122 Richard TW. Arthur igh he adam th the ship tae wih he ame sal and se ‘est ily ot nuance tng enero move than {np athe hg hy ean ety nae orto ore en sre ent By ae hy wes moral, ‘Sonepat eee ace Sey mre ial ocr tng mie one ‘Sosy ashy cerned ahem oan a Etec pene arin 3) [REFERENCES Deo Jae. Te Laboratory ofthe Mind Tho Experiments nthe Science ie pacar ea Teo crc a ie ae cor era atom Chrky 1615. Phlsophes ond Mathematical Dictionary, New ‘pri 2057 Me ons he capa ote dileacpa6 ccs August 23,201 7 Chasing the Light Einstein’s Most Famous ‘Thought Experiment John D. Norton |LINTRODUCTION How could we he anything but charmed bythe delight story Einstein tele in bis “Astobsonrapheal Note” of a eiking thought he had a he Spc ofsiaten? Wil counting the cores tht edt the special heoy of ‘ela, be vealed 2 paradox upon which I had already hia the age of sixteen: IF pur ‘a beam of ight with the velocity cela of igh ima cy Should observe such a heam fight as an electromagnetic Bld 3 ‘hough spatially oxilating. Tete ems tobe no such thing, however, ricer onthe base of experience nor according eo Maxcwells equa tons. From the very Bepnning appeared to me intuvely clear that indged from the standpoint of such a oberverscreything would hare to happen according tothe same Laws efor an observer eho, relate tothe earth was at ext For how should the frst observer kao Be set determine, tht hee in a sate of fast uniform motion? ‘One sces inthis paradox the germ ofthe special elt theory i aleeay contained: (Einstein 1951, 52-33 199, 48- 31) instcin is celebrated for devising penetrating thoughe experiments aad bere we arcolfered s thought experimen that contain the etm of his rest lacovery Yer the thought expernen iro simple that coal aise the playfal musing ofa sxeen year oles ise wonder tha this thought Experiments widely ted and peased Al this dacepee. The thoughe experiment is unlike Ein’ many other shougt experiments in two aye First and foremost, nie he Isentrly unclear how thi thought experiment work. Upon encountering the thought experiment, moat rade likely find the imagery auite vivid land even sedative. Bat they should be, and ypicaly wil be lee with 3 Sense of incomplete understanding ant why they sould ask, the fozen Tisht ofthis thought experiment problematic? The question it unlikely t0 Ibe pursued. Most ceaders expect Einstein's thought eo be absruse and a124 John D. Norton falar of understanding to be the reader’ ful: That may often be the ase, but inthis he opacity no fat of readers. Tc nota all ‘ear how the thought experimen works. As will be recounted in Section 2 below if we read the thought experiment a securing fatal defect of che then dominant etr-based theories of eecodynamics fal. This the “physical prem” tobe addressed here "Rear secking ep in understanding this curons alae wil find litle Fp in he seconacy erator. As shall explain in Section 3, hat ic {ature almost ever acknowledges the problem. tray imply paraphrase innit perhaps hoping the ear will penetrate the thought experi mneacin a way the author dl not. Or ie may discourage a reader fromm Seeking cogent explication by praising Einstens prescient inci, We Seto admire hs sity tose fragments ofthe rainy theory to come in what Einstein (1956, 10) elsewhere called a “chilike chou exper tment but we lesser mindy shoud ot expect eo eadestand how he saw it And wore, an author may feign understanding and give the thowshe faperiment an explication tha connects poor wath Eintes ext The Unfortunate seader now has two probes to undestand Einsteins text Sid to understand che explication! “Scondther "historical prensa sal lit obe i out in Se tion The thought experiment was conceived by Finstin nae 1895-eatly 1896 and involves conden assertion of what Maxwells equations permit. Yerthc young Eistin was pot to ean Maxwes theory ual around 189. Isinsein mes describing» though experiment fom 1895-18962 Or the thought experiment now so etermingled wth later analyses? “sy soan tooth pysial and historical problems sc suggest that insti’ thought experimenting with frozen ight persisted wall nto his researches hat lead upto the 1905 special theory of ela. Versions of| the ought experiment were conducted after Einetein had mastered Mase tells equation, During this sme, Einstein gave long and serious consi “ration to emision theories of light. In them, ehe speed of a ight beam ‘Sno wach respect tothe ees, but with respect othe emer. These fmision thea were Einstein's best and pesaps only hope of realizing rncple of latvty in electrodynamics, por his recognition tha these ore woul equie 4 new theory of space and time will propose that Einstein's Autobographical Note” version of the thought experiment recounts poerfl seasons for abandoning emission theories, fin abbr ined form: These theories and some of Bastens discussion of them will, ire deseribed in Section , The rereading of Einsteins though expesiment 1 prording ejections €o emison theories wl be given in the conc ing Section 6. The thoughe experiments chen sen to succed in ofering ‘lson clear ad cogent avin any of Einstein's other thoughe exper nents Ir haste add bone of earfying ceyprc remarks Einstein made ‘hewhere concening his dacarding of emission theons. (Chasing the Light 125 In what follows, wil ake he above quoted presentation ofthe thought experimen rom "Autobiographical Notes” ax the eanonisl vero ofthe ‘ought experiment. My purpose ete 10 explicate thi version of the ‘ought experiment While I wll disuse reports of eter versions Blom, {his one i both i best-known exposition and, restate on sha Einstein drafted most cautiously. Re was writen fora txt that Einstein enw would be his ficial aucoboge apy. 2. PHYSICAL PROBLEM. Fn Manel ceerodyanm aac pe ed was seal per rp een meteor ert Se re wee yceey ie int ee en ee em eee re See ton ocean aii tn oA tat cn nok. crete aioe ora amine stn oes regimens ‘els theoy, when worn comernon fhe teoge er ny se aoe eae ae tnt tga ath hn cat sins set Cyne i wh igh fle foe soe oe126 Job D. Norton abe 7.1_ Aa Per Theor’ Reponie to Bisa Eten wrote The Ether Theor Resp aod ve ch Beam fig ak Scecromazn late dag Sposa ocing, The es toe 17 edhe om he isi of experienc We do a expen ronnie ‘we are ce moving at though the her we mee org ta ft ‘hgh he ete we would expe ‘ern ihe 2%. asin to Maw eu: Noro. A ey shor aelation! sos vin Nhat Mawes guson reac tae I bowmes ene for ober owing at ugh the ete “Hom se very being appeared ‘mein clear et, ue fom he mandpir of such a0 ces eering woul ave Igy scoring he eas a8 foram acre wh, ret te cant was Forhow shuld theft oberver Observers know hey are moving tow oe ae o demi ae zap th spect othe ily [Sins ato fst unform ota’ bate lh as ce sen ‘Rslgialys ters Eno hy ae ‘moving anther oon onthe trove co change 3, COMMENTARIES ‘We should give Einstein the benef ofthe dou whea he writes something that sees vill and fatally wrong. However, cht chavgy should noe fxtend ts fale to ecognize that we face 2 problem in econsrcting Esti’ intentions, That file ir widespread among commentaries wet tenon Einstein's thought experiment: While arn fa from having surveyed “sack commentaries! ny small explorations have turned up ony @ ny Fraction of comivenearies hat admit to = probe erhapa the least is Ado Grnbaun' (1973, 371-379) He rehearses some of the concerns | express above and concludes memorably ln view of the presumably flimsy character of the appeal o exper ‘ce and ofthe edundancy of 2 with 3) among the reasons given by Chasing the Light 127 Einstein, we are prety much left with his inutve confidence in the principle of clatity athe basi for his assumeion light the fates Signal n vacuo) (1973, 374-373) insti’ former collaborator, Banesh Hofmann (1982, 94-97), lys out the objection to Einstein's second reason, He recapitulate che easy dem ‘onstation ina non feats spacetine of she pssly of frozen ih, bute finds a prescence in Finstin’speychologcal reaction to the chousht ‘experiment Olivier Danial (1996, 289-290) sles eager wo excalpte instein. He judges Einstein's eeminicence “ithe false or minded” and conces: "We sould herefee regard the widespread ble that inten Jaa an inboon crust in the relativity piniple av 2 myth. In fact, he oii rally believed in Maxwells clettomagaetic eer” Citing Daeg aay sis, Mare Lange (2002, 201) reviews the diclis of reading Fiat's ‘ought experiment as 2 peompt in lst of discasion questions He ask, peovocatiey Is Einstein's famous argument from ing ona beam of light faved?" bur does not apparely take a stand hime ‘These critical actions are exceptional Vieualy all commentaries il ‘o acknowledge that something appears to be amis. The nos benign of ‘hess suchas Martine (2008, 213-214) merely report Eaten’ smacks ‘without attempting cluciation. The exposon may even bea rather dose paraphrase, Whirow says that the Beam of igh would then appear a8 a spataly oscillating ecto Imagnesc eld a est. But such a concept was unknown to piyscs ad st variance with Mawes tory. (1973, 1) Thee is no further explication, so the reader is apparenly itended 0 tundertand thee remarks diet. Forunately, some ecpocs fag tothe ‘eader thar these might be «problem. Immediately afer quosing Eins text, Berga concedes ‘We deltertly restrain ourselves from roching upon the por of logical internal cnsntency i his passage (Grunt) we eater cll terion to the "ntitie” coclion leads oa 4 spall onl Intry field at ret “does no ake sens,” no observes, no marl body, ean reach the velo & (197% $8) (Other author are les ready to admit the problem a they strug to clarity Bastin’: remarks. Holton finde Einsteins narcative to have lasexact parlelinthe 195 papers in he conceptual ap fom asp cxperiment indeed lo a kind of Gedanken experiment late ‘modion of conductor and magnet) the general principe from which ‘he cone of relativity theory wll derive, (973,293)128. Jobn D. Norton Here Holton refers to the magnct and conductor thought experiment shat inites Eisens amos “On the Hctrodynamics of Moving Bodies” {Einscin 1905} in hich st pesens special relate. That thought Experiment deve fom fact inetherbased lectodymamics A magnet at fev the eho is surrounded by a magnetic ie. A magnet moving the ‘ers surrounded by » magnetic eld and an indaced lees el, arising thvoush the magnets mation, One might expect this let Bel to be an txperimntally detec sgn ofthe magoet’s motion inthe ether, for one ‘ah deer the lect ld row te abity to crate x meanarable let tent in condnctor in the vcinky ofthe magnet. Ye, Einstein reported, {Neanous combination of effects lead 10 the sme current inthe conductor tno matter whether the magnet ast inte ether oF moving ini” “The similarity, Holon continue, persists in the deal ofthe wo exper iments. They are ical of pein the se kim: none asthe gosto concerns Thee an nei liea moving observes noo be sited ih thea the chee, once he ceric and ag Teves capone by ovingsondactors apd the sens in both {Ss fllw from he sae anfomaton equations (973,235) Wiile there are some similarities ere, they do noe exten othe poi at sue Einscs inference in the case ofthe magne and condactor thought fxperiment is clear and unequivocal. Ether theories of electromagnedsm tre posting sate frst hat i inthis ase mpsteionly obscured from tkscction Finscisinfrencelnghecase ofthe chasing ight beam thought ‘xpetiment apparent law ei ot clear how creates a peoblem foe ‘ther sed elostrodynamics Th the course ofthe inacench century, eterdift experiment had sought to measure the ihr shift in the sped of light hat ought 0 result Fnom the cats mation inte eter eater became a mach-clerated fact, thor no elec war measured by thes experiments. Mille also this 82 pari explanaton of Esti’ remarks At site, instcn muse ave known of some, oe perhaps ally ofthe famous eherdeife experinents, thus ecounting for the comment “However there sexta tobe ao sch thing» nthe basis of expe sce” (1981, 169) “The difclsy with this seading is that Bisti's “no such thing® refers dinetly to "an electromagnet ld 3¢ ree though spatially osilaing” tnd hee is quite sme gap ta be close Berween chat and the very slightly Slowed or sped up light shat eaded the tere ethe- dif experiment ‘Miler 1981, 169) also repeatedly poins to Einsteins wording "nt sively lear” in elation a is acy conviction in dhe principle of elt Chasing the Light 129 Other authors go futher and emphasize iascasprecen intiion in celebratory tones, perhaps intending wo forestall a demand for explanation ‘of Fists reasoning, Sarto pases Einstein's “inspired inion “Te sed ofthe theory of eaity had evidently een planted when insten was ony siateen years old! The idea that High has the same sped in all inertia frames, o dificult for an ordinary mind vo gasp, ‘wae a guite natural one for Ensen, He was prepared to accept eves ‘without song experimental evidence (1996, 53-54) Yec other authors struggle ro make Finstcia's discomfort wit fozen light credible though ornamenting Einstein's account with picturesque ‘eta, Berstein attempts to clarity Eintiats dismssl of Frozen light by eemarking 1 would be lke coming across a pond which had a wavy surface but the waves did not move. This would certainly appear "paradoxical" (2006, 63), While he image ofa pond with fozen wavs i sting, its not che one thar would match Eisensconsroctin. One needs tol that Einstein Ischasing afer the waves, Then i would be trv that a Esti chs Jing the waves onthe water's surface would ind frozen waves, Thy would not appear paradoxical: More iaventvly, Schwartz and MeGuines (197, 75-76) locate the pal in the fae that an Einstein eravling with High, ‘woeld enable wo sce his reflection in a handheld mirror inladed in he ilustatons. While that would be tue, i ota al leat from his ext, ‘tha ein jos wha troubled Einstein in the though experiment Finally in an apparent eagerness to provide a seams account a uthor may end up mistaing the physics. Kak relates how Einstein found ‘har his aversion frozen light was vindicated when he later learned Man wells theory ‘When Fintin nally learned Maxwells equations, he could answer the question that wa continually om his mind. As he soapected he found that there were no sluions of Maxwells eqatione in hich light was frozen atime. Batten he discovered sre To Bs surprie, he found that in Masel cheory, ight beams always taseled 3 he same vty, no matter bow fst You moved. 2004, 45) ‘This suppovedly what Einstein leaned asa stadent a the Zach Pty techni, where he completed is studi in 1900, well before the frm tion ofthe spel theory of elatiity. Yer the esl described ae previely that sn tobe found inthe ether based Maxwell theory Einseln would then have lesened. That theory allows light lw and be Frozen inthe130, Jobe D. Noxton frame of reference of «scent rapidly moving observe. The resus Kaku describes are the ones tha obeain in Maxwells cheory only after ts ported othe pace and time of Fate's special dheory of laity. in sum, even though Einstein's "Autobiographical Nows” count appears toate a sequence of inferences readers can follow, the cebrated ‘Hourht expericae ts poorly understood. Very few authors adie this ‘icc. Mos feign understanding and the postive peopesals offered com ‘ect poorly wi each other and wish Fist’ txt. 4. HISTORICAL PROBLEM ‘When regrt by Ens crates ch confion, wend proceed Sit fan eee bese su Tecan x nen Anblogphal Noss conse an ot. metes tat be {San th psn aap ser: Sac war bron March 8 tha mle with te Je March 1895-areh 1996. Anthro tied low leas the hohe expect Eine hoya a ‘Sts ich lasted fm te Oceber 1895 to Sopember 1996. These dns ome el enought ae he hog experimen ne 8950 so 6 “The hori pole his crs isha the Aobigrapiat Noes” nary an Sacto for Mawes eats. Yee ken fra ‘ereprs shat Ent dl orev Masts soy une vane Sys avound 1998 oe Sach ra 1987, 223-735 Wty haracoumol heh npr Neth mentions Mave tua an both aren cmpaning he beste {tina comason, Ina tmioenceo hisjer ath pone a ‘Ses Ena vo During this ys in Aara the flowing question came to me fone ‘hase igh wave with the sped of ight, then one would have Before ‘onesie independent wwe Bed. Bat such a thing appears not 0 ‘hie! This was the fiat chilike thought experiment related the Ses theory of att. Discovery i nota work of loge thoughy, ‘en if the isl prdact bound in logical frm. (1956, 10) tient admis the chought expert was “child ike” and is conc Jn semtence sean to warn ane we shold ot expst he log he ‘Boag expennee oe aleve Theacond account comes othe seat pychlogst Max Were, ‘wh trewed ian in 116 5 pt of Werther esate to- “Bolo. ls seprt ofthe inerne was pols posthumous in 145 intr volume Bacie Thinking! (Chasing she Light 131 “The problem began when Fistin was sixteen years old papi in he CGyeanasam (Aarau, Kantonschle, “The process stared ina way that was not ery clan and ie herefore aiicut to dexcribe—in 3 certsin rate of being pled, Fst came sch guerions an: What ome were to ron afer a tayo igh? What fe were ring om the eam? Ione were to rum ates ry of ight ‘tenes, woul ts wlocity thereby be decressed? Ione were 0 ra fast enough, woul tno longer move aa? [W'elpses] To young Einsien this oemed sean ‘When asked him whether, daring this period, he ha steady tad Some idea ofthe conteaney of light veloc, sndependet of the smoverent ofthe reference system, Einstein answered decidedly: "No, ‘tas jan curiosity. Tht the velocity of ght coud dir depending pon the movement of the observer wat somchow characterized by ‘Bob: Later developments creed that doube” (Wertheimer 1959, 215) ace again, Maxwells equations have no role and the certsinty of the Autobiographical Notes” accounts eplace by mere discmfor, pale ‘od doubt, “The historical peoblem sto zeconcile thee differences inthe account of the ehougt experiment. The slaton, | propose, srsighforward. Fin: ‘tein may have st hie yp the des of chasing light asa stern yea ld However the thoughe experiment evalied ax hs eearches evoled is tatles form, i wasn ajo parte precocious imagiingy of inven tive siteen ear old, driven st mach by inition a eon. This ea orm fof the though experiments rpored by Wertcimer an by Ensen fond report Eisen “Autabgraphieal Notes” account, however reports Slater development ofthe thought experiment ees verwonundertsen ‘when Einstein had some conumand of Maxwells equations ards throgh the thought experiment aries tren more define than dhe ere po ement and doubt ofthe ssten year old, ‘While chis may solve the historkal prom, conly degpens se psa problem. For if “Autobiographical Note reports thought expectment Undertaken by an older, more Knowledgeable and more eapable Finan, Iho could he gt so wong? My slat wo ths deepened phys! prob lem that Eistin isnot aiming the thought experiment again eter ‘heart of lectremagnetion, but again difient sor of chor ‘EMISSION THEORIES AND THEIR PROBLEMS Some years before Einstein sent his completed special theory of reaiity ‘o thejournal Amal de Physik he became convied hat he principe132, Jobn D. Norton of elaiiy ms old for cectrodynamic processes ren f Maxwell the- ‘x did ne allow i The sho experiment that played a devise olen Fermin this conviction was hi magnet and condactor thought experiment. “That thought experiment showed hi that what you could meas in clec- trodynanc didnot ditingwish uniform mavion fom rest inte eter Yet Maxwell's hoor tated the to ease very diferent Somehow Einstein ‘Soncluded, Maxwells theory mast be change so thatthe resting theory ‘Stnforns with the principe of ela. “We can sce mos simpy the sort af changes needed if we consider light nih in Manel theory, jst a propagation of waves the electric sod magnetic els ; ie a Mawel henry, «Hight wave i a vacuum always propagates at samespetrc withrespet tothe eter, So measuring the speed of ise bea [eshservesan ey way to determine thot moon in he eer they find {elit tomove ate th curves are at rest inthe ter Mey Bad the ie eowenthey are moving atc the thr Since observers eam derie thei olatemosion, the toy violates the principle of lati. "The aterave theory that Einstcin began to pursue was an emission theory Insucsthcry the speed flight im vacuo isle But itis mo ‘Cwith respec othe ee, te with espero tbe souree that emits the Tight In sich + theory, obeeving the sped ofa light beam tells obser ‘es nothing about tha abwolte motion Ie oly reveal their maton with apt to the source that exited the ight. I they Sind the bear propa fete atc the obpervers ave at set with respect 9 the emir If they find Tc beam wo be froven they ate esing rom the source a. All he itee hate casera pose too In general, observers can only ascertain thet ‘slative velit wth respect to the source hdstnctive popes ofthis esisson theory seat herein singe veloc lao igh the teloity wl vary according othe voce ofthe emir ‘All hiss pertains to one par of clecrodymamsc theory, the propagae sion of light, rorder to mount a complete emission theory in which the Drip of glatvty hols, Einstein would need to propagate ches sors Sr changs throughout the complete tory. One might imagine tha stch modifcation wold be extemely hard t carryout I cums out, however thar one can make alt of progress very quickly. Oa the basis of numer ‘us clus that Eisen ee in Inter writings, I Beir es possible wo dis ‘Seen quit credible candidates forthe theories or theory fragment instcn veloped and these have been reconstructed i some dtl in Nocton (2004, 552-3) | "These effort, I believe, would iially have seamed quite promising. “That fact prema encouraged Einstsn co pers in hs effrs to find 8 serviceable emison theoey. Einstein persisted for years a8 he recalled in 1920 recolleton “Thedfclsy co be overcame layin the constancy ofthe velocity oflight ina vacuum, which Bist believed had wo be given up-Oaly after years (Chasing the Light 133 of iabrlang roping il notice thatthedifcly lyin he arbitra hes of hase Kinematieal concepts. (Einstein [1920] 2002, 280) Eventually Finstein did give up on an emission theory. Thee san in ‘ation that che stugae with the emission theory was long aed arn ‘Afer he had propose hi special theory of ela, Fintin wae asked fepestely seheter an emission theory was viable. Einstein’ correspon ‘lence afer 1905 and some mananripesourecs contains weakh of obo ‘ons cht rellect serious probing of the pony ofan emison eheory fn rom many perspectives. “These nny jection by Einstein are collected and diewasedin Norton (2004, 54 For what follows, wo of chess many objections are important *+ A serviceable emission theory cannot characterize ight waves solely by items, color and polarieation, but would nced oad locity property which igh i known not to pores + Riteraccale emission theory cannot be formulated in terms of di fecetal equations ‘The second objection means thatthe theory cannot lok like 3 lea eld Aheory of the type of Maxwells theory. In such = thors, the we are ‘xpresed hy relations that hold atone poi in space and tine. These di {erensal equations late the rate ofchange in space and time ofthe Bld a ‘he point the Bld magnitudes that pont Once one knows these rates fof change, one can find how he Beds change ak One mover o neighboring. points, ani fom th informaton pice together the disposition ofthe Bede Shroughout space snd ime Tone i unfair with the details ofeletrodynamsic tory, it wil be entirely unclear how thee tro objections pose problems for an emi fon theory. One might suppose these deal wil be obvious to an expert However even i one knows some clecrodynamse theory, the working of ‘he objection remains uncles Why shold the fst that ight has ony the Properties of intensity, colo, and polarization bea problem? And ow can fone show that no cmason theory eal an he formated in ems of dit ental oguntions? 6. THE THOUGHT EXPERIMENT AS AN (OBJECTION TO EMISSION THEORIES instcn'schasing igh thought experiment stayed with hm after its in tal conception, then be wat sixteen years ole remained in his reper toure of important txt cases after 1895, when he had learned he details fof Marvell's chor. this later perio, did nor provides cogent je onto cher hase theories of elecerodyamice. Rather | propos, pro ‘ied powerfl and devatating objections to the emission theories, whose134 Jobn D. Norton cxploration and rejection ured extent in Einsteins researches prior © 1s 1905 special eheoryof relatives his, T suggest, hat ected nc sion of he hough experimen in Hint’ “Ausobographical News” and ina for chat acluded invocation of Maxwells equations in the thoughe experimen, Einstein offered theee objections to frozen light They fll as objets to am ethe-based cleetuodyamics. An emis ‘som ticory also alls igh to slow when an observer chases afte ie and to fcese if the puss eft enough, If we vead Ensen objections as lewd agains an emission theory of light, they succed, forcefully * com the hasis of experience..." “The fist jection isthe we donor experience foze ight. That objection tas le force aginst an eter teory since merely reflects he fat that ‘wears not moving atin dhe eer In an emision theory, ligt emt by ‘Toad ressing ftom ut propagates slower than c The sped of recession ‘tte source i sbracted frome to Sind the speed we will measure Tn the xtreme casi the source recedes fom us at, we wl ind the ight ei ted the source tobe frozen. Athi moving source pasts through pact ie pants Iroven light wave across space. The universe i led with many Taminous bodies. All takes for tere 1 Be jst ome light source mov ing ator near c with respetto ur for our space wo be painted with Fozen Tight Thats afin prdition of ee emission theory Ye we have never ‘xpeicned such thing, An emsion theory can only survive, thea if We ‘make the daous asmption that no fasenoving luminous bodies have pased cebu our corner of space—not even one. This the ist ale ‘tam emision theory according to Maxwells equations “The second objection ix that Maxwell equations forbid frozen light. ‘One might think that Maxwell's equations have no place in an emission they foe the emission theory replaces them with anew theory. Tati tot eitely correc. Maxwelfe theory remain the crowning teamph of rineteatv century physic. enjoyed tase experimental sapport and the import of thore experiments cannot be undone. Anew theory of ele trodyaamics coud not dispense with Maxwells theory etl. The new theory can only deviate fromm iin eas in which Maxwels theory bas tut been thoroughly tested. The realm in which the theory hasbeen ost thorughly reve i that of clectic and magnesc ells that donot change tvtime, clectostaties and magpetostaics. Whatever ese a new theory ‘high change, this part would have wo remain unchanged and mast be Alplicted within the new theory: "This most secre part Maxwells heoryprobibis frozen waveforms ina ‘scwum ult out oles and magne lls. only allows ombinations Chasing the Light 138 of static lds ha dite in space by the fai inverse square lw Yee an fmsion deory, Eastin now sa st allow dhe state sna carves of ‘coven ight in every intial eae of ference. Thats am ein theory ‘must conice wich that paet of Maxwells theory that we can be sare wil, sie, This the second flac of anemia they a state of fast uniform motion ‘inaly Histin asks how observers nding frozen light can determine shat ‘hey ae ins sate of rapid uniform motion. Fis. arhetorisl question and inucin leaes ito ceaders to flint details, Thowe deals ean ony be recovered if we recreate the background presumed bythe rhetorsal gucs ‘on: Ia the context ofan emission theory, te state af rapid motion me Sone can only mean rapid motion with respec 0 the light sarc. The ‘ory has ben devised so tat chet no absolute motion Determining this motion with respect wo the source, Twill now argue, essential ifthe emision theory iso function as a serviceable theory, sep porting predictions offre state, Einstein's suggestion i ble, tha ‘we cannot find this veloiy from the instantaneous state ofthe wave and that leads othe fale of he theory as a predictive system To se the problem, recall how Mawes theory is used 0 make pe dhesons. We rake the cleric and magnedc Ren space a one moment, Through Maxwells equations, his nstamancous sate ofthe fl then fixes their time rates of change. rom these time rates of change, we infer the fare states ofthe fis 2 moment ate, and oo foe the whole fare ofthe ls, A similar sor of analysis ts out fl for an emission theory. Ein stcins chasing ihe thou experiment provides «simple case of the al. fre. Our nial state a sinusoidal wave of fields sread through space rom that inal state alone, we eanno ell if the felds belong wo a wave propagating past us at high sped, or if they belong co a wave frozen in Space that fail to propagate a alt we canoe dings te cases we Cannot peice what will happen next To kaow which eas is before us, wwe need also to know whether the wave was produced bya source that rest with respect 0 ws then we havea propagating wave, ws if We must ask, prodtced by a source receding at c rom us then we havea wave "Toanewer, we ned to know ou velocity with espect othe source Ein stein reports his presumprion that the same laws hold fr rapidly moving ‘observers for those on earth, Tht mins that we cannot resort to any absolute velocity to help deve which casei efoe us, Our velocity with respect tothe soutce most somehow be recovered fom properties of the Instntancous state ofthe wae, ‘At this pint Fins inal cryeic objection to an emision the ‘ony reported lcwhere becomes desinve, The inerinsic proper of light136 Jobn D. Norton comprise only intensity, color, and polarization, but no a velocity prop trey. That shore is mo wa to use the instantaneous propery ofthe fisto decermine how they will develop in time Ts he waveform raza in ‘hn? Is propagating rapidly? No lcs determination of es inetantancous ‘properties can tellus "Wir is that such 9 soubling outcome? In mod term x 2 ulare of determinism, chats falar ofthe presen tate of things 0 deter- thine the future, We know from dlsewheve that failures of determinism Utoubled Einstein great He folloned the pinstecth-centary teaiion ‘GF euatingcawstton wih determini, The indeeeminism of moder ‘quantum theory was italy repaded a 2 failure of eausation and this leeway of thinking of he face would have played some par in in Steins celebrated complaint about quantum theory: that he could not inline that God played dice with che universe The equation of deter ism and causation is expressed rather clearly by Eines statement ina 1350 spech hat the laws ofthe external world were alk taken tbe compet, in the Following sense If esate ofthe objets is complecly given st acer tain ime then thee tte at any ater tme iscompetely determined by the we of mature. This jst what we mean when we speak of eusal= iy: Such was appeowimatey the framework of the pisaltiaking 3 Ininted years apo. 1980] 2005) Here is the tind failure of emis theories, They cannot be formulated ina way thatthe pesen state deternines the exe and ll Fture sates. Emision theories coneradict causality and cannot be used for precio, A formulation of an emisston theory mst be loa nthe sense hat it must keep tack of bow each wave eld was rete. “This third fale can be expssed in a more succinct way. Maxwells theory is speed by dilleraial equations through which the fates of Change of the field are derived from the instantaneous sates of the Bld, Finstcin had ow concladed that an emission theory could ac be Fou Tated in this way. Here now isan explanation of Ensen’ other cryptic sbjcton to cmon thers: that they could not be formaated in terms of deren equacions ‘The tind objection of Einsteins though experiment rans ut tobe a abbreviated complaint shat eso theories wil be defecrive easly, the nietcnth century tense of she tem, and unable eo make pedicons {of faure states fron present states. This reading ofthe thought exper ‘nea enables us alo to make sense of two of Einscins otherwise cryptic ‘aarke on emission theorses made elsewhere? ‘We can summaize the reading proposed ina table analogous to the one siven in Seton 2 (ee Table 72) Chasing the Light 137 ‘ile7.2_Binstes Approach Contested to a Emin Thesey Eta wrte Irprttion an Eso Try Lia bere ach Beam af abe ‘vanletomagnt eda et ‘hough spay oltig. There Sema tobe no tach ago, “ Iman emision soy, we woul exe “eevee to expec rome igh sce sy ‘pi receding igh source pits ‘een cits oe pace 2+. -nacaconding to Malls Anemision theory mint pe a et ‘ations ‘tlhe crest and magneto Sec prs of Masel theory. Those prs peck nso Bele icmp pce “From the very bepaning appeared _Inan mien hath obec ‘omeinusiel cet hot jag —-nocall yn a abe veloc 0 rom be sandpsrosucan swe he hea action in ‘ucescerhing wouldve (op et Ippo acceding the sae laws as Toran obsewer whore ote cary as art 21 Forbow sold the fe ovever Given he nwantancou te ower beat dewrmine, aves ary one needs thathctina ato fr waform —elaow ont of acon wih on repeat the ete to knw wheter sheave epg Tar Notes 1. In Masel theory propagating plane Hphteave of warength and {juny conten te anna le Side and HSH Sn 2 ery where E and H ae te ccc and magne ltd stecagt and and ec the nal pace ane coro sted {pee ete frame of rex we rane os eae sang sah ox “vec of popagron a he eae the ae cordnmes 5 adapta to ‘hmovng fame re ltd tothe Gril eer ame Coordinates by ean T ae Since ea tyme eve cw fae Hone She ee {etn the eanslormed dr are Be Eyam Bari yin tndus 10 Job D. Norton =H sn 2 ech Hsin 204, Theale wae tine Pendesof teame ne They are nen he Sel engin End [ondary n Newnan cen tme) SSSI mye ied ple hn toon am ch me hal ‘et iin sn omg ‘Ske! ys nd) eon ini et ee wl th Sorat Setanta in a Ha SOnAGFte wi pos evans wks choca ‘SvNdntl seed ital rane ce ce Mc ei tne ss" ne porous tea eral og te Whe Funan se ist Waar Sem ieee uy Hoke ears pee SSUES SL en san SE 7) ie nts aint Fremmably Adoll Gronbatm is otended in the fllowing quote, Beraa's tapi stan ce Cn Rape SORES yh etn te Py of Rady stichig WC Reon er oe Tsoi Seearnmy oy lame eer tent sini Fa Sano ni magma hove reine ioctentoni BoE ere tae in Wein ri. lat Eni ‘Roitman tiny eae se Ea oe ‘Serre was yl Bea he er Wet se st tec petal caper nad ier ae Kenda conieai ga 2° Set Giese ‘Sri tends cece ely en re Senin dn aio feel Pa igo ‘Nuns tpemn a he deg Rene Na ‘hse mel fo ent Risso Ena end ae he ip nnd cilia ta spinosa Sere hcl Sam gna Sid i conn Shane an tl a Scand wn seen ye SUES SUL eel pea Mppach oem ie oe ts a Sr li a Stee ic poppe Tom Sh te Sarg Pe cd nein ene ec STASI momen iy Ree toupee Ser aELI Fed och by seig ee Heeroma SEERLS ae Sc poppe ae wth rope oe etn Tinos dese TATE Se oer uth wh smi he rns hi Hit a RRS A tga mer Son EOD hace ova Chasing the Light 139 1, Bini’ demand er thi vlc propery noe unresomabl. A inple ors Ki Gan unin he ld pon a= Afequney wad wane umber nasty cieages Pe ME ‘Shc wad Kate elite othe pet ofthe wave by = a fo. lows thatthe pd ofthe wane edb the wave mae acon ov ans ibe wave umber pores the vel proper Est Songh. Tay spect Caeof' onn wave artar wha he wate number fe lfone tink s wave whoo ntataneour ae = hen ma be enh tala sna ees care 12, Se Norwn (2004, $5 for father cession REFERENCES De i 1. By ne i Spc en” ty Velma eel pA cs ca Sard se es. Seto te One: nn. 105 Stee Dap Os 1996 The ody Oe f Ris Theoy” Hic el se ed Set cea st Ae "Zar Swe ayer” 1 0 andaner s nd Meh ol be Thy ae i,t thr ord Bai etd ape ae Dei eB nr tes BBE EI ee Jetta Rc Mf a sy es (tf 00 pl say SIS ge ders soe ueGopple Nace in lr san Boyer Se veal itr te 8 Ship 0 Ne tar el Rectedet hes Angie Neer Ps asad Bre gape Skin In Hel ‘a Sei lel are Vag en DAZ St coe of hepa ar ‘End Time, 2a elton, 1-409, Dordrecht Reidel Fan Repos ed 6 Ho ad 8 once Ga ee nolan Sean! 193 "Emu Metin and he Cai Ean a "Bt Gg of ah ng Kp o Et SS ant Serta ty mes xd nt Bs Cr How Ene Vision Tamme Ow Caden pct ine Se ea Ne No rane iele tip Me ay al, [Marcinez, Alberto. 2008. Kintmaties: The Lost Origins of Einztein's Relatvit ‘Bakimore; Johns Hopkins University Press. ch ™I 140. Jobw D. Novton Mille, Abc 1 2981 Albert Bho’ Speci Theory of Relat. Reading, ‘Mi: Adon Nesey or, 264g of Galen Caran Hr erthcoming Hts Special hoy af Helatity andthe Poles ine Eerie of Moy Roes The Led Hi oe” In Comrie ‘penton Ensen eed bp Menten snd ser: Cambesg: Co Tei Unie Pree Sarto. Te: Understanding Relay Simplid Approach o Einstein's “Toi Reley and Lon Amel: Universo Clitoris. Scan J 6 Miu ne 1 a for Bg Now Stace Jo tale 1987, The Calected Papers of Alber Bin. Volume “He Bry Year 1879-1902 nen, mcton Unieraty Ps erence Mar 1959 Prac Thinking New York Harpe ‘Wile Gerald [ds 093 Emus The hw and Hs ACvemons. New 8 At the Limits of Possibility ‘Thought Experiments in Quantum Gravity Mark Shumelda 1. INTRODUCTION: WHY QUANTIZE GRAVITY? Each ofthe oo pills of twsnteth-century physies—quancum mechanics and peneralaiviy—-has enjoyed both temendous theocedcal devsop ‘ment as well as convincing empirical confirmation. Pechaps tall he ‘ore surprising then that general relativity and quantum meshanis are Completely incompatible with eachother. The reason or che incomnpat ity aremany and include the ways in which spacetime, mater, and enerty are ated by the evo theories (Calender and 200}. Farther ‘more attempts to quantize the gravitational eld using she same renorma- “aaion group techniques that have peodced quancam eld theories fo the other hte fundamental forces (tong, weak, electromagnetic} have Been flue. "Quantum geaviey" describes any atemp, of which there are ‘many, to provide some solution to this peoblem. ‘BA why should we expect te gravitational eld to be quantize in the fs place? After al, he energy and distance sales at which ineratons [between the quantum and geaviatioal lds ae expected to become now seaible are tly extreme (eq the Planck length, 10m). earns out tha an elegant shou experiment, proposed by Kenneth Eppley and Fe annah in 1977, lends song eredenceto the vew thatthe gravel fel! mast be quaatied (Eppley snd Hanns 1977). The thought expe ‘ment ttempe to convince ur hae any theory combining a lassiealgravit ‘Sonal fel with quantized mater sinconetent This el partials Important since we current lack parece acelerator powerful enough frit ave detectors semive enough Yo determine emparialy wheter Sr not gravity quamtaed Ina word, quantum gravy realy 2 ~eince ‘without daa” [Akough Eppley and Hanae thought experiment bas enjoyed om siderable succes a an argument forthe necessity of the quantiation of the graviational fel i i certainly not without its cts. The purpose ‘ofthis paper to defend the thought experiment and 0 propose anew, tore anced role frie the search for quantum theory of grant ‘proceeds follows Secon 2 describes how the though experiment works‘he Philosophy of Science Thought Experiments in Philosophy, Science, and the Arts 1. Even Ratinaliy and 9 Madly Simons, a Cognit chee epresnatoe Edited by Mélanie Frappier, fret Fintan foul Chr Inder Letitia Meynell, and James Robert Brown ody dio Zito Natura, and 2 Conceptual Systems Mathematia! Knowle taal own “Tames Rober Brown 2 Nancy Carwrights Philosophy Serene Philesopty, Stems aad she Arts ‘Ebted by SephanHremam, ‘ted by Nalnie Proper, Cant Hoge ond Lae Bovone Leta Mesa ad ition in Science Philnopical Ess on Modeling tnd lation (Bt yaar Suiee 5 Kart Poppers Piosphy of “Ratonaity without Foundations ‘Stefano Ge soy ted by dna Coradnt ‘and TmeihyO Comer Popper's Cea Rasionais, ‘Pipe tves Darr Rowbocom or et R tower, Cristian Sache