89

APPENDIX 1

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF GENETIC ALGORITHM

In the genetic algorithm a solution, i.e., a point in the search space

is represented by a finite sequence of zeros and ones, called a chromosome.
First, a population of strings representing the decision variables is randomly
generated. The size of the population depends on the string length and the
problem being optimized. Each string is then evaluated using the objective
function value. In GA terminology, the objective function value of a string is
known as the fitness of the string. This evaluation function acts as a pseudo
objective function, since it is a raw measure of the solution value. For
constrained optimization problems, the evaluation function typically
comprises a weighted sum of the objective and penalty functions to consider
the constraints. This approach allows constraints to be violated, but a penalty
depending on the magnitude of the violation is incurred. A highly infeasible
individual has a high penalty value and will rarely be selected for next
generation, allowing the GA to concentrate on feasible or near-feasible
solutions. Once the strings are evaluated, the three genetic operators-
reproduction, crossover and mutation are applied to create a new population.

Pseudo-code of working of GAs

Initialize a population of strings at random

Evaluate each string in the population

Repeat

Reproduction
 90

Crossover

Mutation

Evaluation of the population

Until (termination criterion)

A1.1 Reproduction

The selection of individuals to produce successive generations

plays an important role in GA. Reproduction comprises forming a new
population, usually with the same total number of chromosome, by selection
from members of the current population, following a particular scheme. The
higher the fitness, the more likely it is that the chromosome will be selected
for the next generation. There are several strategies for selecting the
individuals (e.g) roulette wheel selection, ranking methods and tournament
selection.

In tournament selection, n individuals are selected in random from

the population, and the best of the n is inserted into the new population for
further genetic processing. This procedure is repeated until the mating pool is
filled. Tournaments are often held between pairs of individuals (n=2),
although larger tournaments can be used.

Though this scheme selects good individuals for the next

generation, it can not guarantee that the best solution obtained survives
through out the optimization process. In other words, the best solution
obtained from the GA may not be included in the final solutions, which are
clustered towards a solution. To avoid this, the GA is modified such that once
an individual with highest fitness among the current generation is found; it
will be kept unchanged into the next generation. This process is called
elitism.
 91

A1.2 CROSSOVER OPERATION

After the reproduction phase is over, the population is enriched

with good strings. Reproduction makes copies of good strings, but does not
create any new string. A cross over operator is used to recombine with the
hope of creating a better string. An overall crossover probability is assigned to
the crossover process, which is the probability that given two parents, the
crossover process will occur. This probability is often in the range of 0.6 to
0.9. The method of crossover used in GA is BLX- crossover which is
explained in chapter 2.5.3.2.

A1.3 MUTATION

Mutation acts as a background operator and it is used to search the

unexplored search space by randomly changing the values at one or more
positions of the selected chromosome. This is often carried out with a
constant probability between 0.001 to 0.01 for each element in the population.
In this thesis, non-uniform mutation operator is applied to the mixed variables
with some modifications. After mutation, the new generation is complete and
the procedure begins again with the fitness evaluation of the population.

Stopping Criteria

These are the conditions under which the search process will
terminate. In this study, the search will terminate if one of the following
criteria is satisfied: the number of iterations since the last of the best solution
is greater than a pre-specified number; or the number of iterations reaches the
maximum allowable number.
 92

APPENDIX 2

MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

A general multi-objective design problem is expressed by

equation (A 2.1)

Min F ( x) [ f1 ( x), f 2 ( x),..... f k ( x)] (A 2.1)

Subject to x S

x=(x1,x2,xn)T

where f1(x), f2(x ).. fk( x) are the k objective functions , (x1,x2,.xn) are
the n optimization parameters, and S Rn is the solution or parameter space.
Obtainable objective vectors, {F(x)| x S} , are denoted by Y, so S is mapped
by F onto Y. Y Rk is usually referred to as the attribute or criteria space,
where Y is the boundary of Y. For a general design problem, F is non-linear
and multi-modal, and S might be defined by non-linear constraints and may
contain both continuous and discrete member variables. f1* , f 2* ,......., f k* will be
used to denote the individual minima of each objective function respectively.
The utopian solution is defined as F * f1* , f 2* ,......., f k* .

As F* minimizes all objectives simultaneously, it is an ideal

solution, however it is rarely feasible. In this formulation, minimize F(x),
lacks clear meaning as the set {F(x)} for all feasible x lacks a natural
ordering, whenever F(x) is vector-valued. In order to determine whether F(x1)
 93

is better then F(x2), and thereby order the set {F(x)}, the subjective judgment
from a decision-maker is needed. One property commonly considered as
necessary for any candidate solution to the multi-objective problem is that the
solution is not dominated. Considering a minimization problem and two
solution vectors x, y S. x is said to dominate y, denoted x > y, if:

i 1,2,...k : f1 ( x) f1 ( y ) and j 1,2,.....k : f j ( x) f j ( y)

The Pareto subset of Y contains all non-dominated solutions. The

space in Rk formed by the objective vectors of Pareto optimal solutions is
known as the Pareto optimal front, P.

If the final solution is selected from the set of Pareto optimal

solutions, there would not exist any solutions that are better in all attributes. It
is clear that any final design solution should preferably be a member of the
Pareto optimal set. If the solution is not in the Pareto optimal set, it could be
improved without degeneration in any of the objectives, and thus it is not a
rational choice. This is true as long as the selection is done based on the
objectives only. Pareto optimal solutions are also known as non-dominated or
efficient solutions. Figure A2.1 provides a visualization of the presented
nomenclature.
 94

Figure A2.1 Solution and attribute space nomenclature for a problem

with two design variables (x1 and x2) and two objectives
(f1 and f2), which should both be minimized

Solution and attribute space nomenclature for a problem with two

design variables (x1 and x2) and two objectives (f1 and f2), which should both
be minimized. The attribute space, Y, looks the same regardless of how the
objectives are aggregated to an overall objective function. Depending on how
the overall objective function is formulated, the optimization will result in
different points on the Pareto front.
 95

APPENDIX 3

Table A3.1 Line Data for IEEE 30-bus System

Line Impedance Line

Line From Bus To Bus
flow
Number Number Number R X Limit
1 1 2 0.0192 0.0575 130
2 1 3 0.0452 0.1852 130
3 2 4 0.0570 0.1737 65
4 2 5 0.0472 0.1983 130
5 2 6 0.0581 0.1763 65
6 3 4 0.0132 0.0379 130
7 4 6 0.0119 0.0414 90
8 4 12 0.0000 0.2360 65
9 5 7 0.0460 0.1160 70
10 6 7 0.0267 0.0820 130
11 6 8 0.0120 0.0420 32
12 6 9 0.2080 0.2080 65
13 6 10 0.5560 0.5560 32
14 6 28 0.0599 0.0599 32
15 8 28 0.2000 0.2000 32
16 9 11 0.0000 0.2080 65
17 9 10 0.0000 0.1100 65
18 10 20 0.0936 0.2090 32
19 10 17 0.0324 0.0845 32
20 10 21 0.0348 0.0749 32
21 10 22 0.0727 0.1499 32
22 12 13 0.0000 0.1400 65
23 12 14 0.1231 0.2559 32
 96

Table A3.1 (Continued)

Line Impedance Line

Line From Bus To Bus
flow
Number Number Number R X
Limit
24 12 15 0.0662 0.1304 32
25 12 16 0.0945 0.1987 32
26 14 15 0.2210 0.1997 16
27 15 18 0.1070 0.2185 16
28 15 23 0.1000 0.2020 16
29 16 17 0.0824 0.1932 16
30 18 19 0.0639 0.1292 16
31 19 20 0.0340 0.0680 32
32 21 22 0.0116 0.0236 32
33 22 24 0.1150 0.1790 16
34 23 24 0.1320 0.2700 16
35 24 25 0.1885 0.3292 16
36 25 26 0.2544 0.3800 16
37 25 27 0.1093 0.2087 16
38 27 29 0.2198 0.4153 16
39 27 30 0.3202 0.6027 16
40 28 27 0.0000 0.3960 65
41 29 30 0.2399 0.4333 16
 97

Table A3.2 Generator data for IEEE 30-bus system

min max min max

Bus data Pg Pg Qg Sg

1 50 200 -20 250

2 20 80 -20 100
5 15 50 -15 80
8 10 35 -15 60
11 10 30 -10 50
13 12 40 -15 60

Table A3.3 Generator cost data and ramp rate operating limits

F(PG ) PG3 bi PG2 ci PG d i Ramp Rate

Bus data (MW/30min)
ai bi ci di Up Down
1 0.0010 0.092 14.5 -136 15 20
2 0.0004 0.025 22 -3.5 10 15
5 0.0006 0.075 23 -81 6 10
8 0.0002 0.1 13.5 -14.5 4 8
11 0.0013 0.12 11.5 -9.75 4 8
13 0.0004 0.084 12.5 75.6 5 10
 98

Table A 3.4 Line Data for IEEE 57-bus system

Line no line R p.u X p.u Bp.u

1 1-2 0.0083 0.028 0.0645
2 2-3 0.0298 0.085 0.0409
3 3-4 0.0112 0.0366 0.019
4 4-5 0.0625 0.132 0.0129
5 4-6 0.043 0.148 0.0174
6 6-7 0.02 0.102 0.0138
7 6-8 0.0339 0.173 0.0235
8 8-9 0.0099 0.0505 0.0274
9 9-10 0.0369 0.1679 0.022
10 911 0.0258 0.0848 0.0109
11 9-12 0.0648 0.295 0.0386
12 9-13 0.0481 0.158 0.0203
13 13-14 0.0132 0.0434 0.0055
14 13-15 0.0269 0.0869 0.0115
15 1-15 0.0178 0.091 0.0494
16 1-16 0.0454 0.206 0.0273
17 1-17 0.0238 0.108 0.0143
18 3-15 0.0162 0.053 0.0272
19 4-18 0 0.555 0
20 4-18 0 0.4 0
21 5-6 0.0302 0.0641 0.0062
22 7-8 0.0139 0.0712 0.0097
23 10-12 0.0277 0.1262 0.0164
24 11-13 0.0223 0.0732 0.0094
25 12-13 0.0178 0.058 0.0302
26 12-16 0.018 0.0813 0.0108
27 12-17 0.0397 0.179 0.0238
28 14-15 p.0171 0.0547 0.0074
29 18-19 0.461 0.685 0
 99

Table A 3.4 (Continued)

Line no line R p.u X p.u Bp.u

30 19-20 0.283 0.434 0
31 21-10 0 0.7767 0
32 21-22 0.0736 0.117 0
33 22-23 0.0099 0.0152 0
34 23-24 0.166 0.256 0.0042
35 24-25 0 1.182 0
36 24-25 0 1.23 0
37 24-26 0 0.0473 0
38 26-27 0.165 0.254 0
39 27-28 0.0618 0.0954 0
40 28-29 0.0418 0.0587 0
41 7-29 0 0.0648 0
42 25-30 0.135 0.202 0
43 30-31 0.326 0.497 0
44 31-32 0.507 0.755 0
45 32-33 0.0392 0.036 0
46 34-32 0 0.953 0
47 34-35 0.052 0.078 0.0016
48 35-36 0.043 0.0537 0.0008
49 36-37 0.029 0.0366 0
50 37-38 0.0651 0.1009 0.001
51 37-39 0.0239 0.0379 0
52 36-40 0.03 0.0466 0
53 22-38 0.0192 0.0295 0
54 11-41 0 0.749 0
55 41-42 0.207 0.352 0
56 41-43 0 0.412 0
57 38-44 0.0289 0.585 0.001
58 15-45 0 0.1042 0
59 14-46 0 0.0735 0
60 47-48 0.0182 0.0233 0
 100

Table A 3.4 (Continued)

Line no line R p.u X p.u Bp.u

61 48-49 0.0834 0.129 0
62 49-50 0.0801 0.128 0.024
63 50-51 0.1386 0.22 0
64 10-51 0 0.0712 0
65 13-49 0 0.191 0
66 29-52 0.1442 0.187 0
67 52-53 0.0762 0.0984 0
68 53-54 0.1878 0.232 0
69 54-55 0.1732 0.2265 0
70 11-43 0 0.153 0
71 44-45 0.0624 0.1242 0.002
72 40-56 0 1.195 0
73 56-41 0.553 0.549 0
74 56-42 0.2125 0.354 0
75 39-57 0 1.355 0
76 57-56 0.174 0.26 0
77 38-49 0.115 0.177 0.0015
78 38-48 0.0312 0.0482 0
79 9-55 0 0.1205 0
80 46-47 0.023 0.068 0.0016