GEOGRAFIA MEDIULUI

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Sem. I, 2015/2016
Marcel MINDRESCU
14 octombrie 2015
 Termenul de mediu (environment, umwheinat, milieu) a fost folosit
ncepnd cu secolul al XIX-lea, n sens biologic, de ambian natural a vieuitoarelor.
Comunitatea tiinific internaional consider mediul ansamblul tuturor
fiinelor i lucrurilor care compun spaiul apropiat i ndeprtat al omului, care i poate
determina sau schimba existena i poate influena total sau parial modul su de via.

Geografia mediului studiaz domeniul de interferen om-natur, limitele

n care se simt influenele dintre atmosfer, hidrosfer, litosfer, biosfer deci mediul
nconjurtor al omului.
Acestui domeniu de cercetare i s-a mai dat numele de nveli terestru,
geosfer, geosistem, peisaj, landaft.
Geosistemele se ntemeiaz pe interaciunile elementelor geomorfologice,
climatice i hidrologice cu lumea vie, cu omul.
Teoria zilei: Ipoteza Gaia

Lovelock, J. 2005. Gaia: a new look at life on earth. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
STRUCTURA CURSULUI
TIPURI DE MEDII CU IMPORTANTA PENTRU GEOGRAFIA MEDIULUI
ACTUAL:

1. Mediul antarctic
2. Mediul glaciar
3. Permafrostul i mediul periglaciar
TIPURI DE MEDII
M1: MEDIUL ANTARCTIC

Antarctica este n mare parte acoperit cu ghea i se gsete n jurul Polului

Sud, dincolo de 66 1/2 grade S, avnd o suprafa total de 13,900,000 kmp, echivalent
cu o suprafa de dou ori mrimea Europei.
Aproape 98% din Artarctica este acoperit de ghea cu o grosime medie de
1,6 km (maxim-peste 4 km). Insulele componente acoperite cu gheata se gsesc n
partea de vest i au cele mai mari nlimi (Munii Ellsworth, Vinson Massif, 4892 m).
Peninsula Antarctica a fost vzut prima dat n 1820, ns prima aterizare s-a
fcut n abia 1895. Polul Sud a fost cucerit prima dat de .............. n noiembrie 1911 i
la scurt timp de .., n ianuarie 1912
Roald Engelbregt Gravning AMUNDSEN
(16 July 1872 c. 18 June 1928)
was a Norwegian explorer of polar regions.

AMUNDSEN a fost primul

om care a ajuns la Polul Sud,
n data de 14 decembrie1911,
Cu 33 zile nainte de Scott.
Robert Falcon Scott, CVO (6 June 1868 c. 29 March
1912)
TIPURI DE MEDII
M1: MEDIUL ANTARCTIC

O staie de cercetare nfiinat pe insulele Orkney de Sud nregistreaz

permanet date meteorologice de la nfiinarea sa n 1904. Este cel mai rece mediu de pe
Pmnt, cu o temperatur medie de -45 C la Polul Sud i cu mai puin de 50 mm
cantitatea anual de precipitaii, astfel nct este clasificat ca deert polar caracterizat i
prin vnturi puternice de tip uragane i viscole. 24 de ore pe zi rmne n ntuneric n
iunie (n timpul iernii Antarctice) i n lumin n decembrie (pe timpul verii Antarctice).
M1: MEDIUL ANTARCTIC

Stratul de ghea din Antarctica este ntins pe o suprafata de 12 milioane kmp are
un volum de circa 30 de milioane kmc de ghea care conine 65% apa dulce a lumii, care
dac s-ar dezghea ar produce o creterea a nivelului mrilor i oceanelor de peste 70 m.
Stratul de gheata din Antarctica este de aproximativ 10 ori mai mare dect cea care
acoper Groenlanda i are o existen de peste 34 de milioane de ani.
Calota de Est formeaz o cupol larg de peste 4000 m n altitudine, drenat spre
margini de o serie de fluxuri de ghea divergente.
Calota de Vest cuprinde trei cupole nvecinate ridicandu-se la 2000 m altitudine,
n parte foarmat submers (sub nivelul mrii). Aceasta este, de asemenea, drenat de fluxuri
de ghea care se termin n banchize ce ocup golfurile de coast. Aceastea se deplaseaz cu
cteva sute de metri pe an. Ghearul Ross, un domeniu la fel de mare ca i Frana, este
alimentat de gheari de evacuare att din calota Est ct i din Vest.
 Stratul de gheata din Antarctica joac un rol
important n influenarea climatului global prin
cantitatea de energie absorbit de la soare, precum i a
circulaiei atmosferice i oceanice dar i n formarea
gheii.
Temperaturile sczute i masele mari de ghea de
la mari altitudini din Antarctica produce un gradient
termic abrupt dinspre pol spre ecuator influennd la
rndul su vnturile i curenii oceanici (for motrice).
ANTARCTICA i rolul su pentru climatul global

Sistemul climatic global se asemn n multe feluri cu o mainrie complex.

Cldura este trasportat dintr-un loc n altul de curenii oceanici i vnt

(micarea aerului din atmosfer).

Vntul, curenii oceanici, gheaa de pe mare i uscat, gradul de acoperire

cu zpad, vegetaia i ali factori afecteaz climatul i sunt afectai de climat.

Compoziia chimic a atmosferei, care a nceput s fie modificat de ctre

oameni, este la fel un factor important.

Antarctica reprezint o parte unic a mainrii climatice mondiale.

-stocheaz cea mai mare cantitate de ap dulce de pe Terra (peste 65%)

-genereaz cea mai mult cantitate de ghea de mare (sea ice)

-este nconjurat de cureni circumpolari de ap i aer

-condiiile climatice din Antarctica influeneaz ntregul sistem al curenilor

oceanici aa numita circulaie termohalin (Great Conveyor Belt) care

transport cldur de la tropice ctre poli i mrete abilitatea oceanelor de a

absoarbe dioxidul de carbon.

Antarctica i circulaia oceanic
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is an ocean current that flows clockwise from
west to east around Antarctica. An alternative name for the ACC is the West Wind
Drift. The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and, at
approximately 125 Sverdrups, the largest ocean current (1 Sv=1 mil. mc/s sau debitul
tuturor rurilor lumii).
The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with Antarctica
and this keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica, enabling that continent to
maintain its huge ice sheet.
Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence, where the cold
Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic, creating a zone of
upwelling nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated
copepods and krill, and resultant foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins,
albatrosses and a wealth of other species.
Circulaia Termohalin (THC)

Circulaia termohalin (Global Ocean Conveyor) este o component a circulaiei

generale oceanice controlat de diferenele orizontale de temperatur i salinitate.
n mod permanent aceast circulaie nlocuiete apa de mare din adncime cu ap de la
suprafa astfel nct n orice punct al oceanului aceasta remprospteaz apa de la
suprafa cu cea din adncime.
Acest proces este ncet i antreneaz cantiti enorme de ap care o dat cu ele sunt
transportate i cldura, nutrieni, particule solide i alte materiale la distane vaste.
Circulaie termohalin (upwelling and downwelling)
Thermohaline circulation (THC) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by
Global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes
Antarctica i locul ei n cadrul circulaiei
termohaline
Gheaa de mare i Circulaia Termohalin (THC)

Aria acoperit cu ghea de mare din jurul Antarcticii (Oceanul Polar Sudic/Oceanul
Sudic, dup paralela de 60 S) variaz de la sezon la sezon (ntre 4-5 milioane kmp-
vara i 17-20 mil. kmp iarna)
Gheaa de mare are cteva interaciuni importante cu climatul
1. Zpada i gheaa sunt foarte reflective-albedo mare (ele reflecta radiaia/energia
solara napoi n spaiu precum o oglind). Prin comparaie apa de mare absoarbe destul
de bine radiaia solar. Astfel pe termen lung banchizele i ghearii din Antarctica reduc
cantitatea de energie absorbit de Terra. nclzirea global va topi aceast ghea
mrind i mai mult cantitatea de radiaie absorbit (feedback pozitiv: nclzirea conduce
la o nclzire i mai accentuat)
2.Gheaa de mare izoleaz contactul dintre apa de mare i aer reducnd transferul de
energie dintre curenii oceanici i vnt (dintre hidrosfer i atmosfer).
3.Gheaa de mare afecteaz ntrega circulaie global oceanic prin ngheul i
dezgheul acesteia. Spre exemplu, cnd apa de mare nghea, sarea este scoas n
afar sub forma unor lentile care coboar pe fundul oceanului, crescnd salinitatea.
Cnd gheaa de mare se dezghea, salinitatea descrete. Ambele procese ajut la
nlocuirea apelor polare rece de adncime cu cele tropicale calde de suprafa. Pentru
c aria afectat poate avea mii de kmp i variaz ca suprafa de la iarn la var,
ngheul i dezgheul acestor ape de mare din jurul Antarcticii reprezint, de fapt,
motorul circulaiei oceanice globale.
ANTARCTICA i schimbrile climatice

Cercetrile de geologice, glaciologie, fizica atmosferei i

oceanografice au adunat suficiente date pentru a oferi o perspectiv asupra
modului n care stratul de gheata a reacionat la schimbrile climatice din
trecut.
Pe baza carotelor de ghea s-au putut reconstitui schimbrile de
mediu din ultimul milion de ani. Carota de ghea de la staia Vostok lung
de 3623 m acoper mai mult de 500.000 de ani, furniznd informaii despre
variaiile de temperatur bazate pe analiza indicatorilor oferii de izotopii de O
i H.
Aceste rezultate au fost completate de forajele de mare adncime din
zonele litorale ale Antarctici.
 Variabilitatea temperaturilor din Antarctica i gradul de acoperire cu ghea a
uscatului i mrilor afecteaz sistemele de climate n ntreaga lume. Prin urmare, multi
cercetatori cred c este important de neles cum calota de ghea va reaciona la nclzirea
climatic actual i viitoare.
Unele dintre scenariile aparinnd Grupului Internaional privind schimbrile
climatice prezic c n decurs de cteva secole, concentraiile atmosferice ale gazelor de
ser, n special dioxidul de carbon, ar putea fi mai mare dect n momentul cnd a
nceput formarea calotei Antarctice respectiv, acum mai mult de 30 de milioane de ani.
Polii reprezint sisteme super-sensibile ale Pmntului, de alert rapid n cazul unor
schimbri climatice, n special, de nclzire global.
Ca i n regiunea arctic sunt raportate efecte ale nclzirii globale asupra
Antarcticii. n 2005, o mas de mrimea peninsulei California s-a topit rapid dup care a
rengheat. Acest lucru poate fi rezultatul creterii temperaturii cu 5C. Agenia Spaial
NASA a raportat cel mai semnificativ proces de topire a ghearilor n ultimii 30 de ani n
Antarctica.
 nc din 1908 cnd au fost fcute cereri privind suveranitatea naional
asupra unor pri din Antarctica a fost necesar s se reglementeze relaiile
internaionale. n urma Anului Geofizic International din 1957 1958, 12 naiuni
active n Antarctica, la acel moment a iniiat Tratatul asupra Antarcticii (puse n
aplicare 1961), care este un acord juridic internaional necesar proiectat pentru a
asigura c statele membre lucreaz mpreun n Antarctica n scopuri panice i
tiinifice.
Se interzice activitatea militar, cu excepia cazului n care aceasta vine
n sprijinul tiinei; se interzice experimente nucleare i eliminarea deeurilor
nucleare; promoveaz cercetarea tiinific i schimbul de date, i deine toate
preteniile teritoriale n suspensie.
Tratatul se aplic la zona situat la sud de 60 latitudine Sud, inclusiv toate
banchizele de ghea i insule, ceea ce reprezint aproximativ 10% din suprafaa
terestr a globului. Tratatul a fost ulterior majorat, de exemplu prin Protocolul privind
protecia mediului prinTratatul asupra Antarcticii (Madrid, 1991) din14 ianuarie 1998.
Banchize=Ice Self, Ice Shelves
Ghetarul Ross
Ftarea ghearului= calving
Formarea icebergurilor
Emil Racovi (n. 15 noiembrie 1868, Iai d. 17
noiembrie 1947, Cluj) a fost
un savant, explorator, speolog i biolog romn, considerat
fondatorul biospeologiei (studiul faunei din subteran - peteri i pnze
freatice de ap). A fost ales academician n 1920 i a fost preedinte
al Academiei Romne n perioada 1926 - 1929.

n timpul expediiei din Antarctida Emil Racovi a avut posibilitatea

s studieze viaa imenselor mamifere acvatice, dar i a pinguinilor. El a
rmas n istoria tiinei ca descoperitor al balenei cu cioc
 TIPURI DE MEDII
M2: MEDIUL GLACIAR
 Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Why study glaciers?
- cover 10% of Earths
surface (impacted on
35%)
- contain 75% of Earths
freshwater
- impact on global sea
level (glacioeustasy)
- influence global climate
- contain palaeoclimate
records
- glacier hazards.
 Eemian (Riss-Wurm)

Younger Dryas

Last Glacial
Maximum
- Present distribution =
Antarctic Ice Sheet Greenland Ice Sheet Other ice caps & glaciers
(13,500,000 km2) (2,000,000 km2) (500,000 km2)

A
 WHY STUDY GLACIERS?
(remote from people, unimportant?)
i To understand glacial landforms & deposits.
ii Nuisances - advances, esp. surges,
iceberg calving (Columbia Gl.,
Exxon Valdez diversion)
ice avalanches (Allalin & du Tour catastrophes)
but especially, glacier outburst floods.
iii Resources - water supply in summer
tourist attractions.
iv Control sea level,
affect climate & ocean circulation
(mainly ice sheets - large volume).
Cross section of a moraine-dammed lake and potential triggers of lake outbursts
A calving, B ice avalanches, C debris flows, D sudden meltwater drainage (sub-,
en-, or supraglacial), E failure of the moraine dam, and F meltout of dead ice
cores.
Hrdul (Rodna-tiol)- kettle hole, o form de relief glaciar relict
Distribution of glacier-dammed lakes in the Karakoram and E-Hindukush Mountains
Surge of Variegated Glacier, Alaska (crestere brusca)

29 August 1964 22 August 1965

Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Glacier systems
- inputs of mass & energy = precipitation, debris, solar radiation,
geothermal heat, gravity
- outputs = vapour, water, debris, heat, icebergs
- throughputs = mass & energy transfer varying storage periods
- Mass gained = accumulation Mass lost = ablation
Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Limits to glacier existence (glacierization potential)
- precipitation, altitude & latitude
- snow amount, & effective precipitation
- energy available to melt ice
- - topography (local slopes &
proximity to deepwater
avalanching & calving)
Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems

Broad controls on glacier distribution

- Latitude (low solar angle
= less energy to melt ice)

- Altitude (thinner air holds

less heat energy)

- Continentality (dry climates

LGM
away from ocean, ice
or downwind
of mountains).

n.b. only ONE polar ice sheet:

Arctic has sea ice.
 Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems

Broad controls on glacier distribution

- combined effect of altitude, latitude & continentality
e.g. west USA (Meier 1960)
- steeper N-S gradient for inland region
CUBUL DE GHEA
(Mindrescu, 2006)
 Cirques of the Romanian Carpathians
5300
Northing, middle of median axis

5200

5100

5000
5100 5200 5300 5400 5500
Easting, middle of median axis
Romanian glacial cirques
Rodna-asimetrie glaciar (Mindrescu, 2006)
Parang-asimetrie glaciar (Mindrescu, 2006)
Romania
Retezat Mts
84 glacial cirques
Romania
Fagaras Mts
206 glacial cirques
ORIENTAREA CIRCURILOR SI DIRECTIA VANTULUI

N
CIRQUE
ASPECT
W E

Axial aspect
mean direction 63.4: vector strength 0.317
mean direction 63.4: vector strength 0.317

Romanian cirques (n=631)

Headwall aspect
(highest part)
N

W E

mean direction 60.6: vector strength 0.289

 Northern. n=81

Iezer & Bucegi Ranges. n=51

mean direction 42.1: vector strength 0.620

Vector plots for cirque axial aspect:

Major regions, Romania mean direction 33.6: vector strength 0.368

Fagaras Mountains. n = 206

Retezat, Godeanu & Tarcu Mountains. n=212

Parang, Lotru & Cindrel Mountains. n=78

mean direction 79.6: vector strength 0.285 mean direction 70.3: vector strength 0.215
mean direction 71.6: vector strength 0.427
 Northern. n=81

mean direction 42.1: vector strength 0.620

Retezat, Godeanu & Tarcu Mountains. n=212

mean direction 79.6: vector strength 0.285

Fagaras Mountains. n = 206

Parang, Lotru & Cindrel Mountains. n=78

mean direction 70.3: vector strength 0.215

mean direction 71.6: vector strength 0.427

 Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Broad controls on glacier distribution
- distance from moisture source (continentality)
= snowline altitudes rise inland despite the availability of
high altitude terrain (precipitation shadow effect)
+ sea ice cover reduces moisture transfer to atmosphere
e.g. Canadian Arctic

ARCTIC OCEAN
(sea ice)

dry
Coast Jotunheim
Glaciation level in Norway
Chorlton & Lister (1971)
wet
DAVIS STRAIT
 Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Glaciation level = theoretical surface or threshold separating ice-free &
ice-covered summits (measure of the state of glacierization):

e.g. Ostrem (1966)

glaciation level =
100-400m above ELA

e.g. Miller et al. 1975

(Canadian arctic).

- All-sided glaciation level = 300m

higher than local glaciation level

e.g. British Columbia (Evans 1990)

Southern Coast Mountains, British Columbia
Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Local controls on glacier distribution
- Aspect (solar radiation receipt & precipitation)
e.g. N. hemisphere N & NE facing slopes = lower snowlines
Glacier orientation in Scandinavia

orisjokull, Iceland
Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Local controls on glacier distribution
- Relief (summit area & shape)
e.g. critical summit breadth
(Manley 1955) Sh = asbc
(where Sh = summit altitude above firn line
a & c = constants
sb = summit breadth perpendicular
to dominant wind direction)
(reconstituted glaciers = ice exists below regional glaciation
level due to ice avalanching)
e.g. Arctic Norway plateau icefields Himalayan avalanche-fed snouts
(Rea et al. 1998) (Benn & Lehmkuhl 2000)
Glaciers occur :
(i) at higher latitudes (la latitudini mari);
(ii) at higher altitudes (la altitudini ridicate);
(iii) in more maritime climates (in climate maritime);
(iv) on poleward aspects (pe versanti orientati spre
poli);
(v) on leeward aspects (pe versantii adapostiti);
(vi) on eastward aspects & (pe versantii estici in zona
temperata, emisfera nordica) -
(vii) on topographic concavities (in concavitati ale
suprafetei terestre) .
Glaciation Introduction to glacial systems
Glacier morphology = function of climate & topography
- classification scheme
Glaciers flow shown by crevasses, flow lineations and
Forbes bands / ogives - & thus convey excess accumulation
to an area where it can ablate (melt or calve).

Mer de Glace from Montenvers, 1990

 Glacier flow
Crevasses on Bering
Glacier, Alaska, 24 July
1994, during surge
Forbes Bands on
Austerdalsbreen, S. Norway
CONCLUSIONS: Glacier formation
requires both snowfall and snow preservation:
not just cold, but also H2O.
Wind drift and avalanches redistribute snow.
Conversion of snow to ice is
much faster where liquid is present.
In dry-snow zones, snowfall is very low, as is T:
raising T may increase snowfall
Melting is controlled mainly by
summer solar radiation and summer T.
Sublimation from ice to vapour is slow,
and uses much energy.
Mass balance varies especially with altitude
& regional climate.
Altitude and other topographic & regional factors affect
how glaciers respond to climatic change.
 Glacier Variation
Monitoring remains inadequate:
1. annual snout position (length) mainly in Europe
2. area increasingly, mapped by remote sensing
3. thickness rarely known, estimated from
relation to area, giving volume
(thickness change: from - )
4. mass balance requires at least 2 visits / year, on ground
for very few:
257 with some observations;
90 with >5 years;
40 with several decades
(there are ~ 250,000 mountain glaciers in the world)
 Twentieth century change
mainly negative, but advances e.g.
in Alps culminating c. 1900, 1920, 1980
of monitored Alpine glaciers were
advancing in 1980
also 57% in Iceland, 46% in USA
but only 24%, of monitored glaciers, in USSR.
Warm summers of 1994, 96, 97 98
made recession general in Alps.
Record heat of 2003 summer was disastrous for
Alpine glaciers
2002 likewise for Norwegian.
Shrinking of Vernagtferner, Austria. This glacier lost almost
30% in area and more than 50% in mass between 1912 and
2003.

Source: Data and photos, taken by O. Gruber (1912), H. Schatz (1938), H. Rentsch
(1968) and M. Siebers (2003), provided by the Commission for Glaciology of the Bavarian
Academy of Sciences and Humanities (www.glaziologie.de)
South Cascade Glacier, Washington State, 1928 - 2000
Selkirk Mountains, B.C.
Canadian Rockies
 2001
West
Greenland

extension
of melt 2002
zone in
June

2003
Tropical glacier change
RUWENZORI

PERU
Twentieth-
century
recession
is
widespread
Briksdalsbreen, S. Norway
June 1996 Briksdalsbreen is an outlet of
Jostedalsbreen, the largest ice cap in
Norway.
Briksdalsbreen is short and steep and
reacts quickly to changes in the mass
balance.
The latest advance terminated in
1996. Between 1996 and 2005 the
glacier has retreated 200 meters.

June 2003 August

2005
GLOBAL Cumulative mass balance 1960 -2004

total
sea level
equivalent

specific
specific

Mg m-2
(metres

metres
Glacier & ice cap
areas by region.
: 540,000 km2
excluding all
Greenland &
Antarctica.

Three centuries of
glacier change;
regional
summaries.
Zemp & Haeberli 2007
 Years to ice-free
CONCLUSION: Acceleration of ice elevation bands as
wastage in the Alps, since 1985. obtained from the
observed change in
Areas below 2900 m may be ice-free by hypsography for two
2030 (or 2050) (Zemp et al. 2006) glacier samples (1850
1973 and 19731998,
Figure S4).
The glacier covered
area in 1973 (1998)
has been divided by
the respective area
loss per elevation band
and multiplied with the
number of years in the
respective period (125,
25, 13, 6).
Compared to the
18501973 period,
there is not really a
dependence of the
change on elevation up
to 2800 m a.s.l. for the
more recent period.
 TIPURI DE PEISAJE GLACIARE DIN MUNTII HIMALAYA
Glaciers around Mt. Everest: the hanging or debris-covered glaciers of Khumbu.
Foto-M. Mindrescu

M. Mindrescu

May 2011
A normal cirque glacier & moraine,
on Thamserku, 6608 m
Ama Dablam
6856 m
West side

Hanging glacier
Ama Dablam
6856 m 3 hanging glaciers:
North side Ice avalanches
Ama Dablam Glacier
Avalanche flutes; in firn frozen onto steep faces
Chhukhung Glacier Ama Dablam Glacier
Debris cover gradually
increases downglacier.
Even a few cm protects ice.
Melting is mainly where ice is
exposed...

This is a glacier !
Debris cover is not very thick.
Debris slumps off steep faces,
giving localised melting.

(Ama Dablam Glacier)

Chhukhung Ri, 5550 m
NEPAL- aprilie 2011

Pumori
TIPURI DE PEISAJE GLACIARE in British Columbia, Canada- august, 2014
Foto-M. Mindrescu
Moren
Rodna, Romania-variabilitatea termic 2014-2015 (6 octombrie 2014).
Instalarea senzorilor de temperatura si umidate in roca in situ pentru inregistrarea
variabilitatii temperaturilor si umiditatii intr-un an