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Indian Economy 1 PDF
Indian Economy 1 PDF
(PART-1)
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Definition of Economics approach deals with "what is" and the latter
There are three representative definitions of with "what should be". In positive economics
economics, which encompass major dimensions we describe, explain and understand the eco-
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of the subject. They are as follows: nomic phenomena "as they are" while in nor-
mative economics we study "what should be"
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Adam Smith defined economics as the and we conjecture, suggest and do value judg-
'Science of Wealth'. (Material Definition)
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ments to take certain stands on various issues
Economics is a study of mankind in the and judge the worth of economic policies and
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ordinary business of life; it examines that stances as good or bad, desirable or undesirable.
part of individual and social action which So, normative approach is which deals with
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is most closely connected with the attain-
ment and with the use of material requi-
"what should be" or "if" and "then" conditions.
1. What to produce?
total economy, i.e., behaviour and decision of
individual consumer or producer or group of 2. How to produce?
consumers and producers that form a market 3. For whom to produce?
unit. Microeconomics is about production or The three fundamental questions of econom-
consumption of an individual unit, demand and ics are resolved differently in different economic
supply of an individual unit, price and output systems. The more important economic systems
determination of an individual unit, etc. On are Socialism, Capitalism and Mixed Economy.
the other hand Macroeconomics is the study of Under a Socialist regime, all the resources are
'whole' or 'aggregate' such as national income, collectively owned. Under Socialism, the ques-
aggregate saving, aggregate demand, aggregate tions, what, how and for whom to produce
supply, etc. are decided by the central planners keeping in
view various factors, such as the priorities of
Positive versus Normative economics the economy and supply and demand condi-
In Economics, mainly there are two types of tions. They assign different quantity of resources
approaches- positive and normative; the former to different products depending on expected
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with purchasing power of different consumer as an economic ideology which advocates mini-
groups will determine what to produce, how mal state intervention in the economy. Many
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to produce and for whom to produce. Thus writers suggest that laissez-faire capitalism
market mechanism brings all the commodities never existed. It is generally understood to be
and factor markets in equilibrium. a doctrine that maintains that private initiative
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Mixed Economy involves ownership of fac- and production are best allowed a minimal of
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tor resources by private as well as public sec-
tor. Whereas strategic and core sectors are gen-
erally owned by public sector, non-strategic,
economic interventionism and taxation by the
state beyond what is necessary to maintain in-
dividual liberty, peace, security, and property
rights.
capital and consumer goods are open to pri-
vate sector to compete.
Crony capitalism
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Main Features of Capitalism: Crony capitalism is a pejorative term describ-
ing an allegedly capitalist economy in which
Laissez faire or free market.
success in business depends on close relation-
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Modern day capitalism accepts limited economy and society to the extent that it cor-
state intervention. rupts public-serving economic and political
ideals.In its lightest form, crony capitalism con-
Market Economy
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- especially the reformists and the revolution- ian, classless, stateless society based on com-
aries. Some advocate complete nationalization mon ownership of the means of production and
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of the means of production, distribution, and property in general. It is usually considered to
exchange; social democrats propose selective
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be a branch of socialism, a broad group of so-
nationalization of key national industries in cial and political ideologies, which draws on
mixed economies combined with tax-funded
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the various political and intellectual movements
welfare programs; libertarian socialists advo-
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cate co-operative worker ownership of the
means of production; most Marxists (some in-
with origins in the work of theorists of the
Industrial Revolution and the French Revolu-
tion, although socialist historians say they are
spired by the Soviet economic model), advo- older. Communism attempts to offer an alter-
cate centrally-planned economies. By contrast, native to the problems believed to be inherent
Social-Anarchists, Luxemburgists, the U.S. New with capitalist economies and the legacy of
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Left and various forms of libertarian socialism imperialism and nationalism. Communism
favor decentralized ownership via co-operative states that the only way to solve these prob-
workers' councils and participatory planning.
lems would be for the working class, or prole-
tariat, to replace the wealthy bourgeoisie, which
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local or state level. The earliest models of this also exist and are growing in importance since
form of market socialism were developed by the fall of the Soviet Union Planned economy
Enrico Barone (1908) and Oskar R. Lange or Directed economy or Command economy.
(1936). Lange and Fred M. Taylor proposed
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owned enterprises or that combines elements talism or pure communism are a misnomer.
of capitalism and socialism, or a mix of market
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economy and planned economy characteristics.
There is not one single definition for a mixed Features of a Mixed Economy
economy, but relevant aspects include: a de- Elements of both socialism and capitalism.
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gree of private economic freedom (including Both public and private investment.
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privately owned industry) intermingled with
centralized economic planning (which may
include intervention for environmentalism and
social welfare, or state ownership of some of
Freedom to buy, sell, and profit.
Economic planning by the state.
Significant regulations (e.g. wage or price
the means of production). The term "mixed controls) combined with, including taxes,
economy" arose in the context of political de- tariffs, and state-directed investment.
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State of the Indian Economy 4. The Reserve Bank of India followed a tight
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With 1.2 billion people and the worlds monetary policy to control inflation,
fourth largest economy, Indias recent growth although there has been some relaxation
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and development has been one of the most in the recent months in the Statutory
significant achievements. Over the six and half Liquidity Ratio (SLR) as well as Cash
decades since independence, the country has Reserve Requirement (CRR).
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brought about a landmark agricultural 5. Poor implementation of infrastructure
revolution that has transformed the nation from projects failed to provide proper boost to
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chronic dependence on grain imports into a
global agricultural powerhouse that is now a
net exporter of food. Life expectancy has more
the economy . Further delay in passage of
projects due to red-tapism has reduced
the investments in infrastructure.
than doubled, literacy rates have quadrupled, 6. The service sector declined due to a
health conditions have improved, and a size- reduction in the growth rate of Trade,
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able middle class has emerged. India is now hotels, transport and communications
home to globally- recognized companies in sector as these are demand driven sector
pharmaceuticals and steel and information and and high inflation is forcing people to
space technologies, and a growing voice on the invest less in these sector.
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tight monetary policy followed by the Reserve economic growth rate to increase to 6.4 per
Bank of India (RBI) through most of 2011-12, cent in 2013-14 from 5 per cent during 2012-
and continued uncertainty in the global economy. 13, on back of improvement in performance of
agriculture and manufacturing sectors.
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consistently been improving from 16.1 per cent Support Prices (MSPs) for major crops have
in 2007-8 to 19.8 per cent in 2011-12 (at been raised substantially by the Government in
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constant 2004-5 prices) 2012, in line with the objective of ensuring
remunerative prices to farmers for their produce
Overall GCF in agriculture (including the and with a view to encouraging higher
allied sector) almost doubled in last 10 years
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investment and production in the sector. This
and registered a compound average annual
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growth of 8.1 per cent. Rate of growth of GCF
accelerated to 9.7 per cent in the Eleventh Plan
(2007-12) compared to a growth of 2.7 per cent
policy also resulted in higher procurement of
foodgrains by Food Corporation of India (FCI)
and the State agencies. The procured foodgrains
are being made available to the consumers
during the Tenth Plan (2002-07). Average under the targeted public distribution system
annual growth of private investment at 12.5 (TPDS) at central issue prices(CIPs) that are
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per cent during Eleventh Plan (first four years) much less than the economic costs to the
was significantly higher as against nearly procuring agencies.
stagnant investment during the Tenth Plan.
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But there has been a decline in overall area Reasons for slow growth in agriculture sector:
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under foodgrains during 2011-12 (2nd Advance 1. Slowdown in agriculture growth.
Estimates) as compared to 2010-11. The area
coverage under foodgrains during 2011-12 2. Weak Framework for Sustainable Water
stood at 1254.92 lakh ha compared to 1267.65 Management and Irrigation.
lakh ha last year. The lower area under 3. Stringent land regulations discourage rural
foodgrains has been due to a shortfall in the investments.
area under jowar in Maharashtra, Rajasthan 4. Rural poor have little access to credit.
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and Gujarat; bajra in Maharashtra, Gujarat and 5. Weak Natural Resources Management.
Haryana; and in pulses in Maharashtra, Uttar
6. Excessive use of chemical inputs are
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
decreasing rate of fertility of soil.
However the area under coarse cereals and
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oilseeds has also come down as compared to 7. Frequent floods and droughts.
the previous year. The area coverage under rice 8. Irregular monsoon.
during 2011-12 is around 444.06 lakh ha which
15.44 lakh is ha more than the previous year. Industrial Sector
The area coverage under sugarcane during the As per the IIP, industrial output growth
current year has slightly improved to 50.81 lakh rate during April-September 2012-13 was 0.1
ha, higher by about 1.96 lakh hectares as per cent as compared to 5.1 per cent in April-
compared to the previous year, and the area September 2011-12. The Mining sector
under cotton has increased significantly to production has contracted in the last six
121.78 lakh ha as compared to 112.35 lakh ha quarters. The contraction in the current year
during 2010-11 was largely because of decline in natural gas
and crude petroleum output. Manufacturing,
The agriculture, including allied activities,
which is the dominant sector in industry, also
accounted for only 14.1 per cent of the GDP at
witnessed deceleration in growth, as did the
constant (2004-5) prices in 2011-12, its role in
electricity sector. There was, however, a sharp
the country's economy as its share in total
pick-up in growth in October 2012 with
employment according to the 2001 census is
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are: contributor to GDP among the various services
1. Drop of investment in new projects due sub-sectors, followed by financing, insurance,
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to the slower rate of growth in real estate, and business services with a 16.6
disbursement of bank credit. Further per cent share. Both these services showed
adverse business sentiment is also leading perceptible improvement in their shares over
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to lower investment. the years. Community, social, and personal
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2. Decline in capital goods, natural gas, crude
petroleum, and fertilizers output.
3. Infrastructure bottlenecks has impinged on
services with a share of 14.0 per cent is in third
place. Construction, a borderline services
inclusion, is at fourth place with an 8.2 per
cent share.
the performance of the mining and
electricity sectors. The HSBC Markit services Purchasing
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4. High inflation and high interest rates Managers' Index (PMI), which gauges business
which has made borrowing costs higher. activity from a survey of over 400 companies
5. The global economic slowdown. ranging from banks to hospitals, stood at 50.7
in April 2013
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4. Insurance companies has been empowered
to open branches in Tier II cities and The reasons behind persistent inflation are
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below without prior approval of IRDA. (a) higher international prices of crude, precious
5. All towns of India with a population of metals, edible oil etc. (b) change in dietary
10,000 or more will have an office of LIC pattern leading to structural demand supply
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and an office of at least one public sector mismatch for protein rich items (c) revision in
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6.
general insurance company.
An ambitious IT driven project to
modernise the postal network at a cost of
MSP prices for some of the essential
commodities (d) revision in petroleum prices in
September 2012 among others. Inflation has
been a major cause of concern for both the
Rs. 4,909 crore. Post offices to become part
Government and Reserve Bank of India who
of the core banking solution and offer real
are taking a number of measures to contain it
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time banking services.
as indicated.
Price Indices and Inflation 1. RBI has reduced the policy repo rate under
The headline inflation measured in terms the liquidity adjustment facility (LAF) by
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manufactured food products, with a weight of 3. The Bank Rate stands adjusted to 8.25 per
24.31 per cent, averaged 9.08 per cent in 2012- cent with immediate effect.
13 (April-December) as compared to 7.91 per
4. The cash reserve ratio (CRR) of scheduled
cent during the corresponding period in 2011-
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imports accounted for US$ 124.5 billion objective of the scheme is to boost Indias
(34.5 per cent of total import) in April- exports in these countries by providing long
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December 2012. This was 12.2 per cent term concessional credit through EXIM Bank,
higher than the level of US$ 111.0 billion in as co-financing in infrastructure sectors such
2011-12 (April-December). Non-Petrol oil and as drinking water, housing, irrigation, road
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lubricants imports during 2012-13 (April- projects, renewable energy, etc.
December) valued at US$ 236.7 billion, were
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6.4 per cent lower than the level of US$ 252.9 Apart from these, five new countries have
billion in 2011-12 (April-December). been added under the Focus Market Scheme
Consequently, trade deficit for 2012-13 (April- while Eritrea has been added under the Special
Focus Market Scheme. The five countries being
December) increased to US$ 147.2 billion vis-a-
added under FMS are New Zealand, Cayman
vis US$ 137.3 billion in 2011-12 (April-
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Islands, Latvia, Lithuania and Bulgaria. Under
December).
FMS Duty Credit of 3 per cent is given on the
Thus the biggest risk to the economy stems FoB value of exports. Sixty new products which
from the CAD which was historically the include Engineering, Rubber, Textiles, Drugs &
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highest and well above the sustainable level of Pharmaceuticals products among others, and
2.5 per cent of GDP as estimated by the Reserve three countries (Taiwan, Thailand and Czech
Bank. The priority has therefore been to reduce Republic) have been incorporated under the
CAD through improving trade balances. Efforts Market Linked Focus Product Scheme.
have been made to promote exports by
diversifying the export commodity basket and Banking Sector
export destinations. Banks as financial intermediaries collect
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national income and related aggregates is a part. Citizenship is basically a legal concept
based on the place of birth of the person or
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Some definitions used in national income some legal provisions allowing a person to
concept: become a citizen. On the other hand
a) What is Economic territory? residentship is basically an economic concept
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based on the basic economic activities performed
Economic territory is the geographical
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territory administered by a government within
which persons, goods and capital circulate A resident, whether a person or an
freely. institution, is one whose centre of economic
interest lies in the economic territory of the
Those parts of the political frontiers of a country in which he lives. That is NRI are the
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country where the government of India, does citizens of India but their economic interest lies
not enjoy the above freedom are not to be in other countries ( a engineer working in US
included in economic territory of that country. thus its economic interest in US) thus NRI are
One example is embassies. Government of known as Non Resident Indian.
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and Net? different sectors such as agriculture,
Gross means total value of products fishing, mining, construction,
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received from the buyer i.e. if I bought a laptop manufacturing, trade and commerce,
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and pay 1000 rupees then it is gross and net is transport, communication and other
what is received by company after deducting services. Then, the gross product is found
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the depreciation cost, excise duty, taxes etc i.e. out by adding up the net values of all the
finally company may receive 600 rupees after production that has taken place in these
deducting all this. Then it is known as Net. sectors during a given year.
e) What is the difference between market In order to arrive at the net value of
production of a given industry,
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price and Factor cost?
intermediate goods purchased by the
If, I buy a bike of 50000 rupees this is the
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producers of this industry are deducted
Gross amount (as discussed above) and when
Net.
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taxes and depreciation are deducted it becomes
from the gross value of production of that
industry. The aggregate or net values of
production of all the industry and sectors
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Some companies even get subsidies for of the economy plus the net factor income
their products. from abroad will give us the GNP. If we
deduct depreciation from the GNP we get
Thus Market price is 50000 rupees and NNP at market price. NNP at market price
Factor cost is market price indirect taxes + indirect taxes + subsidies will give us
Subsidies. NNP at factor cost or National Income.
This is what is actually available to The output method can be used where a
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production units for distribution of income census of production for the year is
among the owners of production house. calculated. The advantage of this method
is that it reveals the contributions and
Thus National income is defines as the Net relative importance and of the different
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consumption expenditure denoted by C.
In 1876, DadaBhai Naoroji was the first
b) Expenditure by private business
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person to prepare estimates of national income
enterprises on capital goods and on
and per capita income for the year 1867-68.
making additions to inventories or stocks
DadaBhai Naoroji estimated national income
in a year. This is called gross domestic
at Rs 340 crore and per capita income of Rs 20.
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private investment denoted by I.
Professor V.K.R.V. Rao estimated National
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c) Governments expenditure on goods and
services i.e. government purchases denoted
by G.
Income for the year 1931-32 at Rs 1689 crore
and per capita income at Rs 62. Ministry of
Commerce (Govt. of India) estimated national
d) Expenditure made by foreigners on goods income at Rs 6234 crore and per capita income
and services of the national economy over at Rs 198 for the year 1945-46. Presently
and above what this economy spends on Central Statistical Organization measures the
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the output of the foreign countries i.e. national income of the country.
exports imports denoted by (X M).
According to UN an under developed
Thus, GDP = C + I + G + (X M). country is one in which per capita real income
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is low when compared to that of US, Canada,
Limitations of National Income Estimation in Australia and western Europe.
India
There are limitations in the estimation of But a comprehensive measure of
National Income in India. These are: development must take into account the
potential of an economy to use its human,
a) The output of the non-monetized sector is natural and capital resources to raise the level
totally excluded. A difficulty arises in of living of its population.
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etc. After the independence the leaders of India adopted planning in the 1950s as a
independent India had to decide on the type vehicle of its development. Planning derives its
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of economic system most suitable for our nation objectives and social promises from the Directive
based on the principles guided by the Directive Principles of State Policy enshrined in the
Principles i.e. a system which would promote Constitution. The country has completed ten
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the welfare of all rather than a few. Five Year Plans and is currently engaged in
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The Directive Principles of the Constitution
implementing the Eleventh Plan.
lays down that: the State will direct its policy Each Plan registers gainsand some
towards securing that a) all citizens, men and inadequacies. The succeeding Plan should take
women equally have a right to an adequate means full cognizance of all these changes, no less
of livelihood; b) the ownership and control of the than their implications. The broad goals and
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resources of community are so distributed as best objectives of the State Plan are generally in
to achieve common good; c) economic development conformity with the National Plan although the
should not lead to concentration of wealth. strategies, thrust areas and programmes may
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vary.
There were mainly two types of economic
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systems: Capitalist and Socialist and among Issues in Development
them, socialism has been chosen by Jawaharlal
Nehru however not in toto. Nehru, and many The immediate goal for achievement was
other leaders and thinkers of the newly to increase living standard, decrease in poverty,
independent India, sought an alternative to the increase in agricultural and industrial
extreme versions of capitalism and socialism production, employment, savings and capital
formation and improvements in infrastructure.
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These structural backwardness pertained deficit became a major problem as most of the
mainly due to acute deficiency of capital, low revenues from the taxes were utilized in deficit
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rate of capital accumulation due to low capacity financing. It left little scope for social sector
to save and inadequacies in converting the development finance.
domestic savings into productive investment
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Among different sectors agricultural output
due to lack of infrastructure. Also, agriculture
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sector was marked with underemployed
labourers, reducing productivities and
diminishing returns due to fragmentation of
and development were sought to be augmented
by developing suitable developmental
programmes and providing assistance to the
farmers to help bridge the credit gap.
holdings.
Subsequently, government also resorted to
Another problem faced by the formulators providing subsidy to provide agricultural
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was the limited choices available in the form of assistance for inputs. Also industries like
trade off between present and future chemicals and fertilizers were also subsidized
consumption. Policy formulators faced with the for many years and are still being done so to
develop agricultural. However in subsidization
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The techniques that are applied in economic control mechanism. Industrial pricing were
planning can be broadly classified under overall introduced. In the sixties agricultural price
regulation of economic activities through fiscal commission was also established to control the
and monetary measures and the other is agricultural prices of important food grains and
through sectoral policies to regulate the commodities. Apart from the price control
economic activities. The sectoral policies were mechanism these sectors were also subjected to
based on the objectives to have a balanced various qualitative and quantitative controls.
regional growth. The Indian planners followed
expansionist fiscal and monetary measures as In agricultural sector pricing public
would have done by any of the developing distribution system and procurement policies
countries to increase the income and spending. played an important role. Building
infrastructure like public distribution system
Demand and supply management became would help the government in directly
a major concern with the growing economy as influencing the market price. This would help
the structure became more complicated. Later government in controlling the agricultural prices
on persistent inflationary pressures build up and checking inflationary pressures due to
limited the scope of monetary policies. Initially increases in food prices. In case of inflationary
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productivities.
1st, 2nd, 3rd plan periods, countrys output or
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production, percapita income, infrastructural Second plan for the growth of economy was
developments in terms of establishing given the prime importance. During this plan
institutions and industrial as well as financial investments were increased to promote
infrastructure, all grew at phenomenal rate industrial development thus taking
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however rate was slower than projected in plan. industrialization as the impetus for growth.
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However the growth rates trailed behind as
per the projections in the plan documents. In
Industrialization based on Mahalanobis model
was unveiled. Import substitution and enlarged
discussing the plan history it is most important public sector investment with focus on
to discuss the second plan as it marks the establishing PSUs in the areas that required
turning point for Indian economy as the growth huge investment were given importance.
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trajectory was based on the basis of
Third Plan and Fourth Plan were resultants
Mahalanobis formulation.
of repercussion of first and second plans when
The economic growth was expected to take the formulators realized that industrialization
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place through modern industrialization, thus alone without giving adequate attention to other
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expected to be replica of industrialization in sector growth resulted in failure of 1st & 2nd
advanced countries. But in the Mahalanobis Plan. Thus the need to develop agriculture
strategy stress were placed on import sector and infrastructure was paid attention to
substitution by developing the countries in these plans. It was during these years that
capabilities in producing capital goods. It was Green Revolution was undertaken to boost
on this line that during the second plan there agricultural production with the help of
increase in yield. Thus, taking the country back
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small scale industries expanded only to the the government formulated suitable agricultural
extent that it provided large scale employment price policy and came up with public
to labour. Thus the phase recorded 8 to 10 per distribution system concept. These two policies
cent growth in industrial output, 33.5 per cent helped the government in getting the control
growth in agricultural output and 1.75% of the market where it enabled the government
growth in per capita income. on playing a more proactive role in dealing
with situations of price rise and food security.
During First Plan Year that is in 1951-56 Also it helped the government in addressing
was a reflection of basically reconstructing the the issues of poverty where it tried to provide
tattered economy and establishing infrastructure the people living below poverty with food grains
and institution to enable the country run on its through rationing.
own. Initially the planners formulated policies
based on supply side of the economy ignoring During Fifth and Sixth five year plan a shift
any deficiencies in aggregate demand. Also the in strategies were warranted as the population
public investment in the areas in sectors that growth rate became very high making all the
had large gestation lag, public utilities and plan formulation fail. Thus these two plans
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urbanization leading to migration, increasing policies to increase employment and education.
Thus the policies focused on universalisation
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landless laborers, decrease in agricultural
productivities even after experiencing initial of education, increasing educational
spurt of green revolution due to lack of infrastructure and skill formation. Also issues
infrastructure and inputs, building up of related to unemployment were addressed.
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inflationary pressures and illiteracy. These Apart from stress on cottage and small scale,
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factors were supposed to form the basis of
seventh plan.
other government programmes that assisted in
addressing the unemployment isssues in rural
and urban areas were also undertaken. Thus
Increasing population and growing many of the government programmes like
demands led to increasing need to improve the integrated development programmes, trysem
agricultural production not only to make the etc were launched that had inbuilt and
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economy self reliant but also to meet the other integrated component directed to increase
impending factors arising out of it like employment. Some of the poverty alleviation
enhanced need to achieve a food security programmes were also launched to address the
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system. Though improving the existing pds and issue of increasing poverty like Minimum Needs
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procurement system played an important role, Programmes.
however increasing agricultural productivities
by expanding green revolution to other crops Eighth Plan and Liberalization in India
like rice and other cereals did form the original During seventh and eighth plan many
basis to achieve the goal. Apart from this factors emerged for non performance of the
improving agricultural infrastructure increasing economy on the whole with industrial sector
irrigation and extension of credit assistance,
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were also scrutinized and addressed. Basic collapse of Rupee Trade area and failure of the
issues that were identified were low economic off take to targeted growth path led
productivities in secondary sector, low capacity to a series of reforms in many sectors. The
utilization of existing capital resources and Eighth plan is also popularly known as
incompetetiveness in terms of cost and scale of Liberalization of the economy. The
operations of some of the public sector units liberalization policies were unveiled by then
came up. Some other factors that contributed Finance Minister Dr Manmohan Singh in the
to these inefficiencies in running were excessive year 199192. This was accompanied with
protection provided to these organizations. Thus substantial opening of the economy.
the seventh plan was targeted to address these
The frame work for the eighth plan
issues. There was shift in focus of planning for
encompassed four important macroeconomic
industry away from getting in any new
aspect related to liberalization. These were the
investment to existing optimum capacity
policy regime governing the trade, technology
utilization and productivity enhancement.
and trans-border capital flows; industrial
In the external sector appropriate export deregulation and administered price policy;
policies were also postulated to improve the financial sector reforms; and effective monetary
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and imports and capital inflows in EXIM liberalization policies were financial sector
policies. There were substantial reductions in reforms. Under credit lending and interest
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the import duties from 300 to 150, reducing
policies were reformed. Increasing role of the
tariffs on export to 110 per cent. Also partial
development financial institutions can be
convertibility of rupees was introduced in order
witnessed in this period and was duly
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to increase the incentives for exporters. Under
recognized by the government. Under this
the system exporters or the foreign exchange
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earned through the remitters could get
converted to rupees with 40 per cent at the
regime the lending rates could not be fixed by
these DFIs. Also the interest rates charged could
official exchange rate and 60 per cent of it at not be fixed on the basis of the market
market determined prices. conditions by these DFIs.
The banking sector was also subjected to
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In order to integrate the economy with
external world a series of capital flows policies series of reforms. The interest rate structure for
were also unveiled to increase the foreign direct the commercial banks was fixed upward.
flow in the economy. The regulation that was Lending credit limits were raised. Besides giving
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liberalized for FDI included technology transfer the banks flexibility to charge credit and lending
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through automatic route. The technology rates, partial deregulation of term deposit rates
collaboration and equity participation under of the commercial banks were also carried.
automatic route were also allowed up to 51
Many other reform policies that suited the
per cent in almost 31 areas.
new capital market structure where the private
Deregulation and Price Policies sector companies could also raise funds from
the market through equity participation were
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by reducing the bureaucratic interference in floating system of exchange rate during this
industrial operation by liberalizing entry and time. Many new forms of financial institutions
exit of the private firms, delicensing of many of like merchant banking, mutual funds, leasing
the industrial units, reducing government stake companies, venture capital companies and
in industrial sick units either through selling its factoring companies also came up. However
stake to other private players or closing down regulatory framework for many of these
of the non performing units. However, institutions was developed later.
disinvestments in large public sector units were
Credit policies related to lending were based
strongly opposed and were carried out
on prioritization. Thus the sectors that were in
cautiously in phased manner.
the priorities for development by the
Policies on small sector units that were non government were given easier access to credit.
performing were to assist in technological This helped in developing not only the lagging
upgradation and modernization. These units sectors but also the lagging regions. Extension
were not shut as these were labour intensive of banking system and culture through
and provided employment to millions. extension services and regional rural banks to
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of capital adequacy norms for the banks. The policies followed by the government.
commercial banks that operated internationally
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The government also tried to increase its
had to subsume to a capital adequacy ratio of revenue resources by substantially improving
8 per cent by March 1994 whereas domestic the tax structure. In it, apart from broadening
bank had to accede to a ratio of 4 per cent by
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the tax base the direct tax structure like income
March 1993. In case of the banks failing these tax, corporate tax structures were also modified.
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ratio norms had to tap the capital market for
raising funds in the form of loan and equity
participation. This led to decrease of government
Besides improving internal tax, external tariff
structures were improved by reducing the
external tariff to 110 per cent to increase
ownership stake in many of the commercial exports. Lowering of custom duties and other
banks. non tariff barriers helped in expanding the
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Monetary and Fiscal Policies foreign trade that helped generate revenue in
return. Indirect taxes like sales and excise taxes
Monetary and fiscal policies were targeted were also subjected to reform regulations.
to regulate and manage the aggregate demand MODVAT and value added taxes were
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reforming the tax structure prevalent in the system that helped in increasing the revenue
economy. Also prudent government from tax.
expenditure management by pruning the excess
expenditure was sought. The government Ninth Five Year Plan India ran through the
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expenditure had increased from 19 per cent of period from 1997 to 2002 with the main aim of
GDP in seventies to 31 per cent of GDP in 1990- attaining objectives like speedy
91. This was done by decreasing the non plan industrialization, human development, full-scale
expenditure of the states, controlling employment, poverty reduction, and self-
consumption expenditure and reducing reliance on domestic resources.
subsidization.
The main feature of the Ninth Five Year
The consumption expenditure of the Plan India is that at its onset our nation crossed
government rose on account of two variables the fifty years of independence and this called
defence expenditure and increased for a whole new set of development measures.
administrative cost. Government tried to reduce There was a fresh need felt for increasing the
both these cost by reforming the bureaucratic social and economic developmental measures.
structures and deregulating the large public The government felt that the full economic
sector units. potentiality of the country, yet to be explored,
should be utilized for an overall growth in the
The subsidy element had increased the next five years. As a result in the Ninth Five
expenditure of the government by 4 per cent in Year Plan India, the emphasis was on human
The Ninth Five Year Plan of India looks More investor friendly flexible economic
through the past weaknesses in order to frame reforms.
the new measures for the overall socio- Creation of congenial investment
economic development of the country. environment.
However, for a well-planned economy of any
Encourage private sector involvement
country, there should be a combined
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participation of the governmental agencies Setting up state-of-the-art infrastructure.
along with the general population of that
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Capacity building in industry.
nation. A combined effort of public, private,
and all levels of government are essential for Corporate transparency.
ensuring the growth of Indias economy. Mobilizing and optimizing all financial
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resources.
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Objectives of Ninth Five Year Plan:
To encourage social issues like women The focus in this plan shifted from
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was targeted to increase from 4.1 per cent in
guarantee act (NAREGA) that mainly helped
200607 to 6.8 per cent in 201112.
creation of rural employment and rural assets
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was extended to 330 districts more. Agricultural The increased investment is projected to be
development under the government most likely to be funded by increasing
programmes like Accelerated Irrigation Benefits, equivalent increase in savings. Further stress is
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Bharat Nirman, Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna put on the increase in domestic savings.
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and National Rainfed Area Authority were
extended. National food security mission to
address the food crisis in India and especially
Whereas the main factors identified for
increasing the domestic savings was household
savings and corporate savings, the public sector
among rural poor was launched. Government savings played lesser role in it. Though during
also launched national rural health mission the seventh plan the public sector savings
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scheme to improve the countrys health improved as compared to previous plan on
expenditure. account of the impact of the Fifth Pay
Commissions recommendations worked itself
The economic development for the eleventh out in the system, the implementation of the
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plan was based on series of model of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management
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economy. A broad framework which (FRBM) Act, and the fiscal and revenue deficit
represented an indicative planning was targets for 200809 established thereby helped
prepared. Under this different growth targets introduce an element of discipline, and the
for different sectors were fixed to achieve overall buoyancy in tax revenues arising out of the
9 per cent annual growth rate for the GDP. high growth rate recorded in the Tenth Plan
There was an increase in investment and saving combined with improvements in tax
target though the increased planned for
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output ratio) amounted to a substantial external account were also unveiled. In the
amount. Agricultural growth target was fixed globalised market where the financial system
at 4 per cent, industry at 10-11 per cent and was complicated the role of external factors
services at 9-11 per cent. are important. Thus a series of policies were
announced to help the economy not only
Among the industrial growth core sector integrate with globalized market but also avail
growth formed the basis of the industrial the opportunities from it. The merchandise
growth model. This was likely to be achieved trade was further liberalized by reducing the
with an increase in overall investment to 37-38 quantitative and qualitative restrictions. Also
per cent on average throughout the plan period. many new export promoting incentives were
The major structural change in the investment announced. To increase both foreign direct
pattern was decrease in share of the public investment that were long term and
investment in total investment. The private institutional investment that are short term the
sector investment now accounts for almost 77 government reformed its financial and capital
per cent in total investment in the economy. markets. For example apart from allowing 51
Competitive environment was sought to be percent FDI in most of the sectors appropriate
increased by policy enactment such that the special economic zone policies conducive for
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investment, food scarcity, etc. On the other still ordination across Ministries and between
Indian economy tryst with destiny is far from Centre and States, even though most problems
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true realization as socio-economic and human require inter-Governmental and inter-
development indicators has been the biggest Ministerial co-ordination.
obstacle for the realization of an egalitarian
Twelfth Plan Objectives
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society.
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So far eleven plans have been formulated The basic objective for the Twelfth Plan must
and implemented. The approach paper to the be faster, more inclusive and sustainable
12th Plan has been approved by the Cabinet in growth.
September. It would be prudent to analyse the A key issue is what the Growth target
performance of the Eleventh Plan as given by should be. The target of 10% is being mentioned,
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the Mid-Term Appraisal of the 11th Plan in but assessment of the 11th Plan and uncertain
brief and then the issues that has been identified global environment indicates that even 9% will
by the 12th Plan that need to be overcome. be difficult to achieve. In the short to medium
run, the main constraints relate to insufficient
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Agriculture and Rural Development
societies need greater protection and promotion.
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Moving forward on the estimated Steps need to be taken to make PESA and FRA
agriculture growth of 3-3.2% in the 11th Plan, more effective. This can be in conjunction with
12th Plan has aimed a target of 4% agricultural schemes for increasing resources directed to the
backward regions.
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growth. It is further estimated that cereals will
grow only at 1.5 to 2.0%. However, other food
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(horticulture, dairying, fisheries etc.) need to
grow at more than 5%. This calls for a change Water is emerging as a major problem, both
in agricultural strategy as these are all for drinking as well as for irrigation. Urban
perishable products, and therefore subject to and industrial demand for water is going up
much higher degree of market risk than food- rapidly, without commensurate augmentation
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grains, oil seeds or natural fibres. In the case of of supply. To address this critical problem,
these products, which are all relatively high need is to put an integrated strategy in place
value, investments and institutional immediately. The elements of this strategy
development are more important than subsidies could be:
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or price support systems. Re-estimate Indias water balance basin-
In order to achieve the agriculture growth wise. All aquifers must be mapped over
of 4% 12th Plan has emphasized on raising the next five years and aquifer management
land productivity and water use efficiency. plans put in place.
State specific strategies are emphasised. Dry AIBP must be restructured to incentivize
areas need to focus on livestock. Most irrigation reform and efficiency of water
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convened for this purpose. Education
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Industry Education has received less funds in the
Eleventh Plan than was envisaged. This is partly
Manufacturing performance is weak. because the sector made a slow start, but also
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Growth of manufacturing in the 11thPlan is because of resource constraints. The Twelfth
likely to be only 8%. We need to raise this to
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11-12% per year in the 12th Plan to create the
Plan has to correct this.
Eleventh Plan focused on quantity in school
jobs for our growing labour force. This has
become a particularly urgent need since it is expansion. In this regard significant success has
now clear that agriculture will no longer absorb been recorded with enrolment rates going up
more workers, and may indeed release some of rapidly, especially in primary education.
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the existing work-force. As per the 12th Plan However, scholastic achievement tests show
estimation, the manufacturing sector will have that learning achievements of the students are
to create around 3 to 4 million jobs over and well below desired levels. Twelfth Plan must
above the pace of job creation in the recent focus on quality. This includes teacher training
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past. and evaluation, and also measures to enforce
accountability.
To achieve the desired growth in
manufacturing 12th Plan emphasizes on There is need to rapidly build capacity in
effectively harnessing the abundance of secondary schools to absorb the graduates from
abundance of entrepreneurial talent in the expanded primary enrolments. States must
country. The corporate sector has largely been facilitate PPP in secondary education. States
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unfettered, and has demonstrated its are keen to do this, and Planning Commission
dynamism. There are, however, limits to which is collaborating with them on this. The drop-
it can grow. A large part of the additional out rates between primary and secondary
growth will have to come from the MSME education continue to be extremely high, which
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sector, which continues to face a plethora of raises questions regarding the perceptions of
hurdles in realizing its true potential. The the utility of secondary education among the
Twelfth Plan will need to focus on this. people. This will need to be changed through
introducing higher skill content at the secondary
For accelerating manufacturing growth,
schools level. Vocational education will need
therefore, we need a strategy to:
to be given greater emphasis and made more
Achieve greater domestic value addition attractive.
and technological depth in Indian industry
to cater to growing domestic demand and The gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher
to improve our trade position. education must be targeted to increase from
nearly 18% today to say 25% by 2016-17 and
Attract investment, including FDI, in
perhaps 30% by 2020. Private universities and
critical areas where manufacturing capacity
colleges have played a major role in increasing
should modernised and developed.
enrolment in higher education in recent years,
Improve the business environment and but there are concerns regarding both equity
reduce the cost of doing business. This is and quality. Measures will need to be taken to
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to focus on preventive aspects of health care, Forest and environment clearance
particularly drinking water, sanitation, procedures are hindering both coal
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nutrition, better maternal and child services and availability and hydro-power development.
immunisation. State governments with coal and hydro
Shortage of qualified medical personnel at resources have been complaining strongly
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all levels is a major hurdle in improving the about the costs being borne by them.
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outreach of the healthcare system, especially
the public health facilities. This needs to be
corrected expeditiously. Efforts are already
The implementation of past policy initiatives
is incomplete. Prices of electricity are not
sufficiently flexible and regulators are being
underway to increase the out-turn of doctors. restrained from allowing periodic price
This will have to be accelerated, and similar increases. Open access is still not a reality,
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efforts have to be put in place for nurses and and needs to be incentivized.
medical technicians. However, such efforts will
take time to have sufficient impact. In the At present, petroleum, gas and coal prices
meanwhile, systems will need to be put in place all three are out of line with world prices
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requires more support. It is also not clear a track where monitorable milestones
whether the current bidding process is targets are set for the 12th Plan with
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sufficiently competitive and provides maximum emphasis on viable BOT projects
appropriate incentives for improving to reduce the demand for Government
efficiency. Wind power too requires greater resources.
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support, especially for off-shore locations
The port expansion programme has been
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which have not been sufficiently explored.
Demand side management of energy is as
seriously delayed. PPP in ports should be
exploited. Much more needs to be done to
important as action on the supply side. deepen ports.
Realistic pricing will help. However, we
also need more pro-active standard setting Plan Size and Resources
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for appliances, vehicles and buildings.
In this regard, as in the past, a Working
Transport Group has been set up under the Chairmanship
of the Chief Economic Adviser. The size will
GDP growth at 9% or more will need to be depend upon:
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supported by much faster expansion in the buoyancy in revenues
transport infrastructure than we have seen in
the past. The requirements of energy efficiency the tolerable level of the fiscal deficit
also require a shift from road to rail in freight. the extent to which we can control non-
Plan expenditure including subsidies.
The following are some of the important
issues that arise: A tentative picture available at present
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The Dedicated Freight Corridor project is a suggests that the Centres GBS could increase
major capacity enhancing investment for from 4.9% of GDP in 2011-12 to 6.2% of GDP
the Railways. It must be put on a monitoring in 2016-17. Most of this increase will be in the
system such that both corridors are last two years of the Plan since in the first three
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completed before the end of the Twelfth years the fiscal deficit will have to be
Plan. For this purpose, milestone must be compressed from 4.6% in 2011-12 (the base
clearly fixed, and responsibility assigned. year) to 4.1%, 3.5% and finally 3.0% in
2014-15.
The Railways have to undertake an
ambitious programme of modernisation and A key assumption affecting the resource
technical upgradation which increases their projection is that non-Plan expenditure growth
freight carrying capacity. Unless this is done can be contained below GDP growth. The
they will not be capable of facilitating the absence of a Pay Commission in this period
shift from road to rail transport which is will help. However, critical to this projection is
crucial for energy efficiency. This can only the assumption that subsidies will grow by only
be achieved if (a) the Railways desist from 5% per year. It may be difficult to contain food
diverting resources to gauge conversion and subsidy within that limit, depending on the
uneconomic passenger lines and (b) outcome of the Food Security Act. However,
Railways financing is improved to be able strong action will be needed in containing
to support medium term expansion. fertiliser subsidy and petroleum subsidies.
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was partly on account of major new schemes
being launched during the Plan and partly due concerned Ministries which can be used to
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to limitations in the absorptive capacity in these support state-level innovations and/or up-
sectors. The preparatory work done during scaling of successful experiments. The success
the 11th Plan has led to significant improvement of the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY),
which is in effect a flexi-fund scheme, as
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in absorptive capacities, and these sectors both
require and are ready for significant increases
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in allocations. It is estimated that the GBS credibility to this approach.
allocated to these two sectors, including skill
A compelling argument has also been made
development initiatives, will need to be
regarding the lack of ownership of the CSS by
increased by at least 1.2 percentage point of
the States, and its consequent effect in terms of
GDP.
poor implementation. It has been proposed
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Infrastructure investments have seen therefore that the model used in the new
significant improvement during the 11th Plan, APDRP should be extended to all other CSS as
but the pace of infrastructure development well. In this model, central funds are initially
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needs further acceleration if the glaring provided as loans to the state governments,
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infrastructure gaps are to be bridged within a which are subsequently converted to grants on
reasonable time-frame. Although PPPs have achievement of pre-specified outcome or output
been successful in a number of infrastructure targets.
sectors, and efforts will need to be continued
in further encouraging private sector Governance and Empowerment
involvement, it is felt that public investment in Citizen feedback reveals general
infrastructure, particularly irrigation, watershed
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These sectors will therefore need an increase understanding of the desires and limitations of
of 1.9 percentage points of GDP as GBS during the beneficiaries, especially the most
the 12th Plan. The GBS for the other sectors as disadvantaged; (ii) systems for informing the
a percentage of GDP must therefore go down. people of their rights and entitlements are very
The allocation of these sectors will increase in poor and often exclusionary; (iii) the service
absolute terms, but more slowly than real GDP. delivery personnel, apart from issues of
This reprioritisation must be accepted. corruption, are inadequately informed of their
duties and responsibilities and take little pride
The above situation emphasises the in their work; and (iv) complaint redressal
importance of resorting to PPP as much as systems are not independent of the delivery
possible. This is particularly important in the mechanism resulting in non-responsive
social sectors, where only tentative beginnings behavior.
have been made. Several states have initiated
interesting models of PPP in social service People should be active agents of change
delivery. These experiments need to be and this can be achieved only if flagship
evaluated and best practices up-scaled to the programmes provide human and financial
national level. resources for social mobilization, capacity
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Government departments engaged in
Information dissemination methodologies related areas tend to work in silos. The need is
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need to be entirely recast. The poorest and for much better mechanism for converging the
most disadvantaged need to be targeted activity of these departments. In many areas
specifically. It is also felt that women and the there is need for effective mechanisms for
resolution of inter-Ministerial and inter-
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youth are the most effective agents of change,
departmental differences. This is particularly
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and advantage should be taken of organizations
which work closely with them to spread relevant
true in the field where the Collector is
potentially the only possible focus of
programme information through formal and
convergence but is actually far too
informal channels. overburdened.
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which is collected by intermediaries who turn
have two main components-(1) Public Revenue over the proceeds to the government and file
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and (2) Public Expenditure. the related tax return. Some examples of indi-
rect taxes are-Excise Duty, Customs Duty, Sales
PUBLIC REVENUE Tax, etc.
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Public revenue refers to revenue of the gov-
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ernment from tax and non-tax sources. There
are two broad sources of public revenue- Tax
and non-tax sources. Taxes are compulsory lev-
ies, which every citizen is legally obliged to pay
Impact and Incidence of Taxes
The impact of a tax refers to the first point
of levy of a tax whereas the incidence of a tax
refers to the final resting point of a tax. Now,
to the government. Taxes are broadly categorised the taxes in which the impact and incidence lie
as direct and indirect taxes. The non-tax sources at the same point are not shiftable, hence, they
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of public revenue are mobilised from a variety of are direct taxes. On the other hand taxes in
sources. The non-tax sources include, among oth- which impact of taxes is at one point and the
ers, the surplus and profit generated in the com- incidence is on another point, they are shift-
mercial undertakings of the government, the sav- able, hence, they are indirect taxes.
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ings and profits of the Public sector undertakings,
market borrowings, interest, repayment of prin- Canons of a Good Tax
cipal by the debtors, the disinvestment proceeds Adam Smith has prescribed four canons of a
of Public sector undertakings, signoirage, etc. good tax. They are:
(i) Canon of Equality: According to this canon,
Tax Base taxes should be in proportion to the abil-
Tax base refers to the base on which a tax
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ied on commodity production and sale (excise and mode and manner of payment, the
duty and sales tax). Taxes are also levied on rate of taxes to be paid, etc.
cross border transactions or movements of com- (iii) Canon of Convenience: The mode and tim-
modities (customs duty). ing of tax payment should be convenient
to the tax payer.
Direct and Indirect Taxes (iv) Canon of Economy: The cost of collection
All taxes have been broadly categorized as of taxes should be minimum. Some more
direct and indirect taxes. canons of a good tax were added later by
public finance experts. The important
Direct Taxes: In the colloquial sense, a di-
among them are:
rect tax is one paid directly to the government
by the persons (juristic or natural) on whom it (v) Canon of Productivity: It is called the
is imposed (often accompanied by a tax return canon of fiscal adequacy as well. Accord-
filed by the taxpayer). Examples include some ing to this canon, a tax must be able to
income taxes, some corporate taxes, Property garner sufficient public revenue for the
Tax, Wealth Tax, Expenditure Tax and treasury so that the government can avoid
transfertaxes such as estate (inheritance) tax and gift tax. deficit financing.
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simple to understand and administer.
(ix) Canon of Diversity: A tax system should The taxes under State List as given in the
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permit diversity and variety of taxes rather List- II of the Seventh Schedule of Indian Con-
than relying on a few taxes.
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stitution are as follows:
1. Land revenue;
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Constitutional Provisions to Levy and Collect
Taxes 2. Taxes on the sale and purchase of goods,
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The central and state governments need
funds to meet various socio-economic obliga-
tions. The constitution has clearly mentioned
except newspapers;
3. Taxes on agricultural income;
4. Taxes on land and buildings;
about the powers of centre and the states with 5. Succession and estate duties on agricul-
regard to levy and collection of taxes. Among
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tural land;
the taxes levied and collected by the central
government the most important are the central 6. Excise on alcohol liquor and narcotics;
excise duty and customs duties, apart from 7. Taxes on the entry of goods into a local area;
income and corporation taxes. But the centre is
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sales tax syatem, wherein they levied and col- 12. Taxes on goods and passengers carried by
lected it with their own machinery. From 1st board or inland waterways;
April onwards, 21 states have shifted to a sys- 13. Taxes on luxuries including entertain-
tem of unified VAT.
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dent every five years or earlier.
3. Taxes on railway freight and fares;
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4. Taxes on transaction in stock exchanges NEW TAXES IN INDIA
and future markets;
5. Taxes on the sale and purchase of news- The Fringe Benefit Tax
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papers and advertisements therein. The Budget 2005-06 has imposed what it calls
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6. Proceeds of additional excise duties on
mill-made textiles, sugar and tobacco.
These taxes were levied in 1957 by the
a 'fringe benefit' tax on certain expenses incurred
by corporates. These expenses are deemed to be
in the nature of fringe benefits extended to em-
Union in lieu of states' sales taxes on these ployees. The specified expenses when incurred
commodities, are wholly distributed on employees are 'deemed' to be 'fringe benefits,'
and hence, attract a tax even though the em-
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among the states in a manner that en-
ployee may not derive any benefit from it. The
sures their past income from the same
budget 2005-06 contains the definition of 'fringe
intact.
benefits' as "any privilege, service, facility or
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The union government has exclusive any contribution by the employer to an approved
power to impose taxes, which are not spe- superannuation fund. Some of the most com-
cifically mentioned in the State or Con- mon fringe benefits include car, computer ser-
current List. vices, hotel and tour expenses, etc. which gener-
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The property of the Union is exempted ally becomes a fringe benefit when it is owned or
from state taxation and the property and leased by an employer and made available for
income of the states are exempt from the private use of an employee. This tax was
Union taxes. scrapped in the budget 2009-10.
The Parliament may pass legislation for
taxation by the Union of any trading or Banking Cash Transaction Tax
business activities of a state, which are not The budget 2005-06 has introduced a tax on
part of the ordinary functions of the Gov- cash withdrawal from banks, called
ernment. Banking Cash Transaction Tax or Banking Cash
States may delegate part of their taxation Withdrawal Tax. The new banking cash trans-
powers to the central government. The pro- action tax, introduced for the first time in the
vision has been applied in the case of ag- Indian Budget was meant to keep a tax trail on
ricultural land, which has been included blackmoney.The savings accounts were totally
in the purview of Estate duties in many exempted from 0.1 per cent tax on cash with-
states. drawal from banks following criticism
Parliament has exclusive powers to tax from trade, industry and political parties.The tax
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transactions, the tax would be effective. Origi- tral and state level taxation, the entire element
nally proposed to levy transaction tax of Rs 10,000 of tax borne by a good (or a service) would be
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and above, Finance Minister P. Chidambaram represented by the GST paid on it. A GST of
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later scaled up the limit to Rs 25,000 after it 20% might seem high, but it would be about
evoked wide-spread criticism from industry and half the actual incidence of tax in most goods
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political parties. The budget 2008-09 announced at present.
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that Banking Cash Transaction Tax (BCTT)
would be withdrawn with effect from April 1,
2009.
CENVAT
Central value Added Tax is the rechristened
MODVAT. The Government introduced
Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) CENVAT in lieu of central excise taxes in 2000-
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In almost all the economies of the world, 01 budget and it plans to extend the CENVAT
income tax laws provide a number of conces- to the customs duties in due course. Initially
sions in their income tax laws. A profit mak- the CENVAT was introduced as an experiment
ing clever company may conduct its business on a limited basis, but later it was extended to
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state VAT.
In the 1996-97 budgets, an effort was made
to tackle the phenomenon of zero tax compa- Introduction of VAT would help avoid cas-
nies, which despite having substantial book cading nature of sales tax.
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profits paid zero tax. The government brought Present multiple rates and taxes can con-
the zero tax companies under the tax net. Thus, verge into a few rates and a single VAT.
where the total income of a company after
availing all eligible deductions was less than 30 Transparency in the system of tax admin-
per cent of the book profit, the total income of istration through simple self-assessments
such companies was deemed to be 30 per cent and departmental audit.
of the book profit and they were charged a Rationalisation of taxes to result in lower
minimum tax which works out to be 12 per tax burden and higher tax revenues.
cent of the book profit. Some sectors such as To avoid tax competition, the design of
power, infrastructure and exports were exempt State VAT needs to be harmonized even
from the MAT. as the distinctive needs of individual States
are recognized.
Value-Added Tax (VAT) and GST State VAT to have two basic rates of 4 per
VAT (Value Added Tax) was introduced to cent and 12.5 per cent and to cover 550
avoid cascading of taxes (tax being levied upon commodities. About 270 commodities will
a price that includes one or more elements of be under 4 per cent rate.
tax) as a product passes through different 46 items, comprising of natural and unproc-
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the budget proposals should be directly related
taxes, modification of the existing tax structure
to the extent to which they can be imple-
or continuance of the existing tax structure be-
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mented. The implementation of a budget involves
yond the period approved by Parliament are
making programmes, setting agencies that will
submitted to Parliament through this bill. It is implement it and the modus operandi for the
the key document as far as taxes are concerned.
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same.
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Budget
Budget (from originating from french word
'bougette') generally refers to a list of all planned
Performance Based Budgeting (PBB): Tests
have been devised for comparing actual with
the expected results and thereby assessing the
efficiency of the project in terms of its perfor-
expenses and revenues of government. An an- mance. This aspect of budgeting is referred to
nual proposal that outlines anticipated Federal as the performance budgeting. Performance
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revenue and designates program expenditures for budget, as stated by the Hoover Commission
the upcoming fiscal year. Thus budget is a state- (USA), is based upon activities, functions and
ment of the State's program plan, the resources projects of the government.
necessary to support that plan, a description of
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March 31. The Union Budget is the most exten- expenditure policy of the government at the
sive account of the government's finances, in executors (not legislative) level. It incorporates
which revenues from all sources and expenses of rules of managerial efficiency and flexibility in
all activities undertaken are aggregated. both formulation and execution of expenditure
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Fiscal Year
Revenue and Capital Budgets
A fiscal year (or financial year, or sometimes
budget year) is a period used for calculating A budget has two accounts, namely, (1) rev-
enue account and (2) capital account. Revenue
annual ("yearly") financial statements in busi-
account includes all receipts and expenditure,
nesses and other organizations. In many juris-
which are of recurring nature and which do
dictions, regulatory laws regarding accounting
not pertain to sale and purchase of assets. The
and taxation require such reports once per
capital account includes the heads which per-
twelve months, but do not require that the
tain to receipts and expenditures of long term
period reported on constitutes a calendar year
nature and sale and purchase of assets. The
(i.e., January through December). Fiscal years
former is often called revenue budget whereas
vary between businesses and countries. In New the latter is called capital budget.
Zealand, India, Hong Kong, the government's
financial year runs from April 1 to March
31.The U.S. government's fiscal year begins on Revenue Budget
October 1 of the previous calendar year and Revenue accounts cover those items, which
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health, housing, broadcasting and so on) and the total expenditure, which is directed to
finance the schemes specifically initiated under
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revenue from other services (such as agriculture
and allied services, industry and mines, trans- the given plan or which are the spillover of the
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port and communications). previous plan (s). The non-plan expenditure
includes such expenditures, which are done on
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the maintenance of completed projects and
Capital Budget (or Capital Account)
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Capital Budget or Capital Account of the
budget covers those items, which are in the
nature of acquiring and disposing of capital
other running expenditure of government.
ment. Capital disbursements would include ex- the ZBB is a means to convert a programme
penditure on acquisition of various physical buget into an essentially performance budget.
assets like land, buildings, machinery and equip- In the sphere of public budgeting, ZBB was
ment, investments in shares and debentures first tried by Mr. Jimmy Carter, Governor of
and loans to state governments and other bod- Georgia in 1973. Gradually zero based budget-
ies. The capital budget also incorporates the ing was given a trial in other states of the USA.
transactions in the Public Account.
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in addition to the division of the budget into vis target) and achievement. If a segment/sec-
Revenue and Capital Accounts, the Plan Bud- tion is not able to justify its own existence, it
get was also prepared. would be closed down. And if its existence is
The Plan Budget was a document, which justified, the optimum levels of its operations
showed the budgetary provisions for important and the corresponding budgetary provisions
projects, programs and schemes included in the have also to be defended. ZBB refers to budget-
central plan. It gave the details of the budget- ing process where every section (item of ex-
ary support for the Central Plan by sectors of penditure) has to justify its worth against the
development, including the central plan assis- expenditure it claims. In other words justifica-
tance for States and Union Territories. The tion as to why money should be spent on a
break-up of the proposed outlays between Gen- particular head has to be proved by the
eral Services, Social and Community Services spender. Every time, this exercise has to start
and Economic Services was shown together ab initio. An effective adoption of ZBB needs a
with various physical targets wherever possible. lot of understanding and detailed working out
of different levels. The main hurdles, apart from
Plan and Non-Plan Budget: Currently, in
lack of data are firstly that ZBB may prove
pursuance of the recommendations of the Au-
more expensive for it needs elaborate study and
ditor and Comptroller General of India, the
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Plan Expenditure
This is essentially the Budget support to the
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Various Kinds of Deficits
central plan and the central assistance to state
1. Budget Deficit = Deficit on Revenue
plans like all Budget heads, this is also split Account plus Deficit on Capital Account.
into revenue and capital components.
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2. Revenue Deficit = Deficit on Revenue
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Non-plan Expenditure That is Revenue Expenditure - Revenue
This is largely the revenue expenditure of Receipt. (Rev. Exp.> Rev. Rec.)
the government. The biggest items of expendi-
This deficit is an indicator of government's
ture are interest payments, subsidies, salaries,
imprudent consumption.
defence and pension. The capital component
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of the non-plan expenditure is relatively small 3. Fiscal Deficit = Budget Deficit + Other
with the largest allocation going to defence. It liabilities = Budget Deficit plus borrowings
is important to note that the entire defence ex- from internal market other than 91-day
penditure is non-plan expenditure. ad-hoc treasury bills + External borrow-
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A
ing = Budget Deficit + Borrowing through
treasury bills (other than 91-day) + Bor-
Deficit Financing rowing from Small Savings + Borrowing
Deficit financing means an excess of public from provident fund + other borrowings
expenditure over public revenue. This excess including external.
may be met by sale of public assets, borrow- 4. Monetised Deficit = Net increase in bor-
ings from the domestic market, borrowings from rowing from RBI in a fiscal year.
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abroad, or drawing down of cash balances of 5. Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit - Interest
GOI or the issue (print) of fresh money by the payment.
Central Bank.
Since 91 day ad-hoc treasury bills are not
issued since 1997, the concept of budget deficit
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(iii) Reduce Deficit Financing: Deficit financing
economy by varying any or all types of
is greatly restricted. The printing of more
expenditure.
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notes would only increase the rate of
(b) Fiscal Instruments Related to Financing inflation.
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of Government Expenditure: Taxation,
public debt and deficit financing are the (iv) Public Borrowing: The situation demands
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three fiscal instruments related to less purchasing power with the people.
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financing of government expenditure.
Government can correct the situations of
excess demand or deficient demand in the
economy by using above mentioned
So, the government takes resort to
increased public borrowing.
(1) Decrease in Taxes: Government decreases The principal objective of fiscal policy is to
taxes, which leaves the households with ensure rapid economic growth and development.
more purchasing power and the firms This objective of economic growth and
with more cash reserves. Direct taxes like development can be achieved by Mobilization of
income tax, corporation tax etc are Financial Resources.
reduced. As a result both households as
The central and the state governments in
well as investors will be encouraged to
India have used fiscal policy to mobilize resources.
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increases expenditure over public health, by way of direct taxes as well as indirect
education, subsidies and transfer taxes because most important source of
payments, and public works. Public
resource mobilization in India is taxation.
expenditure causes the level of income to
increase in economy. Higher level of b) Public Savings: The resources can be mobilized
income causes high level of demand. through public savings by reducing
government expenditure and increasing
(3) Increase Deficit financing: Deficit
financing (by way of printing more notes surpluses of public sector enterprises.
for additional expenditure) is increased c) Private Savings: Through effective fiscal
during times of deficient demand so that measures such as tax benefits, the
the overall level of purchasing power is government can raise resources from
enhanced in the economy. private sector and households. Resources
(4) Public Borrowing: Public borrowing is can be mobilized through government
reduced so that people are left with borrowings by ways of treasury bills, issue
greater disposable income. of government bonds, etc., loans from
domestic and foreign parties and by deficit
(d) Fiscal Policy and Excess Demand financing.
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corrected either by imposing duties on imports
ensure that the resources are allocated for
or by giving subsidies to export.
generation of goods and services which are
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socially desirable. Therefore, India's fiscal 8. Development of Infrastructure
policy is designed in such a manner so as to Government has placed emphasis on the
encourage production of desirable goods and infrastructure development for the purpose of
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discourage those goods which are socially achieving economic growth. The fiscal policy
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undesirable.
3. Reduction in inequalities of Income and
Wealth
measures such as taxation generates revenue
to the government. A part of the government's
revenue is invested in the infrastructure
development. Due to this, all sectors of the
Fiscal policy aims at achieving equity or economy get a boost.
social justice by reducing income inequalities
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among different sections of the society. The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management
direct taxes such as income tax are charged (FRBM) Act
more on the rich people as compared to lower
income groups. Indirect taxes are also more in Enacted in 2003, the Fiscal Responsibility and
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Therefore, the government always aims to the entire Budget is at current market prices the
control the inflation by reducing fiscal deficits, deficits are also calculated with reference to GDP
introducing tax savings schemes, Productive use at current market prices. The main features of
of financial resources, etc. the bill are as follows:
5. Employment Generation The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Man-
The government is making every possible agement (FRBM) Bill was introduced in De-
effort to increase employment in the country cember 2000 and enacted in August 2003. The
through effective fiscal measure. rules are effective from July 5, 2004 and the
government has implemented the FRBM Act.
6. Balanced Regional Development Following are the main features of the FRBM
Another main objective of the fiscal policy Act:
is to bring about a balanced regional develop- The Act stipulates the elimination of rev-
ment. There are various incentives from the enue deficit by March 31, 2008.
government for setting up projects in backward According to the Act, the revenue deficit
areas such as Cash subsidy, Concess-ion in is to be reduced by a minimum of 0.5% of
taxes and duties in the form of tax holidays, GDP per annum and the fiscal deficit by
Finance at concessional interest rates, etc.
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sessment of trends of receipts and expendi- points.
ture. The Government also has to annually
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present the macro-economic framework Capital Gains Tax: The present tax treat-
statement, medium term fiscal policy state- ment of long-term capital gains is not correct
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ment and fiscal policy strategy statement. because the deductions allowed in computing
The three statements would provide the taxable gain is not related to the period of time
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macro economic background and assess- for which the assets have been held. It does
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ment relating to the achievement of FRBM
goals.
The medium term fiscal policy statement
will contain a three-year rolling target for
not take into account the inflation that may
have occurred over-time. So the committee has
recommended a system of indexation to ward-
off the inflationary effect on capital gains.
key fiscal parameters that underpin the
The Committee also suggested that for levy-
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Government's fiscal correction trajectory.
ing wealth tax a distinction is to be made
Through the FRBM discipline, the Govern-
between productive and non-productive assets.
ment is also committed to undertake an
intra-year assessment of the achievement Thus by exempting productive assets such as
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mended far reaching changes in the tax sys- the tariff rates and a rationalization of the sys-
tem. The main objectives of tax reform were (i) tem with abolition of numerous end-use ex-
to remove loopholes from the system that lead emptions and concessions.
to evasion (ii) to simplify and rationalize the
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tax structure, (iii) to make the tax structure Excise Duties: The committee has recom-
efficient and transparent from the point of view mended the switching over to ad-valorem rates
of revenue collection. In brief the proposals of from specific rates. In case a specific rate has
the tax reform committee are related with sim- to be retained; the same should be revised ev-
plification, rationalization and efficiency in the ery year taking into account the price inflation.
tax structure.
For the sake of efficiency, the committee
In respect of particular taxes the Chelliah recommended a general reduction is exemp-
Committee has, inter-alia, recommended the tions, tax rates and tax slabs. It also empha-
following: sized broad basing of the tax system. (Such as
introduction of presumptive tax, taxes on ser-
Direct Taxes vices, etc.)
Income Tax: (i) Lower rates of taxation with The government has accepted almost all the
a narrower spread between the entry rate and recommendations of Chelliah Committee. All
maximum marginal rate, and a minimum of the budgets after 1991 have tried to accommo-
tax incentives, (ii) The system of subjecting the date these recommendations. The tax reforms
income of both partnership firms as well as the have led to simplification, rationalization and
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Mr Vijay Kelkar, has contended that slashing tion rate from 25 per cent to 15 per cent. All
Government spending "would be contractionary existing tax incentives will be 'grandfathered,' i.e.,
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new units will not be entitled for such benefits.
for the macro-economy," whereas "raising
tax revenues is likely to be less contractionary." A radical suggestion made by the Taskforce
It has recommended that fiscal consolidation is to have Goods and Services Tax, which will
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should be "revenue-led" rather than based be a single country-wide value added tax (VAT)
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on reduction in expenditures. The report has
also argued that the Government should
enhance capital expenditures "in order to
covering virtually all goods and services. Fur-
ther, there will be no demarcation between
goods and services on which the powers of
taxation rest only with the Centre or the States.
counter-balance the contractionary effects
of fiscal consolidation." Following are the Instead, the Taskforce has envisaged a 'grand
main recommendations of the Kelkar
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bargain,' whereby States will have the power
Committee: to tax all services concurrently with the Cen-
A new Income Tax package comprising tre, and "both Central and State Government
two rate-structure and removal of exemp- would exercise concurrent but independent ju-
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Reduction in corporate tax to 30 per cent levied by the Centre and 4 per cent levied by
for domestic cos. States), a standard rate of 20 per cent (12 per
Reduction in general depreciation rate cent plus 8 per cent) and a peak rate of 34 per
from 25 to 15 per cent cent (20 per cent plus 14 per cent).
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Existing tax incentives for corporate units As per this, the total tax burden on most
to be "grand fathered" for existing units, goods would work out to 20 per cent, which
but removed for new units. The report "compared favourably with the standard VAT
favoured revenue mobilisation through rates seen in OECD countries." Further, the
low and few tax rates, alongside widen- Centre's standard rate would work out to 12
ing of the tax base and shifting the inci- per cent, which is below the existing Cenvat
dence of taxation upon consumption. rate of 16 per cent. The Taskforce has favoured
There will be only two marginal rates: 20 per a 'front-loaded' approach towards meeting the
cent for income levels of Rs 1 lakh to Rs 4 lakh goal of zero revenue deficit by 2008-09, as per
the FRBM Act.
[42] Chronicle IAS Academy
BANKING SYSTEM CHRONICLE
IN INDIA IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
Banking is defined as the accepting, for Fixed/Term Deposits: These are deposits
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the purpose of lending or investment of for a fixed term (period of time) varying
deposits, money from the public, repayable on from a few days to a few years. They are
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demand or otherwise and withdrawable by not payable on demand and do not enjoy
cheque, draft, and order or otherwise. Thus chequing facilities. The moneys deposited
the two essential functions of banks are to in such accounts become payable only on
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accept chequable deposits from the public and the maturity of the fixed period for which
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lending.
Acceptance of chequable deposits is a
necessary, but not sufficient condition for
Financial Institution (FI) to be a bank. For
the deposit was initially made. A variant
of fixed deposits are recurring deposits.
In these accounts, a depositor makes a
regular deposit of an agreed sum over an
agreed period e.g. Rs. 100 per month for
example, post office savings banks are not banks 5 years. Interest is paid on the deposits in
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in this sense of the term even though they these accounts.
accept deposits from the public. This is because
they do not perform the other essential function Savings Accounts Deposits: These
of lending. deposits combine the features of both
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The bank accepts three types of deposits from The deposits received by the bank are not
the public: allowed to lie idle by the bank. After keeping
a certain portion of the deposits as reserves,
Current Account Deposits: Deposits in
the bank gives the balance to borrowers in the
current accounts are payable on demand.
form of loans and advances. The different types
They can be drawn upon by cheque
of loans and advances made by banks are as
without any restriction. These accounts
follows:
are usually maintained by businesses and
are used for making business payments. Cash Credit: In this arrangement an eligible
No interest is paid on these deposits. borrower is first sanctioned a credit limit
However, the banks offer various services upto which he may borrow from the bank.
to the account holders for a nominal This credit limit is determined by the
charge, the most important being the banks estimation of the borrowers
cheque facility. Banks keep regular creditworthiness. However, actual
accounts of all transactions made in a utilisation of credit by the customer
particular account and submit statements depends upon his withdrawing power.
of the same to the account-holder at The withdrawing power depends on the
regular intervals. value of the borrowers current assets,
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bank will deduct a commission and pay
can be recalled on demand. It has no stated the present value of the bill to B. Upon
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maturity. The entire loan amount is paid maturity of the bill; the bank will secure
in lump sum by crediting it to the loan payment from A.
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account of the borrower. Thus, the entire
loan amount becomes chargeable to 5. Investment of funds
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interest. Security brokers and others whose The banks invest their surplus funds in
credit needs fluctuate day to day usually three types of securities - Government
take these loans. The security against these securities, other approved securities, and
loans may be personal, financial assets or other securities. Government securities are
goods.
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securities of both the central an state
Short-term Loans: - Short-term loans may governments such as treasury bills,
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be given as personal loans, loans to finance national savings certificates etc.
working capital or as priority sector Other approved securities are securities
advances. These loans are secured loans, approved under the provisions of the
i.e. they are loans made against some
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of the country to its advantage. rural artisans. The area of operation of RRBs is
limited to the area as notified by Government
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2) Commercial Banks of India covering one or more districts in the
State.
Commercial Banks are banking institutions
that accept deposits and grant short-term loans RRBs are jointly owned by Government of
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and advances to their customers. In addition India, the concerned State Government and
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to giving short-term loans, commercial banks
also give medium-term and long-term loan to
business enterprises. Now-a-days some of the
commercial banks are also providing housing
Sponsor Banks (27 scheduled commercial banks
and one State Cooperative Bank); the issued
capital of a RRB is shared by the owners in the
proportion of 50%, 15% and 35% respectively.
loan on a long-term basis to individuals. There
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are also many other functions of commercial 4) Co-operative Banks
banks, which are discussed later in this lesson.
Co-operative banks are small-sized units
organized in the co-operative sector which
Types of Commercial banks: operate both in urban and non-urban centers.
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A
(i) Public Sector Banks: These are banks Co-operative Banks in India are registered
where majority stake is held by the under the Co-operative Societies Act. The
Government of India or Reserve Bank of cooperative bank is also regulated by the RBI.
India. Examples of public sector banks are: They are governed by the Banking Regulations
State Bank of India, Corporation Bank, Act 1949 and Banking Laws (Co-operative
Bank of Baroda and Dena Bank, etc. Societies) Act, 1965.
(ii) Private Sectors Banks: In case of private
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with limited liability. For example: The borrower and non-borrower members
Jammu and Kashmir Bank Ltd., Bank of residing in one locality. The operations of
Rajasthan Ltd., Development Credit Bank each society are restricted to a small area
Ltd, Lord Krishna Bank Ltd., Bharat so that the members know each other and
Overseas Bank Ltd., Global Trust Bank, are able to watch over the activities of all
Vysya Bank, etc. members to prevent frauds.
(iii) Foreign Banks: These banks are registered (ii) Central Co-operative Banks: These banks
and have their headquarters in a foreign operate at the district level having some
country but operate their branches in our of the primary credit societies belonging
country. Some of the foreign banks to the same district as their members. These
operating in our country are Hong Kong banks provide loans to their members (i.e.,
and Shanghai Banking Corporation primary credit societies) and function as
(HSBC), Citibank, American Express a link between the primary credit societies
Bank, Standard & Chartered Bank, and state co-operative banks.
Grindlays Bank, etc. The number of (iii) State Co-operative Banks: These are the
foreign banks operating in our country has apex (highest level) co-operative banks in
increased since the financial sector reforms all the states of the country. They mobilise
of 1991. funds and help in its proper channelisation
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SECTOR LENDING?
Cooperative banks in India finance urban areas
Priority sector refers to those sectors of the
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under:
economy which may not get timely and
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a) Self-employment b) Industries adequate credit in the absence of this special
c) Small scale units d) Home finance dispensation. Typically, these are small value
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e) Consumer finance f) Personal finance loans to farmers for agriculture and allied
activities, micro and small enterprises, poor
WHAT IS KYC NORM? people for housing, students for education and
other low income groups and weaker sections.
KYC is an acronym for Know your
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Customer, a term used for customer Priority Sector includes the following
identification process. It involves making categories: Agriculture; Micro and Small
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reasonable efforts to determine true identity and Enterprises; Education; Housing; Export Credit
beneficial ownership of accounts, source of and Others.
funds, the nature of customers business,
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above branches
Total Priority 40 32
20 branches
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mainstream financial products such as bank such as weaker sections and low income groups
accounts and low cost loans. This financial in particular at an affordable cost in a fair and
exclusion forces them to borrow from the transparent manner by mainstream institutional
money lenders at high cost. Thus to overcome players.
this problem, serious attention was given to the
access to banking, access to affordable credit, In advanced economies, Financial
and access to free face-to-face money advice. Inclusion is more about the knowledge of fair
and transparent financial products and a focus
Financial Inclusion is the process of on financial literacy. In emerging economies, it
ensuring access to appropriate financial is a question of both access to financial products
products and services needed by all sections of and knowledge about their fairness and
the society in general and vulnerable groups transparency.
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savings account requires people to
limits are sanctioned without insistence on
maintain a minimum balance and most
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security or purpose. The Interest rate on
banks now even offer various facilities
the facility is completely deregulated. A
with the same. No-frills account requires
simplified mechanism for one-time
no (or negligible) balance and is without
settlement of overdue loans up to
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any other facilities leading to lower costs
Rs.25,000/- has been suggested for
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both for the bank and the individual. The
number of no-frills account has increased
mainly in public sector banks from about
0.4 million to 6 million between March
adoption. Banks have been specifically
advised that borrowers with loans settled
under the one time settlement scheme will
be eligible to re-access the formal financial
2006 and March 2007. The number of No- system for fresh credit.
frill accounts in private sector banks also
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Using Information Technology: A few
increased from 0.2 million to 1 million in
Pilot projects have been initiated to test
the same period. Recently RBI has directed
how technology can be used to increase
all the commercial banks to offer zero
financial inclusion such as
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bank accounts due to the procedural smart cards. The same delivery channel
hassles, the KYC procedure for opening can be used to provide other financial
accounts has been simplified for those services like low cost remittances and
persons who intend to keep balances not insurance.
exceeding rupees fifty thousand (Rs. Financial Education: RBI has taken
50,000/-) in all their accounts taken number of measures to increase financial
together and the total credit in all literacy in the country. It has set up a
the accounts taken together is not multilingual website in 13 languages
expected to exceed rupees one lakh explaining about banking, money etc. It
(Rs.1,00,000/-) in a year. has started putting up comic strips to
KYC norms include proof of identity and explain various difficult subjects like
proof of address. Passport, voter's ID card, importance of saving, RBI's functions etc.
PAN card or driving license are accepted These comics explain myriad and complex
as proof of identity, and proof of residence concepts in an entertaining manner. The
as on ration card, an electricity or website states: The Reserve Bank of India
telephone bill or a letter from the employer has undertaken a project titled "Project
or any recognised public authority Financial Literacy". The Objective of the
project is to disseminate information
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Transfer System (real-time) settlement of funds transfers
This system is a nationwide funds transfer individually on an order by order basis (without
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system to facilitate transfer of funds from netting).
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any bank branch to any other bank branch. 'Real Time' means the processing of
Under this Scheme, individuals, firms and instructions at the time they are received rather
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corporates can electronically transfer funds than at some later time. 'Gross Settlement'
from any bank branch to any individual, means the settlement of funds transfer
firm or corporate having an account with instructions occurs individually (on an
any other bank branch in the country instruction by instruction basis i.e. on one to
participating in the Scheme.
I one basis). Considering that the funds settlement
Even such individuals who do not have a takes place in the books of the Reserve Bank of
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bank account (walk-in customers) can also India, the payments are final and irrevocable.
deposit cash at the NEFT-enabled This is the fastest mode of funds transfer
branches with instructions to transfer available in India through banking channel.
funds using NEFT. However, such cash
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Nepal Remittance Facility Scheme. The platform and reduces the systematic risks
beneficiary would receive funds in in the settlement system.
Nepalese Currency. c) As the funds are received instantly online,
in the RTGS system, the collecting banks
Advantages:
and their customers can use the funds
a) The remitter need not send the physical immediately without exposing themselves
cheque or Demand Draft to the beneficiary. to settlement risk.
b) The beneficiary need not visit his / her
bank for depositing the paper MONETARY POLICY
instruments.
The use by the Central Bank of interest rate
c) The beneficiary need not be apprehensive and other instruments to influence money supply
of loss / theft of physical instruments or to achieve certain macro economic goals is known
the likelihood of fraudulent encashment as monetary policy. Credit policy is a part of
thereof. monetary policy as it deals only with how much
d) Cost effective. and at what rate credit is advanced by the banks.
Objectives of monetary policy are: accelerating
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recession by lowering interest rates, while depending on the macro economic conditions.
contractionary policy has the goal of raising The amendment was an enabling one.
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interest rates to combat inflation.
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR)
Tools of Monetary Policy
CRR is a monetary tool to regulate money
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The tools available for the central bank to supply. It is the portion of the bank deposits that
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achieve the above ends are: Bank rate, Reserve
ratios, Open market operations, Intervention in
the forex market and Moral suasion
a bank should keep with the RBI in cash form.
CRR deposits earn no interest
The Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934
and the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 fixed
Bank rate
the floor and cap on CRR at 3% and 20%
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Bank Rate is the rate at which RBI lends to respectively. But the amendment made in
commercial banks. Bank Rate is a tool which RBI these statutes removed the limits-lower and
uses for managing money supply and credit. Any upper. RBI has, as a result, the freedom to fix the
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revision in Bank Rate by RBI is a signal to banks CRR at any rate depending on the macro
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to revise deposit rates as well as Prime Lending economic conditions. The amendment was an
Rate. It stands at 6% presently (2008 July) enabling one.
CRR is adjusted to manage liquidity and
Reserve Requirements
inflation the more the CRR, the less the money
In economics, fractional-reserve banking is available for lending by the banks to players in
the near-universal practice of banks in which the economy. CRR was 15% in 1991 and today
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banks keep a fraction of the total deposits it is 8.75%. If inflation is high, money supply
managed by a bank as reserves and are not be needs to be taken out and so CRR is generally
lent. The reserve ratios are periodically changed increased. But in a regime of moderate inflation,
by the RBI. The reserve requirement (or required low CRR is in place.
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held by the RBI, commercial and cooperative door meetings with bank directors, increased
banks. severity of inspections discussion, appeals to
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community spirit etc.
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Ready Forward Contracts (Repos) Recently the RBI Governor appealed to
It is a transaction in which two parties agree banks not to raise rates even though the central
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to sell and repurchase the same security. Under bank was following a tight money policy.
such an agreement the seller sells specified securities
with an agreement to repurchase the same at a
When is the Monetary Policy announced?
mutually decided future date and a price. Similarly,
the buyer purchases the securities with an agreement Historically, the Monetary Policy is an-
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to resell the same to the seller on an agreed date in nounced twice a year - a slack season policy
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future at a predetermined price. (April-September) and a busy season policy
(October-March) in accordance with agricul-
In India, RBI lends on a short term basis to tural cycles. These cycles also coincide with the
banks on the security of the government paper halves of the financial year.
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after a few days. The rate at which it borrows is However, with the share of credit to agri-
culture coming down and credit towards the
called reverse repo rate as it is the reverse of the
industry being granted whole year around, the
repo operation. Reverse repo rate presently is 6%
RBI since 1998-99 has moved in for just one
(July 2008)
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The Fiscal Policy can be used to overcome
recession and control inflation. It may be de- There are other instruments, which affect
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fined as a deliberate change in government rev- the direction and amount of credit available to
enue and expenditure to influence the level of various sectors and regions through (a) change
national output and prices. in marginal requirements, (b) putting ceiling to
the amount of maximum credit and (c) charg-
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For instance, at the time of recession the gov-
ernment can increase expenditures or cut taxes ing different interest rates for various economic
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in order to generate demand.
On the other hand, the government can re-
duce its expenditures or raise taxes during in-
activities. These instruments are known as in-
struments of selective credit control or qualita-
tive method of credit control. They are very
relevant in case of developing countries like
flationary times. Fiscal policy aims at changing
aggregate demand by suitable changes in gov- India. Monetary policy is framed and imple-
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ernment spending and taxes. mented by the Central Bank (RBI in case of
India).
The annual Union Budget showcases the
government's Fiscal Policy. With the introduction of the Five Year Plans,
the need for appropriate adjustment in mon-
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A
etary and fiscal policies to suit the pace and
What are the objectives of the Monetary pattern of planned development became im-
Policy? perative.
The objectives are to maintain price stability
and ensure adequate flow of credit to the pro- The monetary policy since 1952 emphasised
ductive sectors of the economy. the twin aims of the economic policies of the
government.
Stability for the national currency (after look-
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very limited in India because of the following
Until 1974, the preoccupation with inflation
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basic factors:
was the concern of monetary policy. After the
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abrupt reduction of inflation in the second half The structure of interest rates is adminis-
of 1974-75, the emphasis shifted toward achiev- trated by the RBI - they are not automati-
ing higher rates of aggregate growth. After cally linked to the bank rate.
EM
1979-80, policy efforts shifted, first gradually
The commercial banks enjoy specific refi-
and then sharply towards financial restraint as
nance facilities, and do not necessarily
efforts were mounted to limit the price effects
of a severe drought and sharply reduced rediscount eligible securities at the bank
rate.
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growth.
The bill market is under developed and
Thus in the pre-reform period monetary
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the different sub markets of the money
policy played a largely accommodative role to
fiscal policy. The central government had free market are not influenced by the bank
access to borrowing from the RBI through ad rate.
hoc treasury bills. It helped to adopt an expan- In other words, the bank rate in India is not
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sionary fiscal policy and had a multiplier effect the pace setter to other market interest rates of
on expansion of money supply. interest and the money market rates do not au-
tomatically adjust themselves to changes in the
CREDIT CONTROLS bank rate. At the same time, the deposit and
lending rates of banks (and of development fi-
General Credit Controls: These weapons of
nancial institutions) are not related to the bank
control are broadly two: quantitative and quali-
rate.
tative controls. Quantitative controls are used
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credit. Quantitative controls consist of bank rate credit control is use the of variable cash reserve
policy, open market operations and cash re- requirements. Under the RBI Act 1934, every
serve ratio. All these methods have been used commercial bank has to keep certain minimum
with discretion since the beginning of Planning cash reserves with the RBI. Initially it was 5%
in India. Since 1955-56 and particularly after against demand deposits and 2% against time
1973-74 the inflationary rise in price has been deposits. These are known as the statutory cash
steadily increasing. Increased government ex- reserves. Since 1962, the RBI was empowered
penditure financed through deficit spending has to vary the cash reserve requirements between
the direct effect of increasing prices, wages and 3% and 15% of total demand and time depos-
incomes. Shortfalls in production, and hoard- its. The RBI has varied the CRR a number of
ing and speculation in essential commodities times to reduce or increase bank credit.
have contributed to this inflationary pressure.
In accordance with the Narasimham Com-
RBI has various weapons of control and,
mittee recommendations the CRR has been kept
through using them; it hopes to achieve its
low since 1992.
monetary policy.
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It reduces the money supply in the rising tendency of prices of certain individual
economy and thus is deflationary commodities of common use.
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It can also be used to divert funds to
finance government expenditure Generally the RBI uses three kinds of Selec-
tive Credit Controls:
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Open Market Operations
Minimum margin for lending against cer-
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In economies with well developed money
markets central banks use open market opera-
tions - i.e. buying and selling of eligible securi-
ties by the central bank in the money market -
tain specific securities.
Ceiling on amounts of credits for certain
purposes.
to influence volume of cash reserves with the Discriminatory rates of interest charged on
certain types of advances.
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commercial banks and thus influence the vol-
ume of loans and advances that they can make While imposing selective controls, RBI takes
to the commercial sector. The RBI had not used great care that bank credit for production and
this instrument for many years. Since 1991, the transportation of commodities exports is not
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ability to lend to industrial and commercial sec- become "bad loans" or such loans whose re-
tors. Thus money supplies contracts. covery is not possible are called Non-perform-
The opposite will happen if the RBI buys ing assets (NPAs). The issue of Non-perform-
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securities from the open market and pays for ing assets (NPAs) in the financial institutions
them. The commercial banks will find that they in India has assumed a disturbing dimension.
have more surplus cash. Thus money supply The problem of NPAs, however, is not peculiar
increases. to India alone. Countries such as Japan and
China are notoriously known for their huge
NPAs.
Selective and Directed Credit Controls
Under the Banking Regulation Act 1949,
Meaning of NPAs
Section 21 empowers RBI to issue directive to
the banking companies regarding their ad- An asset is classified as non-performing as-
vances. These directives may relate to: set (NPAs) if dues in the form of principal and
interest are not paid by the borrower for a
The purpose for which advances may or period of 180 days. However with effect from
may not be made. March 2004, default status has been given to a
The margins to be maintained with regard borrower if dues are not paid for 90 days. If
to secured advances. any advance or credit facilities granted by bank
The maximum advance to any borrower. to a borrower become non-performing, then the
bank will have to treat all the advances/credit
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coverable banks continue to hold such advances created in 1974 and meets regularly four times
in their books. These are termed as gross NPAs a year. The Committee's members come from
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while provisioning adjusted NPAs are termed Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada,
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as net NPAs. China, France, Germany, Hong Kong SAR, In-
dia, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxem-
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CLASSIFICATION OF BANK ASSETS bourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, Russia, Saudi
Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Swe-
RBI Guidelines on Classification of Bank den, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom
Aadvances and the United States. The Committee usually
meets at the Bank for International Settlements
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Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has issued guide- (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland, where its 12 mem-
lines on provisioning requirement with respect ber permanent Secretariat is located. The Com-
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to bank advances. In terms of these guidelines, mittee is often referred to as the BIS Committee
bank advances are mainly classified into: after its meeting location. However, the BIS and
Standard Assets: Such an asset is not a non- the Basel Committee remain two distinct enti-
ties.
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tries of G-10, currently comprising 13 coun- implementation of Basel III will decrease an-
nual GDP growth by 0.05 to 0.15 percentage
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tries, namely, Belgium, Canada, France, Ger-
many, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, point.
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom
and the United States of America. Securitisation Bill (2002)
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Basel II
Basel II is the second of the Basel Accords,
which are recommendations on banking laws
It's a known fact that the banks and financial
institutions in India face the problem of swell-
ing non-performing assets (NPAs) and the is-
sue is becoming more and more unmanage-
able. In order to bring the situation under con-
and regulations issued by the Basel Committee
trol, some steps have been taken recently. The
on Banking Supervision. The purpose of Basel
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Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial
II, which was initially published in June 2004, Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act,
is to create an international standard that bank- 2002 was passed by Parliament, which is an
ing regulators can use when creating regula- important step towards elimination or reduc-
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appropriate to the risk the bank exposes itself as foreign currencies. Trade in goods is known
to through its lending and investment prac- as merchandise trade, while trade in services is
tices. Generally speaking, these rules mean that known as 'invisible trade'. Real Investment or
the greater risk to which the bank is exposed, investment in productive/industrial activities by
the greater the amount of capital the bank foreigners is known as Foreign Direct Invest-
needs to hold to safe-guard its solvency and ment (FDI). Investment in financial instruments
overall economic stability. such as banks and stock market is known as
portfolio investment.
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rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods
and services. Consequently, inflation also reflects inflation rate. Since petroleum is so
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erosion in the purchasing power of money. important to developing economies, a
large increase in its price can lead to the
As for example increase in the price of most products,
raising the inflation rate.
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If we were able to buy 1kg of rice at say
Rs.50 but due to price rise same amount is
C IC 3. Pricing Power Inflation: Pricing power
costing Rs.70. The price rise of the commodities
inflation is more often called as
over a period of time is inflation that is affecting
administered price inflation. This type of
the purchasing power of the people. This in
inflation occurs when the business houses
turn reduces the value of money as for each
and industries decide to increase the price
commodity we have to spend more than the
of their respective goods and services to
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previous one.
increase their profit margins. A point
noteworthy is pricing power inflation does
Types Of Inflation not occur at the time of financial crisis
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1. Demand pull inflation: This type of and economic depression, or when there
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inflation occurs when total demand for is a downturn in the economy. This
goods and services in an economy exceeds type of inflation is also called as
the supply of the same. When the supply oligopolistic inflation because oligopolies
is less, the prices of these goods and have the power of pricing their goods and
services would rise, leading to a situation services.
called as demand-pull inflation. This type
of inflation affects the market economy As for example
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such as an increase in the price of oil for
an oil importing country. Such an Recession: A significant decline in activity
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unfavorable supply shock tends to raise across the economy, lasting longer than a
prices and slows the economy by making few months is recession. It is visible in
production more costly and less profitable. industrial production, employment, real
income and wholesale-retail trade. The
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Secondly, stagflation can result due to
inappropriate macroeconomic policies. technical indicator of a recession is two
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For example, central banks can cause consecutive quarters of negative economic
growth as measured by a country's gross
inflation by permitting excessive growth
of the money supply and the government domestic product (GDP).
can cause stagnation by excessive Depression: It is a sustained, long-term
regulation of goods markets and labour downturn in economic activity in one or
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market. more economies. A depression is
Reflation: It is the act of stimulating characterized by its length, by abnormally
the economy by increasing the money large increases in unemployment, falls in
supply or by reducing taxes. It is an act of the availability of credit often due to
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A
pumping money in the market to increase some kind of banking or financial crisis,
the circulation so that economy can be shrinking outputas buyers dry up and
stipulated again. suppliers cut back on production, and
As in U.S to increase the growth rate investment, large number
government has announced special bailout of bankruptciesincluding sovereign debt
packages for the companies thus trying to defaults, significantly reduced amounts
pump economy out of recession. of trade and commerceespecially
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average of prices of a basket of consumer goods from the banks.
and services, such as transportation, food
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and medical care. The CPI is calculated by Effect on inflation
taking price changes for each item in the The foremost reason of inflation is
predetermined basket of goods and averaging increment in money supply in the market. Cash
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them; the goods are weighted according to their reserve ratio is the amount kept by banks in
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importance. Changes in CPI are used to assess
price changes associated with the cost of living.
In India CPI is calculated in different fields
RBI. If for example the bank has 100000 rupees
and CRR is 10% then 10% of 100000 has to be
kept with RBI i.e. 10000 rupees. Now if the
as: CRR increased to 12% then banks has to kept
12% of 100000 i.e. 12000 with RBI. Hence the
CPI-IW i.e. Consumer Price Index for
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money with the banks decreases as CRR
Industrial Workers (BASE YEAR IS 2001) increases and thus money supply in the market
CPI-AL i.e. Consumer Price Index decreases too and hence the inflation decreases.
for Agricultural Labour (BASE YEAR IS
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rather than goods bought by consumers, which maintained by a bank. If for example the bank
is measured by the Consumer Price Index. The has 1000000 rupees and SLR is 20% then 20%
purpose of the WPI is to monitor price of 1000000 have to be maintained by banks i.e.
movements that reflect supply and demand in 200000 rupees in form of gold, securities etc.
industry, manufacturing and construction. This Now if the SLR increased to 30% then banks
helps in analyzing both macroeconomic and has to kept 30% of 1000000 i.e. 300000. Hence
microeconomic conditions. Base year for WPI the money with the banks decreases as SLR
is 2004-05. increases and thus money supply in the market
decreases too and hence the inflation decreases.
The limitations of WPI are related to
Bank rate:
(a) Non-inclusion of services;
This is the rate at which central bank
(b) following a fixed weighting scheme while (RBI) lends money to other banks or financial
the economy is undergoing major institutions. If the bank rate goes up, long-
structural changes, and term interest rates also tend to move up, and
(c) use of gross transactions data rather than vice-versa. Thus, it can said that in case bank
data on final purchases. rate is hiked, in all likelihood banks will hikes
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in money circulation decreases inflation.
sells the security provided by the seller on the
Repo rate and reverse repo rate:
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open market.
A repurchase agreement is the sale
of securities together with an agreement for the
Effect on inflation
seller to buy back the securities at a later date.
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The repurchase price should be greater than A reduction in the repo rate will help banks
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the original sale price, the difference effectively
representing interest, called the repo rate. The
to get Money at a cheaper rate. When the repo
rate increases borrowing from the central bank
party that originally buys the securities becomes more expensive. In order to increase
effectively acts as a lender. The original seller is the liquidity in the market, the central bank
effectively acting as a borrower, using their increases or decreases the rate. Thus inflation
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security as collateral for a secured cash loan at get automatically controlled.
a fixed rate of interest.
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focus on the necessity for improving the been in part that decentralisation promotes
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performance of the public sector and the accountability. It is not therefore surprising that
provision of their services by ensuring a proper by 1997, 62 of 75 developing nations had
alignment of responsibilities and fiscal embarked on one form of decentralisation or
another.
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instruments. While economic analysis, as
encapsulated in the theory of fiscal federalism,
C IC An important feature of a successful system
seeks to guide this division by focusing on
of fiscal federalism is the assignment of adequate
efficiency and welfare maximization in
revenue powers to sub-national governments to
determining optimal jurisdictional authority, it
forge a strong link between revenue and
needs to be recognized that the construction of expenditures at the margin. This is necessary for
optimal jurisdictional authority in practice goes both efficiency and accountability reasons.
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beyond purely economic considerations. Political Assignment of revenue powers is also necessary
considerations, as well as historical events and to ensure a hard budget constraint.
exigencies, have in practice, played major roles
in shaping the intergovernmental fiscal The transfer system should address the
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relations in most federations. problem of imbalance between revenue and
expenditure powers and should enable every
Even in nonfederal states, there has been a governmental unit to provide comparable levels
growing movement towards greater fiscal of public services at comparable tax rates. At the
decentralisation in recent years. Some analysts same time, it is important to ensure that the
have attributed this to globalisation and transfer system does not provide the incentive
deepening democratisation the world over on to raid the fiscal commons. Ensuring proper
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the one hand and increasing incomes on the incentive structure in the transfer system is
other. critical to preventing the soft budget constraints.
It is necessary to ensure that the transfer system
Other specific reasons for increasing does not enable the states to pass on the burden
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beyond the local jurisdiction. The local authority
spheres of activity. In order to implement a
may then under-provide for such a good. To
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process of national development, the central
avoid this, the theory then resorts to traditional
governments were made financially strong both
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Pigouvian subsidies, requiring the central
in terms of powers and resources. Customs
government to provide matching grants to the
revenue is, therefore, left in all federations to the
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lower level government so that it can internalise
central government. Same is the case with direct
C IC
the full benefits.
Based on the following, the role of
government in maximising social welfare
through public goods provision came to be
assigned to the lower tiers of government. The
taxation. The sources of revenue for each level
of government should be such that the revenues
generated should not remain static but should
be quite elastic. The revenues should increase as
the needs of the governments grow. None of the
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other two roles of income distribution and governments would want to be burdened with
stabilisation were, however, regarded as suitable static sources which will soon fall behind the
for the central government. demand that a government will have to face and
meet.
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between the two levels of governments should if the tax does not work administratively, it is
correspond to the division of powers and doomed to failure. Two factors determine the
functions. Earnest efforts have to be made to effectiveness of different taxes, namely, nature
ensure that each level of government is of the tax and the character of administration.
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financially selfsufficient and independent of A land tax for instance, may be expected to be
each other to the maximum extent possible. administered best by local authorities because it
Political autonomy will be meaningless unless it is, after all, the local assessors who may be
is supported by financial autonomy. No doubt, presumed to possess the most exact knowledge
concerns which are of national character, or of the local conditions upon which the value of
which transcend the interests of one unit, should the land depends. One of the reasons for the
be entrusted to the central government. formation of a federation is that a government
Functions of a purely local character, confined at a the federal level will be efficient for the
to a unit in each and objectives for instance, nation as a whole: the division of sources is,
should generally be left to the Central therefore, based on the principle of relative
Government. Normally, there should be occasion interest and efficiency. Taxes which have an
for the central government to encroach upon interstate base, like customs, income and wealth
jurisdiction of the unit governments and vice tax are assigned to the federal government and
versa. In times of national emergencies, however, those which have a local base, like sales tax and
the Constituent units shed some of their political entertainment tax, are assigned to the states.
and financial jurisdiction in favour of the central Costs of collection of taxes, the feasibility of
government for achieving national objectives. levying taxes at the nationwide level rather than
Federal Constitutions usually contain specific at the local level are important considerations in
provisions to cope with such contingencies. the allocation of powers and functions.
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advantage in taxing the richer states more and CentreState and inter-State disputes.
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spending that revenue in poorer states since the
sacrifice in extra taxation in richer states is less INDIAS CONSTITUTIONAL
than the benefit that will be derived if that STRUCTURE RELATED TO FINANCE
money were spent in poorer states. The ideal is
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to maximise national benefit from the state and Indian Constitution has made elaborate
C IC
federal expenditure. This would necessitate a
reduction of welfare generating expenditure in
richer states and an increase in such expenditure
provisions, relating to the distribution of the taxes
as well as non-tax revenues and the power of
borrowing, supplemented by provisions for
in poorer states. Federal fiscal operations have grants-in-aid by the Union to the States.
an equalizing role in respect of tax burdens and Article 268 to 293 deals with the provisions
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benefits from public expenditure as between the of financial relations between Centre and States.
affluent and less fortunate states. Distributive
The Constitution divides the taxing
aspects of income and wealth are best performed
powers between the Centre and the states
by the central government. If redistribution
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as follows:
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policy is left to the state governments regional
disparities may be perpetuated. Rich may leave The Parliament has exclusive power to levy
the region where redistribution measures are taxes on subjects enumerated in the Union List,
more egalitarian, while the poor will move to the state legislature has exclusive power to levy
such regions. Progressive income tax which is taxes on subjects enumerated in the State List,
an important redistribution measure must be both can levy taxes on the subjects enumerated
uniform throughout the country. This is possible in Concurrent List whereas residuary power of
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only when the tax is entrusted to the national taxation lies with Parliament only.
government. The distribution of the tax-revenue
Salient Features of Indian Fiscal Federalism: between the Union and the States stands
C
as follows:
Most populous and diverse democratic
federal polity a) Duties Levied by the Union but
Collected and Appropriated by the
Transition from plan to market: Need for
States: Stamp duties on bills of
reforms in policies and institutions (implicit
Exchange, etc., and Excise duties on
transfers, common market principles,
medical and toilet preparations
regional equity)
containing alcohol. These taxes dont
Globalization and fiscal federalism:Need to form the part of the Consolidated Fund
reorient the system to create a competitive of India, but are assigned to that state
environment. only.
Changing political environment:emergence b) Service Tax are Levied by the Centre
of coalition government at Centre, regional but Collected and Appropriated by the
parties in States, latter becoming pivotal Centre and the States.
members in Central coalition government, c) Taxes Levied as Well as Collected by
changing priorities and time horizons of the Union, but Assigned to the States:
political parties. These include taxes on the sale and
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divided between the Union and the operate.
States in a certain proportion, in order
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to effect on equitable division of the 2. During Financial Emergency: Union can
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financial resources. This category give directions to the States:-
includes all taxes referred in Union List a) To observe such canons of financial
EM
except the duties and taxes referred to propriety as specified in the direction.
C IC
in Article 268, 268-A and 269;
surcharge on taxes and duties
mentioned in Article 271 or any Cess
levied for specific purposes.
e) Surcharge on certain duties and taxes
b) To reduce the salaries and allowances
of all people serving in connection with
the affairs of the State, including High
Courts judges.
c) To reserve for the consideration of the
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for purposes of the Union: Parliament
President all money and financial Bills,
may at any time increase any of the
after they are passed by the Legislature
duties or taxes referred in those articles
of the State.
by a surcharge for purposes of the
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Grants-in-aid to the States from the Central various kinds of services to the tax payers. There
resources. There are two types of grants:- are mainly two types of Taxes, direct tax and
1. Statutory Grants indirect tax which are governed by two different
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are different for long term and short domestic consumption. Like custom duty, there
term capital gains. are a number of rules which keep on changing
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d) Gift Tax/ Inheritance or Estate Tax - as per government discretion.
Amount exceeding Rs. 50000 received
d) Sales Tax and VAT
without consideration by an
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individual/HUF from any person is Sales tax is levied by the government on sale
C ICsubjected to gift tax as income under
"other sources". There are exemptions
like money received from relatives is
and purchase of products in Indian market. As
customers, whatever you buy from the market,
you pay sales tax on it. Now, sales tax is
not taxable. Marriage gifts and money supplemented with new Value Added Tax so as
received through inheritance are also to make it uniform across country.
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exempt from gift tax. Inheritance tax e) Security Transaction Tax (STT)
was earlier in practice but has been
repealed by the government. STT is levied on transactions (sale/purchase)
done through the stock exchanges. STT is
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on different persons as opposed to direct taxes established under Article 280 of the Indian
where impact and incidence is on the same Constitution of India by the President of India.
person. These taxes are recovered from different The Indian Finance Commission Act was passed
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groups of people but the liability remains with to give a structured format to the Finance
the person who collects it. Tax payer recovers Commission of India as per the world standard.
the indirect taxes paid from their consumers and The need for the Finance Commission was felt
clients and finally pays it to government. For by the British for guiding the finance of India.
example, when we purchase any product we pay The structure of the modern Act was laid in the
VAT, when we eat in restaurants we pay service early 1920s. The Finance Commission is formed
tax which are ultimately deposited in to define the financial relations between the
government's kitty by the service providers. Brief Centre and the State. The Finance Commission
about various types of indirect taxes is given Act of 1951 tells about the qualification,
below: appointment, term, eligibility, disqualification,
powers, etc. of the Finance Commission.
a) Service Tax
Functions of the Finance Commission
Service providers in India are subject to
service tax, which is charged on the aggregate The Finance Commissions duty is to
amount received by the service provider. Services recommend to the President as to-
like leasing, internet/voice, transport, etc are The distribution of net proceeds of taxes
subject to service tax. between the Union and the States.
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THIRTEENTH FINANCE COMMISSION
powers:
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The Commission shall have all the powers Terms of Reference of the Thirteenth Finance
of the Civil Court as per the Code of Civil Commission:
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Procedure, 1908. 1. The Commission shall make
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It can call any witness, or can ask for the recommendations as to the following
C IC
production of any public record or
document from any court or office.
It can ask any person to give information
or document on matters as it may feel to be
useful or relevant.
matters, namely :-
(i) The distribution between the Union and
the States of the net proceeds of taxes
which are to be, or may be, divided
between them under Chapter I, Part XII
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It can function as a civil court in of the Constitution and the allocation
discharging its duties. between the States of the respective
Qualifications for appointment and the shares of such proceeds;
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account of the projected Gross
and public sector enterprises through
Budgetary Support to the Central and
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various means, including levy of user
State Plan, expenditure on civil
charges and adoption of measures to
administration, defence, internal and
promote efficiency.
border security, debtservicing and other
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committed expenditure and liabilities; 4. In making its recommendations on various
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(iii) The resources of the State Governments,
for the five years commencing on 1st
April 2010, on the basis of levels of
matters, the Commission shall take the base
of population figures as of 1971, in all such
cases where population is a factor for
determination of devolution of taxes and
taxation and nontax revenues likely to
duties and grants-in-aid.
be reached at the end of 2008-09;
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5. The Commission may review the present
(iv) The objective of not only balancing the
arrangements as regards financing of
receipts and expenditure on revenue
Disaster Management with reference to the
account of all the States and the Union,
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improve the TaxGross Domestic make available the estimates of receipts and
Product ratio in the case of the Union expenditure of the Union and each of the
and TaxGross State Domestic Product States.
ratio in the case of the States;
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schemes (administered by ministries/
departments other than the MoF) to be Governments over the ThFC award period is
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written off. more than twice the amount recommended by
the TwFC. The ThFCs recommendations on
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Interest rate on loans to the States from the Central tax devolution and grants would serve
NSSF contracted until 200607 and
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to reduce the vertical imbalance between the
outstanding at the end of 200910 to be Centre and the States and are a positive from
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reset at 9% (from either 9.5% or 10.5% at
present based on the date on which the
loans were contracted), with an estimated
benefit of Rs. 135.17 billion for the State
Governments. NSSF to be reformed into a
the point of view of fiscal federalism. The ThFC,
by modifying the criteria and the associated
weights governing horizontal devolution, has
changed the inter se shares of the Indian States
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within the overall pool of shareable taxes.
marketaligned scheme. Regardless of the lowering of the inter se shares
Target for reducing the consolidated debt for some States, the taxes to be devolved to all
stock of the Centre and the States set at the States over the ThFC period are likely to be
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68% of GDP by 201415; 45% of GDP for substantially higher than they were during the
the Centre and 25% of GDP for the States. TwFC period, considering the anticipated
buoyancy in Central tax collections following
Timelines specified for elimination of
resumption of higher economic growth from
revenue deficits and reduction in the
201011 onwards, reversal of certain tax cuts
financing gap to 3% of GDP for the Centre
and the possibility of successful implementation
and 3% of GSDP for the States. Thereafter,
of the Goods and Services Tax (GST). Thus, all
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The ThFC has recommended higher transfers While higher devolution of taxes to the States
of Central taxes and Finance Commission grants implies lower net tax revenues for the Central
to be provided by the Centre to the States as Government, the anticipated increase in tax
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Bodies. The latter amount is more than thrice facility) to incentivize compliance with the fiscal
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the sum recommended by the TwFC (Rs. 250 targets set by the ThFC, the efficacy of the ThFCs
billion), and being so would augment the recommendations for fiscal consolidation
revenues and improve the financial position of remains to be seen; the extent of success in this
EM
the Local Bodies significantly. However, an regard is likely to hinge on the commitment
increase in the magnitude and improvement in
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the regularity of devolution by the State fiscal consolidation.
Governments to their Local Bodies would also
The ThFC has recommended that the States
be required to reduce the resource gap of the
latter and enable improved delivery of services. maintain their financing gap at 3% of GSDP
beyond 201415, and that the Centre raise
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During the first three years of the TwFC additional resources and pass these on to the
period, high revenue growth helped the Centre States in accordance with the horizontal
and the States achieve considerable success in devolution formula in the event of
their endeavor towards fiscal adjustment. With
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However, this was followed by slippages in the If implemented, the ThFCs recommendation
subsequent two years marked by a slowdown that structural shocks, such as payout of Pay
in economic and revenue growth and an Commission related arrears, be avoided and
increase in expenses because of Pay Commission would help smoothen the revenue expenditures
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related payouts in a number of States. of the State Governments and prevent income
The ThFC has suggested a revised fiscal expenditure mismatches. As has historically been
roadmap for the Centre and the States to provide seen in India, settlement of large Pay Commission
the basis for sustainable adjustment of public related arrears imposes considerable stress on the
finances going forward. The ThFC has set a fiscal balances of the State Governments, which
target of reducing the consolidated debt stock of then take recourse to higher debt, in the process
the Centre and the States to 68% of gross suffering deterioration in their debt service
domestic product (GDP) by 201415 from an indicators. While avoidance of such structural
estimated 82% of GDP in 200910. In accordance shocks would prevent the periodic weakening
with the projected debt to GDP ratios over the of the States credit profiles, it remains to be seen
ThFC period, the ThFC has drawn up roadmaps whether this recommendation is politically
for the Centre and the States, which specify acceptable. The ThFC has suggested resetting of
timelines for the elimination of revenue deficits the interest rate on loans to the States from the
and reduction in the financing gap 1 to 3% of National Small Savings Fund (NSSF) to reduce
GDP for the Centre and 3% of gross state the interest asymmetry between the Centre and
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The money market is a monetary system of Institutions, etc are different. Immobility
lending and borrowing of short-term funds. of fund from one section of the money
market to another provides the basic
Money markets exist to facilitate efficient
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reason for the existence of so many rates
transfer of short-term funds between holders and
of interest simultaneously. However, different
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borrowers of cash assets. For the lender/investor,
money rates of interest have been promptly
it provides a good return on their funds. For the
adjusting to changes in the bank rate.
borrower, it enables rapid and relatively
inexpensive acquisition of cash to cover short- (IV) Seasonal stringency of Money
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term liabilities. RBI being the main constituent in There prevails seasonal monetary
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the money market aims at ensuring that liquidity
and short term interest rates are consistent with
the monetary policy objectives.
stringency and high rates of interest
during the busy season from November
to June when funds are required to move
the crops from the village and countryside
Features of Indian Money Market to the cities and ports. Banks carry large
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surplus funds and the rates of interest
Money market in India has the following reach low levels during the off-season (July
features. to October) or slack season. There are even
(I) Existence of Unorganized Money Market now wide fluctuations in the money rates
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segments of the Indian money market and Bonds, FI Bonds, Corporate Bonds etc.
in different kinds of paper instruments. Under repurchase agreement the seller
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The Reserve Bank of India started sells specified securities with an agreement
introducing new paper instruments only to repurchase the same at a mutually
after 1985-86, such as 182 days treasury decided future date and price. Similarly,
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bills , later converted to 364 days treasury the buyer purchases the securities with
bills, certificate of deposit and commercial an agreement to resell the same to the
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paper. seller on an agreed date at a
predetermined price.
Different instruments of the Money Market are: Such a transaction is called a Repo when
Call Money: viewed from the perspective of the seller
Call money is a method of borrowing and of the securities and Reverse Repo when
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lending for one day. This is also called viewed from the perspective of the buyer
overnight money. The rate of interest used of the securities. Thus, whether a given
to be decided by RBI earlier. After 1989, agreement is termed as a Repo or Reverse
Repo depends on which party initiated the
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be provided or lent even by other entities has lent the funds to the seller. The rate of
like LIC, GIC, large corporate, big mutual interest agreed upon is called the Repo
funds, etc. rate. The Repo rate is negotiated by the
counterparties independently of the
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its receivables immediately and the buyer Liabilities portion of Savings Deposits with the
banking system + other deposits with the bank
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is able to earn interest of Rs 10K over a
period of 6 months. They yield higher M2 = M1 + Savings deposits with Post office
returns as compared to T-Bills as they are savings banks.
less secure in comparison to these bills;
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however chances of default are almost M3 = M 2 + Time deposits with the
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negligible but are not zero risk
instruments. Commercial paper being an
instrument not backed by any collateral,
contractual maturity of over one year with the
banking system + Call Borrowings from Non-
Depository Financial Corporations by the
only firms with high quality credit ratings banking system
will find buyers easily without offering any
substantial discounts. It was in 1990 that M3 is termed as broad money and M1 is
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Commercial papers were first issued in known as narrow money.
the Indian money market.
Liquidity aggregates in India
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Certificate of Deposit:
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Liquidity is the degree to which an asset or
It is a short term borrowing more like a
security can be bought or sold in the market
bank term deposit account. It is a promissory
without affecting the asset's price. Liquidity is
note issued by a bank in form of a certificate
characterized by a high level of trading activity.
entitling the bearer to receive interest. The
certificate bears the maturity date, the fixed rate Assets that can be easily bought or sold are
of interest and the value. It can be issued in any known as liquid assets.
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denomination. They are stamped and transferred There are three measures of liquidity in
by endorsement. However, on payment of certain India
penalty the money can be withdrawn on demand
also. The returns on certificate of deposits are L1 = M3 + all deposits with post office
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higher than T-Bills because it assumes higher level savings bank except NSC
of risk. It was in 1989 that the certificate of deposit
was first brought into the Indian money market. L2 = L1 + term deposits with Term Lending
Institutions and Refinancing Institutions (FIs) +
term borrowing by FIs and Certificates of Deposits
MONETARY AND issued by FIs
LIQUIDITY AGGREGATES
The entire quantity of bills, coins, loans, Quarterly compilation
credit and other liquid instruments in L3 = L2 + public deposits of non banking
a country's economy is known as money financial companies
supply.
[72] Chronicle IAS Academy
INDIAN CAPITAL CHRONICLE
MARKET IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
The capital market provides an alternative Gilt-edged market and the industrial
mechanism for allocating resources; channelises securities market are two prominent
household savings to the corporate sector and constituents of the Indian capital market. The
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allocates funds among firms. In this process it gilt-edged market refers to the market for
allows both firms and households to share risk. government and semi-government securities
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The capital market enables the valuation of firms backed by the Reserve Bank of India.
on an almost continuous basis and it plays an
important role in the governance of the Structure of the Capital Market
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corporate sector. The reforms in the capital
The capital market can be divided into two
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market are aimed at enhancing the efficiency,
safety, integrity and transparency of the constituents, the financial institutions and the
securities market. The financial institutions
market.
provide long term and medium term loans. The
Capital market is the market for long term securities market is divided into (a) the gilt
funds, just as the money market is the market edged market (or the market for government
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for short term funds. Capital market refers to securities), and (b) the corporate or industrial
all the facilities and the institutional securities market.
arrangement for borrowing and lending
medium and long term funds. It is concerned
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corporate savings, banks, insurance companies, the securities guaranteed (both principal and
specialized financing agencies and government interest) by the government apart from
are important supplier of funds for the capital government securities. The government
market. Among institutions, commercial banks securities are risk free because the government
are important investors, but are largely cant default on its payment obligations and
interested in government securities and to a are hence known as gilt-edged (which means
small extent on investment in debentures of 'of the best quality'). The important
companies; LIC and GIC are of growing characteristics of the government securities are:
importance in the Indian capital market though
their major interest is still in government (1) It is without risk and returns are
securities; Private funds constitute a major guaranteed. There is no place for
medium of savings but their investments too speculation and manipulation of the
are mostly in government securities; and special market as also no uncertainties regarding
institutions, set up since independenceIFCI, yield, payment on time, etc.
ICICI, IDBI, UTI etc.all these aim at providing (2) Government securities market consists of
long term capital to the private sector. the new issues market and the secondary
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their funds in government securities. These public goes to this third party rather than
institutions mobilise the savings of the to the company.
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people through their various scheme and (3) By Private Placing: The shares are sold to
invest a certain proportion in government individuals or institutions directly by
securities. making a private appeal to them. The cost
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(4) Government securities are the most liquid of raising capital in this method becomes
debt instruments.
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(5) The transactions in the government via other methods.
securities market are large. (4) By offering Rights Issue: By this,
Many private sector mutual funds have companies raise capital from the existing
entered this market in a considerable way in shareholders. Under this method of
recent times and have floated various gilt-edge issuance, the shareholders have the right
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funds for this purpose on account of the risk- to a certain number of shares in
free returns guaranteed by the government proportion to the shares held by them.
securities market and its high liquidity. Many
The Secondary Market/ Stock Exchange
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market) and the secondary market (stock selling and dealing in securities, as has been
exchanges). defined by the securities Contracts (Regulation)
Act, 1956.
The New Issues Market/Primary Market
The new issues market is concerned with
the issue of new securitiesbonds debentures, STOCK EXCHANGES IN INDIA
shares and so on. Funds are often raised by the With over 25m shareholders, India has the
public limited companies from the primary third largest investor base in the world after
market for setting up or expanding their the USA and Japan. Over 9,000 companies are
business. However, the company has to fulfill listed on the stock exchanges, which are services
various requirements and decide upon the by approximately 7,500 stockbrokers. The India
appropriate timing and method of issue for capital market is significant in terms of the
selling its securities. The various methods degree of development, volume of trading and
through which capital can be raised are: its tremendous growth potential.
(1) By Prospectus: Capital can be raised from Stock exchanges provide an organised
the general public by the issue of market for transactions in securities and other
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Hyderabad, Mangalore, Bangalore, Ernakulam, The National Stock Exchange of India
(NSE) is one of the largest and most advanced
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Coimbatore, Madras, Patna, Kanpur,
Bhubaneshwar, Calcutta and Guwahati. stock markets in India. The National Stock
Exchange of India was promoted by leading
financial institutions at the behest of the
Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE)
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Government of India, and was incorporated in
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The Bombay Stock Exchange or BSE is the
oldest stock exchange in Asia. The Bombay
1992. In 1993, it was recognized as a stock
exchange. NSE commenced operations in 1994.
Stock Exchange was established in 1875. There The NSE is the worlds third largest stock
are around 4,800 Indian companies listed with exchange in terms of transaction. It is located
the stock exchange. As of 2008, it is among the in Mumbai, the financial capital of India.
five biggest stock exchanges in the world in
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terms of transactions volume. In 2005, the status The Standard & Poors CRISIL NSE Index
of the exchange changed from an Association 50 or S&P CNX Nifty-Nifty 50 or simply Nifty
of Persons (AoP) to a full fledged corporation is the leading index for large companies on the
under the BSE (Corporatization and National Stock Exchange of India. The Nifty is
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Demutualization) Scheme, 2005 and its name a well diversified 50 stock index accounting for
was changed to the Bombay Stock Exchange 21 sectors of the economy.
Limited. The BSE Sensex (Sensitive Index), also
The CNX Nifty Junior is an index for
called the BSE 30, is a widely used market index
companies on the National Stock Exchange of
in India and Asia.
India. It consists of 50 companies on the
National Stock Exchange of India. It has the
second tier of stocks in terms of market
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MCX-SX is controlled by the Multi- institutional investors such as asset management
Commodity Exchange of India (MCEI.BO), companies, pension funds, and insurance
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Indias biggest commodity bourse, which raised companies looking for investments in companies
$135 million in an initial public offering in the with strong long-term prospects and develop
local market earlier in 2012. green financial products.
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GREENEX CARBONEX
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The BSE has launched the Green
Index called Greenex. This is India's first
carbon-efficient live index. The index has been
The Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) has
launched BSE Carbonex, the first carbon-based
thematic index in the country, which takes a
developed by the BSE in collaboration with IIM strategic view of organizational commitment
Ahmedabad. It is the second thematic index to climate change mitigation.
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launched by BSE. BSE Greenex will measure the
performances of companies in terms of carbon This index has been launched with the
emissions. The index will target socially-aware aim of creating a benchmark, and increasing
investors. There are many investors willing to awareness about the risks posed by climate
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change.
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pay a premium for green investments in
companies to get better returns. It will enable investors to track
The new index will comprise 20 stocks performance of the constituent companies of
BSE-100 index regarding their commitment to
based on a minimum carbon footprint, market
greenhouse gases emission reduction.
capitalisation and turnover. The BSE Greenex
will assess the energy efficiency of firms, based Constituents of BSE Carbonex are over or
on energy and financial data.
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Futures
Islamic Index
Futures are financial instruments bases on
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BSE and S&P Dow Jones Indices has a physical underlying (commodity, equities etc).
announced the launch of the S&P BSE 500 A futures contract is an agreement between
Shariah index, the first new index resulting from two parties to buy or sell an asset at a certain
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the strategic partnership formed between the
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two companies in February 2013.
The S&P BSE 500 Shariah index was Options
designed to represent all Shariah compliant Options are a class of futures where the
stocks of the broad based S&P BSE 500 index. buyer or seller has the option whether to buy
The S&P BSE 500 consists of 500 of the largest, or not. Put option is the right but not the
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most liquid Indian stocks trading at the BSE. obligation to sell. Call option is right but not
The S&P BSE 500 represents nearly 93 percent the obligation to buy.
of the total market capitalization on the BSE
and covers all 20 major industries of the Buyback of Shares
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economy. Buyback of shares is the process of a
The S&P BSE 500 Shariah index meets the corporations repurchase of stock or bonds it
has issued. In the case of stocks, this reduces
need for an investable benchmark in India to
the number of shares outstanding, giving each
gauge the performance of some of the most
remaining shareholder a larger percentage
widely followed Shariah compliant stocks
ownership of the company. This is usually
trading at the BSE. considered a sign that the companys
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Shariah is Islamic canonical law, which management is optimistic about the future and
observant Muslims adhere to in their daily lives. believes that the current share price is
Shariah has certain strictures regarding finance undervalued.
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capital by borrowing.
returns for the investors.
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Debenture
Global Depository Receipts (GDR)
Debt not secured by a specific asset of the
Indian companies are allowed to raise corporation, but issued against the issuers
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equity capital in the international market general credit, that is, it is unsecured debt.
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through the issue of Global Depository Receipt
(GDRs). GDRs are designated in dollars/euros.
They are also called euroissues. The proceeds
of the GDRs can be used for financing capital
Bear Market
A sustained period of falling stock prices
goods imports, capital expenditure including usually preceding or accompanied by a period
domestic purchase/installation of plant, of poor economic performance.
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equipment and building and investment in
software development, prepayment or Bull Market
scheduled repayment of earlier external
borrowings, and equity investment in JVs in A stock market characterized by rising
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help raise equity capital in forex for various company. Price per share multiplied by the total
benefits like expansion, acquisition etc. number of shares outstanding gives market
capitalization of a company.
Participatory Notes (PN)
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Insider Trading
Participatory Notes are instruments used
for making investments in the stock markets. Insider trading occurs when any one with
In India, Foreign Institutional Investors use information related to strategic and price-
these instruments for facilitating the influencing information purchases or sells stocks
participation of overseas funds like hedge funds so as to make speculative profits.
and others who are either not interested or not
eligible for participating directly in the Indian National Securities Depository Limited (NSDL)
stock market. The enactment of Depositories Act in 1996
led to the establishment of NSDL, the first
Clearing House depository in India. It holds more than 85% of
An organization which registers, monitors, the securities held in dematerialized mode in
matches and guarantees the trades of its India. Promoted by IDBI, UTI and NSE, NSDL
members and carries out the final settlement of has established a national infrastructure that
all futures transactions. The National Securities handles most of the securities held and settled
Clearing Corporation is the clearing house for in dematerialized form in the Indian capital
the NSE. markets.
[78] Chronicle IAS Academy
SERVICE SECTOR IN INDIA'S
ECONOMY
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
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industry first strategy with central planning
Composition of Service Sector in India
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created a plethora of controls, procedures,
permits and bureaucratic restrictions. The ISS, In India, the national income classification
along with other factors landed us into given by Central Statistical Organization is
economic crisis of 1990-91. The New Economic
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followed. In the National Income Accounting
Policy of July, 1991 heralded a new era for
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India by introducing comprehensive reforms
in industrial sectors as well as in services sector.
in India, service sector includes the following:
1. Trade, hotels and restaurants (THR)
It was expected that these policy measures Trade
would restore the health of the economy and
Hotels and restaurants
put it on higher growth trajectory.
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2. Transport, storage and communication
As a consequence of the adoption of the
New Economic Policy(NEP) of 1991, the Railways
growth rate of the Indian economy which stood Transport by other means
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emerged as one of the fastest growing Real Estate, Ownership of Dwellings and
economies of the world during the 1990s.The Business Services
remarkable performance of Indias economy is
attributable in significant part to the 4. Community, Social and Personal services
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spectacular dynamism shown by the services Public Administration and Defense (PA & D)
sector.
Other services
Against this background, it would be every
appropriate to answer some questions: Performance of Services Sector in India
i. Firstly, what are the constituents of service (a) Sectoral Composition of GDP Growth
sector in India?
ii. Secondly, how this sector performed on The analysis of the sectoral composition of
growth and employment fronts? GDP and employment for the period 1950-2000
brings out the fact that there has taken place
iii. Thirdly, what happened to service sector tertiarization of the structure of production
productivity in post 1980 period? and employment in India. During the process
iv. Fourthly, what are the policies adopted by of growth over the years 1950-51 to 1999-2000,
the government of India to promote the the Indian economy has experienced a change
services sector? in production structure with a shift away from
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in the 1980s. The service sector output exhibited an increasing trend in employment
increased at a rate of 6.63% per annum in the elasticties and thereby overall elasticity of
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period 1980-81 to 1989-90 (i.e. pre-reform employment increased from 0.15 to 0.5.
period) compared with 7.71% per annum in (c) Productivity Growth in Service Sector --
the period 1990-91 to 1999-2000 (i.e. post-
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Post-1980 Scenario
reform period). The tertiary sector emerged as
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the major sector of the economy both in terms
of growth rates as well as its share in GDP in
1990s. It is to be noted here that while
The process of acceleration in growth
started in 1980s rather than in 1990s. Of the
2.4 percentage point increase in the rate of
agriculture and manufacturing sectors have economic growth that took place in the post-
experienced phases of deceleration, stagnation 1980 period, about 40 per cent is accounted for
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and growth, the tertiary sector has shown a by a faster growth in TFP in services. The
uniform growth trend during the period 1950- three sectors viz. agriculture, industry and
51 to 1999-2000. The share of this sector in services have witnessed acceleration in the
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GDP further increased to 55.1% in 2006-07. growth rates of output, output per worker and
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This sector accounted for 68.6% of the overall total factor productivity (TFP) in the post -1980
average growth in GDP in the last five years period. However, the increase is more marked
between 2002-03 and in case of services. Partially the spurt in growth
2006-07. rate is attributable to productivity growth in
certain sub-sectors of services sector. It has been
(b) Employment Scenario
noticed that growth rate in output per man is
highest in case of PA & D and other community
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process outsourcing (BPOs), e-commerce on the other. Further, quality of each unit of
activities, infrastructure, etc.) has been the same service varies from the other.
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permitted. There are several other promotional Therefore, it is too difficult to achieve the same
measures taken by the government to sustain level of output in terms of quality. Further,
the growth of the services sector. For example, quality improvements stemming from the
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having realized that in knowledge- intensive application of new technologies are extremely
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world driven by IT, integration with global
economy cannot take place without making
hard to measure.
quality telecom services accessible at affordable Prospects for Growth in the Services Sector
prices, a large number of steps like launching One of the major drivers of service sector
of National Telecom Policy 1994, New Telecom growth in the post globalization era in India is
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Policy 1999, Broad Band Policy 2004, etc were the IT and ITES sector. That is why NASSCOM
undertaken. In addition to this, a number of (2005) says that, The IT and BPO industries
promotional measures have been taken up in can become major growth engines for India, as
IT and ITES (Information Technology Enabled
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global IT/ ITES market has been realized. The (NASSCOM). There is a huge potential for
remaining 90% (worth $300 billion) remains to growth in the services sector because of increase
be tapped. in disposable income, increasing urbanization,
growing middle class, a population bulge in
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and residents of foreign countries during a given
his/her assets or liabilities outside India are
period of time.
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altered (either increased or decreased). For
The balance of payment record is example: - (i) a resident of India acquire an
maintained in a standard double-entry book- immovable property outside India or acquire
keeping method. International transactions are shares of a foreign company. This way his/her
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entered into the record as credit or debit. The overseas assets are increased; or (ii) a resident
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payments received from foreign countries are
entered as credit and payments made to other
of India borrows from a non-resident
through External commercial Borrowings
countries as debit. (ECBs). This way he/she has created a liability
outside India.
A complete BoP account comprises the
following two broad accounts: (a) Current
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Account; and (b) Capital and Financial It includes:
Account. Foreign direct investment (FDI) refers to
long term capital investment such as the
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the foreigners.
services it imports, then that country has a trade
surplus otherwise a trade deficit. Other investment includes capital flows
into bank accounts or provided as loans. Large
In brief current account includes: short term flows between accounts in different
Payments related to foreign trade, current nations are commonly seen when the market is
business and services. able to take advantage of fluctuations in interest
rates and/or the exchange rate between
Short term banking and Credit
currencies.
facilities.
Payments due as interest on loans and Reserve account, the reserve account
dividends. is operated by a nation's central bank i.e.
Foreign travel, education, medical RBI to buy and sell foreign currencies; it
expenses. can be a source of large capital flows
Remittances i.e. money sent by individuals to counteract those originating from the
working abroad back at home. market.
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Thus ECBs mean foreign currency loan investment in the package and assessment
raised by residents from recognised lenders. by Reserve Bank based on prudential
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norms.
ECB can be accessed under two routes,
ECB with minimum average maturity of
viz., (i) Automatic Route and (ii) Approval
5 years by Non-Banking Financial
Route
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Companies (NBFCs) from multilateral
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AUTOMATIC ROUTE financial institutions, reputable regional
financial institutions, official export credit
Eligible borrowers agencies and international banks to
Corporates (registered under the finance import of infrastructure
Companies Act, except financial equipment for leasing to infrastructure
intermediaries (such as banks, financial projects.
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institutions (FIs), housing finance Special Purpose Vehicles, or any other
companies and NBFCs) are eligible to raise entity notified by the Reserve Bank, set to
ECB. finance infrastructure companies /
projects exclusively, will be treated as
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Area.
ECB for investment in real sector Corporates in service sector viz. hotels,
industrial sector, especially infrastructure sector- hospitals and software companies can
in India, are under Automatic Route, i.e. do avail ECB for import of capital goods.
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understand the challenges presented when shares of foreign companies and deposits it on
investing directly in local trading markets. These the account. GDRs represent ownership of an
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obstacles can include inefficient trade underlying number of shares. Global depository
settlements, uncertain custody services receipts facilitate trade of shares, and are
and costly currency conversions. But commonly used to invest in companies from
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Depositary Receipts offer cost benefits and
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conveniences.
The typical GDR structure offers DRs in
Europe or other non-US markets pursuant to
How Does the DR Work? Regulation S (Reg S) promulgated under the
The DR is created when a foreign US Securities Act of 1933. GDRs are listed on
company wishes to list its already publicly a European stock exchange such as London or
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traded shares or debt securities on a Luxembourg and clear through the
foreign stock exchange. Initial public Euromarkets clearing systems, Euroclear and
offerings, however, can also issue a Depository Clearstream. GDRs may also be listed on other
Receipt. exchanges, such as Dubai and Singapore. The
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To the Investors
To the Issuers
Easier to purchase and to hold than the
Broaden and diversify a companys
issuers underlying ordinary shares.
investor base.
Trade easily and conveniently in US
Enhance a companys visibility, status and
dollars and settle through established
profile internationally among institutional
clearinghouses.
investors.
Facilitate diversification into securities of
Establish/increase total global issuer
foreign issuers.
liquidity by attracting new investors.
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Create accessibility of price, trading
Develop and/or increase research
information and research.
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coverage outside the home market.
Represent a way to provide international
Get an international valuation as the
exposure for institutional investors (mutual
Company is valued alongside its peer group.
funds, pension funds) despite restrictions
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Offer a new avenue for raising equity against investing in certain countries or
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capital.
Meet internationally accepted corporate
governance standards.
in foreign investment instruments.
Eliminate unfamiliar custody safekeeping
arrangements.
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The exchange rate expresses the national Merits and demerits of fixed and flexible
currency's quotation in respect to foreign ones. foreign exchange rates:
For example, if one US dollar is worth 50
rupees, then the exchange rate of dollar is 50. Merits of fixed exchange rate:
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If something costs Rs. 150, it automatically costs It ensures stability in exchange rate. The
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3 US dollars as a matter of accountancy. Thus, exporters and importers have not to
the exchange rate is a conversion factor, a operate under uncertainty about the
multiplier or a ratio, depending on the direction exchange rate. Thus it promotes foreign
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of conversion.
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Each country, through varying It promotes capital movements. Fixed
exchange rate system attracts foreign
mechanisms, manages the value of its currency.
capital because a stable currency does not
As part of this function, it determines
involve any uncertainties about exchange
the exchange rate regime that will apply to rate that may cause capital loss.
its currency. For example, the currency
Stable exchange rate prevents capital
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may be free-floating, pegged or fixed, or a
outflow.
hybrid.
It prevents speculation in foreign exchange
When the exchange rate can freely move, market.
S RO
D LE
There is no need for the government to In a bad performing market, when there
hold any reserves. is depreciation in rupee, it will bring down
Y
the overseas investors real returns. So they
It enhances the efficiency in the economy
will start selling, which will again deepen
by achieving optimum resource allocation.
the situation. Very high prices for gold
have created panic among investors and
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Demerits of flexible exchange rate system
fearing a bubble there, investors started
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It creates situations of instability and
uncertainty. Wide fluctuations in
exchange rate are possible. This hampers
moving towards dollar. This demand in
dollar is also causing depreciation of rupee.
Inflation
foreign trade and capital movements
between countries. Another factor affecting the currency
value is inflation. India is experiencing very
A N
It encourages speculation which may lead
to larger uncertainties and fluctuations. high inflation rate. This will decrease the
The uncertainty caused by currency purchasing power against other
fluctuations can discourage international currencies. Thus leads to depreciation of
S RO
economic strengths of the countries. Higher the needs to buy more foreign currency. More
demand the stronger it becomes. However for demand for the foreign currency will
currencies like Rupee which are not traded on reduce the value of that countrys
exchanges, the value depends on capital inflows currency. Indias current account deficit
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D LE
the forms of exams such as Test of English points (bps) to 6 months Libor + 350 bps.
as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), Graduate
Y
Record Exam (GRE) and Graduate ECBs
Management Admission Test (GMAT). a) The existing ECB limit under automatic
These are entrance exams that students approval route has been enhanced from
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take to prove their eligibility for studying US$ 500 million to US$ 750 million for
eligible corporates. For borrowers in the
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abroad in terms of basic language, skills
and IQ. Moreover, the application forms services sector, the limit was enhanced
of foreign universities, which cost $50- from US$ 100 million to US$ 200 million.
1,000, will be more expensive for Indian b) The proceeds of ECBs raised abroad for
students. rupee expenditure in India should be
c) Foreign education (for existing brought immediately. In other words, ECB
A N
students): The overall budget will be proceeds meant only for foreign currency
affected as every item in the budget list expenditure can be retained abroad
will witness a change, as apart from the pending utilization. The rupee funds
however will not be permitted to be used
S RO
D LE
Broadly, the objectives of FEMA are:
When a business enterprise imports goods
(i) To facilitate external trade and payments;
Y
from other countries, exports its products to
and
them or makes investments abroad, it deals in
foreign exchange. Foreign exchange means (ii) To promote the orderly development and
'foreign currency' and includes: - (I) deposits, maintenance of foreign exchange market.
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credits and balances payable in any foreign The Act has assigned an important role to
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currency; (II) drafts, travellers' cheques, letters
of credit or bills of exchange, expressed or
drawn in Indian currency but payable in any
the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in the
administration of FEMA. The rules, regulations
and norms pertaining to several sections of the
foreign currency; and (III) drafts, travellers' Act are laid down by the Reserve Bank of
cheques, letters of credit or bills of exchange India, in consultation with the Central
Government. The Act requires the Central
A N
drawn by banks, institutions or persons outside
India, but payable in Indian currency. Government to appoint as many officers of the
Central Government as Adjudicating
In India, all transactions that include Authorities for holding inquiries pertaining to
foreign exchange were regulated by Foreign
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Indian companies and in India by foreign the Adjudicating Authorities and the Special
companies. It was a criminal legislation Director (Appeals).
(punishable with imprisonment as per code of
criminal procedure) which meant that its The FEMA provides for the establishment,
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[90] Chronicle IAS Academy