subsynchronous frequency due oo the interactions with the current controtler, This problem usually surlaces when there are me parallel AC links, The power modulation controler mensioned earlier which is designed todamp low frequency rotor oscillations can apgravate the problem, However, agaitabty designed subsynchroncus damping controller (S50) with consol signal derived (roe, the rotor velocity can help to damp torsional frequency oscillations.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Converter Faults and Protection og el age aon ee (age come wa Figpere $1 Vellape savetuns tor a single conmmistation Failure ‘The failure of to sueeessive commutations in the same cycle, is called ‘double sommutation failuce”. [fhe commutation failure cocurs when valve 4 is fired alee, he valves Land 2aré leftinthe conducting stale until the instant inthe neateycks when valve 0) Pig. $.2 Hirkdge eohuge mavetooms fur a jute coma ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,102 HVDC Power Transmission Syssem ‘The effects of a single misfire are similar to those. of commutation failure and anc through. When valve 3 ina bridge misfires, the valves | and 2 are left conducting until valve 4 is fired. However, at the end of the cyels, the normal sequence of valve firings isremored, Thus a single misfire is also self-clearing. $.2.5 Current Extinction ‘The extinction of curent can occur ina valve if the current through it falls below the holding caren. This cun arise at low values of uhe bridge currents when any transient can lead to-current extinction. The current extinction can result in overvoluages across the valve due to current chopping in an oscillatory circuit formed by the smoothing ‘reactor and the EX" line capacitance. The problem of current extinction is more severe in the case of short pulse firiag method discussed in the las chapser. However, in modem converter stations, the return Dulses coming from thyriswer levels vo the valve group control, indicate the build up of voltage across the thyristors and initiate fresh firing pulses when the valve is supposed tobe conducting. Hmay happen that a number of firing pulses may be generated during acycle when the link current is bw. §.2.6 Short Circuit in a Bridge ‘This foul: also has very low peobability as the valves are kept inva valve hall with air Conditioning. However, bushing flashover can bead to a shor cincuil across the bridge and produce large current peaks in the valves that are conducting. ‘The short circuil currents are significant only in rectifier bridges. The worst case is when the short cir-uitoncursat the instimtot firing a valve al = 0. Assuming that there iso inductance in series with the bridge. the peak short circuit current (i,_.}is given by Seat aes wor |S 62) ic p in Rip e f where p = pulse number of the converter (6 ar 12) i, the de current at the instant of firing the valve Haw? Bex. 63) For a six pulse converter, the peak curent is : 1 too Sth] (34) ‘The bridge voltage ond current waveform ane shown in fig. 54. In Eg. (5.2), the effect of network impedance in limiting the current is neglected, ‘The maxieoum peak current ina valve resulls when: il is conducting intoa valve fault, Forexample, the maximum current in velve 3,when itstasts conducting with shorteireuit across valve 1, if given by he i = (lh tense) + (14,9 (55)Converter Fauits and Protection 403 ‘ 1 1 i ' t ' D ty: instant of fault initietion Fig. $4 Seigge vollage amd current wavefows during shon circa “The peak currents are of the order of 10 ua 12 dines the rated current and Ube thyristor valves must have surge current ratings aove ches value. The fault clearmng is perlosmed by blocking the pulses when the fault current goes to zem, the valve assumes blocking slate provided the voltage: across itis mod high. Ifthe valve is unable to block the forward voltage, additional loops of overcurrent resull and this cam be aveided oaly by cipping the AC breaker. ‘The detection of bridge or valve short circuit is also performed by comparing the AC and DC currents, fn this case, the DC current goss lo zero whike AC current tends bo InCTEase. 53 PROTECTION AGAINST OVERCURRENTS ‘The overcurrent protection in converters is based on principles similar to chose used in AC systems. The factors that must be considered in designing a peatection systema ane i)selectivity ti} sensitivity iif) retiability and iv) back up. The main feature of converter protection is that it is possible wo ciear faults by fast controflerartion {in lessthan 20 msec) by Mocking gate pulses or current regulation and control. The selectivity is also enhanced by high impedances of the smoothing reactor and the converter transformer. Further, hoconwerecrs arc divided into independent valve groups cock that the protection eysiem mast beable to switch off only the affected valve group (or bridge}, Consicler a converter station with a 12 pulse converter per pole (2 valve groups per pole). The protection sysem used for a pals és shown in Fig. 3.3, This does net shaw Protection against DC line faults, undervolaye of transformer protection. ‘The basic prosection agains converter faults (oonsidered in the previous section) es provided by valve group differential protection, which compares the rectified currenton the valve side of converter transformer to the DC current measured 4 the ting side of the smoothing reacior, The differential protection is employed because of its selectivity and fast detection. The overcurrent protection circuit is used as back-up. The level of overcurrent required tp trip must be set higher than that. of the valve group differential preection t0 avoid tripping with faults outside the station (that can be cleared by the control action). The pole differential protection is used vo detect grourd faults which may not be otherwise desocied, such as faults at thee neutral bus,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,106 HVBE Power Transmisnon System $44 Overvoltage Caused by Internal Converter Disturbances The series connection of thyristors and the spread in the delay times of the thyristor tum-on result in overvolages across the device during turn-on, However, these are: repetitive and have io he taken inio account in the valve design and the choice of grading circuit (snubher circuit) parameters. The spread in the reverse recovery changes and the commutation overshoot also result in repetitive overvaltages. Transient overvolages. af very steep front may result from internal converter faults. such a8 a ground fault at the valve side of the smoothing reactog. The ground faults can also produce switching surge type overveltages, for example, a fuxlt between the valve bridge and the convener wanstormer. The firing of bypass pairs or closing of he bypass switch across one converter generates overvoltages across the remaining convencrs ‘The energization of the DC line from the reciifier sie with the remote terminal blocked can cause high overvoltages a the inverter which is open ended. Such events must be avoitied by debbocking the inverter firs: and limiting the rate of decrease of the: delay angle. 5.5 SURGE ARRESTERS In the intial stages of application of DC technology, DC surge arresiers were not available, the valves were protecicd by the spark paps connected across them. Latce, with the development of active spark gups, it was possible to extinguish the arrester current withoutexoceding the protective tevel and DC anestors were made of nonlinear resistors in seies with the active spark gaps With the development of mctal axide resistors with high nonlinearity, the need fora series gap has disappeared and the present DC arresters are gapless arresters. The metal oxide elements were first applied in AC arresters in 1976. Comprising primarily of zinc. oxide, but containing a number of other metal oxides (such ac Bi,O,, $b,0,, MnO, Cry), a8 additives, the material has ealremely nonlinear voltage-Current characteris tics, A typical disc that conducts less than # milliampere of current at normal operating ‘VOREgE Can carry currents of thousands of amperts at twice the aormal wollage. This Property makes it possible to climinote series connected spark gaps and reduce the voltage margins due tw the constancy of protective levels, The voltuampere curve for a typical zinc-onidedisc isshown in Fig. 5.6. (or different lovels of operating temperature. Yettage (i? a \Cureani then Fig. £6 Vail ampere curve Ker u typical inc-onide deve (Souste | Reference 13}Converter Fauits and Procection cu itis seen chat the emperure coelficient of the material is lightly negative al lew CURents, but becomes positive wl CuTenls above a few amperes, This makes it possible {0 operate the zinc oxide elements in parallel to discharge high energy surges. The long term stability of the matenal is satisfactory although itis influenced considerably by disc composition and processing. ‘The properties of the material are such thatitis possible to design arresiers lo control dynamic overvoliages in addition 10 switching surges. This results in economic insula- tion coordination. However, proper design of the arrester based om the evaluation of the energy losses is essential, The udimave limit on the energy dissipation capabiliny af adiisc is imposed by the cracking of the disc under thermal shock. A single column arrester is capable of avsoching around 7 ki per kV of the maximum continuous operating voluge (MCOV). In many DC applications, the chery capability of a single column of discs is inadequate and maltiple columns are used. A parallel column arrester is made up by selecting discs such that the voltage for each column is the same at a predeenmined eurrent, The maximum difference in the currents of pasalel columns ca be mvade bess ‘than 0.5%. $.4 PROTECTION AGAINST OVERVOLTAGES 5.6.1 General ‘The basic principles of overvoluges provection is the same in DC systems as in AC systems, These are given below: 1 The overvolage stesses in equipment with non self-restoring insulation must be Himised at all times by providing surge aresters. The preection level of the arresters must be lower than the breakdown voltage of the msulation, 2 Self restoring insolation such as air may be allowed to breakdown where there is no danger 19 the safety of the personnel. 3 The operation of surge arresters or flashover of air insulation mast not be frequent Frequent discharges of arresters may damage them, ‘This: implies that the protective level of arresters must be higher than the maximus Opening voltage in the system, 4 ‘There must be proper coordination of the insulationandovervaliage protection in different pars of whe system, wking into accowm the characteristics of the insulation, the nature of owervaliages, eit. The overvoltages generated on the AC side should, as far as possible, be limited by arresters on the AC side. The overvoltuges generated on the DC side musi be limited by DC line, DC bus and nevirel bus arresters, The critical components such as valves arc directly protected by aresiers connected cloge w the components. $6.2 Overvoliage Protection in a Converter Station ‘The typical arrangement of surge arresters ina converter station (fora pole} is shown in fig. $.7. For a sysiem with two 12-pulse coaverters per pole, there are about 40 arresiers per pole. The arresters are selected with adequate cnexgy dissipation capabali~ Hes which vary with the location of the atresters. For example, the valve arrestera ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,6. Smoothing Reactor and DC Line 6.1. INTRODUCTION ‘The analysis, control and prevection of converters was presented in Chapters 3 0 §, In this chapesr, some aspects of the equipment oa the DC side is taken up. In particular, the smoothing reactor and the DC line will be discussed in some deil. The smogthing reactor is conmected before the DX filter and in series with ohe converters. Apart from smoothing the direct current, it also serves asa buffer berween theconverters end the DC line. The sizing of the reactordepends on various requirements including the reduction of ripple in the current. The DC line, in the case of a bipolar system, consists of twoconductors, one. operating. ‘al positive polarity (with respectto the grownd) and other at negative polarity. Extra high voltage DC lines have bundled conductors to minimize the effects of corona. The design of a DC line is carried out with similar considerations as an AC line, However, the performance of insulators is different with direct voltage and the problems of pollution ane severe compared to: AC operation. Bul the converter contro! allows reduced voluage: ‘operation under beavy polluted conditions. ‘The protection against faults ima DC line is invariably through the converter control. ‘This is mainly doe to che noa-availability of DC breakers in the early stages of introduction of HVDC systems. However, the reliability of converter control has led to its continued ust ¢ver when DC breakers have beca developed. The DC breakers may be required under special operating requirements such as transfer from ground ira] metallic return and muititerminal system ‘The corona effects, overvoltages, insulation and protection against faulisare some ef the aspects that will be discussed in this chapter, Someaspectsof the metallic retum and the operation of AC and DC lines in the same right of way will also be considered 6.2 SMOOTHING REACTORS The smoothing reactors have many functions as given below: 1, They reduce the incidence of commutation failure in inverters caused by dips in the AC voliage at the converter bus 2. They prevent consequent commutation failures in inverters by reducing the rae of rise of direct current in ihe bridge when the direct voltage of another series connected bridge collapses . They smooth the ripple in the direct current in order wo prevent the current becoming discontinuous at light loads . They decrease harmonic voltages and currents in the DC fine |. They limit the crest. current in the rectifier due to a short circuit on the DC fine They limit che current in the valves during the eoaverter bypass pair operation, duc tothe discharge of shunt capacitances of the DC line, awe owSmoothing Reactor and DC Line a Triste be nowd ehat in back to back HVDC" systems, the last chee functions are oot relevant, For systems with DC transmission lines, the inductors of value from 0.27H to 1.5H have been used, For back to back HVDC systems, the value ranges from 12 mE 200 mi, ‘The sizing of the reapior is done mot only from the considerations mentioned above, ‘but aise from the point of view of minimizing the effect of low onder harmonic resomances in the AC/THO system. It is necessary to aruid series resonance of ihe DX system al fundamental frequency and also at the second harmonic. The effect of thet inductor valixe on the resonant frequency (oorresponding to the first peak of the admittance as seen by the convester} as a function of the DC filer capacitance is shown in Fig. 6.1. This shows that the resonan¢ frequency is reduced by increasing the inductance. C= filer capacitance 1. - smoothing reactor incuciance ‘Fig. 6.1 Series reannuani frequency 3 fenction of smanthing indveust and fter eapacieanes: The inductance value Masi remain practically constam with variacions in tie direct current. This requires aircore construction. The smoothing reactor helps to limit the fault curren, in the DC line as mentioned above, This is feasible only if uhe reactor does not (pel saturaied by the firult current. By the wary, itis to be noted that suurable reactors used for the limelation of aiat in ihyrisior valves, cannot replace the smoothing reactor as smoothing reactors unaffecied by saturation reduce commutation failures, The location of the smoothing reactor can be either atibe high voltage lerminal oF at the ground terminal as shown in Figs. 6.2 (9) and (b) respectively. In the lamer case, it is also necessary to have a small reactor of the order of 5 to 10 mH om the line side. to Protect the converter sunlion from the consequences of lightning stakes to the lane. ‘The advantage of having the reactor al the ground side is that itallows the converter ground faules to be cleared by converter control (of increasing the delay angle to its maximum Timil to control the current). The insulation level of the reactor also is redoced for this location of the reactor.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,14 HVDC Power Tranmeiarion Syatens the net charge in this region, a corona current flrws from the conductor by the movement of electrons in the ionization zone and by ions beyond this zone, ‘The ion velocities at the ground level are in the range of 3 m/sec for typical voltage gradients, The ion movement in perfectly still air conditions is restricted to the electric: field direction. However, with wind movement, the jons are randomly dispersed downwind from the DC lies. The bosses are also increased, The effects of the corona are: 1. Corona Joss 2, Radio and wlevision imerference 3. Audible noise 4, Space charge field ‘While the first three effects occuron AC lines.also, the lastaneis peculiar to [C lines, It involves the effect.of movement of ions which results in the increase in the voltage gradient at the ground level. The ‘elecurostatic field” is defined aa the field resulting from the charges oa of near the conductor surface, The wtal ‘electric field" results foe the superposition of the electrostatic and space change fields. Corona Lose ‘The power losses duc lo corona can be expressed as [3,4] Ph = (2V (eT) kn PEE | oc 10 Wicca (6.7) where V is the pole to ground voltage inkV a isthe number of subconductors ris che radius of each subconducior in cm. g= macdarum conductor surface gradient a operaling voltage (in kV/cm) g, 5 225 kV/cm where Gs relative wirdensity &, =conductor surface cocfiicicnt which varies from bess than), 15 for smooth, clean conductor to more than 0.35 for conductor with imperfections fem (2fm) am (LVS) H = mean height of condactors S= pole spacing ‘The relative air density $ is given by 6=21.94p/ (273+7) (6H) where (ps hiremetric presiuire in kilo-Pirscals T = temperature in centigrade Moms and Maruvada [5] have applied Mangodt equation in the caleulaion of conductor surface gradéenis for bipolar lines, The maximum gradient g, is given by - [he (a= 1) te RY een ___ a (63) wR "joni yen? where R= radius of the circte passing through the centres of al! subeanductors im a ‘bundle, in cm,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,4 AVBC Power Tranmlerion System He ly ts Time Fig. 6.10 Current and volage wavefome converter control restores the vollage to a bevel thatcan be withstood by the breaker under steady stale condlivens. To the passive commutation method, « series LAC circuit is connected across CB (15, 16). The interrupece clement CB is.an air blast or SP, breaker similar eo that ased in AC circuits. Field tests have shown thal air blast breaker is superior in performance compared oo SF, [17, 14]. ‘The commutation of the current to Z, an the passive commutation meth a wsitintedk by the are itself. The differential equation for uve current i, (set Fig. 6.11) is given by Lid'ijide?) + CAV uae) ana +, = 0 (6.1) 1 c HS 1 4 Nore Fig 6.11 Commasation carcett Sines the arc voltage decreasos with the curren, fis differential resistance dV fat, is negative, This causes the build up of increasing current oscillations in the circuitand the at Current goes to zeTo when the amplitode of the oscilkaiions reach the value of direct current i, (see Fig. 6.12). While this is a simple explanation of the phenomenon, the Process of commutation is affecued by the geometry of the breaker nozzle ared the interruption chamber, the natural Frequency and the stray resistance of the circuit. The increase in the oscillaiion magnviude may also occer in steps.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,128 HVDC Power Tranunission System the sume tower whea one circuit of an AC line is converted to a DC line. Some. studees [22-26] have been reported in the recent times on theeffects of proximity of AC and DC lines. akra eval [21] reported froma simulaser study chat contact faules between a DSS pote and an AC phase result in the superposition of AC voltage and currents on the DC line and DC voluages and currents on the AC line, This can result in wansformer saturation in some phases and overvollages on other phases (upto 2.0\p.0.), Otherwise they didnot find appreciable effects of electromagnetic coupling between AC and DC line under Seady-stale, Tn contrast, Lanien et al [23] report the: possibility of steady-state induction of fundamemal frequency voltges in DC fines duc i proximity, which can cause SSluration of converter transformers, To avoid problems associated with the transformer sSsluragion, they recommend thas the fundamenwd Frequency current in the DC tine be restricted to 0.1% of the rated) DC current. To limit the induction of ACC volinges in DC lines, hey sugpest ihe use of DC Glters, comic modulation and transpositions of AC and DC lines. Chopra et al [24] have observed the possibility of large nero sequence Wansients in AC lines caused by transicats in a neighbouring ground return DC lines. A study was carried outioexpiain the ripping of AC lines in a common corridor due tothe operation ‘of ground current relays. This event happened ot Nelson River HVDC link when the transition of metallic return to groand return took place. Inserestingly, the AC line was ata distance of over 180 mevers from the DC lines, From an analytic seuly, the authors: “observe that the phenomenon is due to magnetic coupling between the two circuits andl is affected by the ground resistivity. The zero sequence currents induced an AC lines are ‘of low frequencies (1—30 Hz} and oceur during transients, No induction is present in sleadly-state, The effect of interactions of electric fictd and ion flow in hybrid AC/DC fines have been reparted in [25] and (26). According to a study by Maruvada and Drogi (25). the presence of altcmating ficld component has negligible effect on the trajectories of ions emitted by DC conductors. For lines on the same tower, ionized fields resulting from DC conductors im corona, can crase direce current induction in AC lines, The maximum current induced can be around 0.4 mA per km length of the line. With AC circuit below the DC circuit, there is a significant screening effect on the electric field, currem and charge distribution at the ground level, However, maximum field at the conductor Surface is increased substantially resulting in higher Rt and AN. Clairmont et al [26] show thor OC conductors in adjacent mowers can shield the AC electric field and vice-versa. They ust the concept of sensation level to charucterize field interactions and state that below a critical separation level, the effectsaf proximity of AC and DC lines should be considered, The crideal separation for a 240) kV DC line and a 230 KV AC line, is less than 40 ft. while for a $00 kV line, itis 110 ft, References and Ilibllography (1) DU. Metvold,ecab., “Effects of operating configurations ox muhi-tneminal HWIXC systema ces DC fie performance”, TREE Trant., Vol, PWRID-J, No. 3, July 1947, pp. 924-930, [2] Du). Melvold and Long WF atk-te-hack HVDC tysiem perfcemance with differest emoohing, reactors, Paper BE WM 113-4, Peseased at IEEE PES Winter Meeting 1048. (3) Flectric Power fesearc’ Instn: Transméceion Line Reference Book fart 600k V", EPRI, Palo Alia.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,12 HVDC Power Transmission System where cos @, is the cated PP. of the converter. In the abowe example, the rated PF. is (0.866. It reduces 0.851 ifthe delay angle is 18°. The reactive powcr is around 0.6times the reat power at its rated value, The reactive power requirements can be brought down by reducing X,, For example, at X, m O12 p.a.,@, is less than 0.5 FP, The increase in the firing angle results in sharp increase in Q,. Force = 30°, Fig. 7.1 shows that (), increases ‘by about A056 at che rated penwer, This shows the importance of maintaining low firing: angles. in sicady staic. However, too kew valuts of @ can result increased! frequency of mode shifts (tansier of current control from rectifier to inverter) and two low values of qycan result in increased incidence of the commuution failure, Thereactive power is also.afiected by the magnitude af the AC voltage. The reduction in V leads to increase in @,. However, on-lad tap changer can coniral ¥ within limits, A 10S¢reductionof voltage From 10 pon. 000.9 pu. requires. about 15% increased current at rated power, which results in over 30% increase in the bosses. 7.2.2 Alternate Control Strategies ‘The region of operation of a.converter bridge is bounded by the limits-on the TC current.and the firing angle. Neglecting the minimus current limit, the operating region of abridge in P,Q, plane is shown in Fig. 7.2 which is drawn for a constant (rated ay Fig. 7.2 Operating mgion of a bridge in Pi, plane AC voltage. This region is bounded by {i} minimum a characteristic (ii) minimum ~ characteristic (iii) camstant rated DC current. In general, the locus fora constant DC current in past of a circle in the P,-Q, diagram and the constant DC voltage characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin. ‘These observation ad constant DA? voltage characteristic isa siraight line passing through the ongin. These observaions are made from equations (7.2) 10 (7.4) and noting that ¥ is a constant Aix operation at comsant DC vollage implies constant power factor characteristic at the converter bus, (if the valve side AC voltage ix kept constant through the action of the: lap-changer), AL the rectifier, the characteristic is that of a load with lagging power factor, while at the iaverter, this can be viewed as a peacrainr with leading power factor operation, AIAtere (see Snag Sapa) paced a Ke kre bie ie saab at is considerably reduced. This is shersn the analysis of asimplified system shown: in Fig. 7.3. In Fig. 7.3 (a), the rectifier is shown as a constant (lagging) power factor load while Fig. 7.3 (6) is applicable to the inverter operation, The phasor diagrams for both ‘cases are shown in Fig, 7.4, Ttean be shown from the phasor diagram that py Lob) 7.8) oRa ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,136 VDC Power Tranamlerion Syste 7.2.3 Forced Commutation ‘The neactive power requirments of a converter can be reduced to zero or even reversed if forced commutation is used. Thisalso helps in avoiding commutaion faibare in invertess. Forced commutation involves addition of a voltage component to the normal commutation veliage wo shifithe cero-crossing. Onc simple methodof implementing this is hy prowidding series capacitors. Forced commutation is feasible if paic tum-off (GTO) ‘or MOS controlled thyristor (MCT) devices can be employed in converters. Otherwise, the auxiliary circuits required for foeced commutation coupled with increased ratings of thyristor valves can be expensive compared 1 the cost of reactive power sources required without forced commutation. 7.3 SOURCES OF REACTIVE POWER The mactive power requirements of ihe converter are met by ene or more of the following sources: 1) AC system 2) AC filters 2) Shunt capacitors 4) Synchronous condensers 5) Static var system. ‘These are shown schematically in Fig. 7.8 Fig. 7.8 Resetive peer sunrees at s converter bur From voltage regulation, Inssesand stability consideratings, is notdesirable to draw Teactive power from the system except at low kieds. Figure 7.9 shows lhe reactive power drawn by AC system at the inverter bas, as a function of P,, These are for nwo cases (i) SCR = 2.0and (1) SCR = 3.0. Im both cases, an impedance angle of 843° is assumed and. Vs 1Ope,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Reactive Power Cantral 141 ‘The iriplem harmonics in the lines are eliminated by the delia connection af the three single phase TCRs. ‘The typical control sysicm fora TCR is shown in Fig. 7.14 where the control signals are obtained from the vollage and the reactor current. The controllers wsually an integral AC} dusiligry Conireline GPG: Gole Pulse Generator Fig. 7.14 A typical eomral eyssemn for a TOR controller with variable gain to avoid the problems of control instability. The auxiliary signal V, may be dervied rem the bus frequency, line reactive power or ather locally measured quantitics, ‘The TCR is usually operated with fixed capaciinr (FC) to provide the variation of reactive power consumption from inductive to capacitive, The schematic of FC-TCR ts Fig. 7.45 The schematic diagram of PC-TOR shown in Fig. 7.15, The steady-state characteristiesinthe V-Iplane is shown in Fig. 7.16. The control range is ‘ab’ which shows a positive slope which can be adjusted (rom whe gain in the current feedback path.a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Harmanics and Filters 17 ‘The effect of the overlap angle is to prevens step changes in the AC current This implics that J, is smaller than /,_. Forexample, for a= 15°, 25°, the 11th and 13th harmenic currengs ane redoced to about 0,25 ‘The magnitudes of the characteristic hannonics are also functions of the load current. ‘This is shown in Pig. 8.2. Fig. £2 Harmonic mageitudes with variaiion in DO current DC Volinge Harmonics From the Fourier analysis of DC voltage wavedorm, we ean obtain VieV, 4b? -2CD cosa + ui Iy/T G10) cog ih + 1) wf? atl : _ coe 1) a2 - I where, C= a §.2.2 Non-tharacteristic Harmonics ‘The harmonies of the order other than the characteristic harmonicsare termed agmon- Characteristic. These are doe wo (i) imbalance in the operation of wo bridges forming a 12 pulse converter (il) firing angle errors (iii) wnbolance and distortion in AC voliages and (iv) unequal transformer leakage impedances. The harmonics prevuced due to the first cause are termed as residual harmonics. ‘These are mainly due to the difference in the firing angles in the two bridges which lead 1 unequal cancellation af the harmonics of onder 5,7, 17,19, ec, The unequal leakage impedances of the two converter transformers feeding the two bridges also lead ta residual harmonics, ‘The last three causes can lead to the generatsonof triplenand even harmonicsand their analysis is complex. Effeet of Firing Angte Errors itis convenient ta neglect overlap ia the analysis. The ceroes inthe firing angles can be due to the jitter or the nature of the control system. The eqpuidistant pulse conizal scheme has no inherent errors except due to the jitter,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,6 HVDC Power Tranmission System 8.3.5 Protection of Filters ‘The filter is exposed to an overvoltage during switching in and the magnitude of this overvoltige is a function of the short circuit ratio (higher with low values of SCR) and the saturation characteristics of the convester transformer, Baring swriching in, the filter current (at filter frequencies) can have magritudes ranging from 20 to 100 times the harmonic current in normal (steady-state) operation. The lower valuesare for tuned fillers and higher values are applicable to high pass filters. “These overcurrents must be wken into consideration in the mechanical desig of reacsor coals. ‘When filters are disconnected, their capaciiocs remain charged 10 the voltage at the instant of switching. The residual direct voltages can also cecus on bus bars. To avoid this, the capacitors may be discharged by sherl-circuiting devices or through converter transformers ox by vollage transformers loaded with resistors. ifthe nerwork frequency deviates from the nominal value, higher currents and losses will result in AC Biters, W they exceed the limits, the fers have to be disconnected. a4 DC FILTERS ‘The harmenses in the DC voltage across the cosverter contain both characteristic and non-characteristic orders. These harmonics result in current harmonics in DC tines and cause noise in tclephone circuits. The harmonic current genezaied in the line can be computed fron the knowledge of harmonic voltage sources at the converters, smoothing reactor, DC fitter and line poramciess. The haneonic cunent varies with the distance {from ihe converter station) along the line. ‘The effectiveness of the DC filter is judged by one of the following criteria: 1. Maximum voltage TIF on EXC bigh voblage bats 2. Maximum induced noise voltage (NV) in mill volisfken ina paralicl test line one kilometer away from the HYDC line 3. Maximum permissible noise to ground indie in telephone lines chise to HW DC tines. The sccend criterion is widely used und involves the computation of harmonic currents aad the mutual impedance which depends upon factors such as (i) earth resistivity, (1) monopolar or bipolar operation and (tii) ground or metallicreturns. Figure 8.8 shows the variation of C message weighed INV for the three cases, (i) bipolar mode, Gi) monopolar with carth retarn and (iii) monopolar with metallic return as function of the distance from the convencr station, ‘Typically INV of {8-20 m¥/im for mooopotar operation is allowed. The BC filters are also of single or double wed cype w filer gut Gih and 12th harmonies and ahigh pass filter for higher order harmonics. The choice of DC filters also affect overvoliages due to DC fine resonances and lime faults. The smoothing reactor and the surge capacitor play a role in the Ferst and the second case respectively. It is found that DC fillers help in limiting the overvollage at the DC torminals caused by monopolar DC line faults. ‘The design of DC filters is simnilar to that of the AC filters except that the value of the capacitor in dye Gher is chosen from considerations other than that of the reactivea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Muititerminal DC Systems ML Pip 9. Reintarcing of AC networt using MTDC link 9.3.1 Series MTDC System ‘This is a natural extension of the two terminal system which is a series connected system, A three-terminal MTDC system is shown in Fig. 94, This shows a monopolar arrangement; however, « homopolar arrangement with two conductors is also posite, Pig. Gt A"series connected MTDC syaem, The sysicm is grounded ai only one point which may be conveniently chosen. [f the line inselation is adequate, the grounding point can be shifted, based! on changes in the opening conditions, Grounding capacitors may also be used to improve insulation coordination and system performance: during transicnts, Ina series connected system, the currentis sel by ove converter slalionane iscommen for all the stations. The remaining stations operaic at constant angle (extinction or delay} or voltage control. In order to minmize the reactive power requizements and the losses in valve damper circuits, the normal operating values of firing angles may be adjusted asing tapchanger control. Atall times, the sam ofthe voltagesacross the rectifier stations must be larger than the sum of the voltages across the inverter station. In case of adtrop in the voltage at the current conwrolling rectifier station, the inverter with the targer current reference wkes over the current contra, ‘The switching ine out of a bridge is accornplished by deblocking/bock and bypass inamanner similar te What in a two terminal system, The clearing of a faull in ihe OC linea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,‘Muititermina!l DC Systems 167 effect on the sysiem operation even in ihe absence of communication failure. The inverter currents are reduced in onter to prevent voltage collapse, Also, the loss of am ‘inverter station (operuting oncumentcontral) would notoverload the voluuge controlling: inverter because of its voltage reserve. ‘The drawbacks of this scheme: are (i) she disturbance in the AC sysicm connected to an inverter siution can result in other inverters getting unloaded ddlue to drop in the XC voltage). This may cause adverse effect on the AC sysiems supplied by healihy invencr stations, (ii) Twooe more werminals can operate in the voltage controlling mode forcitty, inthe caseof loss ofa werminal resulting in indeterminane diswibucion of currents in those terminals, (iii) Currents during DC line fault or commutation failure are likely uo be higher without additional measures. 9.4.35 Decentralized Current Reference Balancing ‘This method is similar to the one described by Foerst etal [1] without CRB und which Operaies on the current and voliage characteristics, DCRB is designed to allow rapid recovery of MTDC sysiem operation following severe disurtences which requize a momentary rundown af the DC system. The DCRE is supposed wo permit the system: recovery without coordinated ceauralized conwal of converters. and even if one or more of the terminals is removed from service dye 16 the disturbance, The operation of the DCR is illustrated with the helpof a3 terminal system with two rectifiers and one inverter. In the case off logs of one rectifier suxtton, the characteristics of the remaining two converter stations de not imersect (gee Fig. 9.10). ——— Balancing cheractartelic ———_ Paat-disturbance characterietic Fig, 9.40 Deteriraliand exes reference balancing oethod ‘The object of the OCRE is to adjust the converter contol characteristics around a preselected vollage level Vin the manner indicated in Fig. 9.10, The slopes of the balancing characteristics 6, andor, desermine the relative adjustments that must be made to the current orders. In DCRB, the minimum and maximum cureni limits ac preselected, The intersection of the balancing characteristic determines the steady stauea ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,Multderminal DC Systems i HVDC simulators. The performance of the conmollers are jadged not only andernonnal conditions with changing toad Gorditions, but also under disturbances caused by faults in the AC system and DXC lines. Some of the typical problems that have boon considered for suady are as follows 1. Operation of small inverter Wps connected we weak AC systems 2. Tntegraiaon of existing HVDC converter sations in MTDC systems without major Modifications in central 3. Evaluation of communication, reactive power and Filtering requirements 4. Security of power transfer without fast communication links 5. Power and reactive power modulation strategics in MTDC problems Someof the conclusions from studies carried out [8] indicate the typeof problems that can be anticipated in the operation of MTDC systems connected ta weak AC systems. 1, Largesmoothing reactor may be required lo help in the recovery of assnall inverter from AC faults. 2. The speed af recovery of the entire MTDC system depends upon the recovery of the simail tap, if i is SuLi connected to the system following clearance of a fault, 2, Th is necessary to consider the effect of mode shifts and develop addidonal Protection sequences, particularly for faults in DC line. 4. The provision of VDCOL at cach rectificr is beneficial and itecharacteristics have to be acljustad sustably. References and Bibliography 11) R. Poors, Hiyner, G. Kangiesser, KW. and Wakdmann, H. ‘Mulivensainal operation of [WDE cumverier siaona', IEEE Trant. Vil, PAS-EY, Ni. 7, ep HOM2-50. July 196, [a] KW. Kengicssee, Bowins LP. Ehstrom A, Rorve, 1, and Rump, i "HVDC Muhitenminal ‘Symeme', CHORE 14-08, 1974. DB] 2. Reeve, ‘Motisermiea! HVDC powes systeans’, IEEE Teanu, Vol PAS-99, No. 2, pp 729-37, Marehd April 1980. E64] R.Jonten, Bowler, LP, Liss, G. Manin C10. and Rumpt E. ‘Contret in HY DC Sysneme - The Sine cof the An*, Pan Ul: Mobiterninal Systems, CRGRE 1407, 1980 IS] Lishitawa, Machids T,, Wararahe A., Konisha I. and Murai K, “Devetopmem of cansralined comzal sysiem for muliterminal H¥IMC emission rysicms', IEEE PES Winter receting, ATB-1224, 1578. [6] T. Sahersi, Goto, K. Irokawc §. maj K.and Sakai T, ‘Anew soetzod method formuhi-erminal VOX iaacsiaion withow fers communication vywems', [EEE Trans. Val. PAS-102, pp 11-50, May 1583. (7D J. Reeve and Chen, 5. “Digital cimstasion of « mveliierminal HVEK? trawmslision syssemn', (ELE PES Winter menting, 4 WM 1959-6, 1984. FB) PCS, Krishonyye, Lotetners, 5, Sood ¥ Band Habs, NU, “Simulator study of muetiiteeminal HVDC sysem with small parallc! tap wed weak AC synirm’, JERE Trans, Vai. PAS-103, pp 3123-32, Os, 184, 1) F.Noman, Grand C1. aed Huth 1. ‘Cisrrent cncter eocedtinaticon in mhiberminal [XC eysiemn*, [TEL Trine, Vol. PAS-100, pp 4624-15, Now, 1981, [LO} L. Rengatroen, fuhlin, LE. , Lise @. and Seensson, 5. “Simulatorstedy of mubtitanninal HVDC ayster performance’, IEEE Trant., Voi. PAS 97, No. 6, pp 2057-66, NowDee. 1978, THI} WF. Long, Reewe, J, MeNichal, 1.2, Harrison R.E. and Howes LP. “Consideraticns [ie implement- ing seatinerminal DC syrems*, [DE Trast., Vol PAS-I04, No. 9, op 2521-30, Sepa. RRS. [12] M, lkdtaten, Hornchi S,, Emiata Simi K. Hino 5. and Sekiya K. ‘Simulator study of jokrneerminal 11VOAC irenumiasion systems without fest commenicaios’, IEE Trans... Vol. PWIRD Nia 3, pp 209-227, aly 1B,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,a ‘You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book,0 HVDC Power Transmission System 11.2.2 DC Converter This assumed tha. converters can be pul into m groups sweh that for all the converters ima group, the AC converter bus is identical, Normally, all the converters in astation can be grouped nogecher. The numberof converters in ith groupisa,, 0 is obvious that Yer (Lin iat ‘The vol ge equation for the converter “j" in group a" is ¥, =GVTie) 02, IN JET, IY, cme, GX 1, G1ID ‘xj May KE +— +4] he — Ey HT My May Fig. 1.0 Schemas of a Coowener where the symbols are explained with reference to Fig. 11.1, ¥,, isthe leakage reacunces: cof the transformer referred to the secondary in ohms, Nand NY ure the nominal tums of the primary and the secondary windings, T, is the Off-nominal turns ravicr of the transformer, V,, ix the base volinge at the converter bas er and £, is the per unit AC wollage atthe converter bus. (itis tobe noted that the AC bus voltage is expressed inp. whilethe DC voltages, and currentarcexpressed in volts and amperes, A general methos! of defining per unit quantities is discussed later in this chapter). ‘Equation (11.12) can be rewritten as Vg li, E, 008 NTR t=O (143) ‘where KOI WN Y, R= GMX, ‘The power and reactive power injections into ihe AC bus o* are: d1.i4) (11.15) coe} | =O 7 KE) Oe 6,

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