NAVIGATION IN POLAR REGIONS AND IN VICINITY OF ICE The following are sources through which the Master or OOW can know about ice. Mariner's Handbook Ocean Passages for the World ALRS Sailing Directions loe charts Routeing Charts Met Office (Bracknell - Fax) Ocean Routeing (Met Route) Weather and Ice reports NAVTEX ice reports International Ice Patrol US Coastguard - US Navy Ooean Office - Canadian Ice Reconnaissance Aircraft Facsimile Service - Baltic Ice Service Port Authorities — Pilots - Pilotage Authorities Ocean weather ships + Ships coming from the area MASTER'S DUTIES SOLAS 74 requires the master of every ship, when ice is reported on or near his track, to proceed at a moderate speed at night or to alter course to pass well clear of the danger area. Reports On meeting dangerous ice: © Type of ice + Position of the ice * UT and date of observation On encountering air temperatures below freezing associated with gale force winds causing ‘severe ice accumulation on ships: + Airand sea temperatures © Force and direction of wind + Position of the ship © UT and date of observation NAVIGATING NEAR ICE OR WHEN ICE IS SUSPECTED IN THE VICINITY Avoid areas with ice, if possible Steer towards warmer conditions Proceed well clear of areas where ice has been reported Proceed at a reduced speed to minimise the effects of any impact with ice In poor visibility or at night, when radar cannot detect ice, stop the vessel v7 © Blackpool and The Fyide College Flectwood Nautical CampusREADINESS OF VESSEL ‘The following should be kept ready and checked as functional and available before and during operations. |ce classification Reliable main engine and steering gear Reliable navigational and communication equipment Radar operational and capable of peak performance Ballasted and trimmed to have propeller fully immersed in water Trim should not be excessive as it reduces manoeuvrability Ballast and fresh water tanks should not be more than 90% full Good search lights International Code of Signals and communication procedures Fenders Towlines Defrosters on bridge windows Accommodation heating Anti skid salt or grt Personnel protective gear Navigational publications for ice regions and latest reports SIGNS OF ICEBERGS Complete reliance should not be placed on radar or any other signs, as there are no infallible signs of the proximity of an iceberg. However, the following may be indicators: «Absence of waves in a fresh breeze — iceberg to windward, if far from land * Thunderous (distant gun fire) sound when icebergs calve, ice cracks or ice falls into the sea = Presence of growlers or smaller pieces of brash ice, probably to windward «Sound of seas breaking far from land Unreliable signs ‘© Changes in air or sea temperature cold iceberg current ‘* Echoes of whistle or siren — shape of iceberg «Sonar — unreliable due to refraction near boundary of a current Visibility — in fog ‘© With sun shining - appears as luminous white mass Visibility ~ at night Clear night, no moon — at 1 or 2 miles as black or white objects © With moonlight — easy to see, if moon is behind the observer * Cloudy sky, intermittent moonlight — difficult to see Cumulus or Cb clouds can create false impressions of icebergs at night 718 © Blackpool and The Fylde College Fleetwood Nautical CampusSIGNS OF DRIFT ICE Ice Blink ‘© Whitish, yellowish haze over ice, during clear daylight «Days with overcast or low clouds, whitish glare «In fog —white patches ‘Smoothing of Sea ‘= Abrupt smoothing of sea and gradual lessening of ordinary swell ~ ice to windward «Isolated fragments of ice © Thick band of fog over the edge of drift ice * Arctic — walruses, seals and birds © Antarctic — Antarctic Petre! and Snow Petrel © +1°C, away from cold current, ice edge 150 miles off, or 100 miles if wind blowing off the foe + -0.5°C, ice assumed no more than 50 miles SIGNS OF OPEN WATER + Distinguished dark streaks on the underside of the cloud (water sky) ~ direction of leads or open water © Dark band on cloud at a high altitude — small patches of open water, which may connect with a larger distant area of open water ‘If low on horizon — water sky indicates presence of open water up to 40 Visible horizon Dark spots in fog, only at shorter distances Sound of surge in ice «Noticeable increase in swell — open ice conditions within 30 miles of the swell les of ABNORMAL REFRACTION ‘Super-refraction raises the horizon Image of ice or open water may be seen as inverted image Both images may be seen at once — one above the other ~ erect being higher one Mirage — increases apparent dimensions Areas of open water dark relative to ice Tie © Blackpool and The Fyide College Flestwood Nautical CampusRADAR DETECTION It has limitations Must be on full operational efficiency ‘Absence from display does not mean non-existence of ice Echo depends upon inclination of reflecting surface, its size and range In calm sea, all sorts should be detected Clutter will suppress small ice fragments Concentrated hummocked ice can be detected at 3 miles Ridges show clearly ‘Shadow areas behind ridges can be mistaken for open water Large floes in midst of brash ice will show on radar Lead through static ice will not show unless 0.25 miles wide ‘Areas of open water and smooth floes look very similar In ice field edge of smooth foe is prominent and not of open water Snow sleet and rain-storms will impair detection USE OF MERIDIANS AND PARALLEL ‘+ Meridians converge at the poles * Perimeter of Parallels reduces considerably © Excessive longitudinal curvature renders meridians and parallels impracticable for use as navigational references CONCEPT OF TIME © Astime zones meet at the poles, local time has litle significance «The normal phenomena of day and night are not noticed CELESTIAL NAVIGATION AND SIGHTS Celestial observations cannot be relied upon False horizons on ice can be observed frequently Results of sights are usually good, abnormal conditions should be looked into, ¢.g., sub or super refraction Sun rises once in 6 months at poles Sun sets once in 6 months at poles Sun's maximum altitude will be 23° 27" at poles Moon rises once a month at poles Planets rise once each sidereal year at poles Stars with declination of more than 23° 27’ in the opposite hemisphere will never rise at poles All bodies have an upper and lower meridian transit (Passage) ‘= During daylight, the Sun could be the only body visible and clouds usually hide it for much of the navigational season ‘+ Transferred position lines will give a fix, with questionable accuracy, due to DR inaccuracies 120 © Blackpool and The Fylde Colege Fleetwood Nautical CampusBest fix is from stars Star observations may not be possible with sun just below the horizon, during daylight or when there is total darkness (prolonged nights) Observations at low altitudes may have to be made (10° may be the best altitude) In abnormal conditions, apply corrections individually, instead of total correction, as refraction variations of up to 2° or more are known (extreme being 5°) Use Nautical Almanac for refraction correction in case of low temperatures At low altitudes, body and horizon will both be affected by refraction, hence error will be minimised if true horizon is used Accurate dead reckoning is the key to satisfactory positions by transferred position lines Back angle sights can be considered in vicinity of ice shelves If horizon is covered with ice, subtract height of ice over horizon from height of eye (maximum error being 4°) Bubble sextant or sextant with artificial horizon give better results USE OF CHARTS, LANDMARKS AND TOPOGRAPHY ‘Most, if not all, regions are covered by gnomonic charts Geographical positions of features may be unreliable Errors in geographical positions of features will become considerable as the distanoes increase Soundings, topography and navigational information are sparse in most polar- regions Charis are based largely on aerial photography Only a few places, such as bases, have been surveyed using modern methods Bearings (visual or radar) have to be treated as great circle, unless using nearby objects If bearings are to be applied on Mercator charts, half-convergency should be applied A natural landmark’s appearance changes significantly with ice or snow cover ‘When using snow covered headlands for clearing bearings, errors are likely Headlands where icebergs have grounded will also be longer and greatly extended than the actual headland Pack ie limit may be mistaken for coastline Many inlets and points bear a marked resemblance LIGHTHOUSES AND BEACONS During daylight, their detection or identification can become difficult, as snow or ice hides the identification features or the entire structure in extreme cases At night, the range of visibility of lights may be impaired, due to ice or snow on or around the lens USE OF FLOATING NAVIGATIONAL AIDS © Blackpool and The Fylde College Floating aids are liable to be set adrift by force of ice, or simply drag their moorings Buoys or light vessels should not normally be used for navigation in ice regions, unless their position has been confirmed using other means They may be hidden under ice or snow Mariner should be cautious in their use even after confirming their position when ice is effecting the floating aids Tat Fleetwood Nautical CampusSECTORED LIGHTS * Frost or ice on the lens of sectored lights is liable to change the visibility sectors of lights significantly © Under such circumstances, mariner should confirm position of vessel using other means * The sectors may be unreliable, but if the lighthouse or beacon is correctly identified, it can still be used for taking bearings — such bearings should be used with extreme caution DEAD RECKONING * Careful reckoning of course and speed along with time should always be kept, to maintain a large-scale plot of ship's track Lack of information on tides and current makes EPs less reliable Determining speed relative to ice Is key to accurate reckoning Icebergs can be regarded as stationary for DR purposes Every opportunity to fix the ship's position should be used Systems like GPS, etc have much reduced the need for DR, but it should still be maintained USE OF COMPASSES * Alor near the geographical poles, a gyrocompass becomes unreliable due to loss of directive force + At the magnetic poles, a magnetic compass becomes useless as it loses all its directive force Gyro is generally reliable up to 70° latitude Regular errors should be checked using azimuths. In extreme latitudes, more frequent checks should be made * Impact with ice and frequent changes of course and speed introduce errors that are slow to settle * Frequent comparisons of gyro and magnetic compass should be made and logged when azimuths are taken ELECTRONIC AND RADIO AIDS * GPS provides global coverage and can be relied upon, after making allowance for errors © Other position fixing systems can be relied upon where available, after making allowance for errors * Radar at peak performance is most advantageous SOUNDERS * Tobe used continuously for signs of shoal water * Where proper surveys are done, depth obtained can be used as an indication of Position or drift of ice + Trace may be lost due to ice under the ship or hull noises * Ship may have to be slowed down or stopped to obtain sounding 12 © Blackpool and The Fylde College Fleetwood Nautical CampusOPERATING IN ICE “MAINTAIN FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT” Basic rules: © Keep moving, even if very slowly © Try to work with ice movement and not against it © Excessive speed leads to damage FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE ENTERING ICE Don't enter ice if an alternate route is available Must consider © Type of ice Time of year, weather and temperature Area of operation Availability of icebreakers Ice classification of ship State of hull, machinery, steering gear, bunkers and stores Manoeuvrability of vessel Draught and depth of water over propeller tips and the rudder Ice experience of person in charge on the bridge Reports on ice, open water and leads ‘SHIP HANDLING IN OR NEAR ICE ENTERING © Enter during daylight hours only Entry or navigation at night, or in reduced visibility, should be avoided. If forced to proceed, good searchlights are essential * Never attempt entry where pressure is evident * Enter from leeward (less compact and less wave action) * Surge will be least by entering at one of the bights + Enter at very slow speed * Enter at right angles PROCEEDING + Engine must be ready for immediate manoeuvres * Once into ice, increase speed to maintain headway and control * Go round large floes and avoid attempting to break them © Ifrequired to hit a floe, hit square by the stem + Avoid glancing blows as it will sheer the bow off course and a blow with another floe or at the stern is possible Use leads through ice * Icebergs in an ice field may not follow the movement of ice field as they are current driven and ice field is wind driven * Force of impact varies with square of the speed 728 © Blackpool and The Fylde College Flestwood Nautical Campus leg Pi«Ship proceeding very slowly is likely to be beset Ship proceeding very fast risks damage Engine should be slowed down if passing through ‘small patch of open water, or ship will pick up speed «Rudder should be amidships when going astern When going astern, if ship is stopped by ice, leave rudder amidships, with engine slowly turing ahead — it will gradually wash ice clear «Immediately reduce to DS Ahead, itice goes under ship «Violent rudder moverents should be used in emergency only and hard over movements can be used to slow down ship « Bassage may be forced through ice by banging into 7 Ensure engine is going astern cafe vessel stops, of going ahead before she hits anything astern ANCHORING «Avoid anchoring in heavy concentration of ice cesemditions permit anchoring, engine and windlass should Pe on immediate notice © Weigh anchor if wind may move ies on to ship BESET if ship is stuok in ice, the hull ean get crushed 2 ship beset in ice is at the meroy of jee movement Fann eter assistance should be requested immediately — iobroaker will clear the ship by clearing ice from her sides and her intended course ‘and sometimes right around the beset ship «Going full ahead, then full astern and using maximum rudder one way then another can free up ship IAs ship begins to move ahead, rudder should be amidships Ships can be freed by changing trim and heel, by internal transfers ‘Anehors can be laid towards each beam on ice, to move ship anchor an algo be placed on ice aster and with engine going astern, ship can move astern «Engine should be kept turning slowly, to Keep propeller clear rs © Blackpool and The Fylde College Fleetwood Nautical CampWORKING WITH ICE BREAKERS ‘The master of the icebreaker directs any escorting operation. Icebreakers make use of aerial reconnaissance. Escorted vessels should: thi Establish position of commencement of escorting service ‘Amend ETA if required Maintain continuous radio watch Follow the route ordered Proceed at the speed ordered Always follow path cleared by icebreaker Have towing gear rigged at all times OW to be thoroughly familiar with signals for icebreaker assistance in ICS ‘Acknowledge and execute icebreaker signals promptly If icebreaker stops in an emergency, escorted ship should stop immediately, either by going astern on engine or ramming into ice breaker is proceeding rapidly, the channel will be wider than its beam, and fragments of. ice will be left in the channel, which can slow down a following ship or even block the channel The master of the icebreaker decides on the minimum and maximum distances from the icebreaker (minimum distance is the stopping distance and maximum is dependent upon ice conditions to allow the channel to remain open). The distance may have to be reduced to a few meters if the channel is likely to close Icebreaker can decide to tow as well Icebreaker decides on the engine speed of towed vessel Icebreaker can tow at short or long stay, mainly dependent on towed vessel Icebreaker connects towline well forward on her deck WORKING IN CONVOYS Master of icebreaker will order the sequence and distance between ships Distance should be maintained If speed is reduced ship astern must be informed immediately Ship ahead and astem as well as ice must be carefully watched Light and sound signals must be repeated promptly, by ships in the column in turn ICE ACCRETION Forecast is difficult Ship may be in the area of ice accretion by the time warnings are received Steer towards warmer conditions, or seek shelter Head into wind at minimum speed to reduce spray If weather does not allow to head into wind, run before the wind at minimum speed to maintain steerage Ensure adequate stability Clear ice accretion as soon as possible 725 © Blackpool and The Fylde College Fleetwood Nautical Campus