30 TANKER HANDBOOK Should the oil on top of the water be heavy fuel oil or something of a similar character, the sounding rod together with the paste or litmus paper will be coated with a heavy covering of oil, and this might prevent it registering the correct amount of water, if it indicates the presence of water at all. When water is present in suspension, this can only be traced and measured by sampling at different levels, and testing it properly under laboratory conditions. Testing Oil. Testing oil, like refining, covers a large field indeed. However, there are some basic tests, etc., which are not without significance to the tanker officer. A knowledge of the relative weight, volume, colour, flashpoint and viscosity, governs the stowage and handling of the various products he may be called upon to carry. Specific Gr ity. A specific gravity of a liquid is its density relative to the density of water. A hydrometer, similar in principle to that used for testing the density of sea water, is the instrument used to determine the specific gravity of any particular oil When the specific gravity of an oil is known and also the temperature of the oil, it is possible to work out the weight of a given volume, or alternatively the amount of space a weight of oil will need ‘The specific gravity is of little or no use without the temperature of the oil. In U.S. Ports the specific gravity is generally replaced by the American Petroleum Institute or A.P.L. Gravity. The relationship is best expressed as follows: 141-5 Gravity 60° /60° F. A.P.L. Gravity at 60° F. = — 13S Spec Flash Point. ‘The flash point of a liquid an ignitable mi s the temperature at which the liquid gives off sufficient vapour to form ‘The following table gives some approximate flash points for petroleum products: Product Minimum Temp. Most Crude Oils......0... } Flash at Atmospheric Motor Spirit, ete... Temperature Power Kerosene (Vap. Oil) 90° F 85°F White Spirit (Turps. Sub.) 105° F. Kerosene veces = 115° F Gas Oil....... - 155° F, Most Fuel Oils - 175° F. Special Fuel Oils = 150° F. Lubricating Oils . = + 200° F. In the United Kingdom the Regulations for the handling and storage of Petroleum divide these Products into three groups according to their flash points. (a) Dangerous products such as Motor Spirit with flash points below 73° F. (6) Products such as Kerosene with flash points between 73° F. and 150° F. (©) Comparatively safe products such as Fuel Oil with flash points over 150° F.PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 31 Inserting a tank cleaning hose into one ofthe cargo tanks Testing the flash points of petroleum products is an operation which must be carried out in a laboratory. Several different types of apparatus are in use for testing the flash points of oil over a very wide range. Two types used widely are the Abel and the Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus. Flash point should not be confused with ignition point. Ignition point is the temperature which when reached is sufficient to cause combustion even if the original source of heat is removed A mixture of gas and air are not necessarily inflammable. The mixture has to be within certain definite limits, these limits vary slightly with the type of hydrocarbon, but with normal crude oils the lower limit is about 2 per cent. gas to 98 per cent. air, while the upper limit is about 10 per cent. gas to 90 per cent. air. Vapour Pressure. Petroleum products vary considerably in their ability to give off gas or vapour, but generally those with low flash points produce the largest amount of gas. Their ability to give off gas depends to a very large degree on temperature. In a given size container or tank, the same petroleum product will give off more vapour at a higher temperature than a lower, though other factors also have some influence. If the surface of the liquid petroleum is agitated this can help to increase the amount of vapour given off If subjected to an increase in temperature in a closed container or tank, petroleum products Particularly those with low flash points, will tend to build up a vapour or gas pressure. Ifthe ullage plug in a cargo tank is open, the petroleum gas or vapour, will tend to displace the air in the tank as the temperature of the liquid increases, and more vapour or gas is given off. If the temperature remains unchanged, the liquid petroleum product will give off a certain amount of gas, after which it will cease to displace the air and the quantity of gas and air will remain unchanged, or in equilibrium. Obviously a petroleum product’s ability to give off gas is important, from the stand point of safety as well as refining and storage problems. The Reid Vapour Pressure Test. The Reid Vapour Pressure Test provides a method of comparing the ability of various petroleum products to give off vapour under standard conditions. The container or apparatus used has a liquid to vapour space in the ratio of I to 4, and the test is conducted at 100° F32 TANKER HANDBOOK In the United States regulations for the handling and storage of Petroleum Products utilise Reids Vapour Pressure and Flash Point to help classify individual types and grades of petroleum. They are divided into two types:— 1. Combustible Products. 2. Inflammable Products. In the Inflammable Range there are three types:— (a) Products with a R.V.P. of 14 Ibs. or over. (6) Products with a R.V.P. of over 8:5 Ibs, but less than 14 Ibs. (©) Products with a R.V.P. of 8:5 Ibs. or less and a Flash Point of 80° F. or below. In the Combustible Ranges there are two types:— (d) Products with a Flash Point above 80° F. but below 150° F. (e) Products with a Flash Point at or above 150° F. Viscosity. Viscosity is the internal resistance a liquid has to flow. The viscosity of a liquid is not constant, but may change considerably with an increase or a decrease in temperature, In Great Britain, Redwood’s Viscometers and Scales are in general use in the petroleum industry. Oil which flows freely is said to have a low viscosity, and may be less than a hundred seconds on the Redwood Scale. Thicker oils, which are heavy and sluggish when in motion, may be quoted in thousands of seconds, and are said to have a high viscosity. Viscosity Index. Viscosity Index is a numerical reference scale, which indicates reaction of a particular oil to heat, A Petroleum product with a low Viscosity Index Number can be expected to be thick and sluggish at low temperatures, but quite the reverse when heated. Similarly, an oil which does not change but retains relatively the same viscosity, is said to have a high Viscosity Index Number. Colour. Oils which have no colour specification can be loaded into tanks which would not be suitable for other types of oil. Similarly, white spirit cannot be loaded through a line which has served for the transfer of a dirty product. These are but two of the more obvious situations where colour plays an important part in the handling of different types of oil. For finer shades of difference, laboratory apparatus is needed. Some types of apparatus use colour shade glasses for comparison. A special receptacle being used for the oil, so that the colour is in Proportion to a given depth or volume of oil. With petroleum products such as fuel oil, colour has no major significance, but in the case of oils Such as Kerosene, white spirit, and a large number of lubricant oils, it is a matter of major importance. There are some nine colour scales in use universally. The better known are the U.S. National Petroleum Associations Colour Reference, which uses an alphabetical scale in association with common descriptive terms, such as—Water White (B); Orange Pale (O); Dark Red (R). Saybolts Colour Chronometer uses a numerical reference with +30 or —30, above or below a base, corresponding approximately to Standard White on the previous scale. Milipour, This is a colour reference used to check the quality of turbo-jet fuels. It is measured on a numerical scale of 1-10. Milipour tests are undertaken in a Laboratory, and indicate how adversely the jet fuel has been affected by impurities such as rust, salt, other petroleum products, and bacteria,