3 z 3 z TABLE 5,5 Chemeal Composition and Room Temperature Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels z= ‘homie Companion Ma es weloe Jr fos | s| mm cr "i Mo | overs [sive | vic [tem [ron fea |. ture | ewe: | sie | gor | nex natn [eve | don Pah wi [| x | a 21_| 01 [0000 | 0030 | 100 | 330-750 | 16001000 | 350550 | noas [aus | 65 [ais | 40 | 95 | 302 | 045 [o0e | 0030 | 1.00 | 750-10.00 | 17.00.1900 noas [awe | [sso | «0 | 95 201= | oan [onde | 0030 | 100 | 75-1000 | 17.00-19.00 =| woas [aoe | 50 [100 | 0 [9 aoits| 0030 [004s | 030 | 1.00 | 75.1000 | 17.90-19.00 = [weas [aun [30 [100 | s0_| 95 205 _[ox1z025 [0030 | 0030 | 050 [1400-1550 | 16s0.1m00 | 100.75 | - _[wazao [aun | 70 [r20 | 90 | 90 716" [008 [ooas | e030 | 100 | 750900 | i7so2z00 | s00700 | 20s [w.25-s0 [aun | 33 |100 | 45 301 | 015 [ows | ooo | 100] 200 | 1600-1800 | 6oono0 ‘nt. [a [so | @ | 05 302 | 015 [owas | 0030 | 00 | 200 | 17001900 | so01000 ose [40 [95 | 50 | os ‘01 | 00s |ooss | 0030 | 100] 200 | ww002000 | sooi050 | ~ [aot | 2 [ot | 55 | 90 son | vos0 [ooas | 0030 | 1.00| 200 | 18002000 | aooiz00 | - | [awe | 39 | | 55 | 79 305 | 0.12 loots | 0030 | 1.00| 200 | 17001900 [1050-1300 ~ [aust | 38 | 05 | 50 | 80 308 | 008 [oot | 0030 | 1.00] 200 | 19002100 |1o00200| —- ‘asst. [90 [15 | 40 309 [020 [eos | 0030 | coo | 200 | 22002400 [rz001500] | [90 | 45 | 0 t ond ( a = eee eneeeneee ~ a) a » ~___ Chemist conpastion wa Mechanica Propane ‘ Type c r s Si Ma cr Ni Mo — | Others [strue- | Yield | Ten: | Elon: [tard ( wre | stee- | sile | gar | ness: é wath |stre: | ton \ or ngth mu 7 7 ws |" |x| no e 310 | 025 [oo | oo | 150 | 200 | 20n2600 |inooaz00 none | 45 [os | a | os f, 316 | 08 [ooas | ox [ 100 [200 | ieon1e00 [roontioe | 2ons00 | [am | a fot | 50 | 79 { a * he [ sia. | 0030 [oot | 0030 | 100 | 200 | 1600-1800 [ra00-1400 | 200300 | - [aus [a2 | er | 50 | 9 M7 0.08 |0.045 | 0.030 | 1,00 2.00, 18,.00-20.00 | 11.00-15.00 | 3.00-4,00, - Aust, | 40 | 90 | 45 | 85 c sit | 6030 [0.015 | 0030 | 1.00 | 200 | isoo.2000 [11001500 | 300400 | - [aun | 38 | 0 | 55 |B - sar | 008 [amas | 0030 | 100 | B00 | i7001900 | pomiz00 | [| s fw i 329 0.10 |o.o10 | 0.030 | 1.00 2.00 25.00-30.00 | 3.00.6.00 | 1.00-2.00 80 | 105 | 25 ~ ‘ 330 | 08 [o.0%0 | 0.030 |.751.50| 200 | 17.00.2000 |34.0037.00 7a0.10, 38 | wo | a0 | a0 7 __| ee 20 8 M7 0.08 | 0.045 | 0.030 | 1.00 2.00 17.00-19.00 | 9.00-13.00 . cbeta | aus. | ao | 95 | 4s | as |S ~ = ioxe g 346 | 008 [0015 | 0030 | 100 | 200 | v7001900 | p00ts00 Coote [aon | ao fos po fas |e I 0x8 g 381 [008 [00s | eax | 100 | 200 | ison1700 [ivo0i900 won [3s [fos fm |e os 405 | 008 [o.oi | 0030 | 1.00 | 100 |” 1150145 7 [aio.10-30| Few. | 40 | 6s | 25 [75 | = Me comely)JUL a STAINLESS STEEL SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL g/g! ale jelaslale jalalale time it should have enough strength after shaping so that it does not bend, | Era 1 crack or fail during service. Z| gas {= [alalelele felel=[sl. y The ductility and strength of a steel grade can be determined by its q = “- t z 1 elongation and yield strength values, A material with good ductility value 1 z|2e2ale lelsielris (3]s/eis| £ can be significantly stretched or drawn without fracturing. A high strength ellen t uy material is identified by its high yield strength and tensile strength. =) 222 ale [elelalala ielelsial oF ‘The mechanical properties of different grades of stainless steel are given a ~ in Table 5.5. ge le felele «| 22 gE £ laizielae 2] 33 ~ t a) High Temperature Mechanical Properties ale EP 3 8] 23 ~ a|3 He a s| 35 Stainless steels are generally selected primarily on the basis of their — resistance to corrosion and secondly on the basis of their strengih and | ala To] ot. ‘mechanical properties atthe service temperature. Due to excellent mecha g Ppp Bre eysys nical properties at elevated temperatures, stainless steels can be used at A temperatures upto about 1093°C (2000°F) in various applications. T £4 ‘The very first step in selection of an appropriate grade for elevated | let | Boe temperature service is, establishing the design parameters, then identifying 2 | | 2 the grade which can meet the engineering requirements. | | g The selection of proper grade of stainless steel for elevated temperature 4+: 2 is done on the basis of three charecteristics: Hot strength, Thermal | e |sisis|s|z jsjgjgis}* © stability and Physical properties to meet the design factors. 1. = jelelelel2 je|sisis| 2 ' eine & }aslslel2 jsjejale| & & 3 $ (2/5/S/s/S (S/8/$12] 2 = i 5 2 /2]s|/s/s/s |s/s/s}s] 3 2 | Design factors i rn i i]. a lele lelelel 2 3 | There are four design factors which are considered while selecting 2 Sis (2 )8/8/8/8/8 )8/2)2)8) 2S | material for high temperature application. The faciors are i ’ cle Telelatel G2 E | # serie te ai 7 S/8)8 /8/8)8/8) <2 2 * Allowable deformation eat Service environment and f © lelelslele lelelels s j Service life requirement of a component may vary from few seconds to * 2 /8/S/818/2 |2/8/5] 8) vf several years, depending upon its application, +S a =>] BE Og For a given type of steel ata specific thickness the expected service life a lolglalal= lalalale| ef 2 depends upon the maximum temperature to which it is exposed, the 2 & jslslelsjs |glajals| ag = maximum stresses to which it is subjected and whether service is at jis el ae Constant or intermittent temperature. & 2 lelelslale [elzlils| 22 ‘The allowable deformation that can be permitted during service Iife of 172 173JA STAINLESS STEEL ce heat exchanger tubing which can accomodate higher degree of deformation, the creep rupture strength is considered, ing or corrosion A rate of stainless steel Hot strength ‘There are three main mechanical properties, which are considered to study the hot strength of the material, these are short time tensile Properties, creep and creep rupture strength, Short ile properties ‘Short time tensile values are used where the components are not exposed to high temperature (below 482°C) for extended service period. ‘The standard tests are conducted after the test samples had been held ‘ata temperature only long enough (normally for about 30 mts) to ensure uniform temperature throughout the sample. These values furnish useful informations for preliminary assessment of hot strength of the material. creep Creep is the progressive deformation of a material under constant load. ‘The deformation of metal over 482°C temperature, under stress is plastic, rather than elastic, so the yield point determined by short time tensile test is higher than the creep or creep rupture strength 174 Lette SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL The function of the creep test is 10 determine the creep rate and the amount of deformation as 2 function of applied sess, ume and temperature. Greep strength is defined as the stresses at a given temperatures that vill produce 2 minimum creep rate of certain magnitude, usually 0.001% per hour or 0.001% per hour. Creep rupture ‘The creep rupture strength is one of the basic properties used in the ‘establishment of design stress. The creep ruprure test is carried to evaluate stresses to cause reupture in a finite time, The rupture values are usually. reported as the stress of rupture in 100, 1000, 10,000 and 1,00,000 hos ‘Thermal stability The hot strength of stainless stelis affected by time and temperature, One of the critical factors that affects service life is microstructural stability. At elevated temperature mobility of atoms and dislocations increases. Also the equilibrium concentration of vacancies increases with increase in temperature, New deformation mechanism may occur. “As result work hardened metal may anneal or soften, age hardened alloys may overage and loose strength. In some alloys carbide px jon results in loss of toughness and alloys containing many different elements may form a new phase and become britle. Catastrophic oxidation and scaling may also occur. All these factors affect the thermal stability of st In stainless steels, the changes which may occur at elevated tempe- rature are softening, carbide precipitation or embritlement. Softening occurs in the martensitic stainless steels when they are ‘exposed to temperatures in their tempering range. Cold worked austenitic and ferritic stainless steels also sofien at clevated temperatures. Carbide precipitation may occur in certain grades of austenitic stainless stecis when they are exposed to sensitization temperature range of 427 10 899°C. This causes loss of toughness and susce; to intergranular corrosion in certain environments. Extra low carbon and stabilized grades are free from such problems. Embritdement in certain grades results into loss of room temperature toughness of stainless steels. Ferritic stainless steels when exposed to temperatures of 371°C to 510°C for an extended time, undergoe cembritdement. Embrittlement results into loss of ductility, poor impact strength, increased hardness and tensile strength. Martensitic grades with 175STAINLESS STEEL 12% chromium are also prone to embrittlement in similar conditions. jermal stability under stress can lead to britde failure under load, the presence of notches. Physical properties Certain physical properties like thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, are also important for design engineer, ‘The austenitic stainless steels have considerably greater thermal jon than martensitic and ferritic grades. s steels have relatively lower thermal conductivity compared to practice thermal conduct heat transfer coeffi ‘exchangers. Film resistance depends upon the type of fluid ts velocity of fow. Scale resistance depends upon the chemical ns. These factors heat exchangers. determining the thermal stresses that occur due service. The fluctuating resulting form periodic fu in temperature may lead I fatigue. Austenitic stainless steels are more sensitive to thermal fatigue than martensitic and ferritic grades. ‘The physical properties of various grades of stainless steel are given in Table 5.6. Subzero Temperature Mechanical Properties Materials for subzero or cryogenic spplications should be ductile, tough and strong at the service temperature. In general, yield strength and tensile strength of most of the materials tend to increase with decrease in service temperature whereas ductility and toughness considerably drops. ‘Many metals which are ductile at room temperature may suddenly fail at low temperature due to brite fracture without any evidence of prior plastic deformation and at very low level of stress. In selection of material for cryogenic applications although the tough- ness of material is extremely important, but other mechanieal properties such as ductiliy, yield strength, tensile strength and physical properties like thermal conductivity and specific heat are also considered. 176 SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL Toughness ‘Toughness of 2 metal is its ability 1o absorb energy and deform plastically before fracturing The amount of energy absorbed during both deformation and fracture is measure of the metals toughness. The amount of deformation preceeding fracture is a measure of ductility and the force needed to cause fracture is a meausure of strength. In the handling and storage of liquid gases at subzero temperature, only a limited number of materials can be used, among them most of austenitic stainless steels meet the engineering property requirements at the most severe of cryogenic temperatures of upto ~253°C. The type 300 secires austenitic stainless dioxide, acetelyne, methane, argon and nitrogen, ‘The type 201 with balanced steel chemistry has also been found fic 10 stability, retain their strength, sub-zero temperatures and toughness at extremely low, 5.3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Some of the common physical properties of stainless steels which may be considered in selection of appropriate grade are; density, elastic modulus, magnetic permeability, electrical resistivity, specific heat, thermal con- ‘ductity and melting range. These are defined here and typical values of different grades are presented in table 5.6 Density ‘The density of the material is the mass contained per unit volume. Density is expressed as grams per cubic centimeter or kilogram per cubic meter or pounds per cubic inch. Elastic modulus ‘The clastic modulus is the measure of the stiffiéss of material. It is 7a TABLE 5.6 Physical Properties of Stalntess Steels (Typlcal valucs of different grades) Py “i _ » -« BI Grade | Density | elastic | Magnetic | tlectrieat | Specific | Mean coefficient of, | Thermal Conductivity [Melting Range] am/ec | Modulus | Permes | Resiaiy | Meat, | thermal expansion [at toore fn] iota | bitty | “athem | caygree | aczoaise "| cayentemdec/em Ga prn/ nye) ca M20 | 78 12 039 | __18a oo | aves (8 202 | 78 1.02 039 17 0.039 1398-1454 20 | 78 xe | @ | 039 184 0.039 | asse1454 a 205 | 78 _| 1.005_| 755 o39 | 7 ot 1398-1454 = 216 | 78 105 | on ao Atel eetsatbaT= 1398-1454 ™ sor_|_a0 | 200 | 102 | 72 0.36 ino 1398-1420 = soz} s@ | 193 | 102 | 70 039 [6 | “398.1420 4 gu | a0 | 200 | 102 | 70 0.29 12 1398-1454 C so | ao |_200 | 102 | 7 | 029 182 1398454 ‘ jus. | 80 | 193 | 102 | 70 | o2o 182 198.1454 c so | 193 2 039 132 3398-1420 bal 3H | a0 | 200 | 78 039 173 1398454 aio | a0 | 193 | 101 [an fos 167 198.1454 3is_| a0 | 193 | 102 036 175; 1371-1398 sist | a0 | 4 102 0.36 75 1372-1398 _| & a7 _[ a0 [93 | 102 | 79 036 125; 1371-1398 fc Contd , be be Grade | Density Magnes | Blecical | Specific | Mean cocificient of [ Thermal Conduciviy [Meking Range] emjee ermea- | Resistivity | Meat | thermal expansion 2 100°C s he bitty | Q-cm | Cal/egecy at 20.425°C Calf/eSy(em?)CC/em) ¢ panftnye0) ———— sin |_ao | 93 | 102 036 175 O03 137241398, i sa1_| 80 | 200 | 102 036 175 0.038 1398-1427 ( 329 _| 7.8 1.02 036 112 [ * fa 330 “102 036 : : RAT M x7_| a0 | 20 | 102 | 79 033 mo he ye | a0 | 200 | 102 | 73 033 - —|o | su | a0 | 200 | 1m | 79 036 175 O32 1398-54 05 | 78 Magnewe [or 036 a 064 14851532 ( 409 | 78 | 200 | Magneue | 61 0.36, 0.059 1485-1532 Cc R [cao [7822.0 | 700.1000 | 58 : EEmmn00so vests | 2 2{ca0 [78] 193 | const00 [an e 180 Be 72{_o4 | 7a | 200 | ooo-1100| oo * wars |g. fale [ra | too [coos {oo 036 * oos7 | werasio | e ion | 7.8 | 200 | Magnetic | oo | = = ayia [2 aon | 78 | 200 _| magnesic | 60 : : wre | | “0c | 78 [200 | magnenic | 60 0.36 waa 0.057 snes | ale [75 [200 | 400700 | ot 036 10. 0.043 wierasio | 4STAINLESS STEEL measured as the force per unit area required to cause a unit change in ends of 2 prism of unit ts are pascal (Newtons per square meter) or pounds per square Magnetic permeability Magnetic permeabil lines of magnets 1e measure of the abil jon as compared to air of material to camry fh has permeability of ic induetion to the Electrical resistivity Electrical resis Specific heat Specific heat is the measure of thermal or heat capacity of a metal. It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature by one degree of a body of material of unit mass. The units are calories per gram per degree celcius Cal/(gm)CO) or British Thermal units per pound per degree Fares @BTU/(b)CF) Thermal expansion ‘Thermal expansion is the property of material involving the change in dimension with change in temperature. Metals expand on heating and « of thermal expansion is the change in unit measure of ied by a change of one degree in temperature, Coefficient of expansion is mostly expressed iri linear terms in units of micrometer per meter per degree ceicius (um/(m)(Q)) or microinch per inch per degree farenheit (uin/(in)CF)) SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL ‘Thermal conductivity ‘Thermal conductivity is the ability of the material to conduct hea measured as the amount of heat conducted by 2 unit volume of mate per unit time for an established thermal gradient of one degree per uni length. Thermal conductviy is expressed in units of calories per secon per square centimeter per degree celcius per centimeter (cal/(S}em2) (C/em) of British Thermal Units per hour per square feet per degree Farenheit per feet (BTU/(h) (2) (F/R). Melting range Melting range is the temperature which defines the solidus and liquidus points in the phase diagram of the alloy. 5.4 Selection of stainless stee! is made primarily on the basis of its corrosion resistance and heat resistance, the sccond level considerations are its strength, ductility, toughness and other mechanical and physical Properties. Its suitability to the fabrication processes is the third level consideration, ‘Most of the stainless steel components are fabricated or shaped by hot forming, cold forming, welding or machining operations. Suitability of stainless steels to these processes are described here in brief from selec- tion point of view, however, different fabrication operations and charac- teristics of different classes is covered in detail in chapter 4 on fabrication. FABRICATION CONSIDERATIONS. Hot formability Stainless steels can be readily formed in to various shapes by hot rolling, foging and extrusion processes, Greater care is required during hot forming due to special material characteristics such 2s low thermal conductivity, higher hot strengih, tendency to surface tearing compared to ordinary steels Hot rolling is main mill operation performed to produce slabs, bloom, billets, bars, Bats, plates, sections and hot rolled coils. All ypes of stainless, steel are rollable by hot rolling operations. 181STAINLESS STEEL, Forging process is used to produce complex shaped components in wide range of sizes from few grams to several metric tons. By forging process light weight strong components can be produced with improved mechanical properties, structural uniformity and close dimensional tolerances, All standard grades of stainless steels can be forged, however, ‘with increasing alloy content forgeability of stecl decreases. Special operations such as drawing, piercing, coining further enhances forging capacity. Relative forgeabllity of different grades are indicated in Table 5.7. Extrusion process is used for production of seamless tubes, hollow or solid section of various cross sections. Powerful presses are requi ‘extrude stainless stee! due to its high hot strength. Extruded solid sections are widely used in chemical and others industries. Rings of jet engines are ‘made of extruded solid sections, Seamless stainless stec] tubes and pipes are extensively used in high pressure Quid lines carrying corrosive chemicals at ambient or elevated temperatures. Cold formability Stainless steel components can be formed by various cold forming methods at room temperature, the most commonly used processes are deep drawing, spinning, roll forming, press brake forming, coining etc. Selection of an economic forming process depends upon the shape of the component to be produced and the quantity, accordingly a suitable grade {8 selected to sult the forming process or vice versa. The mechanical properties such as yield strength, tensile strength, elongation and hardness are indication of the relative formability at ambient temperature. Formability is influenced by several factors including steel chemistry, metallurgical structure, work hardening characteristics ‘etc, Because of proper balance in mechanical properties, stainless steels have excellent cold forming charecteristics. Table 5.7 shows the relative forming characteristics of commonly used stainless steel grades. Jess steels with low yield strength, high tensile 1 value can be deep drawn, stretched or cold ‘compared to other grades, Some of the grades igh degree can be stretched to greater extent. ‘Stainless components which are produced by number of forming le blow operations can be produced from low work hardening, highly ductile materials like 305 or 304. Similarly for manual spinning operations, grades with high duculity and low work hardening rate are most suitable. 482 cnide Stalntess Steels TADLE 5.7a _Helative forming characteristics of Aw Urner ryryrryryyrwyww SELECTION OF STAINLESS STEEL ] | {Rleldle alold}s Ble[slef<|efole]s | | Blejel<|<|a)elste t + Zlefa|<}<|2fo|d}s al a|2lajefe| z)< i—--] 2 aula : Bl i\! | A | i =| 8] 4] <|<| <|<| * Description Rolled Finishes | Xo. ough surface finish on hot rolled, annealed and Ho rotted ds rolled condition, without annealing and . | pickling. Not recommended for final use fa eis pickled product ° condition. No.2D smooth surface finish on cold rolled annealed and pickled product. | Hor rolled, Rolled and annealed but scale not removed, Can Grawing operation due (0 jis good ‘orhest | be used for high temperature applications. jabricant. ted Hor rolled, | annealed or heat, | treated, shot blasted or pickled Hot rolled, | smooth finish for selective applications, scaled, descaled | temper passed | afer fabrication, No.4 Polished surface obtamed by finishing with 120-150 fe on coarse abrasive ground product. ‘with visible grains which annealed, descaled & temper rolled No.6 Hot rotted, annealed or heat where high luswre is treated, desealed E & polished, | No.7 ih, produced by buff ‘out complete removal of SS No.8 | Mirror finish, the most reflective surface finish produced by polishing and b completely remoxed. Used for highly polished applications lke refleciors, press plates, mirrors ete. THATRUINE ‘A special produced by abrasive to generate continuous lines on sheet surface. 129 188STAINLESS STEEL TABLE $.12 Standard Bar Finishes ——Erv'nmee Condition Surface finish Hot worked 4) Scale nor removed b) Rough rumed ©) Pickled or desealed Hot wor' ed, 2) Scale not removed | annealed or heat wreated b) Rough med | | ° or descaled 4) Cold worked or cold drawn ©) Centreless ground 9 Polished 5.5 COST FACTORS In most of the cases there will be more th: may be considered for spe: appropriate grade of stai corrosion resistance, mech: irchase price but the true cost of using it over its emtire service life. The final 1 Of selection of the material should be made on the basis of ‘Life Gycle Cost’ analysis. Before going for the major capital investment, all Felevant cost factors over the entire life cycle of the asset must be identified and optimized. Some of the major cost factors are: Total cost of the equipment Total installation cost, Service life Maintenance cost. Cost of downtime for repairs or replacement. 190 Figure 5.5 Break up of lifecycle cost of a ypical major plant system 6, Cost of replacement at the end of service life 7. Cost of control systems, inhibitors etc. 10 achieve predicted service life 8 Time value of money, 9. Depreciation, taxation ete. 10. Inflation rite, ere. Life cycle cost analysis could point out the optimal economic grade of stainless steel which may contribute to consi¢erable reduction in the cost of equipment over its life time, resulting to maximum return on investment by improved equipment availability and overall productivity, 19185.6 | CHARECTERISTICS & APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS ST type | Structure on Charceteristles ‘Typical applica 201 | Austenitic | Strip Good corrosion and oxidatio Srvetural application, Aato- Sheet resistance, high tensile proper wheel covers, Kitehien utensils ‘ube ties, ductile, ough, cold work Railroad ears consumer Bar InarucHable, can not be hardened durables, springs, ornamentat hy neat weatment ubing, 202 | awsteniie | Swip Auractive appearance, corrosio Dairy equipements, Kie en Sheet dnd scale resistant, good formah- vtensis, sinks, hospitalware Dar itty, easly eleanable, high strengtls panels, tims, Fusnitere, to low weight ratio, ean not be architectural Rems, omamental hardened by heae we tubing 204 | Avsenitic | Swap Goo suaface tnish Dairy equipements, Rite er Sheet sion resistanec, wtensils, decorative parts, Tube easily fabri sinks, automotive trims, tubes hrardening, less susceptible 19 land pipes. proessing equipments carbide precipitation, not harden in chemical, paper, pharneee: ble by heat treatment utieal industries 2oat, | Austenitic | Mate Excellent for welling applications, Good lor severe corrosive eet 7SHis ssmINIVIS, Conn cold work hnaeenable, high strengil, moderate formability, active surtace finish, Type | Structure Charecteristies ‘Typical applications. prevents earbide precipitation, conditions where intergranular ‘very Rood deep drawing properties corrosion may be hazardous Q ‘Other applications as in case of 204 205 | Austeni Plate Superior corrosion resistance, Industrial hoppers, coal chutes, Wire extremely strong, good ductility, mine ears, Fertilizer eanks, ow magnetie permesbillty, lower vacuum chambers, industriat work hardening ‘equipments, high tensile cable anid wires, spianing and speclal _ drawing applications: 216 | Austenitic Superior resistance to pitting, ‘Chemical industry eqwiymments, good seale and corrosion resis tank, cas, containers, pressure ance in oxidizing and chemical vessels, atomic energy plant ceuviconment, high strength, low vessels _ ssagnetic permeability 301 suip General vesistance 19 corr0ston, Usod for structural applications where igh cd igh dct bs required, springs, wheel covers, automotive trims, alrerate hose cls truek and trailer bodies, ei ‘ears, pens and mechanieal parts ‘BBLS SSaTNIVAS 40 NOWLOTISBY pe | structure Form Charectertsties ‘Typical applications: 302 | austenite | sutp General resistance to corrosion, General purpose austenitic Sheet ood fabricability, stecl for holloware, Kitchen Plate ‘oxidation resistant, €29y (0 ‘utensils, cookware, sinks, Bar ‘lean, high strength with low ‘watertubling, antennas, springs Wire weight fasteners, Flexible telephone ‘cable, aware 304 | avsenite | Seip Gencral resistance to Most widely used stalness Sheet corrosion and oxidation, good steel for wide range applications Plate resistance to weld deeay, Including holloware, kitchen- Dar good weldabilty and forma: ‘ware, catering equipments, Wire bility, excellent deep drawing sinks, vacuum vessels, charectertsties, opt pressure vessels for chemical strength to weight ratio plant, Food processing plants, ‘window frames, architectural lwems, Nuclear plant tanks 3041 | Austenitic | Strip [Extra ow carbon version of Storage tanks, components Sheet 304, resists Intergranular {or process plants, hypoder- Plate ‘orrasion, resistance to weld ile needles, vessels for heat Tube ‘decay, easy to clean and transfer, nitrogen fertlizer fabricate towers 305 | Austenitic | Strip General resistance to corrosion. Used for spin forming and Contd. type | Suucture Form Charecteristtes ‘Typical applications Sheet and oxklation, low cold heading operat Ite work hardening, low mag walled deep drawn pressings ‘Tube rete permeability, good dental fittings, pen compo- wire formability rncnts, spring clips, nuclear energy applications. 308 | Austentic | Suip Higher alloyed stecl having ‘Welding filler wire, Furnace Sheet Inigher corrosion and oxkd- parts, Boiler baffles, Oven Plate atlon resistance, excellent Tinings, still tube support, Tube heat resistance, very ductile pump parts Wire readily weldable i Bae 309 | Austenitic | Strip High temperature strengtl, Aircraft heaters, Boiler Sheet very good corrosion and balfles, furnace parts, Oven Plate oxidation resistance, easy to Tinkngs, pump parts, heat ube weld treating equipments, annea- dar ling covers, heat exchangers Wire 310 | Austenitic | Sup Higher elevated temperature eat exchangers, furnace Sheet strength and scale resistance pars, combustion chambers, Plate than 309, very good ‘welding filler metal, clectr Tube resistance to oxidation, teal plants, Oven lining, set Teas Sea TNIVIS ‘Contd “gals SSTINIVIS 40 NOILOIT3S:964 | tire | structure For “Typical applications: Bar pump pars Wire 316 | austenite | stip Highly corrosion resistant, ‘Chemical and psp handling Sheet specially in acid environ. equipment, photographic and ments, superior ercep Food processing machines, ‘Tube strength, good pling Nuclear generator components, Bar resistance host Huings, conveyors, wall Wire panels, Tank trucks, marine applications, distillation tower trays 316L_ | Austenivie Extra low carton version of ‘Tanks, valves piping, conta 316, superior intergranular ners, conveyors, tank tucks, corrosion resistance alter nuclear power stations, cry ‘welding, resistance to sensitization, logenie storage vessels, orthop: ‘Rood deep dravwability aedic applications 317 | Austenitic | Strip Very high resistance to corrosion, Pharmaceutical vessels Sheet ‘great resistance to piting, high storage tanks, chemleal Plate stress to rupture strength, hight processing tanks, Accti€ acid Tube crcep and tensile strength, ‘isulation plant Dar 317L | austenite | Sheet Low carbon version of 317 (Chemical plants, particularly ‘Contd, ‘type | Structure Form Charecteristies ‘Typleal applications Plate with similar charecteristies {in thick sections Tube but resistant t0 sensitization 321 | austenitic | Strip Stabilized by Thanium for Airoraft exhaust manifolds, Sheet sweldments subject to severe Boller shells, expansion joints, Plate corresive conditions Inwersion heater element tabes, ste Tube at high temperatures, resists ‘generator tubes, brewery plant Dar high Nash bollers, boiler casings, Wire rength and good weldability pressure vestes 326 | Austenitic | Dar High strength, ductile, good Fasteners, cold heading Wirerod ‘cold workabily, sultable for applications: 5. Rood corrosion 329 | Austenitic. | Dar Gencral corrosion resistance ‘Chemical processing equipme Ferri Sip similar to type 316, but valves, valve flings, pipings. pump ‘with improved resistance ars, to strese-corrosion cracking can be hardened) 330 | Austenitic | Bar Good resistance to igh temperature Plate carburization and 10 furnace components Sheet hheat and thermal shock, specially In carburizing Leb Contd 7asis senNivIS 9918 SSTINIVIS 40 NOWITTaSe6L eet Type | Structure Form Charecteristies ‘Typical applications suip igh strength at elevated atmosphere. temperatures 332 | Austenitic | strip High temperature oxidation Heating clements, food & pulps Sheet resistance, corrosion resist dustry equipments, boiler and Plate ance, superior creep and stress pressure vessels, nuclear plant Tube rupture properties, good vessels, corrasive cheinical Wire resistance to carburization containers 2 high temperatures 347 | Austenitic Chemical plants, nite ackd ntalum to prevent chromium tanks, arcraft afterburner, carbide precipitation, resists cabin heater, flask boilers, srgranular corrosion, highly pressure vessels, stack liners, resistant to hot concentrated boller casings. nitric acid, weldable, immune (o high temperature 348 | austenite | sup Stabilized by columbi Heavy welded equipments, Sheet with controlled tantalum Nuclear energy applications dae content, hgh heat resistance, to low retentiviy, exhavst ‘Tube Immune to intergranular vanifold, Hoiler casings, cabin Bar corrosion Fieaters, lash bollers, pressure Wire vessels Contd ‘ype ractare Form Charecteristies ‘Typleal applications 384 | Austeniue | ar Excellent corrosion resit- Severe cold heading operattons, Wire ance, high temperature Bolts, screws, riveus an resistance, low cold work Instrument component hardening, good formability 404 | Ferric Sheet Good ductility, excellent Annealing boxes, Heat excha- Plate formability, can be spin gers, automotive components, ‘Tube formed and deep drawn, tubing, chemical equip Bar moderate corrosion resistance ‘deep drawn paris Wire 405 | Ferrie Sheet Good resistance to cortosi- eat exchanger tubing, heat Plate fon and oxidation, non resisting parts, Quenching racks, Tube hardenable by heat treat refining equipments, vesset Dar ment, good ductility, Unings Wire machinabilty 409 | Ferrite suip Moderate corrosion resistance, Petroleum and chemécal plants, Sheet heat resistant, ood Auto mufflers, eatalytle converters, Plate formability, weldable, non- auto exhaust tall pipes, shipping Tube hardenable, Ferromagnetic containers, Farm equipments, Bar structural applications 410 | manensiie | susip Moderate corrosion resistance, Cutlery, kitehen appliances, Contd Taals ssaTNIviS ‘aals SSaINIVIS JO NOMORSB[ we | swucure | rom ‘Chareceries Typical applications ee 5 Sheet hnardenable by hea treatment, turbine bas Nuts bois 3 Mae Ineat resistant, high Impact aoe serens fastener stow 4 Tube strengh, seal resistant, valve paris bushings fishing z ae Ferromagne tackle, reeuperstor tubes, cas pump shane ‘ 7 nensite | Dar Moderate corrosion resistance, Dental, surgical instruments eee els Ihren by neat treatment cutlery, hospital equipments, ‘ ood wear resistance, he hhardened stecl bal, kale Festtance, Ferromagnetic biades shall, pump pars, 7 tools, gears, mods Jes and { swear reslstng parts = The most widely used feriie ernie stnp Fairly good genctal corrosion ns oo wee Sheet resistance, good thermal eond- true, catering equipment, Kitch Plate tly, ow work hardening, now sienna and atometve | Tube hhaenabe by heat treatment, components het exchange, i nar excellent for deep drawing and machines bling hanna wie forming, Feromagncte ers eeewomagnetic relays 0 oly ‘wtomotive ttm, scientific 434 | remue suip Modified version of 430, Moty ees a sheet nuts added to improve appara, wind " ‘ - Gon tye | siucture Charecteristies “Typteat applications ‘ wre atmospheric corrosion resistance, blades, tobacco machinery, bright Naish, Ductile and formable, Protection tubing, pevroteuin : Ferromagnetic Fefining equipment, chemical vessels, Matware 436 | Ferrie suip Similar to 434, good deep drawing Corrosion and heat resistant \ shee charecteritc eae and applications, stctch formed corrosion resistant, Bright part, reluing eauipments ‘ finish, Ferromagnesie chemical vesels, plant machinery 440 | Manensite | war Produced tn tee graves 440 A, Cutlery, beating senglcal wire 440.0 and 440 Goeth the varying tool, valve paris measuring Sheet percentage of earbon in range of uments, races, gage a { Pate 9.60 to 1.20%, These grates are blocks, dies, mous, shear é 5 seul where hgh hafdess and blades, nozses 8 weak corrosion resistances requlted FA Can be hardened by heat treatment g to highest degree in stainless g steels, Ferromagnetic g 7 2 42 | rerntte Dar igh chromium stet, scaling Fomace parts, nozzie, combustion | 2 Plate resistance at high temperst. chambers, tack dampers vals, | Sheet lures, corrosion resistant, non. Prrometer tubes, heaters, a x hhardenabe, ferromagnetic ‘lass moulds a Contd... ( { 4 {7 i STAINLESS STEEL | 8 ale Chapter 6 a 2/2 3 : OF piisi|! p2223|2 o| geese|y | a) Besa |% Look around at your home, office, industry or work place, the stainless | e| g2243/5 steel will be certainly present in one form of another. Starting from home, | | 283 z the kitehen appl sinks, washing machine and several other | 2\ 2PEbE| | products such watch cases, syrenge needless, sergical a Instruments and so many such important items are made of only stainless Ere steel The industrial equipments, valves, pipelines, machine components 2 Of food processing industry, chemical industy, pharmaceutical 7 a industry, pulp and paper industry and almost all types of industries use E] 22,2) FE Jon resistance, hygene, durability and overall &| g£258|33 a8 to enumerate the applications of stainless steel Pe ight from home appliances to industrial machines, 2 2 | lear reactors t0 space vehicles, subzero temperature equipments 10 a| : \ hhigh temperature furnace components, bicycle to aircraft components, Ei = ge | soft beverage industry to highly corrosive chemicals or anywhere we can a) 2 33 think of i BG | Performance of stainless steel products are well proven in all sectors. | 28 | No other material can match with stainless steel in its strength, durability, Eig £3 j corrosion resistance, formability, asthetic appeal and versatility. Stainless 202 203 |STAINLESS STEEL, steel is playing a major role in all sectors of our life, Due to unlimited uses not possible to cover the total scope of applications of stainless stec! in this book, however some typical spplications to elaborate the selection criteria, are briedly described in this chapter. 6.1 _ AIRCRAFT AND AEROSPACE, ch-to-weight ratio, are widely used in addition to reduction of overall weight as several other design advantages like excellent corrosion resistance, wear resistance, fi igh and low temperature five major areas of space crafts and ai igh temperature structures, pressure vessels, pipelines and fittings, mechanical systems and eel. Spacecraft levated temperatures in space, ired cryogenic toughness, heat resistance, corrosion resistance and igh strength can be easily met by stainless steel pressure uid containers are made from austenitic stainless grades 32] or 347, Aireraft and spacecraft uid lines and fiuings are produced from various chromium nickel stainless steels, High resistance to heat and corr: les make it an ideal iping are used in various systems like hydraulic pipelines, exhaust systems, cross headers, heaters and pressurisers ei Mechanical systems such as gears, hinges, latches etc, which need high ‘modulus of elasticity and rigidity, are fabricated from stainless steels. High strength components are made of PH-13-8 Mo, 15-5 PH, 17-4PH precipitation hardenable stainless steels. The components which need higher corrosion resistance and mechinability are made of 303 Se, 303 S, 304 or 316 grades. For certain specialised components type 416, 431 or 204 APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL 440C grades are used. Stainless steel fasteners are selectively used in space crafis. Modern aircrafis use aluminium rivews, titanium pins and cadmium plated alloy ike wind tunnels are made from si systems yment of precipitation hardening grades of stai steel was done mainly to meet the engineering requirements of aircraft and spacecraft components, 6.2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL industries and air pol mn and user systems are the major cor yermal power plants, le exhausts, fuel ly wasie disposal by incineration is also one of nergy generai jon. Examples are Bred furnaces, tc. $i the air pollution sources. Conventional fuel combustion technology results in most of the fuels release of sulphur into flue gases that contributes to the farmation of acid rain and environmental pollution. In order to check the discharge of harmful sulphur, halogen, particulate matters in the environment, the flue gases discharyed from the system are desulphurised, scrubbed and made free from harmful constituents before leaving to open atmosphere. In the process of desulphurisation, scrubbing and cleaning of flue ‘gases, various chemical solutions are used which create corrosive conditions. The material of construction for control equipments plays major role in keeping the environment clean, here comes the stainless steel to give rouble free long service life. Stainless steels are being used in almost all typoes of pollution control systems. The three major areas of applications are; flue gas desulphu- risation system, stack liners and incineration system where stainless steels are widely used as construction material Flue gas desulphurization (FGD) is the removal of sulphur oxides from the gaseous products of fossil fuels combustion. In FGD system, the hot and dry incoming fue gases containing sulphur dioxide are passed through precipitators where solid particles including fly ash are removed. ‘fier that flue gas is quenched with water, an alkaline liquor of sodium hydroxide or a parly exhausted slurry of calcium carbonate and sulp! 205STAINLESS STEEL, to form a super saturated calcium sulphite slurry ‘The absorber generally have several levels where sulphur dioxide containing gas is sprayed with a lime or lime stone scrubbing liquor 10 form calcium sulphite, The slurry from the absorber is usually processed in separate tanks in which reagents, lime or limestone are present. after sulphite and salts are separated and dewatered in a wor is returned to the system and clean flue ges is discharged to open atmosphere ‘The environment sulphurous acid bur their performance were not loppages of power plants, ess steels helped into improved performance and trouble free service of FGD systems. Due to severe corrosive conditions the main problems encountered with stainless steel were pitting, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking, which could be overcome by use of high alloyed grades with low carbon con type 316 L, 317 L and some I grades are used in FGD systems. Is are used an fabri jems and fue gas swac on of iners 10 resist corrosion and 6.3 ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY Like food products, processing of alcoholic beverage also requires extra ordinary care to ensure contamination free pure product produced in ns. The material of equipment construction for to its pleasing asthetic appeal Type 304 and 316 are the msot common grades used for fabrication of alcoholic beverage processing and storage equipments. In wine and brandy industry type 304 is used for fabrication of storage vessels, pumps, mixing tanks vats, pipe lines, fasteners, chains, process tanks, presses, filters etc. ‘Type 316 is used when special cleaning compounds are used or in 206 [APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL. processing of wine vinegars, where type 304 can not have adequate corrosion resistance to withstand acitic acid or vinegar solutions. In distilleries, stainiess steels has gradually substiruted brass, and bronze equipments. Austenitic stainless steels are used in cli columns, condensers, deflegmators of fermenting vessels, product receiving tanks, process piping, valves etc. Breweries, which were using steel tanks coated with food grade epoxy paint, has also switched over to type 316 fermentation tanks. Type 304 or 316 is selectively used depending upon the chemical composition and service temperatures of the process fluid. beverages must be free from special sky, therefore it is essential to passivate stainless steel equipments before putting into us 6.4 ARCHITECTURE tion of stainless grown during p: jecl as an architectural material has several years. While selecting an such as high and decorative trims in the Chrysler building, Newyork, ‘The architects of Chrysler building wanted to use a mat durable and maintenance free even if it was costly. The dome of Chrysler shines brightly without any deterioration. ith the gradual developmnt in application of stainless steel in architecture, it has become more and more functional in addition 10 Now stainless steels are used in apy function and economics combine 10 make them a logical be because of any specific property or combination of proper surface density, heat resistance, impact resistance, ‘in most of the architectural applications, the appearance, prestige, qua: lity image and similar considerations are equally important as functional Propé Other architectural materials like plain carbon steel would need repainting or replacement after two or three years due (0 corrosion and 207STAINLESS STEEL rusting Aluminium is rejected due to lack of abrasion resistance and strength, stainless steel due to its unique combination of properties has become one of the ideal architectural material of today. Some of the major areas of architectural applications are. sractieal long lasting material with attractive ‘cades of buildings. It can be used in form of coated stainless steel sheets provide an ‘buildings. Roofing sheets can be profiled or pl seam welding methods. ‘Window and door frames; made from cold formed stainless steel enhance the beaury of any Building, Simple washing with soap and water retains its cool bright appeal. These are almost maintenance free. Variety rectangular or other geometrical shape sections produced by ming process can be used, mractive design knobs, handles and fitings can be made from these fixed by folded joints or je with surrounding lamp poles, hand-rals, kiosks, shelters, fountains, parapets etc. Interior applications ‘Visually attractive with a sense of strength and permanence, the stainless steel requires minimal maintenance in many interior applications such as; Lift cars, escalator panels, stair cases, hand-railings, wall penels, ceilings, floors ete. With the development of coloured stainless steel, in various patterns and colours the interior application of stainless steel is almost Limitless. 208 APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL, Various atractive scv world, General Applications Maintenance free long steel in various arc swimming pool wal foundation be 6.5 CHEMICAL PROCESS INDUSTRIES ‘The chemical process industries are associated with most corrosive conditions during processing, storage and handling of various types of for overall productivity ané ‘The output and profit selection of the appro; turing equipments. Stainless steels being the corrosion resistant material are widely used in almost all types of chemical process industries. ‘There are large number of AISI standard and proprietory grades of stainless steels available for different chemical environments. During the service period in chemical procesing, stainless steels are subjected to various types of corrosion such as general corrosion, inter~ granular corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, pitting, crevice corrosion and Based on the type of effects on the material and process. ‘he selection considerations and ype of stainless stcel used for chemicals are discussed in detail in the previous chapter on select stainless steels. Readers are requested to refer Tables 5.1 and 5.2 Decision on selecting a suitable grade of stainless steel are preferably based on the operating experiences in the running plants, pilot plant ‘testing and laboratory tess. aousies Saal €0 iutorcose 209STAINLESS STEEL. For general corrosion resistance austenitic grades 304, 304 L, 316 and 316 Lare widely used for fabrication of chemical processing equipements, ‘Tne most commonly used grades are given in Table 6.1 TABLE 6.1 304,304 iene purpose cononion reusance el 308, 309, 3098 cqupmens exposed 0 hgh empe- sio.s108 nea Se mached snd a Tor sper comasonressance Whe 516 & 326 Lave auacked. ___| 430 For chloride containing water, where type 304 are suscepuble to stress corrosion cracking. a Fe a porate of ca om se crrgonment in hich ou i rng somes sin Te ca 210 [APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL corrosion and mechanical damages caused by environment and material "The engineering material required for fabrication of mine cars should have good strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, slideability, cleanability, high strength to weight ratio, formability and at the same time should be cost effective. “The conventional material used for fabrication of coal mine cars are galvanized steel and plain carbon steels. Due to poor corrosion resistance, physical and mechanical properties, many break downs cause reduced vailability of transfer cars, increased maintenance cost and economic Josses due to production interruptions. ‘The ferrisic stainless steel containing 12% chromium (type 409) a low cost corrosion resista sdable and strong steel proved to be an akernative material for fabrication of coal mine cars and coal handling equipments where low alloy structural steels and carbon ste have inadequate corrosion resistance and galvanized stecls donot withstand for long due to hostile mechanical and corrosive conditions. ‘The 12% chromium ferritic steel (grade equivallent 10 type 409) produced by several companies, is arian corrosion resi Steel, It has good corrosion resistance in mild environments, good fesistance 10 Gry abrasion and abrasion-corrosion. The smooth surface ensures good slideability \portant charecteristic desired in Coal handling systems. Due to controlled carbon and nitrogen levels this grade can be readily formed and welded in desired shape. ‘The various coal mining and coal handling equipments fabricated from the 12% Cr stainless steel include coal mine cars, conveyor systems, bunkers, hoppers, loading equipments, screens and screen frames, sieve band holders, skips, flooring, heavy media vessels and several components for similar environment. es 6.7 COINAGE 6.7 COINAGE Stainless stee] coins were introduced for the first time in Italy due to shortage of conventional coinage metals copper and nickel, during second. (world war. The Italian government decided to develop coins, free from hnickel and copper to substitute the cupro-nickel coins in circulation. After Various metallurgical studies, stainless steel was found the ideal alternative. Since then many countries of the world has gone to stainless steel coins. ‘The desired properties of a coinage material are, good coinability, the metal being coined shoule be soft and should have low rate of strain anSTAINLESS STEEL hardening, The coinage material should be able to give good impression of shallow figures on us surface during coining, The coins under service conditions come across in contact of various corrosive conditnns, therefore corrosion resistance of the coinage material is an important consideration, Similarly, the coins should have good wear resistance, strength and appealing surface finish. There should not be any Joss brightness or discolouration during its use. At the same time intrinsic value of the coin should be-almost equal to its face value. While developing stainless steel as a coinage material there were many technical problems to overcome, the first being the choice of the alloy ype. Though there were several grades of stainless steels available, only meet the desired coining properties. The aus stainless steel due to higher work hardening rates has inferior than the ferritic grades. Type 430 with low carbon content has the ‘optimum coining properties. Another important coining propery is the deepness of the figure on the coin blank with a given power on coining press (which is known as relief). Problems related with relief can be solved by increasing the capacity of the el coins can be made with elegent impression of ade effects steel coins are becoming popular in more and more countries due to its good coining properties. longer life and overall Ife gycle economy Jow cost and minimum yns in design and produc- tion of components for electronic equipments. Stainless steel finds its 2p mponents because of roperties including toughness, corrosion resistance, controlled thermal exxpansion, formability and excellent spring properties. The austenitic grades type 301 and 304 are the most widely used in electronic applications. Type 301 is used for non current carrying springs ‘because ti can be work hardened to get very high spring quality. Type 304 is used as structural member and electronic housing to resist all kinds of process temperature and agressive corrosive environmnt. ‘The properties of stainless steel are further enhanced by electroplating. 212 [APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL Electro-plated austenitic stainless steels have shown superior combination f corrosion resistance and strength compared to conventional coper 's and beryliium-copper alloys used in various electronic components, are being used for integrated circuit lead frames, electrode ‘contact material and connectors, camera contact parts, watch components ‘and household electronic gadgets. Nonmagnetic stainless steel components have been developed for videotape recorder guide rollers, which is 2 fast growing consumer product in the world market 6.9 FASTENERS ‘The threaded fasteners inspite of advances in modern welding and joining, technology remains the basic method of assembly. In cases where joints need 10 be dismantled and reasembled, corrosion resistance of the fastener is particularly important so that the corrosion hamper or prevent iis removal. The cost of removing rusted bolts and replacing with a new ones is more exp than using a corrosion resistant fastener. Other indirect costs resulting from fastener failure such as equipment down time, major breakdowns, loss of production makes an even stronger for stainless steel fasteners. Stainless stee! fastener offers unique combination of properties which are difficult to match with any other material. Corrosion resistance is the most important property of the stainless steel fasteners. The other properties include high and low temperature resistance, high tensile strength, durability, cleanability, economy over us life cycle and design versatility. Stainless steel fasteners are available in variety of metallurgical and mechanical charecteristics to meet multitude of end use requirements, Some stainless steels are magnetic for high speed applications, while others of non magnetic type for various electronic applications, some stainless steels are soft and ductile while others are hard with high stiength to svit manufacture of self tapping and self threading screws. Selection of right grade of stainless steel fastener is very important step in order to get long wouble free service from the equipment The ccharecteristics of stainless steel and the service environment must be fully known before selecting the right type of stainless steel. The stainless steels, used most frequently as fasteners are type 303, 304, 305, 384, 316, 410, 416, 430, etc. These can be classified as per their metallurgical structure. 213‘STAINLESS STEEL Austenitic type 303, 304, 305, 384 and 316 Ferritic type 430 Martensitic type 410 and 416 Austenitic stainless steels are charecterised as having excellent corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. Type 304 is the most widely used grade that withstand ordinary rusting. Type 304 fasteners are immune to food stufls, organic chemicals, dyestuffs and many inorganic chemicals. It has good resistance to nitric acid, moderate resistance 10 sulfuric acid and poor resistance to halogen acids, It is used in cryogenic and high temperature environments. ‘Type 303 is a variation of 304 with higher sulfur content 10 enhance ‘machinability. Large bolts which can made by cold heading process are machined from 303 grade s ‘with 23% molybdenum in it Fasteners made of type 316 grade are used in pulp and papei is, corrosive chemicals, phosphoric acid, acetic acid 1d to cause pitting corrosion in type 304 and other 18-8 grades. ‘Type 430 is a straight chromium ferritic stainless steel, it has lower corrosion resistance than 304 arid other austenitic grades. Fasteners made of 430 alloy are used in mild corrosive conditions, mostly in decorative trim applications, consumer durables, automobile components, vending machines, cameras, show cases etc. where eye appeal is required. ‘Type 410 is a straight chromium-martensitic stainless steel. It has lower resistance to corrosion than type 430 and austenitic grades but higher tensile ‘Type 416 is free machining variation of type 410 with similar charac- teristics, type 410, 416 fasteners resist corrosion in mild environment steam, alcohol, ammonia, soap, sugar sol the above described grades there are several other types which can be used for fastener applications to suit the specific service conditions. 6.10 FOOD INDUSTRY Stainless steel plays an ever increasing role in the largest industry in the 214 [APPLICATIONS OF STAINLESS STEEL world — ‘Food’. In fact stainless steel is the automatic first choice where hhygene, strength and good looks are required. Stainless steels are widely used in food production, processing, storage, distribution, consumption and even in waste disposal and treatment of food wastes. The presence and utilisation of stainless steel in all these areas are not just accidental. The following six basic characteristics make stainless steel, the ideal material for use in the food processing industry throughout the world, © Non Porous Surface Stainless steel do not absorb odours and flavours and do not provide breeding grounds for bacteria and fungi © Corrosion Resistance Suainless are resistant 10 most foods, acidic or alkaline Cleaners, disinfectants and other substance used in food processing, @ Resistance to Mechanical Damage Stainless steel articles withstand rough handling durin, installation and service and they resist denting and deshaping. © Cleanabitity Stainless stel can be easily cleaned because of strong bright non porous, corrosion resistant surface. © Resistance to Thermal Shock Stainless steel can withstand sudden temperature change, can be wansferred from high temperature stoves to low temperature freezers without any damage. © Formability Stainless steel has excellent formability It can be given any shape by cold froming, deep drawing, joining and other standard froming processes. ‘These characteristics impart to stainless steel equipments the properties essential to handle and process food products efficiently, safely with highest degree of purity. Due to large variety of applications, several grades of stainless steel belonging to standard 200, 300 and 400 secries are used as per the functional and environmental requirements of the service conditions. Stainless steels are being used in production, processing and 215