A H ISTORYOF T RANSHUMANIST T HOUGHT

NickBostrom
FacultyofPhilosophy,OxfordUniversity
www.nickbostrom.com
(2005)
[OriginallypublishedinJournalofEvolutionandTechnologyVol.14Issue1April2005;
reprinted(initspresentslightlyeditedform)inAcademicWritingAcrosstheDisciplines,eds.
MichaelRectenwald&LisaCarl(NewYork:PearsonLongman,2011)]

1.Culturalandphilosophicalantecedents
Thehumandesiretoacquirenewcapacitiesisasancientasourspeciesitself.Wehave
alwayssoughttoexpandtheboundariesofourexistence,beitsocially,geographically,or
mentally.Thereisatendencyinatleastsomeindividualsalwaystosearchforawayaround
everyobstacleandlimitationtohumanlifeandhappiness.

Ceremonialburialandpreservedfragmentsofreligiouswritingsshowthatprehistoric
humansweredisturbedbythedeathoflovedones.Althoughthebeliefinahereafterwas
common,thisdidnotprecludeeffortstoextendonesearthlylife.IntheSumerianEpicof
Gilgamesh(approx.1700B.C.),akingsetsoutonaquestforimmortality.Gilgameshlearns
thatthereexistsanaturalmeansanherbthatgrowsatthebottomofthesea. 1 He
successfullyretrievestheplant,butasnakestealsitfromhimbeforehecaneatit.Inlater
times,explorerssoughttheFountainofYouth,alchemistslaboredtoconcocttheElixirof
Life,andvariousschoolsofesotericTaoisminChinastroveforphysicalimmortalitybyway
ofcontroloverorharmonywiththeforcesofnature.Theboundarybetweenmythosand
science,betweenmagicandtechnology,wasblurry,andalmostallconceivablemeanstothe
preservationoflifewereattemptedbysomebodyorother.Yetwhileexplorersmademany
interestingdiscoveriesandalchemistsinventedsomeusefulthings,suchasnewdyesand
improvementsinmetallurgy,thegoaloflifeextensionprovedelusive.

Thequesttotranscendournaturalconfineshaslongbeenviewedwithambivalence,
however.Reiningitinistheconceptofhubris:thatsomeambitionsareofflimitsandwill
backfireifpursued.TheancientGreeksexhibitedthisambivalenceintheirmythology.
PrometheusstolefirefromZeusandgaveittohumans,therebypermanentlyimprovingthe
humancondition.YetforthisacthewasseverelypunishedbyZeus.Thegodsarerepeatedly

1 (Mitchell2004).

1
challenged,quitesuccessfully,byDaedalus,thecleverengineerandartist,whousesnon
magicalmeanstoextendhumancapabilities.Intheend,disasterensueswhenhissonIcarus
ignorespaternalwarningsandfliestooclosetothesun,causingthewaxinhiswingsto
melt.

MedievalChristiansheldsimilarlyconflictedviewsaboutthepursuitsofthealchemists,
whowereattemptingtotransmutesubstances,createhomunculiintesttubes,andinventa
panacea.Somescholastics,followingtheantiexperimentalistteachingsofAugustine,
believedthatalchemywasanungodlyactivity.Therewereallegationsthatitinvolvedthe
invocationofdaemonicpowers.Butothertheologians,suchasAlbertusMagnusand
ThomasAquinas,defendedthepractice. 2

TheotherworldlinessandstalescholasticphilosophythatdominatedEuropeduringthe
MiddleAgesgavewaytoarenewedintellectualvigorintheRenaissance.Thehumanbeing
andthenaturalworldagainbecamelegitimateobjectsofstudy.Renaissancehumanism
encouragedpeopletorelyontheirownobservationsandtheirownjudgmentratherthanto
deferineverymattertoreligiousauthorities.Renaissancehumanismalsocreatedtheidealof
thewellroundedperson,onewhoishighlydevelopedscientifically,morally,culturally,and
spiritually.AlandmarkoftheperiodisGiovanniPicodellaMirandolasOrationonthe
DignityofMan(1486),whichproclaimsthatmandoesnothaveareadymadeformandis
responsibleforshapinghimself:

Wehavemadeyouacreatureneitherofheavennorofearth,neithermortalnor
immortal,inorderthatyoumay,asthefreeandproudshaperofyourownbeing,
fashionyourselfintheformyoumayprefer.Itwillbeinyourpowertodescendto
thelower,brutishformsoflife;youwillbeable,throughyourowndecision,torise
againtothesuperiororderswhoselifeisdivine. 3

TheAgeofEnlightenmentisoftensaidtohavestartedwiththepublicationofFrancis
BaconsNovumOrganum,thenewtool(1620),whichproposesascientificmethodology
basedonempiricalinvestigationratherthanapriorireasoning.4 Baconadvocatedthe
projectofeffectingallthingspossible,bywhichhemeantusingsciencetoachievemastery
overnatureinordertoimprovethelivingconditionofhumanbeings.Theheritagefromthe
RenaissancecombineswiththeinfluenceofIsaacNewton,ThomasHobbes,JohnLocke,
ImmanuelKant,theMarquisdeCondorcet,andotherstoformthebasisforrational

2Seee.g.(Newman2004).
3(PicodellaMirandola1956).
4(Bacon1620).

2
humanism,whichemphasizesempiricalscienceandcriticalreasonratherthanrevelation
andreligiousauthorityaswaysoflearningaboutthenaturalworldandourplacewithinit
andofprovidingagroundingformorality.Transhumanismhasrootsinrationalhumanism.

Inthe18thand19thcenturieswecatchglimpsesoftheideathathumansthemselvescanbe
developedthroughtheapplicationofscience.Condorcetspeculatedaboutextendinghuman
lifespanbymeansofmedicalscience:

Woulditbeabsurdnowtosupposethattheimprovementofthehumanraceshould
beregardedascapableofunlimitedprogress?Thatatimewillcomewhendeath
wouldresultonlyfromextraordinaryaccidentsorthemoreandmoregradual
wearingoutofvitality,andthat,finally,thedurationoftheaverageintervalbetween
birthandwearingouthasitselfnospecificlimitwhatsoever?Nodoubtmanwillnot
becomeimmortal,butcannotthespanconstantlyincreasebetweenthemomenthe
beginstoliveandthetimewhennaturally,withoutillnessoraccident,hefindslifea
burden? 5

BenjaminFranklinlongedwistfullyforsuspendedanimation,foreshadowingthecryonics
movement:

Iwishitwerepossible...toinventamethodofembalmingdrownedpersons,insuch
amannerthattheymightberecalledtolifeatanyperiod,howeverdistant;for
havingaveryardentdesiretoseeandobservethestateofAmericaahundredyears
hence,Ishouldprefertoanordinarydeath,beingimmersedwithafewfriendsina
caskofMadeira,untilthattime,thentoberecalledtolifebythesolarwarmthofmy
dearcountry!But...inallprobability,weliveinacenturytoolittleadvanced,andtoo
neartheinfancyofscience,toseesuchanartbroughtinourtimetoitsperfection. 6

AfterthepublicationofDarwinsOriginofSpecies(1859),itbecameincreasinglyplausibleto
viewthecurrentversionofhumanitynotastheendpointofevolutionbutratherasanearly
phase. 7 Theriseofscientificphysicalismmightalsohavecontributedtothebeliefthat
technologymightwellimprovethehumanorganism.Forexample,asimplekindof
materialistviewwasboldlyproposedin1750bytheFrenchphysicianandmaterialist
philosopherJulienOffraydeLaMettrieinLHommeMachine,inwhichhearguedthatman

5(Condorcet1979).
6(Franklinetal.1956),pp.2729.
7(Darwin2003).

3
isbutananimal,oracollectionofspringswhichwindeachotherup. 8 Ifhumanbeingsare
constitutedofmatterobeyingsthesamelawsofphysicsthatoperateoutsideus,thenit
shouldinprinciplebepossibletolearntomanipulatehumannatureinthesamewaythatwe
manipulateexternalobjects.

TheEnlightenmentissaidtohaveexpiredasthevictimofitsownexcesses.Itgavewayto
Romanticismandtolatterdayreactionsagainsttheruleofinstrumentalreasonandthe
attempttorationallycontrolnature,suchascanbefoundinsomepostmodernistwritings,
theNewAgemovement,deepenvironmentalism,andpartsoftheantiglobalization
movement.However,theEnlightenmentslegacy,includingabeliefinthepowerofhuman
rationalityandscience,isstillanimportantshaperofmodernculture.Inhisfamous1784
essayWhatIsEnlightenment?,Kantsummeditupasfollows:

Enlightenmentismansleavinghisselfcausedimmaturity.Immaturityisthe
incapacitytouseonesownunderstandingwithouttheguidanceofanother.Such
immaturityisselfcausedifitscauseisnotlackofintelligence,butbylackof
determinationandcouragetouseonesintelligencewithoutbeingguidedby
another.Themottoofenlightenmentistherefore:Sapereaude!Havecouragetouse
yourownintelligence! 9

ItmightbethoughtthatamajorinspirationfortranshumanismwasFriedrichNietzsche,
famousforhisdoctrineofderbermensch:

Iteachyoutheoverman.Manissomethingthatshallbeovercome.Whathaveyou
donetoovercomehim?Allbeingssofarhavecreatedsomethingbeyondthemselves;
anddoyouwanttobetheebbofthisgreatfloodandevengobacktothebeasts
ratherthanovercomeman? 10

WhatNietzschehadinmind,however,wasnottechnologicaltransformationbutakindof
soaringpersonalgrowthandculturalrefinementinexceptionalindividuals(whohethought
wouldhavetoovercomethelifesappingslavemoralityofChristianity).Despitesome
surfacelevelsimilaritieswiththeNietzscheanvision,transhumanismwithits
Enlightenmentroots,itsemphasisonindividualliberties,anditshumanisticconcernforthe
welfareofallhumans(andothersentientbeings)probablyhasasmuchormorein

8(LaMettrie1996).
9(Kant1986).
10(Nietzsche1908).

4
commonwithNietzschescontemporarytheEnglishliberalthinkerandutilitarianJohn
StuartMill.

2.Speculation,sciencefiction,andtwentiethcenturytotalitarianism
In1923,thenotedBritishbiochemistJ.B.S.HaldanepublishedtheessayDaedalus;or,Science
andtheFuture,inwhichhearguedthatgreatbenefitswouldcomefromcontrollingourown
geneticsandfromscienceingeneral.Hepredictedawealthiersociety,withabundantclean
energy,wheregeneticswouldbeemployedtomakepeopletaller,healthier,andsmarterand
whereectogenesis(gestatingfetusesinartificialwombs)wouldbecommonplace.Healso
commentedonwhathasinrecentyearsbecomeknownastheyuckfactor:

ThechemicalorphysicalinventorisalwaysaPrometheus.Thereisnogreat
invention,fromfiretoflying,whichhasnotbeenhailedasaninsulttosomegod.But
ifeveryphysicalandchemicalinventionisablasphemy,everybiologicalinventionis
aperversion.Thereishardlyonewhich,onfirstbeingbroughttothenoticeofan
observerfromanynationwhichhasnotpreviouslyheardoftheirexistence,would
notappeartohimasindecentandunnatural. 11

Haldanesessaybecameabestsellerandsetoffachainoffutureorienteddiscussions,
includingTheWorld,theFleshandtheDevil,byJ.D.Bernal(1929) 12 ,whichspeculatedabout
spacecolonizationandbionicimplantsaswellasmentalimprovementsarisingfrom
advancedsocialscienceandpsychology;theworksofOlafStapledon,aphilosopherand
sciencefictionauthor;andtheessayIcarus:theFutureofScience(1924)byBertrand
Russell. 13 Russelltookamorepessimisticview,arguingthatwithoutmorekindlinessinthe
world,technologicalpowerwouldmainlyservetoincreaseourabilitytoharmoneanother.
SciencefictionauthorssuchasH.G.WellsandStapledongotmanypeoplethinkingabout
thefutureevolutionofthehumanrace.

AldousHuxleysBraveNewWorld,publishedin1932,hashadanenduringimpacton
debatesabouthumantechnologicaltransformation 14 matchedbyfewotherworksoffiction
(possiblyexceptingMaryShelleysFrankenstein 15 ).Huxleydescribesadystopiawhere
psychologicalconditioning,promiscuoussexuality,biotechnology,andtheopiatedrug
somakeepthepopulationplacidinastatic,conformistcastesocietygovernedbyten

11(Haldane1924).
12(Bernal1929[1969]).
13(Russell1924)

14(Huxley1932).

15(Shelley1818).

5
worldcontrollers.Childrenaremanufacturedinfertilityclinicsandartificiallygestated.The
lowercastesarechemicallystuntedordeprivedofoxygenduringtheirmaturationprocess,
inordertolimittheirphysicalandintellectualdevelopment.Frombirth,membersofevery
casteareindoctrinatedduringtheirsleep,byrecordedvoicesrepeatingtheslogansofthe
officialFordistreligion,andconditionedtobelievethattheirowncasteisthebestoneto
belongto.ThesocietydepictedinBraveNewWorldisoftenlikenedtoanotherinfluential20th
centurydystopia,thatofGeorgeOrwellsNineteenEightyFour. 16 NineteenEightyFour
featuresamoreovertformofoppression,includingubiquitoussurveillancebyBigBrother
andbrutalpolicecoercion.Huxleysworldcontrollers,bycontrast,relyonlessblatant
means(bioengineeredpredestination,psychologicalconditioning,soma)topreventpeople
fromwantingtothinkforthemselves.Herdmentalityandpromiscuityarepromoted,while
highart,individuality,knowledgeofhistory,andromanticlovearediscouraged.Itshould
benotedthatinneitherNineteenEightyFournorBraveNewWorldistechnologyemployedto
increasehumancapacities;rather,societyissetuptorepressthefulldevelopmentof
humanity.Bothdystopiascurtailscientificandtechnologicalexplorationforfearofupsetting
thesocialequilibrium.Nevertheless,BraveNewWorldinparticularhasbecomeanemblemof
thedehumanizingpotentialoftheuseoftechnologytopromotesocialconformismand
shallowcontentment.

Intheearlydecadesofthe20 thcentury,notonlyracistsandrightwingideologuesbutalsoa
numberofleftleaningsocialprogressivesbecameconcernedabouttheeffectsofmedicine
andsocialsafetynetsonthequalityofthehumangenepool.Theybelievedthatmodern
societyenabledmanyunfitindividualstosurviveindividualswhowouldinearlierages
haveperishedandtheyworriedthatthiswouldleadtoadeteriorationofthehumanstock.
Asaresult,manycountries(includingtheUSA,Canada,Australia,Sweden,Denmark,
Finland,andSwitzerland)implementedstatesponsoredeugenicsprograms,which
infringedinvariousdegreeonindividualrights.IntheUnitedStates,between1907and1963
some64,000individualswereforciblysterilizedundereugenicslaws.Theprincipalvictims
oftheAmericanprogramwerethementallydisabled,butthedeaf,theblind,theepileptic,
thephysicallydeformed,orphans,andthehomelesswerealsosometimestargeted.Buteven
suchwidespreadcompulsorysterilizationpalesincomparisonwiththeGermaneugenics
program,whichresultedinthesystematicmurderofmillionsofpeopleregardedas
inferiorbytheNazis.

Theholocaustleftascaronthehumanpsyche.Determinednottolethistoryrepeatitself,
mostpeopledevelopedaninstinctiverevulsiontoallideasappearingtohaveanykindof
associationwithNaziideology.(Andyet,itmustberemembered,historydidrepeatitself,

16 (Orwell1949).

6
e.g.intheRwandangenocideof1994,inwhichtheworlddidnothingbutwringitshandsas
800,000Africanswereslaughtered.)Inparticular,theeugenicsmovementasawhole,inall
itsforms,becamediscreditedbecauseoftheterriblecrimesthathadbeencommittedinits
name,althoughsomeofthemildereugenicsprogramscontinuedformanyyearsbeforethey
werefinallyscrapped.Theseprogramsareallnowalmostuniversallycondemned.Thegoal
ofcreatinganewandbetterworldthroughacentrallyimposedvisionbecamepass.The
Stalinisttyranny,too,underscoredthedangersoftotalitarianutopianism.

Inthepostwarera,manyoptimisticfuturistswhohadbecomesuspiciousofcollectively
orchestratedsocialchangefoundanewhomefortheirhopesinscientificandtechnological
progress.Spacetravel,medicine,andcomputersseemedtoofferapathtoabetterworld.
Theshiftofattentionalsoreflectedthebreathtakingpaceofdevelopmentinthesefields.
Sciencehadbeguntocatchupwithspeculation.Transhumanistthemesduringthisperiod
werediscussedandanalyzedchieflyinthesciencefictionliterature.AuthorssuchasArthur
C.Clarke,IsaacAsimov,RobertHeinlein,andStanislawLemexploredhowtechnological
developmentcouldcometoprofoundlyalterthehumancondition.

ThewordtranshumanismappearstohavebeenfirstusedbyAldousHuxleysbrother,
JulianHuxley,adistinguishedbiologist(whowasalsothefirstdirectorgeneralofUNESCO
andafounderoftheWorldWildlifeFund).InReligionWithoutRevelation(1927),hewrote:

Thehumanspeciescan,ifitwishes,transcenditselfnotjustsporadically,an
individualhereinoneway,anindividualthereinanotherwaybutinitsentirety,
ashumanity.Weneedanameforthisnewbelief.Perhapstranshumanismwillserve:
manremainingman,buttranscendinghimself,byrealizingnewpossibilitiesofand
forhishumannature. 17

3.Technologicalgenies:AI,thesingularity,nanotech,anduploading
Humanlikeautomatahavealwaysfascinatedthehumanimagination.Mechanicalengineers
sincetheearlyGreekshaveconstructedcleverselfmovingdevices.

InJudaicmysticism,agolemreferstoananimatedbeingcraftedfrominanimatematerial.
Intheearlygolemstories,agolemcouldbecreatedbyaholypersonwhowasabletoshare
someofGodswisdomandpower(althoughthegolem,notbeingabletospeak,wasnever
morethanashadowofGodscreations).Havingagolemservantwastheultimatesymbolof

17 (Huxley1927),quotedfrom(Hughes2004).

7
wisdomandholiness.Inthelaterstories,whichwereinfluencedbythemoreIslamicconcern
abouthumanitysgettingtooclosetoGod,thegolembecameacreationofoverreaching
mysticswhowereinevitablypunishedfortheirblasphemy.ThestoryoftheSorcerers
Apprenticeisavariationofthistheme:Theapprenticeanimatesabroomsticktofetchwater
butisunabletomakethebroomstoplikeFrankenstein,itis,astoryoftechnologyoutof
control.ThewordrobotwascoinedbytheCzechwriterKarelapek,inhisdarkplay
R.U.R.(1921),inwhicharobotlaborforcedestroysitshumancreators. 18 Withtheinvention
oftheelectroniccomputer,theideaofhumanlikeautomatagraduatedfromthe
kindergartenofmythologytotheschoolofsciencefiction(Asimov,Lem,Clarke)and
eventuallytothecollegeoftechnologicalprediction.

Couldcontinuedprogressinartificialintelligenceleadtothecreationofmachinesthatthink
inthesamegeneralwayashumanbeings?AlanTuringgaveanoperationaldefinitiontothis
questioninhisclassicComputingMachineryandIntelligence(1950)andpredictedthat
computerswouldeventuallypasswhatcametobeknownastheTuringTest.IntheTuring
Test,ahumanexperimenterinterviewsacomputerandanotherhumanviaatextinterface;
thecomputersucceedsiftheinterviewercannotreliablydistinguishitfromthehuman.) 19
Muchinkhasbeenspiltindebatesonwhetherthistestfurnishesanecessaryandsufficient
conditionforacomputerbeingabletothink,butwhatmattersmorefromapractical
perspectiveiswhetherand,ifso,whencomputerswillbeabletomatchhumanperformance
intasksinvolvinggeneralreasoningability.Withthebenefitofhindsight,wecansaythat
manyoftheearlyAIresearchersturnedouttobeoveroptimisticaboutthetimescaleforthis
hypotheticaldevelopment.Ofcourse,thefactthatwehavenotyetreachedhumanlevel
artificialintelligencedoesnotmeanthatweneverwill,andanumberofpeople,e.g.Marvin
Minsky,HansMoravec,RayKurzweil,andNickBostromhaveputforwardreasonsfor
takingseriouslythepossibilitythatthiscouldhappenwithinthefirsthalfofthiscentury. 20

Ina1958tribute,thePolishmathematicianStanislawUlam,referringtoameetingwithhis
latecolleagueJohnvonNeumann,wrote:

Oneconversationcenteredontheeveracceleratingprogressoftechnologyand
changesinthemodeofhumanlife,whichgivestheappearanceofapproachingsome
essentialsingularityinthehistoryoftheracebeyondwhichhumanaffairs,aswe
knowthem,couldnotcontinue. 21

18(Capek2004).
19(Turing1950).
20(Minsky1994;Moravec1999;Bostrom1998,2002;Kurzweil1999).

21(Ulam1958).

8

Therapidityoftechnologicalchangeinrecenttimesleadsnaturallytotheideathat
continuedtechnologicalinnovationwillhaveaprofoundeffectonhumanityinthedecades
ahead.Thispredictionisstrengthenedifonebelievesthatsomeofthosevariablesthat
currentlyexhibitexponentialgrowthwillcontinuetodosoandthattheywillbeamongthe
maindriversofchange.GordonE.Moore,cofounderofIntel,noticedin1965thatthe
numberoftransistorsonachipexhibitedexponentialgrowth.Thisledtotheformulationof
Mooreslaw,whichstates(roughly)thatcomputingpowerdoubleseveryeighteen
monthstotwoyears. 22 Morerecently,Kurzweilhasdocumentedsimilarexponentialgrowth
ratesinanumberofothertechnologies.Itisinterestingtonotethattheworldeconomy,a
generalindexofhumanitysproductivecapacity,hasdoubledabouteveryfifteenyearsin
moderntimes.

Thesingularityhypothesis,towhichvonNeumannseeminglyalludesinthequotedpassage
above,holdsthatthesechangeswillleadtosomekindofdiscontinuity.Butnowadaysit
oftenreferstoamorespecificprediction:namely,thatthecreationofselfimproving
artificialintelligencewillatsomepointresultinradicalchangeswithinaveryshorttime
span.Thishypothesiswasfirstclearlystatedin1965bythestatisticianI.J.Good:

Letanultraintelligentmachinebedefinedasamachinethatcanfarsurpassallthe
intellectualactivitiesofanymanhoweverclever.Sincethedesignofmachinesisone
oftheseintellectualactivities,anultraintelligentmachinecoulddesignevenbetter
machines;therewouldthenunquestionablybeanintelligenceexplosion,andthe
intelligenceofmanwouldbeleftfarbehind.Thusthefirstultraintelligentmachineis
thelastinventionthatmanneedevermake. 23

VernorVingediscussedthisideainalittlemoredetailinhisinfluential1993paper
TechnologicalSingularity,inwhichhepredicted:

Withinthirtyyears,wewillhavethetechnologicalmeanstocreatesuperhuman
intelligence.Shortlyafter,thehumanerawillbeended. 24

Transhumaniststodayholddivergingviewsaboutthesingularity:someseeitasalikely
scenario,othersbelievethatitismoreprobablethattherewillneverbeanyverysuddenand
dramaticchangesastheresultofprogressinartificialintelligence.

22(Moore1965).
23(Good1965).
24(Vinge1993).

9

Thesingularityideaalsocomesinasomewhatdifferenteschatologicalversion,whichtraces
itslineagetothewritingsofPierreTeilharddeChardin,apaleontologistandJesuit
theologianwhosawanevolutionarytelosinthedevelopmentofanencompassing
noosphere(aglobalconsciousness)viaphysicistFrankTipler,whoarguedthatadvanced
civilizationsmightcometohaveadefininginfluenceonthefutureevolutionofthecosmos,
and,inthefinalmomentsoftheBigCrunch,mightmanagetoextractaninfinitenumberof
computationsbyharnessingthesheerenergyofthecollapsingmatter. 25,26 However,while
theseideasmightappealtothosewhofancyamarriagebetweenmysticismandscience,they
havenotcaughtoneitheramongtranshumanistsorthelargerscientificcommunity.Current
cosmologicaltheoriesindicatethattheuniversewillcontinuetoexpandforever(falsifying
Tiplersprediction).Butthemoregeneralpointthatthetranshumanistmightmakeinthis
contextisthatweneedtolearntothinkaboutbigpicturequestionswithoutresortingto
wishfulthinkingormysticism.Bigpicturequestions,includingonesaboutourplaceinthe
worldandthelongtermfateofintelligentlifearepartoftranshumanism;however,these
questionsshouldbeaddressedinasober,disinterestedway,usingcriticalreasonandour
bestavailablescientificevidence.Onereasonwhysuchquestionsareoftranshumanist
interestisthattheiranswersmightaffectwhatoutcomesweshouldexpectfromourown
technologicaldevelopment,andthereforeindirectlywhatpoliciesitmakessensefor
humanitytopursue.

In1986,EricDrexlerpublishedEnginesofCreation,thefirstbooklengthexpositionof
molecularmanufacturing. 27 (Thepossibilityofnanotechnologyhadbeenanticipatedby
NobellaureatephysicistRichardFeynmaninhisfamousafterdinneraddressin1959
entitledThereisPlentyofRoomattheBottom. 28 )Inthisseminalwork,Drexlernotonly
arguedforthefeasibilityofassemblerbasednanotechnologybutalsoexploredits
consequencesandbeganchartingthestrategicchallengesposedbyitsdevelopment.
DrexlerslaterbookNanosystems(1992)suppliedamoretechnicalanalysisthatseemedto
confirmhisoriginalconclusions. 29 Topreparetheworldfornanotechnologyandwork
towardsitssafeimplementation,hefoundedtheForesightInstitutetogetherwithhisthen
wife,ChristinePeterson,in1986.

25(TeilharddeChardin1964).
26(Tipler1994).
27(Drexler1985).

28(Feynman1960).

29(Drexler1992).

10
Inthelastseveralyears,nanotechnologyhasbecomebigbusiness,withworldwideresearch
fundingamountingtobillionsofdollars.YetlittleofthisworkfitsDrexlersambitiousvision
ofnanotechnologyasanassemblerbased,nearuniversal,constructiontechnology.The
mainstreamnanotechnologycommunityhassoughttodistanceitselffromDrexlersclaims.
ThechemistRichardSmalley(anotherNobellaureate)hasdebatedDrexler,assertingthat
nonbiologicalmolecularassemblersareimpossible. 30 Todate,however,notechnical
critiqueofDrexlersworkinthepublishedliteraturehasfoundanysignificantflawsinhis
reasoning.Ifmolecularnanotechnologyisindeedphysicallypossible,asDrexlermaintains,
thequestionbecomesjusthowdifficultitwillbetodevelopit,andhowlongitwilltake.
Theseissuesareverydifficulttosettleinadvance.

IfmolecularnanotechnologycouldbedevelopedasDrexlerenvisionsit,itwouldhave
momentousramifications:

Coalanddiamonds,sandandcomputerchips,cancerandhealthytissue:throughout
history,variationsinthearrangementofatomshavedistinguishedthecheapfrom
thecherished,thediseasedfromthehealthy.Arrangedoneway,atomsmakeupsoil,
air,andwaterarrangedanother,theymakeupripestrawberries.Arrangedoneway,
theymakeuphomesandfreshair;arrangedanother,theymakeupashandsmoke. 31

Molecularnanotechnologywouldenableustotransformcoalintodiamonds,sandinto
supercomputers,andtoremovepollutionfromtheairandtumorsfromhealthytissue.Inits
matureform,itcouldhelpusabolishmostdiseaseandaging,makepossiblethereanimation
ofcryonicspatients,enableaffordablespacecolonization,andmoreominouslyleadto
therapidcreationofvastarsenalsoflethalornonlethalweapons.

Anotherhypotheticaltechnologythatwouldhavearevolutionaryimpactisuploading,the
transferofahumanmindtoacomputer.Thiswouldinvolvethefollowingsteps:First,create
asufficientlydetailedscanofaparticularhumanbrain,perhapsbydeconstructingitwith
nanobotsorbyfeedingthinslicesofbraintissuesintopowerfulmicroscopesforautomatic
imageanalysis.Second,fromthisscan,reconstructtheneuronalnetworkthatthebrain
implemented,andcombinethiswithcomputationalmodelsofthedifferenttypesof
neurons.Third,emulatethewholecomputationalstructureonapowerfulsupercomputer.If
successful,theprocedurewouldresultintheoriginalmind,withmemoryandpersonality
intact,beingtransferredtothecomputerwhereitwouldthenexistassoftware;anditcould

30 (DrexlerandSmalley1993).
31 (Drexler1985),p.3.

11
eitherinhabitarobotbodyorliveinavirtualreality. 32 Whileitisoftenthoughtthat,under
suitablecircumstances,theuploadwouldbeconsciousandthattheoriginalpersonwould
havesurvivedthetransfertothenewmedium,individualtranshumaniststakedifferent
viewsonthesephilosophicalmatters.

Ifeithersuperintelligence,ormolecularnanotechnology,oruploading,orsomeother
technologyofasimilarlyrevolutionarykindisdeveloped,thehumanconditioncould
clearlyberadicallytransformed.Evenifonebelievedthattheprobabilityofthishappening
anytimesoonisquitesmall,theseprospectswouldneverthelessmeritseriousattentionin
viewoftheirextremeimpact.However,transhumanismdoesnotdependonthefeasibility
ofsuchradicaltechnologies.Virtualreality;preimplantationgeneticdiagnosis;genetic
engineering;pharmaceuticalsthatimprovememory,concentration,wakefulness,andmood;
performanceenhancingdrugs;cosmeticsurgery;sexchangeoperations;prosthetics;anti
agingmedicine;closerhumancomputerinterfaces:thesetechnologiesarealreadyhereor
canbeexpectedwithinthenextfewdecades.Thecombinationofthesetechnological
capabilities,astheymature,couldprofoundlytransformthehumancondition.The
transhumanistagenda,whichistomakesuchenhancementoptionssafelyavailabletoall
persons,willbecomeincreasinglyrelevantandpracticalinthecomingyearsastheseand
otheranticipatedtechnologiescomeonline.

4.Thegrowthofgrassroots
BenjaminFranklinwishedtobepreservedinacaskofMadeiraandlaterrecalledtolife,and
regrettedthathewaslivingtooneartheinfancyofscienceforthistobepossible.Sincethen,
sciencehasgrownupabit.In1962,RobertEttingerpublishedthebook,TheProspectof
Immortality,whichlaunchedtheideaofcryonicsuspension. 33 Ettingerarguedthatas
medicaltechnologyseemstobeconstantlyprogressing,andsincesciencehasdiscovered
thatchemicalactivitycomestoacompletehaltatlowenoughtemperatures,itshouldbe
possibletofreezeapersontoday(inliquidnitrogen)andpreservethebodyuntilatime
whentechnologyisadvancedenoughtorepairthefreezingdamageandreversetheoriginal
causeofdeanimation.Cryonics,Ettingerbelieved,offeredatickettothefuture.

Alas,themassesdidnotlineupfortheride.Cryonicshasremainedafringealternativeto
moretraditionalmethodsoftreatingthediseased,suchascremationandburial.Thepractice
ofcryonicswasnotintegratedintothemainstreamclinicalsettingandwasinstead
conductedonthecheapbyasmallnumberofenthusiasts.Twoearlycryonicsorganizations

32 (Bostrom2003).
33 (Ettinger1964).

12
wentbankrupt,allowingtheirpatientstothawout.Atthatpoint,theproblemofmassive
cellulardamagethatoccurswhenicecrystalsforminthebodyalsobecamemorewidely
known.Asaresult,cryonicsacquiredareputationasamacabrescam.Themedia
controversyoverthesuspensionofbaseballstarTedWilliamsin2002showedthatpublic
perceptionofcryonicshasnotchangedmuchoverthepastdecades.

Despiteitsimageproblemanditsearlyfailuresofimplementation,thecryonicscommunity
continuestobeactiveanditcountsamongitsmembersseveraleminentscientistsand
intellectuals.Suspensionprotocolshavebeenimproved,andtheinfusionofcryoprotectants
priortofreezingtosuppresstheformationoficecrystalshasbecomestandardpractice.The
prospectofnanotechnologyhasgivenamoreconcreteshapetothehypothesizedfuture
technologythatcouldenablereanimation.Therearecurrentlytwoorganizationsthatoffer
fullservicesuspension,theAlcorLifeExtensionFoundation(foundedin1972)andthe
CryonicsInstitute(foundedin1976).Alcorhasrecentlyintroducedanewsuspension
method,whichreliesonaprocessknownasvitrification,whichfurtherreducesmicro
structuraldamageduringsuspension.

Inalaterwork,ManintoSuperman(1972),Ettingerdiscussedanumberofconceivable
technologicalimprovementsofthehumanorganism,continuingthetraditionstartedby
HaldaneandBernal. 34

AnotherearlytranshumanistwasF.M.Esfandiary,wholaterchangedhisnametoFM2030.
Oneofthefirstprofessorsoffuturestudies,FMtaughtattheNewSchoolforSocialResearch
inNewYorkinthe1960sandformedagroupofoptimisticfuturistsknownasthe
UpWingers.

Whoarethenewrevolutionariesofourtime?Theyarethegeneticists,biologists,
physicists,cryonologists,biotechnologists,nuclearscientists,cosmologists,radio
astronomers,cosmonauts,socialscientists,youthcorpsvolunteers,internationalists,
humanists,sciencefictionwriters,normativethinkers,inventorsTheyandothers
arerevolutionizingthehumanconditioninafundamentalway.Theirachievements
andgoalsgofarbeyondthemostradicalideologiesoftheOldOrder. 35

InhisbookAreyouatranshuman?(1989),FMdescribedwhatheregardedasthesignsofthe
emergenceofthetranshuman. 36 InFMsterminology,atranshumanisatransitional

34(Ettinger1972).
35(Esfandiary1970).
36(FM20301989).

13
human,someonewhobyvirtueoftheirtechnologyusage,culturalvalues,andlifestyle
constitutesanevolutionarylinktothecomingeraofposthumanity.ThesignsthatFMsaw
asindicativeoftranshumanstatusincludedprostheses,plasticsurgery,intensiveuseof
telecommunications,acosmopolitanoutlookandaglobetrottinglifestyle,androgyny,
mediatedreproduction(suchasinvitrofertilization),absenceofreligiousbelief,anda
rejectionoftraditionalfamilyvalues.However,itwasneversatisfactorilyexplainedwhy
somebodywho,say,rejectsfamilyvalues,hasanosejob,andspendsalotoftimeonjet
planesisincloserproximitytoposthumanitythantherestofus.

Inthe1970sand1980s,manyorganizationssprangupthatfocusedonaparticulartopicsuch
aslifeextension,cryonics,spacecolonization,sciencefiction,andfuturism.Thesegroups
wereoftenisolatedfromoneanother,andwhateversharedviewsandvaluestheyhaddid
notyetamounttoanyunifiedworldview.EdRegissGreatMamboChickenandthe
TranshumanCondition(1990)tookahumorouslookattheseprototranshumanistfringes,
whichincludedeccentricandotherwiseintelligentindividualstryingtobuildspacerockets
intheirbackyardsorexperimentingwithbiofeedbackmachinesandpsychedelicdrugs,as
wellasscientistspursuingmoreseriouslinesofworkbutwhohadimbibedtoodeeplyofthe
Californianspirit. 37

In1988,thefirstissueoftheExtropyMagazinewaspublishedbyMaxMoreandTom
Morrow,andin1992theyfoundedtheExtropyInstitute(thetermextropybeingcoinedas
ametaphoricaloppositeofentropy).TheInstituteservedasacatalystthatbroughttogether
disparategroupsofpeoplewithfuturisticideasandfacilitatedtheformationofnovel
memeticcompounds.TheInstituteranaseriesofconferences,butperhapsmostimportant
wastheextropiansmailinglist,anonlinediscussionforumwherenewideaswereshared
anddebated.Inthemidnineties,manygotfirstexposuretotranshumanistviewsfromthe
ExtropyInstituteslistserve.

MorehadimmigratedtoCaliforniafromBritainafterchanginghisnamefromMax
OConnor.Ofhisnewname,hesaid:

Itseemedtoreallyencapsulatetheessenceofwhatmygoalis:alwaystoimprove,
nevertobestatic.Iwasgoingtogetbetterateverything,becomesmarter,fitter,and
healthier.Itwouldbeaconstantremindertokeepmovingforward. 38

37 (Regis1990).
38 (Regis1994).

14
MaxMorewrotethefirstdefinitionoftranshumanisminitsmodernsense,andcreatedhis
owndistinctivebrandoftranshumanism,extropianism,whichemphasizedtheprinciples
ofboundlessexpansion,selftransformation,dynamicoptimism,intelligent
technology,andspontaneousorder.Originally,extropianismhadaclearlibertarian
flavor,butinlateryearsMorehasdistancedhimselffromthisingredient,replacing
spontaneousorderwithopensociety,aprinciplethatopposesauthoritariansocial
controlandpromotesdecentralizationofpowerandresponsibility. 39

NatashaVitaMoreistheExtropyInstitutescurrentpresident.Sheisanartistanddesigner,
andhasovertheyearsissuedanumberofmanifestosontranshumanistandextropicart. 40

TheExtropyInstitutesconferencesandmailinglistalsoservedasahangoutplaceforsome
peoplewholikedtodiscussfuturisticideasbutwhowerenotnecessarilyjoiners.Thosewho
werearoundinthemidninetieswillrememberindividualssuchasAndersSandberg,
AlexanderSashaChislenko,HalFinney,andRobinHansonfromamongthemore
thoughtfulregularsinthetranshumanistmilieuatthetime.Anenormousamountof
discussionabouttranshumanismhastakenplaceonvariousemaillistsinthepastdecade.
Thequalityofpostingshasbeenvaried(puttingitmildly).Yetattheirbest,theseonline
conversationsexploredideasabouttheimplicationsoffuturetechnologiesthatwere,in
somerespects,faradvancedoverwhatcouldbefoundinprintedbooksorjournals.The
Internetplayedanimportantroleinincubatingmoderntranshumanismbyfacilitatingthese
meetingsofmindsandperhapsmoreindirectly,too,viatheirrationalexuberancethat
pervadedthedotcomera?

TheWorldTranshumanistAssociationwasfoundedinearly1998byNickBostromand
DavidPearce,toprovideageneralorganizationalbasisforalltranshumanistgroupsand
interests,acrossthepoliticalspectrum.Theaimwasalsotodevelopamorematureand
academicallyrespectableformoftranshumanism,freedfromthecultishnesswhich,at
leastintheeyesofsomecritics,hadafflictedsomeofitsearlierconvocations.Thetwo
foundingdocumentsoftheWTAweretheTranshumanistDeclaration(seeappendix),andthe
TranshumanistFAQ(v.1.0). 41 TheDeclarationwasintendedasaconciseconsensusstatement
ofthebasicprincipleoftranshumanism.TheFAQwasalsoaconsensusornearconsensus
document,butitwasmoreambitiousinitsphilosophicalscopeinthatitdevelopeda
numberofthemesthathadpreviouslybeen,atmost,implicitinthemovement.Morethan
fiftypeoplecontributedcommentsondraftsoftheFAQ.Thedocumentwasproducedby

39(More2003).
40(VitaMore2002).
41(WTA2002).

15
Bostrombutmajorpartsandideaswerealsocontributedbyseveralothers,includingthe
BritishutilitarianthinkerDavidPearce,MaxMore,theAmericanfeministanddisability
rightsactivistKathrynAegis,andthewalkingencyclopediaAndersSandberg,whowasat
thetimeaneurosciencestudentinSweden.

DavidPearcehasalsodevelopedhisowndistinctiveflavoroftranshumanismbasedonan
ethicofhedonisticutilitarianism.Pearceargues,inTheHedonisticImperative,foranambitious
programtoeliminatesufferinginbothhumanandnonhumananimalsbymeansof
advancedneurotechnology(intheshorttermpharmaceuticals,inthelongertermperhaps
geneticengineering). 42 Inparallelwiththisnegativeefforttoabolishsuffering,heproposesa
positiveprogramofparadiseengineeringinwhichsentientbeingswouldberedesignedto
enableeverybodytoexperienceofunprecedentedlevelsofwellbeing.InPearcesutopia,
ourmotivationsystemwouldrunongradientsofblissinsteadofthecurrentpleasurepain
axis.

TheWTAsmembershipgrewrapidly,andlocalchaptersmushroomedaroundtheworld.
ActivitiesfocusedmainlyonInternetdiscussion,developmentofdocuments,representation
inthemedia,organizingofanannualTransVisionconference,andpublicationofthe
scholarlyonlineJournalofTranshumanism(laterrenamedtoJournalofEvolutionand
Technology).

Inthefirstfewyearsofitsexistence,theWTAwasaverylooselyandinformallyorganized
structure.Itentereditsnextphaseafterameetingin2001betweenJamesHughes(a
sociologistatTrinityCollegeinHartfordConnecticut),MarkWalker(aphilosopheratthe
UniversityofToronto,thentheeditoroftheJournalofTranshumanism),andBostrom(who
wasatthetimeteachingatYale).HugheswaselectedSecretaryandturnedhisorganizing
skillsandenergytothetask.Withinshortorder,theWTAadoptedaconstitution,
incorporatedasanonprofit,andbeganbuildingupavigorousinternationalnetworkof
localgroupsandvolunteers.Currently,theWTAhasapproximately3,000membersfrom
morethan100countries,anditpursuesawiderangeofactivities,allvolunteerdriven.

Anumberofrelatedorganizationshavealsocroppedupinrecentyears,focusingmore
narrowlyonparticulartranshumanistissues,suchaslifeextension,artificialintelligence,or
thelegalimplicationsofconvergingtechnologies(nanobioinfoneurotechnologies).The
InstituteforEthicsandEmergingTechnologies,anonprofitthinktank,wasestablishedin
2004,topromotetheethicaluseoftechnologytoexpandhumancapacities.

42 (Pearce2004).

16
5.Theacademicfrontier
Overthepastcoupleofdecades,academiahaspickeduptheballandstartedtoanalyze
varioustranshumanistmatters,bothnormativeandpositive.Thecontributionsarefartoo
manytocomprehensivelydescribehere,sowewillpickoutjustafewthreads,beginning
withethics.

Formostofitshistory,moralphilosophydidnotshyawayfromaddressingpractical
problems.Intheearlyandmidpartsofthetwentiethcentury,duringheydaysoflogical
positivism,appliedethicsbecameabackwaterasmoralphilosophersconcentratedon
linguisticormetaethicalproblems.Sincethen,however,practicalethicshasreemergedasa
fieldofacademicinquiry.Thecomebackstartedinmedicalethics.Revelationsofthehorrific
experimentsthattheNazishadconductedonhumansubjectsinthenameofscienceledto
theadoptionoftheNurembergcode(1947)andtheDeclarationofHelsinki(1964),which
laiddownstrictsafeguardsformedicalexperimentation,emphasizingtheneedforpatient
consent. 43,44 Buttheriseofthemodernhealthcaresystemspawnednewethicaldilemmas
turningofflifesupport,organdonation,resourceallocation,abortion,advancedirectives,
doctorpatientrelationships,protocolsforobtaininginformedconsentandfordealingwith
incompetentpatients.Inthe1970s,abroaderkindofenquirybegantoemerge,stimulated
particularlybydevelopmentsinassistedreproductionandgenetics.Thisfieldbecame
knownasbioethics.Manyoftheethicalissuesmostdirectlylinkedtotranshumanismwould
nowfallunderthisrubric,althoughothernormativediscoursesarealsoinvolved,e.g.
populationethics,metaethics,politicalphilosophy,andbioethicsyoungersisters
computerethics,engineeringethics,environmentalethics.

Bioethicswasfromthebeginninganinterdisciplinaryendeavor,dominatedbytheologians,
legalscholars,physicians,and,increasingly,philosophers,withoccasionalparticipationby
representativesofpatientsrightsgroups,disabilityadvocates,andotherinterestedparties.
45 Lackingaclearmethodology,andoperatingonaplainoftensweptbythewindsof
politicalorreligiouscontroversy,thestandardofscholarshiphasfrequentlybeen
underwhelming.Despitethesedifficulties,bioethicsburgeoned.Acynicmightascribethis
accomplishmenttotheamplefertilizationthatthefieldreceivedfromanumberofpractical
imperatives:absolvingdoctorsofmoraldilemmas,trainingmedicalstudentstobehave,
enablinghospitalboardstotrumpettheircommitmenttothehighestethicalstandardsof
care,providingsoundbitesforthemassmedia,andallowingpoliticianstocovertheir
behindsbydelegatingcontroversialissuestoethicscommittees.Butakinderglossis

43(Office1949).
44(World_Medical_Organization1996).
45See(Jonsen1998).

17
possible:decentpeoplerecognizedthatdifficultmoralproblemsaroseinmodern
biomedicine,thattheseproblemsneededtobeaddressed,andthathavingsomeprofessional
scholarstryingtoclarifytheseproblemsinsomesortofsystematicwaymightbehelpful.
Whilehighercaliberscholarshipandamorerobustmethodologywouldbenice,inthe
meantimewemakethemostofwhatwehave.

Moralphilosophershaveinthelastcoupleofdecadesmademanycontributionsthatbearon
theethicsofhumantransformation,andwemustlimitourselvestoafewmentions.Derek
ParfitsclassicReasonsandPersons(1984)discussedmanyrelevantnormativeissues. 46 In
additiontopersonalidentityandfoundationalethicaltheory,thisbooktreatspopulation
ethics,personaffectingmoralprinciples,anddutiestofuturegenerations.AlthoughParfits
analysistakesplaceonanidealizedlevel,hisargumentselucidatemanymoral
considerationsthatemergewithinthetranshumanistprogram.

JonathanGloversWhatSortofPeopleShouldthereBe?(1984)addressedtechnologyenabled
humantransformationatasomewhatmoreconcretelevel,focusingespeciallyongenetics
andvarioustechnologiesthatcouldincreasesocialtransparency.Glovergaveaclearand
balancedanalytictreatmentoftheseissuesthatwaswellaheadofitstime.Hisgeneral
conclusionisthat

notjustanyaspectofpresenthumannatureisworthpreserving.Ratheritis
especiallythosefeatureswhichcontributetoselfdevelopmentandselfexpression,
tocertainkindsofrelationships,andtothedevelopmentofourconsciousnessand
understanding.Andsomeofthesefeaturesmaybeextendedratherthanthreatened
bytechnology. 47

Severalpeoplehavearguedforprinciplesthatassertsomekindofethicalequivalence
betweenenvironmentalandgeneticinterventions.Forexample,PeterSingerhasproposed
thepreventiveprinciple:

ForanyconditionX,ifitwouldbeaformofchildabuseforparentstoinflictXon
theirchildsoonafterbirth,thenitmust,otherthingsbeingequal,atleastbe
permissibletotakestepstopreventoneschildhavingthatcondition. 48

46(Parfit1984).
47(Glover1984).
48(Singer2003).

18
JulianSavulescuhasarguedforaprincipleofProcreativeBeneficence,accordingtowhich
prospectiveparentsshouldselectthechild,ofthepossiblechildrentheycouldhave,who
wouldhavethebestlife,basedontherelevant,availableinformation(wheretheshouldis
meanttoindicatethatpersuasionisjustified,butnotcoercion). 49 Thisprincipledoesnot
presupposethatalllivescanbeplacedinadefiniterankingwithrespecttotheirwellbeing,
onlythatpairwisecomparisonsarepossibleinatleastsomecases.Forinstance,ifacouple
ishavingIVFandmustselectoneoftwoembryoswhicharegeneticallyidenticalexceptthat
oneofthemhasonedefectivegenethatpredisposestoasthma,thenProcreativeBeneficence
suggeststheyoughttochoosethehealthyembryoforimplantation.

InFromChancetoChoice(2000),AllenBuchanan,DanW.Brock,NormanDaniels,andDaniel
Wikler,examinedhowadvancesingeneticengineeringshouldaffectourunderstandingof
distributivejustice,equalopportunity,ourrightsandobligationsasparents,themeaningof
disability,andtheconceptofhumannatureinethicaltheoryandpractice. 50 Theydeveloped
aframeworkinspiredbyJohnRawlssworkinanattempttoanswersomeofthese
questions.

GregStock,JohnHarris,GregoryPence,andEricJuengst,amongothers,havealsodiscussed
theethicsofgeneticengineeringfromabroadlytranshumanistperspective. 51 MarkWalker
hasarguedfromaperfectioniststandpointthatwehaveadutytousetechnologytoimprove
ourselves.Walkerhasalsoarguedthatonereasontopursuecognitiveenhancementsisthat
itcouldhelpussolvephilosophicalproblems. 52 NickBostromandseveralothershave
drawnattentiontothedistinctionbetweenenhancementsthatofferonlypositional
advantages(e.g.anincreaseinheight),whichareonlyadvantagesinsofarasotherslack
them,andenhancementsthatprovideeitherintrinsicbenefitsornetpositiveexternalities
(suchasabetterimmunesystemorimprovementofcognitivefunctioning).Weoughtto
promoteenhancementsofthesecondkind,butnotenhancementsthataremerely
positional. 53

Bostromhassuggestedthatwehaveareasontodevelopmeanstoexplorethelargerspace
ofpossiblemodesofbeingthatiscurrentlyinaccessibletousbecauseofourbiological
limitations,onthegroundthatwemightfindthatitcontainsextremelyworthwhilemodes
ofbeingwaysofliving,thinking,feeling,andrelating. 54 Alongwithmanyother

49(Savulescu2001).
50(Buchananetal.2002).
51E.g.(Stock2002;Harris1992;Pence1998;Parens1998).

52(Walker2002).

53(Bostrom2003).

54(Bostrom2004).

19
transhumanistwriters,Bostromhasarguedforthemoralurgencyofdevelopingmeansto
sloworreversetheagingprocess. 55 Hehasalsoproposedabroaderconceptionofhuman
dignitywhichcanaccommodateposthumandignity. 56 ArecentjointpaperbyBostrom
andTobyOrdproposesaheuristicforeliminatingstatusquobiasinbioethics,abias
which,theyclaim,afflictsmanyofourmoralintuitions. 57

EliezerYudkowsky(anindependentscholar)hasprobedtheethicsofsuperintelligenceand
hastriedtodevelopatheoryofhowtoprogramahumanfriendlyAI,achallengethatcould
takeonlifeanddeathsignificanceoncewebecomecapableofcreatingsuchamachine.
Yudkowskyarguesthatsimplerulebasedinjunctions(suchasIsaacAsimovsthreelawsof
robotics)wouldproducedeadlyunintendedconsequences.Heconceivesofa
superintelligenceasanenormouslypowerfuloptimizationprocess,andthecentraltaskisto
specifythementalarchitectureandgoalstructureoftheAIinsuchawaythatitrealizes
desirableoutcomes.Ratherthancreatingalistofspecificgoals,Yudkowskyarguesthatwe
needtotakeamoreindirectapproachandchoosetheAIsinitialconditionssothatitwould
useitssuperiorintellectualpowerstoderivethespecificgoalsandextrapolateourdecisions
ifwewerebettercalibrated,betterinformed,andbetterabletoreflectontheforces
influencingourdecisions.YudkowskyalsowishestospecifyanAIthatwoulduseitsinitial
rulesforextrapolationtoextrapolatesmarterhumandecisionsaboutextrapolationrules;in
effect,asetofinitialrulesforextrapolationwouldrenormalizethemselves. 58

Asidefromnormativequestions,therearealsopositivequestionstobeasked,aboutthe
natureandtimingoftransformingtechnologiesandtheirconsequences.HansMoravecs
1989bookMindChildrenexploredtheramificationsofpossiblefutureadvancesinrobotics
anduploading. 59 AlaterMoravecbook,Robot(1999),andRayKurzweilsbestsellingAgeof
SpiritualMachines(1999)introducedtheseideastoawideraudience. 60,61 Aswehaveseen,
EricDrexlerwastryingtoanticipatetheconsequencesofmolecularnanotechnologybackin
the80s,anendeavorinwhichhehassincebeenjoinedbyseveralotherresearcherssuchas
RobertFreitas,whohasstudiedpotentialmedicalapplicationofnanotechnologyingreat
detail,andRalphMerklewhohascollaboratedwithFreitastostudythekinematicsofself
replicatingsystemsandthetechnicalstepstowardscrudemolecularassemblers. 62 Allthese

55(Bostrom2005).
56(Bostrom2005).
57(BostromandOrd2005).

58(Yudkowsky2004).

59(Moravec1989).

60(Moravec1999).

61(Kurzweil1999).

62(FreitasandMerkle2005).

20
authorsrecognizethattechnologiesaspotentassuperintelligenceormolecular
nanotechnologyarenotwithoutseriousrisksofaccidentsordeliberatemisuse.

Bostrom(2002)introducedtheconceptofanexistentialrisk,definedasonewherean
adverseoutcomewouldeitherannihilateEarthoriginatingintelligentlifeorpermanently
anddrasticallycurtailitspotential,andcreatedacatalogueofwhathesawasthemost
probableexistentialrisks. 63 Bothnanotechnologyandsuperintelligencerelatedrisksattain
highranksonthatlist.Inamuchdiscussedpopulararticle,WhytheFutureDoesntNeed
Us(2000),BillJoyarguedthatweoughttorelinquishdevelopmentsinAI,nanotechnology,
andgeneticsbecauseoftherisksthatwilleventuallyemergefromthesedisciplines. 64 Several
people,reactingtoJoy,arguedagainstsuchbansongroundsthattheyareunrealistic,would
depriveusofgreatbenefits,andmightincreaseratherthandecreaseriskifdevelopment
weredrivenundergroundortolesshesitantregionsoftheworld.JohnLeslie,MartinRees,
andRichardPosnerhavealsoinvestigatedthreatstohumansurvivalinthe21stcenturyall
ofthemhaveratedtheriskashighlysignificant. 65

RobinHansonhasanalyzedseveraltopicsofrelevancetohumantransformation,including
theconsequencesofuploadinginanunregulatedeconomy,thesocialsignalingfunctionof
beliefs,thesourcesandepistemologicalstatusofdisagreementsofopinion,thedynamicsof
aspacecolonizationrace,andinformationmarketsasasystemforaggregatinginformation
andguidingpolicy. 66 RelatedtoHansonsworkonuploadcompetitionandcolonization
races,Bostromhasexploredhowdystopianoutcomescouldresultinsomefuture
evolutionaryscenarios. 67 Drawingonhisearlierworkonobservationselectioneffects,he
alsoformulatedtheSimulationargument,whichpurportstoshowthatitfollowsfromsome
fairlyweakassumptionsthat

atleastoneofthefollowingpropositionsistrue:(1)thehumanspeciesisverylikely
togoextinctbeforereachingaposthumanstage;(2)anyposthumancivilizationis
extremelyunlikelytorunasignificantnumberofsimulationsoftheirevolutionary
history(orvariationsthereof);(3)wearealmostcertainlylivinginacomputer
simulation.Itfollowsthatthebeliefthatthereisasignificantchancethatwewillone
daybecomeposthumanswhorunancestorsimulationsisfalse,unlessweare
currentlylivinginasimulation. 68

63(Bostrom2002).
64(Joy2000).
65(Leslie1996;Rees2003;Posner2004).

66E.g.(Hanson1994,1995,1998).

67(Bostrom2005).

68(Bostrom2003).

21

Wedonotknowwhatwillhappen,butseveralsubtleconstraintsenableustonarrowdown
therangeoftenableviewsabouthumanitysfutureandourplaceintheuniverse.These
constraintsderivefromavarietyofsources,includinganalysisofthecapacitiesofpossible
technologiesbasedonphysicalorchemicalsimulations;economicanalysis;evolutiontheory;
probabilitytheory;gametheoryandstrategicanalysis;andcosmology.Partlybecauseofthe
interdisciplinaryandsometimestechnicalnatureoftheseconsiderations,theyarenotwidely
understood.Yetanyseriousattempttograpplewiththelongtermimplicationsof
technologicaldevelopmentshouldtakethemintoaccount.

6.21stcenturybiopolitics:thetranshumanistbioconservativedimension
JamesHugheshasarguedthatbiopoliticsisemergingasafundamentalnewdimensionof
politicalopinion.InHughesmodel,biopoliticsjoinswiththemorefamiliardimensionsof
culturalandeconomicpolitics,toformathreedimensionalopinionspace.Wehavealready
seenthatintheearly90s,theextropianscombinedliberalculturalpoliticsandlaissezfaire
laissezfaireconomicpoliticswithtranshumanistbiopolitics.InCitizenCyborg(2004),
Hughessetsforwardwhathetermsdemocratictranshumanism,whichmates
transhumanistbiopoliticswithsocialdemocraticeconomicpoliticsandliberalcultural
politics. 69 Hearguesthatwewillachievethebestposthumanfuturewhenweensurethat
technologiesaresafe,makethemavailabletoeveryone,andrespecttherightofindividuals
tocontroltheirownbodies.Thekeydifferencebetweenextropiantranshumanismand
democratictranshumanismisthatthelatteraccordsamuchbiggerroleforgovernmentin
regulatingnewtechnologiesforsafetyandensuringthatthebenefitswillbeavailabletoall,
notjustawealthyortechsavvyelite.

Inprinciple,transhumanismcanbecombinedwithawiderangeofpoliticalandcultural
views,andmanysuchcombinationsareindeedrepresented,e.g.withinthemembershipof
theWorldTranshumanistAssociation.Onecombinationthatisnotoftenfoundisthe
couplingoftranshumanismtoacultureconservativeoutlook.Whetherthisisbecauseofan
irresolvabletensionbetweenthetransformativeagendaoftranshumanismandthecultural
conservativespreferencefortraditionalarrangementsisnotclear.Itcouldinsteadbe
becausenobodyhasyetseriouslyattemptedtodevelopsuchaposition.Itispossibleto
imaginehownewtechnologiescouldbeusedtoreinforcesomecultureconservativevalues.
Forinstance,apharmaceuticalthatfacilitatedlongtermpairbondingcouldhelpprotectthe
traditionalfamily.Developingwaysofusingourgrowingtechnologicalpowerstohelp

69 (Hughes2004).

22
peoplerealizewidelyheldculturalorspiritualvaluesintheirliveswouldseema
worthwhileundertaking.

Thisisnot,however,therouteforwhichculturalconservativeshavesofaropted.Instead,
theyhavegravitatedtowardstranshumanismsopposite,bioconservatism,whichopposes
theuseoftechnologytoexpandhumancapacitiesortomodifyaspectsofourbiological
nature.Peopledrawntobioconservatismcomefromgroupsthattraditionallyhavehadlittle
incommon.Rightwingreligiousconservativesandleftwingenvironmentalistsandanti
globalistshavefoundcommoncauses,forexampleintheiroppositiontothegenetic
modificationofhumans.

Thedifferentstrandsofcontemporarybioconservatismcanbetracedtoamultifarioussetof
origins:ancientnotionsoftaboo;theGreekconceptofhubris;theRomanticistviewof
nature;certainreligious(antihumanistic)interpretationsoftheconceptofhumandignity
andofaGodgivennaturalorder;theLudditeworkersrevoltagainstindustrialization;Karl
Marxsanalysisoftechnologyundercapitalism;variousContinentalphilosopherscritiques
oftechnology,technocracy,andtherationalisticmindsetthataccompaniesmodern
technoscience;foesofthemilitaryindustrialcomplexandmultinationalcorporations;and
objectorstotheconsumeristratrace.Theproposedremedieshaverangedfrommachine
smashing(theoriginalLuddites),tocommunistrevolution(Marx),tobuyingorganic,to
yoga(JosOrtegayGasset),butnowadaysitcommonlyemanatesincallsfornationalor
internationalbansonvarioushumanenhancementtechnologies(Fukuyama,Annas,etc.).

Feministwritershavecomedownonbothsidesofthedebate.Ecofeministshavesuspected
biotechnology,especiallyitsusetoreshapebodiesorcontrolreproduction,ofbeingan
extensionoftraditionalpatriarchalexploitationofwomen,or,alternatively,haveseenitasa
symptomofacontrolobsessed,unemphatic,gadgetfixated,bodyloathingmindset.Some
haveofferedakindofpsychoanalysisoftranshumanism,concludingthatitrepresentsan
embarrassingrationalizationofselfcenteredimmaturityandsocialfailure.Butothershave
welcomedthelibratorypotentialofbiotechnology.ShulamithFirestonearguedinthe
feministclassicTheDialecticofSex(1971)thatwomenwillbefullyliberatedonlywhen
technologyhasfreedthemfromhavingtoincubatechildren. 70 CyberfeministDonna
Harawayproclaimsthatshewouldratherbeacyborgthanagoddessandarguesagainst
thedualisticviewthatassociatesmenwithcultureandtechnologyandwomenwith
nature. 71

70 (Firestone1970).
71 (Haraway1991).

23
PerhapsthemostprominentbioconservativevoicetodayisthatofLeonKass,chairmanof
PresidentBushsCouncilonBioethics[[Q:stillextant?]].Kassacknowledgesanintellectual
debttothreeotherdistinguishedbioconservatives:ProtestanttheologianPaulRamsey,
ChristianapologistapologeticC.S.Lewis,andGermanbornphilosophertheologianHans
Jonas(whostudiedunderMartinHeidegger). 72 Kasssconcernscenteronhumandignity
andthesubtlewaysinwhichourattemptstoasserttechnologicalmasteryoverhuman
naturecouldendupdehumanizingusbyunderminingvarioustraditionalmeaningssuch
asthemeaningofthelifecycle,themeaningofsex,themeaningofeating,andthemeaning
ofwork.Kassiswellknownwellknownforhisadvocacyofthewisdomofrepugnance
(whichechoesHansJonassheuristicsoffear).WhileKassstressesthatagutfeelingof
revulsionisnotamoralargument,heneverthelessinsiststhattheyuckfactormeritsour
respectfulattention:

Incrucialcasesrepugnanceistheemotionalexpressionofdeepwisdom,beyond
reasonspowertofullyarticulateweintuitandfeel,immediatelyandwithout
argument,theviolationofthingswerightfullyholddearTopollutionand
perversion,thefittingresponsecanonlybehorrorandrevulsion;andconversely,
generalizedhorrorandrevulsionareprimafacieevidenceoffoulnessand
violation. 73

FrancisFukuyama,anotherprominentbioconservativeandmemberofthePresidents
Council,hasrecentlyidentifiedtranshumanismastheworldsmostdangerousidea. 74 For
Fukuyama,however,thechiefconcernisnotaboutthesubtleunderminingofmeanings
buttheprospectofviolenceandoppression.Hearguesthatliberaldemocracydependson
thefactthatallhumansshareanundefinedFactorX,whichgroundstheirequaldignity
andrights.Theuseofenhancingtechnologies,hefears,coulddestroyFactorX. 75

BioethicistsGeorgeAnnas,LoriAndrews,andRosarioIsasihaveproposedlegislationto
makeinheritablegeneticmodificationinhumansacrimeagainsthumanity,liketorture
andgenocide.TheirrationaleissimilartoFukuyamas:

Thenewspecies,orposthuman,willlikelyviewtheoldnormalhumansas
inferior,evensavages,andfitforslaveryorslaughter.Thenormals,ontheother
hand,mayseetheposthumansasathreatandiftheycan,mayengageina

72(Kass2002).
73(Kass1997).
74(Fukuyama2004).Foraresponse,see(Bostrom2004).

75(Fukuyama2002).

24
 preemptivestrikebykillingtheposthumansbeforetheythemselvesarekilledor
enslavedbythem.Itisultimatelythispredictablepotentialforgenocidethatmakes
speciesalteringexperimentspotentialweaponsofmassdestruction,andmakesthe
unaccountablegeneticengineerapotentialbioterrorist. 76

ThereissomecommongroundbetweenAnnasetal.andthetranshumanists:theyagreethat
murderandenslavement,whetherofhumansbyposthumansortheotherwayaround,
wouldbeamoralatrocityandacrime.Transhumanistsdeny,however,thatthisisalikely
consequenceofgermlinetherapytoenhancehealth,memory,longevity,orothersimilar
traitsinhumans.Ifandwhenwedevelopthecapabilitytocreatesomesingularentitythat
couldpotentiallydestroythehumanrace,suchasasuperintelligentmachine,thenwecould
indeedregarditasacrimeagainsthumanitytoproceedwithoutathoroughriskanalysis
andtheinstallationofadequatesafetyfeatures.Aswesawintheprevioussection,theeffort
tounderstandandfindwaystoreduceexistentialriskshasbeenacentralpreoccupationfor
sometranshumanists,suchasEricDrexler,NickBostrom,andEliezerYudkowsky.

Thereareothercommonalitiesbetweenbioconservativesandtranshumanists.Bothagree
thatwefacearealisticprospectthattechnologycouldbeusedtosubstantiallytransformthe
humanconditioninthiscentury.Bothagreethatthisimposesanobligationonthecurrent
generationtothinkhardaboutthepracticalandethicalimplications.Bothareconcerned
withmedicalrisksofsideeffects,ofcourse,althoughbioconservativesaremoreworriedthat
thetechnologymightsucceedthanthatitmightfail.Bothcampsagreethattechnologyin
generalandmedicineinparticularhavealegitimateroletoplay,althoughbioconservatives
tendtoopposemanyusesofmedicinethatgobeyondtherapytoenhancement.Bothsides
condemntheracistandcoercivestatesponsoredeugenicsprogramsofthe20 thtwentieth
century.Bioconservativesdrawattentiontothepossibilitythatsubtlehumanvaluescould
begeterodedbytechnologicaladvances,andtranshumanistsshouldperhapslearntobe
moresensitivetotheseconcerns.Ontheotherhand,transhumanistsemphasizethe
enormouspotentialforgenuineimprovementsinhumanwellbeingandhumanflourishing
thatareattainableonlyviatechnologicaltransformation,andbioconservativescouldtryto
bemoreappreciativeofthepossibilitythatwecouldrealizegreatvaluesbyventuring
beyondourcurrentbiologicallimitations. 77

76 (Annas,Andrews,andIsasi2002).
77 ImgratefultoAndersSandbergandSaraLippincottforcomments.

25
Appendix
TheTranshumanistDeclaration
(VersionofMarch2009)

(1)Humanitystandstobeprofoundlyaffectedbyscienceandtechnologyinthefuture.We
envisionthepossibilityofbroadeninghumanpotentialbyovercomingaging,cognitive
shortcomings,involuntarysuffering,andourconfinementtoplanetEarth.

(2)Webelievethathumanityspotentialisstillmostlyunrealized.Therearepossible
scenariosthatleadtowonderfulandexceedinglyworthwhileenhancedhumanconditions.

(3)Werecognizethathumanityfacesseriousrisks,especiallyfromthemisuseofnew
technologies.Therearepossiblerealisticscenariosthatleadtothelossofmost,orevenall,
ofwhatweholdvaluable.Someofthesescenariosaredrastic,othersaresubtle.Although
allprogressischange,notallchangeisprogress.

(4)Researcheffortneedstobeinvestedintounderstandingtheseprospects.Weneedto
carefullydeliberatehowbesttoreducerisksandexpeditebeneficialapplications.Wealso
needforumswherepeoplecanconstructivelydiscusswhatshouldbedone,andasocial
orderwhereresponsibledecisionscanbeimplemented.

(5)Reductionofexistentialrisks,anddevelopmentofmeansforthepreservationoflifeand
health,thealleviationofgravesuffering,andtheimprovementofhumanforesightand
wisdomshouldbepursuedasurgentpriorities,andheavilyfunded.

(6)Policymakingoughttobeguidedbyresponsibleandinclusivemoralvision,taking
seriouslybothopportunitiesandrisks,respectingautonomyandindividualrights,and
showingsolidaritywithandconcernfortheinterestsanddignityofallpeoplearoundthe
globe.Wemustalsoconsiderourmoralresponsibilitiestowardsgenerationsthatwillexist
inthefuture.

(7)Weadvocatethewellbeingofallsentience,includinghumans,nonhumananimals,and
anyfutureartificialintellects,modifiedlifeforms,orotherintelligencestowhich
technologicalandscientificadvancemaygiverise.

(8)Wefavorallowingindividualswidepersonalchoiceoverhowtheyenabletheirlives.
Thisincludesuseoftechniquesthatmaybedevelopedtoassistmemory,concentration,and
mentalenergy;lifeextensiontherapies;reproductivechoicetechnologies;cryonics

26
procedures;andmanyotherpossiblehumanmodificationandenhancementtechnologies.

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