Create a data list in order to be able to Sort and to

Filter in Microsoft Excel 2010

Respect the principles to display your data

Display a list of data

Guidelines to create Data Base in Excel:

Use only one list per sheet
Avoid empty columns and empty rows inside the list
Display one type of data per column
Keep distance between data list from other items
Put the other information above or below the data list in order to avoid hiding
the filtered data
Make sure that all columns and rows are shown

Sorting

Sort a column
Click on the column
On Home tab
Click Sort & Filter command
Choose Sort A to Z Or Sort Z to A
Sort multiple columns
Click on any cell in the data list
Click Sort & Filter command
Click Custom Sort
Next to Sort by

Open the drop down list to choose the field

Below Sort On, keep Values
Below Order, keep A to Z
Click Add Level
Do the same like above
Its possible to get lot of levels
Click OK
Filtering

Activate the auto Filter

On Home tab
Click Sort & Filter command
Click Filter command
Filter for unique values
Make sure the Filter is activated
Open the filter triangle next to the field
Remove the check mark next to (Select All)
Then, check mark the value(s) you want displayed
Recognize where the filtered fields are

Observe the specific symbol on the right side of the fields

Clear Filter
Open the filtered field
Click Clear Filter From Name of Field

Custom filter with numeric data

Make sure the Filter is activated
Open the filter triangle next to the field
Open Number Filters list
For example:
Choose Greater Than Or Equal To
Enter the number
Click OK
Custom filter with text
Make sure the Filter is activated
Open the filter triangle next to the field
Open Text Filters list
For example:
Choose Begins With
Enter the text

Click OK
Custom filter with date
Make sure the Filter is activated
Open the filter triangle next to the field
Open Date Filters list
For example:
Choose This Year
Click OK
Show all data
Open the filter triangle
Click Clear Filter

Excel 2007:

Working with Basic Functions

Introduction

A function is a predefined formula that performs calculations using

specific values in a particular order. While you may think of formulas as
being short mathematical equations, like 2+2 or F2*C2, they can actually
be very lengthy and involve complex mathematical calculations.

One of the key benefits of functions is that they can save you time
because you do not have to write the formula yourself. For example, you
could use an Excel function called Average to quickly find the average of
a range of numbers or the Sum function to find the sum of a cell range.

In this lesson, you will learn how to use basic functions such as SUM
and AVERAGE, use functions with more than one argument, and access
other Excel 2007 functions.

Basic functions
Watch the video! (11:34 min)

Download the example to work along with the video.

The parts of a function:

Each function has a specific order, called syntax, which must be strictly
followed for the function to work correctly.

Syntax order:

1. All functions begin with the = sign.

 2. After the = sign, define the function name (e.g., Sum).
3. Then there will be an argument. An argument is the cell
range or cell references that are enclosed by parentheses.
If there is more than one argument, separate each by a
comma.

An example of a function with one argument that adds a range of cells,

A3 through A9:

An example of a function with more than one argument that calculates

the sum of two cell ranges:

Excel literally has hundreds of different functions to assist with your

calculations. Building formulas can be difficult and time consuming.
Excel's functions can save you a lot of time and headaches.

Excel's different functions

There are many different functions in Excel 2007. Some of the more
common functions include:

Statistical functions:
SUM: Adds a range of cells together
AVERAGE: Calculates the average of a range of cells
COUNT: Counts the number of chosen data in a range of
cells
MAX: Identifies the largest number in a range of cells
MIN: Identifies the smallest number in a range of cells
Financial functions:
Interest rates
Loan payments
Depreciation amounts

Date and time functions:

DATE: Converts a serial number to a day of the month
Day of Week
DAYS360: Calculates the number of days between two
dates based on a 360-day year
TIME: Returns the serial number of a particular time
HOUR: Converts a serial number to an hour
MINUTE: Converts a serial number to a minute
TODAY: Returns the serial number of today's date
MONTH: Converts a serial number to a month
YEAR: Converts a serial number to a year

You don't have to memorize the functions, but you should have an
idea of what each can do for you.

To calculate the sum of a range of data using AutoSum:

Select the Formulas tab.
Locate the Function Library group. From here, you can
access all available functions.
Select the cell where you want the function to appear. In
this example, select G42.
Select the drop-down arrow next to
the AutoSum command.
Select Sum. A formula will appear in the selected cell,
G42.
o This formula, =SUM(G2:G41), is called a function.
The AutoSum command automatically selects the
range of cells from G2 to G41, based on where you
 inserted the function. You can alter the cell range if
necessary.

Press the Enter key or Enter button on the formula bar.

The total will appear.

Excel will not always tell you if your formula contains an error, so it's
up to you to check all of your formulas. To learn how to do this, read
the Double-Check Your Formulas lesson from our Excel
Formulas tutorial.

To edit a function:
Select the cell where the function is defined.
Insert the cursor in the formula bar.
Edit the range by deleting and changing necessary cell
numbers.
 Click the Enter icon.

To calculate the sum of two arguments:

Select the cell where you want the function to appearin
this example, G44.
Click the Insert Function command on the Formulas tab.
A dialog box appears.
SUM is selected by default.
 Click OK, and the Function Arguments dialog box appears
so you can enter the range of cells for the function.
Insert the cursor in the Number 1 field.
In the spreadsheet, select the first range of cellsin this
example, G21 through G26. The argument appears in the
Number 1 field.
o To select the cells, left-click cell G21 and drag the
cursor to G26, then release the mouse button.
Insert the cursor in the Number 2 field.
 In the spreadsheet, select the second range of cellsin
this example, G40 through G41. The argument appears in
the Number 2 field.
Notice that both arguments appear in the function in cell
G44 and the formula bar when G44 is selected.

Click OK in the dialog box, and the sum of the two

ranges is calculated.

To calculate the average of a range of data:

Select the cell where you want the function to appear.
Click the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum
command.
Select Average.
Click on the first cell (in this example, C8) to be included
in the formula.
Left-click and drag the mouse to define a cell range (C8
through cell C20, in this example).
Click the Enter icon to calculate the average.

Accessing Excel 2007 functions

To access other functions in Excel:

Using the point-click-drag method, select a cell range to
be included in the formula.
 On the Formulas tab, click the drop-down part of
the AutoSum button.
If you don't see the function you want to use (Sum,
Average, Count, Max, Min), display additional functions by
selecting More Functions.
The Insert Function dialog box opens.
There are three ways to locate a function in the Insert
Function dialog box:
o You can type a question in the Search for a function
box and click GO.
o You can scroll through the alphabetical list of
functions in the Select a function field.
o You can select a function category in the Select a
category drop-down list and review the corresponding
function names in the Select a function field.

Select the function you want to use, then click

the OK button.

If you're comfortable with basic functions, you may want to try a more
advanced one like VLOOKUP. You can check out our article on How
to Use Excel's VLOOKUP Function for more information. If you
want to learn even more about functions, check out our Excel
Formulas tutorial.
Error-Free Worksheets in Excel 2007
In business, spreadsheets are most often used to make financial calculations.
Financial worksheets that contain errors could cause financial embarrassment to
the business, but unfortunately spreadsheets are susceptible to errors simply by
their inherent design information is hidden in formulas where it cannot easily
be seen or checked for accuracy.

While a mistake in a Word document may amount to no more than an

embarrassing typo, a mistake in an Excel worksheet could result in a financial
loss to the business. Because of this, it's critical to understand the problems that
might occur in your Excel worksheets and to take precautions to ensure that
your worksheets are as error free as possible.

Types of Errors

There are four types of errors that you may encounter in your Excel worksheets.
The first of these are syntax errors where you use incorrect syntax for an Excel
formula.

For example, instead of using the calculation XIRR to calculate the compound
annual growth rate of an investment you attempt to type CAGR as the formula
name. Luckily most Excel syntax errors will be picked up by Excel and instead
of performing the calculation, it will display #NAME? in the cell indicating it
doesn't recognize what you're trying to enter. Of all the errors that you make,
syntax errors are generally the easiest to locate if only because Excel will refuse
to proceed further when you create them.

A logic error in a worksheet produces a result but not the result that you would
expect to receive. The error is generally caused by someone writing an incorrect
formula but one that is still valid. Excel calculates the result and displays it, but
the result isn't the intended one.

An example of this is in a financial calculation in which you are calculating the

periodic payments on a loan where interest and principle are calculated monthly.
In this situation the interest rate should be divided by 12 to reduce it to a
periodic rate, but if you don't do this, instead of 0.5% you'll be using 6% as the
interest rate.

The calculation will still be made but the result won't be what you expect or
seek. Logic errors can be difficult to recognize and locate, particularly when
they do not result in an obviously incorrect result. The closer the formula's
result to what you expect it to be, the less likely it will be that you are aware
that the formula is incorrectly written for your purposes.

The third kind of error is particularly pervasive and often almost impossible to
locate. Runtime errorsoccur only in certain circumstances where a series of
situations are met.

For example, a runtime error will occur when a cell is divided by zero. This may
occur only once in every few hundred (or thousand) calculations when a
specific set of circumstances conspire to return a value of zero, which is then
used as the divisor in a formula. Notwithstanding that this only happens very
occasionally, runtime errors typically cause the program to fail.

The final type of error is user error. This can occur, for example, when a user,
whether accidentally or maliciously makes a change to a worksheet which
makes it produce incorrect results. This can be done by typing over a formula in
a worksheet with a fixed value with the result that the formula no longer
calculates and the worksheet produces incorrect results either now or when used
again in the future.

A user error may also occur when a user enters an incorrect value into a cell
even though the worksheet will still calculate a result, the incorrect value
ensures that the result itself is not correct. Excel provides some handy tools you
can use to help prevent user errors from occurring.

Accept the Problem

All that said, the primary tool that you have for avoiding errors in your Excel
worksheets exists between your ears. It is the knowledge and understanding that
Excel worksheets are prone to error that will help you create more accurate
worksheets.

It's important to develop a healthy distrust of worksheets to the extent that you
check things carefully and design worksheets so that they can be easily
understood and so that problems can be easily identified and fixed.

If you are interested in learning more about spreadsheet errors that have been
encountered in the past and in reading horror stories that surround this topic,
visit the website of Ray Panko from the University of Hawaii. Panko has been
researching spreadsheet errors for over ten years and he has some very
interesting research that reinforces the need to be particularly careful when
designing spreadsheets and relying on the data that they produce.

Use Data Areas

One method of designing better worksheets is to extract variable values and

constants from the formulas and place them in a separate area on the worksheet.
You then refer to these cells in your formulas.

For example, if you have an interest rate of 6%, instead of burying it inside a
formula as a hardwired figure, place the 6% in a separate data area and label the
cell Interest Rate. Then, whenever you use the interest rate in a formula, do so
using a reference to the cell containing that value.

Doing this not only makes it easy to locate cells that rely on this value by
clicking the cell and choosing the Trace Dependents option, it also makes it easy
to change the value of the interest rate if, for example, the interest rate that you
are paying changes. Instead of having to locate every formula in the worksheet
that uses the 6% value and change them, all you need do is to change one cell.

Protect Your Formulas

Protecting your formulas and values is a way to avoid some user errors. Once
your worksheet has been created and is ready for use, select and unlock each
cell that contains data that the user should be able to change by default all
cells are locked when a worksheet is protected so you must unlock those that a
user may alter.

To do this, select the cells that can be altered and choose Format from the Home
tab in Excel 2007 and next choose Lock Cell. It's not easy to see, but the option
is enabled by default and when you select it, you're disabling it. For earlier
versions of Excel, select the cells, choose Format, Cells, the Protection tab, and
then disable the Locked checkbox.

Once this is done, protect the worksheet by selecting the Home tab and choose
Format, Protect sheet in Excel 2007, or Tools, Protection, Protect Sheet in
earlier versions. From the Protect Sheet dialog type a password if desired (you
don't have to use one), set any of the settings you particularly want to enable or
disable and click OK.
Once this is done, if a user attempts to make a change to a cell which is locked
and which contains, for example, a formula, they will be prevented from doing
so. Use this feature to protect formulas and constants that should not be able to
be altered by users.

Ensure Valid Data

The Excel Data Validation tool is another way to prevent a user from entering
invalid data. This lets you specify what data can and cannot be entered into a
cell so you can trap user errors before they occur.

To set up a data validation rule for an Excel range, select the cells that should
contain a certain type of data or data within a specific range. In Excel 2007
choose the Data tab and then Data Validation, and in earlier versions, choose
Data, Validation.

When the Data Validation dialog appears, click the Settings tab, and as an
example, to limit data to a range such as between 18 and 70, from the Allow
dropdown list select Whole Number, from the Data list select Between, and then
type 18 as the Minimum value and 70 as the Maximum. Click the Input
Message tab and configure a message that will appear as a tool tip for your user
and that describes the data they should enter into the cell.

Click the Error Alert tab and select a type of error that will be displayed to the
user if incorrect data is entered. The Style you use whether it be Stop,
Warning, or Information will determine the result for the user.

To prevent the user from entering data that isn't within the specified range use
the Stop style and the user will be presented with the options: Retry or Cancel
and they will be unable to enter invalid data into the cells. To warn the user that
they are about to enter incorrect data but allow them to still do this, use the
Warning or Information styles as these warn but still allow invalid data to be
entered. Click OK and you are done.

Configuring data validation rules for cells where it is possible to describe the
type of data that is allowed to be entered lets you test the data entered by the
user and, if desired, prevent invalid entries.

Excel Error Checking

When you are creating a complex worksheet you can have Excel monitor the
worksheet to ensure that the formulae, for example, look correct. Excel has a
series of built-in error checking routines that you can enable or disable as
desired. To see what is available in Excel 2007, click the Microsoft Office
button and choose Excel Options > Formulas, and in earlier versions choose
Tools > Options >Error Checking tab.

In the Error Checking Rules area you can select one or more of nine individual
error-checking options that Excel will check for you. If it locates a problem
Excel displays a small green indicator in the top left of the cell indicating this
cell has a problem worth checking.

For example, if you select the Formulas inconsistent with other formulas in the
region option it will trap a cell in a series of cells, all of which include the same
formulas if that cell is different to the rest.

So where you have created a series of SUM formulas by hand and misjudged
one of the sets of values you are summing, this error will be identified. Of
course, when you create a series of SUM formulas across a row or down a
column, they should be created by copying where possible to minimize the
chance of errors.

Find Problem Cells

Excel provides some other features that help you locate errors. So, for example,
if you suspect that a user has hardwired a value into a worksheet and replaced a
formula with a number, you can locate the problem by selecting an area that you
think should contain formulas and click the Home tab, choose Find & Select >
Go To Special, and click Formulas (in earlier versions, choose Edit > Go To >
Special > Formulas). Excel highlights all the cells containing formulas so you
can check to see if any that should be highlighted are not these likely contain
hardwired values.

Excel also includes some auditing tools that you can use to check cells. In Excel
2007 click the Formulas tab and use the Trace Precedents and Trace Dependants
options to view cells that either provide data to the current cell or cells that get
their data from the current cell.

Click once on either button to show the first level Precedents or Dependants as a
series of blue arrows. Click again to show another level of
precedents/dependants. When you are done, click the Remove Arrows option to
remove the arrows from the worksheet. In earlier versions of Excel these tools
are located on the Formula Auditing toolbar choose View, Toolbars, Formula
Auditing to display it.

Another handy option on Excel 2007's Formulas tab is the Show

Formulas button. Click it once to show formulas on the worksheet and click it
again to hide the formulas.
Displaying and hiding formulas can help you locate where a formula is missing
or a place where a formula does not follow the pattern of other formulas around
it. In earlier versions of Excel this feature is accessed using Tools, Options,
View tab and select or deselect the Formulas checkbox.

Test Your Work

As you develop your worksheets, check the values that the worksheet returns
against what you expect the result to be. In some circumstances you will be able
to use data that you have created previously to compare with the Excel provided
results.

In other cases you may have to perform the same calculation manually or using
another program to check that the Excel value is correct. It is vital that you
check your worksheet formula results thoroughly before distributing the
worksheet.

Whether you are designing worksheets for others to use or worksheets for your
own use, ensuring the accuracy of the data in it is critical. However attractively
formatted your worksheet is, it's of little value if the results it returns are
incorrect.

What is the difference between relative and absolute references?

You already know how to refer to a cell by its row-and-column position,

such as A1 or E27. Written like that, these are called relative references.

When a formula is copied from one cell to another, any relative references
contained in it are adjusted to bear the same relationship to the new
formula location as they did to the old. For example, if cell C8 contains the
formula =SUM(C1:C7) and you copy from cell C8 to D8, cell D8 will get the
formula =SUM(D1:D7). If you copy the same formula to E67, it will become
=SUM(E60:E66).

An absolute reference, on the other hand, is copied verbatim. The formula

=SUM($C$1:$C$7) in C8 remains =SUM($C$1:$C$7) when copied to E67
(Or anywhere else).

The $ in before the column letter indicates an absolute, or fixed, reference

to that column, and the $ before the row number is an absolute row
reference.
References may also be mixed, such as $C8 (fixed column, relative row) or
C$8 (relative column, fixed row).

Read on for an example of a spreadsheet that uses both reference types....

When do you use absolute references?

You'll want to use an absolute reference whenever you're referring

to one of those "reference values" we talked about earlier values
that are unique within the spreadsheet but may be used by
formulas in many different places in the spreadsheet.
For example:

Here is a simple spreadsheet showing the effect of varying loan terms on a

$12,000 loan with an interest rate of 8.25%. This spreadsheet contains
three distinct kinds of information:

Loan Amount and Annual Interest Rate are single, reference values.

Term in years is a row of several alternate values. We're asking: "What

happens if I pay back this loan over a ten-year term? A fifteen-year term?
Thirty years?" Below each possible term we're building a related column of
computed information.

Monthly Payment and Total Interest Paid are computed values, based on
the reference values and on one of the possible loan terms.

Let's look at the formulas used in these computations.

First, look at the formula in cell F34. We're using the PMT function to
compute the monthly payment for the loan with a ten-year term.

Note that $F$29 is an absolute reference, because Loan Amount is always

in cell F29. The same is true for Interest Rate in cell F30. Now notice that
F$32 refers to the row absolutely, but to the column relatively. This is
because Term in Years is always in row 32, but its various values (10, 15,
30) use multiple columns.

Having written our payment computation this way, we can now Copy or Fill
this formula into the cells to the right: G34 and H34. When copied, the
absolute references continue to point to the unchanging values and the
F$32 becomes G$32 and H$32 to use the appropriate loan term value for
each column.

The Total Interest Paid computation in F35 makes relative reference to cells
F34 and F32. (F$34 and F$32 would be somewhat more proper, but since
we'll only be copying the formula to the right not right and down it isn't
crucial that the row references be absolute.) Just as we did with the
Monthly Payment formula, we can Copy or Fill our Total Interest Paid
formula to the right and each copy will adjust itself to refer to the correct
data.

Why is it important to know how to use both relative and absolute

references?

1. If you set up your formulas' cell references correctly, they will

continue to function correctly even if you later add, delete, or move
rows and columns in the process of building your spreadsheet.

2. If you set them up correctly, you can replicate formulas anywhere in

the spreadsheet, using Copy/Paste or Fill, and they will behave as
you intend them to.
Explain different types of
storage devices
Storage Devices

Storage devices are used to store data and instructions permanently. Storage
devices are also called secondary storage devices / backing storage devices /
external storage devices or auxiliary storage devices. Examples of storage
devices include Hard Disk, CD and DVD etc.

Why Secondary Storage Devices are Used?

Secondary storage devices are used because:

1. Primary memory(RAM) is volatile and temporary. When computer is

switched off, all data in ram is erased.
2. Storage devices can store large amounts of data and instructions
permanently whereas Primary memory has less capacity of storing data.
Types Of Storage Devices

There are three main types of storage devices:

1. Magnetic Tape 2. Magnetic Disk 3. Optical Disk

1. Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is the oldest storage device. It is made of plastic coated with
magnetic material. Data is stored on magnetic tape in the form of magnetic
spots. Tape drive is used to read and write data on tape. Magnetic disk is
sequential access device. It is slower device than magnetic disk or optical disk.
Magnetic tapes are used in reels of different lengths, for example 200, 600, 1200
feet etc.

2. Magnetic Disk
A magnetic disk is a thin circular metal or plastic disk coated with magnetic
material. Data is stored in the form of magnetic spots. Magnetic disk is random
access device. It is faster than magnetic tape. There are three main types of
magnetic disk:
a. Hard Disk b. Floppy Disk c. Zip Disk

a. Hard Disk

The hard disk is also called fixed disk. It consists of one or more metal plates.
The plates are fixed in the drive. Metal plates are coated with magnetic material
to store data. A motor rotates disks. There is also an access arm and read / write
heads to read and write data on disks.
Following are major characteristics of hard disk:
- The storage capacity of hard disk is much greater than floppy disk.
- Now a days hard disks of size 40 GB, 80 GB or more are available.
- Hard disk is covered in a hard jacket and there are less chances of disk damage
due to dust and mishandling.
- Now days Operating system and application programs are installed on hard
disk.
- Before using a magnetic disk we use operating system to format the disk.
Operating system divides the disk into circles called tracks. Each track is divided
into pie-shaped areas called sectors. Data is stored in sectors. Each sector can
store 512 bytes.

b. Floppy Disk
Floppy disk is a small plastic plate coated with magnetic material. Data is stored
in magnetic spots. Main advantage of floppy disk is that it is used to transfer
data from one computer to another. Floppy disk drive is used to read and write
data on floppy disk.
Floppy disk is available in two sizes:
3 INCH Floppy Disk
It is also called micro floppy disk. Its diameter is 3 inch. It is covered in a hard
plastic cover. Read/Write window is covered with a metal shutter. When disk is
inserted into disk drive then shutter is automatically opened. It can be write
protected by a notch. Storage capacity of micro floppy is 1.44 MB.
5 Inch floppy disk.
It is a 5 inch diameter plastic plate coated with magnetic material. Its storage
capacity is 1.2 MB. It is not used in modern computers.

c. Zip Disk

Zip disk is similar to 3 inch floppy disk. But it can store 100 MB or more data.
Zip disk drive is used to read and write data on a zip disk.

3. Optical Disk

LASER technology is used to read and write data on Optical disk. LASER stands
for Light Amplification through Emission of Radiation. Laser beam writes on the
surface of optical disk by creating very small holes. The presence of hole
represents a One and absence of the hole represents a Zero. There are following
main types of optical disk.
1.CD-ROM, 2. CD-R or WORM, 3. CD-RW
4.DVD-ROM, 5. DVD-R, 6. DVD-RW

1. CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. The data stored on Cd-
Rom can only be read. It cannot be deleted or changed. It is a portable storage
device. Data can be easily transferred by CD Rom from one computer to
another. Commonly it can store 650 MB / 700 MB/ 750 MB data. It is used to
store large amounts of data like Software or audio/video data.We purchase
Software, movies, dramas, lectures, books, wallpapers and other data on Cd-
Rom. There are many Advantages of Compact Disk.

2. CD-R (CD Recordable) Or WORM (Write Once Read Many)

CD-R stands for Compact Disk -Recordable. Initially, it is a blank disk. User can
store data on it only once. This is why it is also called WORM(Write Once Read
Many) disk too. Because we can write data on it only once and later we can read
many times. The devices to store data on CD-R are called CD Writers or CD
Burners. We can write data on CD-R only once, but can read data many times.
Because of this write once read many quality, CD-R is often known as
WORM(write once read many).

3. CD-RW ( CD Rewritable )
CD-RW stands for Compact Disk Rewritable. This is a special type of CD. User can
write data on it, if there is an error in writing data, he may erase the contents
and rewrite again. CD-Writers are used to store data on CD-RW.

4. DVD - Digital Video Disk (DVD-ROM)

DVD stands for Digital Video Disk. A laser beam with a short wave length is used
to create very very small holes on the surface of disk. So there are much more
tiny holes on the surface of DVD as compared to that of CD. Therefore, storage
capacity of DVD is much larger than CD. It can store up to 17 GB or more data.
DVD-ROM is pre recorded and it can contain data like movies, videos and
software etc. User cannot change or delete data from DVD-ROM. It is read only.
There are several Benefits of using Digital Video Disk or DVD.

5. DVD-R (DVD-Recordable)

DVD-R stands for Digital Video Disk Recordable. Initially it is a blank disk. User
can store data on disk only once. Then it becomes read only. It is normally used
to store high definition video movies. DVD-Writers are used to store data on
DVD-R.

6. DVD-RW ( DVD Rewritable)

DVD-RW stands for Digital Video Disk Rewritable. User can write data on disk
many times by erasing the old data.

operating system - OS

The operating system (OS) is the most important program that runs on a computer. Every
general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs
and applications. Computer operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input
from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories
on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as printers.

For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like
a traffic cop it makes sure that different programs and users running at the same time do
not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring
that unauthorized users do not access the system.
 Image: Operating System Diagram

Classification of Operating systems

Multi-user: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating
systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
Multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
Multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
Multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such
as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.

A Software Platform for Applications

Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs,

called application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top
of a particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a
great extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are
DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as Linux.

Recommended Reading: The History of Windows Operating Systems (Windows OS) from
1985 to present day.

Interacting With the Operating System

As a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. For
example, the DOS operating system contains commands such as COPY and RENAME
for copying files and changing the names of files, respectively. The commands are accepted
and executed by a part of the operating system called the command processor or command
line interpreter. Graphical user interfaces allow you to enter commands by pointing
and clicking at objects that appear on the screen.

Popular Operating Systems

The three most popular types of operating systems for personal and business computing
include Linux, Windows and Mac.

1. Linux Operating Systems

Linux is a freely distributed open source operating system that runs on a number of hardware
platforms. The Linux kernel was developed mainly by Linus Torvalds and it is based on
Unix.

2. Windows Operating Systems

Microsoft Windows is a family of operating systems for personal and business computers.
Windows dominates the personal computer world, offering a graphical user interface (GUI),
virtual memory management, multitasking, and support for many peripheral devices.

3. Mac Operating Systems

Mac OS is the official name of the Apple Macintosh operating system. Mac OS features a
graphical user interface (GUI) that utilizes windows, icons, and all applications that run on a
Macintosh computer have a similar user interface.

Windows 7: 10 Best Features

1. The Taskbar reloaded: Windows 7's version of the Taskbar is less cluttered than
Vista's, and it handles both running and nonrunning apps with equal aplomb.

2. Slicker, quicker Taskbar Previews: Now they show you all of an application's
open windows, all at once.

3. The convenience of Jump Lists: These context-sensitive Taskbar menus let you
start accomplishing things in applications before you even open them.

[ Further reading: Our best Windows 10 tricks, tips and tweaks ]

4. A System Tray you can love: New controls prevent the System Tray from
overflowing with unwanted apps and distracting you with unhelpful, irrelevant
messages.

Windows Media Player 12 in Windows 7 can play back unprotected audio and video files
from Apple's iTunes Store.
 5. A more
media-savvy Windows Media Player: Love Apple's iTunes Store but hate iTunes? New
file-format support enables Windows Media Player 12 to play back unprotected audio
and video from Apple's online store.
6. Alerts via Action Center: Windows 7's version of Vista's Security Center queues
up system messages so that you can respond to them on your schedule--not when
Windows feels like interrupting you.

7. User Account Control that you control: If you're okay with this security feature's
raison d'tre but can't stand the rapid-fire prompts in Vista, take heart: You can tune
Windows 7's versions to make them less paranoid and intrusive.

Windows 7's Libraries feature lets you designate folders with related content for quick access,
regardless of their physical location on your hard drive.
8. Library privileges: You can bundle folders from locations all across your hard drive
into Libraries designed to provide one-click access from the left pane of Windows
Explorer to related files.
9. Reasonable hardware requirements: Historically, new versions of Windows
have gobbled up twice the amount of CPU power and RAM that their predecessors
did. But Windows 7 runs a bit better than Vista on the same system; it's even
tolerable on a netbook.

10. The potential of touch: Windows 7's support for multitouch input doesn't
change anything overnight--but it does lay necessary groundwork for third-party
developers to build their own software. If they build killer touch apps, Windows 7
deserves some of the credit.
WINDOWS
XP BROUGHT OUT
SOME NEW FEATURES
In 2001 when Microsoft introduced Windows XP it caught users' eye. Since
then, it is one of the most extensively used Operating system all over the
world regardless of the release of newer versions of Windows OS. On
account of its countless advantages & easy to use features, users continue
to use Windows XP rather than using its successor Windows Vista or
Windows 7. This post will give you a technical overview of Windows XP,
different editions, and Win XP features and functions.

TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
The "XP" in Windows XP stands for eXPerience. Windows XP was made
by integrating some of the best features of its predecessors such as
security, manageability, reliability of Windows 2000, plug & play, user
friendly graphical user interface of Windows Millennium (ME) that made a
completely new Operating System. The noticeable feature of Windows XP
is that it uses very less computer resources than higher version of Windows
OS.

DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF WINDOWS XP

Windows XP Starter

Windows XP Home

Windows XP Professional
 Windows XP Media Center Edition

Windows XP 64-bit Edition

WHAT'S NEW IN WINDOWS XP BEST

FEATURES
Windows XP Operating system was introduced as an update to Windows
2000. Besides, it replaced Windows 95/98. Microsoft unveiled Windows XP
with new features and benefits over its precursor. Some of the main
features of Windows XP are listed below:

Remote Desktop Windows XP professional OS enables user to use

remote desktop connection feature means they can sit at a PC and access
another PC remotely.

Device Driver Rollback: This new Windows XP feature let users uninstall
installed device driver. If users install device driver that causes system
instability then they can easily roll back the previous driver.

Built-in CD burner When Windows XP arrived, it came up with its own in-
built CD burner feature. Now there is no longer need to install CD burning
software, user can burn files directly via Windows Explorer.

Encrypted file system support muti-user: This feature is for Windows

XP Professional, Encrypted file system make it possible to access
encrypted files and folders by multiple users.

Device support improvement: Windows XP supports USB 2.0, Intel High

Definition Audio based hardware, FireWire, & Windows Image Acquisition
based scanners etc.

WINDOWS XP ISSUES
Despite having a lot of benefits in Windows XP operating system, there are
many issues occur such as data loss, data corruption, OS crashes, BSOD
error, virus infection due to support ended for Windows XP by Microsoft. In
such situation, your system can lose half of its files without letting you
know. If you have lost your valuable files and folders and want to restore
them as soon as possible, then by using a software windows data
recovery users can easily recover deleted, corrupted data from Windows
in easy & simple steps.

Main Features of DOS:

The DOS operating system is the system that takes control over the whole
machine and essentially makes the computer work and perform the programs
we wish to use. The operating system manages both the hardware and the
software that the computer has and allows us to control external devices or use
external devices to control the computer.

The primary feature of DOS is to load data and programs from external sources
and bring them into the internal memory so they can be used on the computer.
DOS also enables the computer to perform input and output operations such as
displaying images on the screen and it also controls other external devices such
as the printer and controls what is send to the printer. It also controls input for
external devices such as the keyboard or mouse or other sources such as a
scanner or external hard drive. The DOS system will also store any data that is
collected during use such as anything that is saved, downloaded, edited and
stored.

MS-DOS also provided familiarity for some users. Its similarity to Digital
Research's CP/M meant that a considerable amount of users knew how to
navigate the operating system, which helped spur adoption, particularly in the
business field. This compatibility also helped developers port programs to MS-
DOS from CP/M operating systems, giving MS-DOS access to a host of
programs.

MS-DOS succeeded largely because of its support for clones of IBM PCs,
which were rapidly becoming popular. The widespread availability of IBM PC
clones helped make it the dominant home PC platform of the 1980s and much
of the 1990s. This popularity helped lay the groundwork for Microsoft's
operating system dominance. While most operating systems at the time
supported computers made by a single manufacturer, MS-DOS worked on
computers from multiple companies.

Early versions of Microsoft Windows ran on top of MS-DOS. Many programs,

especially games, had trouble working with Windows running, but users could
simply exit Windows and load the program from the DOS prompt. This support
helped maintain MS-DOS's popularity until development ceased in 2000.

What is DOS?
DOS is an operating system for personal computers and was one of the first to
be created. DOS stands for Disk Operating System and was first used in the
1960s after it was created by Tim Patterson who worked for Seattle Computer
Products. The system was soon discovered by Microsoft who licensed the
product. DOS is often known as MS-DOS which stands for Microsoft Disk
Operating System. There have been many different versions of MS-DOS that
adapt and evolve as new technologies are developed. MS-DOS has been the
leader in the market since it was licensed but over recent years Apple have
proved to be a major competitor.

What is RAM memory

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called "direct
access memory". Random access means that each individual byte in
entire memory can be access directly. RAM is used to store data and
instructions temporarily. A program must be loaded into RAM before
execution.

RAM is volatile memory. It means that its contents are lost when the
power is turned off. RAM is read/write memory. CPU can read data from
RAM and write data to RAM. It is used to store data and instruction while it
is being executed. RAM is also called main memory or primary storage.

RAM plays very important role in the processing speed of a computer. A

bigger RAM size provides larger amount of space for processing. So the
processing speed is increased. The amount of data that can be stored in
RAM is measured in bytes. Most desktop computers typically have 2 GB to
4 GM of RAM. It also allows the addition of more memory if needed.

See also: Components of a computer system

Types of RAM
DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used in most of

the computers. It is the least expensive kind of RAM. It requires an electric
current to maintain its electrical state. The electrical charge of DRAM
decreases with time that may result in loss of DATA. DRAM is recharged or
refreshed again and again to maintain its data. The processor cannot
access the data of DRAM when it is being refreshed. That is why it is slow.

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It can store data without
any need of frequent recharging. CPU does not need to wait to access
data from SRAM during processing. That is why it is faster than DRAM. It
utilizes less power than DRAM. SRAM is more expensive as compared to
DRAM. It is normally used to build a very fast memory known as cache
memory.

MRAM (Magneto resistive Random Access Memory)

MRAM stands for Magneto resistive Random Access Memory. It stores data
using magnetic charges instead of electrical charges. MRAM uses far less
power than other RAM technologies so it is ideal for portable devices. It
also has greater storage capacity. It has faster access time than RAM. It
retains its contents when the power is removed from computer.

Different between SRAM and DRAM

SRAM

It is faster than DRAM.

It is more expensive as compared to DRAM.
It does not need to be power refreshed.
It utilizes less power.
It holds data indefinitely as long as the computer is turned
on.
It is more complex and less compact.
DRAM

It is slower than SRAM.

It is less expensive.
It has to be refreshed after each read operation.
 It utilizes more power.
It holds data dynamically not indefinitely.
It is less complex and more compact.

CPU - Central Processing Unit

Every things computer does is controlled by its Central Processing

Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to
simply as the central processor or Nerve Centre or heart, but more commonly
called processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place.
In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a
computer system. It add and compare its data in cpu chip. A CPU or Processors
of all computers, whether micro, mini or mainframe must have three element or
parts primary storage, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and control unit. Control
Unit (CU) - decodes the program instruction. CPU chip used in a computer is
partially made out of Silica. on other words silicon chip used for data
processing are called Micro Processor.

Central processing unit (CPU) is the central component of the Pc. Sometimes it
is called as processor. It is the brain that runs the show inside the Pc. All work
that is done on a computer is performed directly or indirectly by the processor.
Obviously, it is one of the most important components of the Pc. It is also,
scientifically, not only one of the most amazing parts of the PC, but one of the
most amazing devices in the world of technology. The processor plays a
significant role in the following important aspects of your computer system;
Performance: The processor is probably the most important single determinant
of system performance in the Pc. While other components also playa key role in
determining performance, the processor's capabilities dictate the maximum
performance of a system. The other devices only allow the processor to reach its
full potential.
Software Support: Newer, faster processors enable the use of the latest
software. In addition, new processors such as the Pentium with MMX
Technology, enable the use of specialized software not usable on earlier
machines.
Reliability and Stability: The quality of the processor is one factor that
determines how reliably your system will run. While most processors are very
dependable, some are not. This also depends to some extent on the age of the
processor and how much energy it consumes.

Energy Consumption and Cooling: Originally processors consumed relatively

little power compared to other system devices. Newer processors can consume a
great deal of power. Power consumption has an impact on everything from
cooling method selection to overall system reliability.
Motherboard Support: The processor that decides to use in your system will
be a major determining factor in what sort of chipset we must use, and hence
what motherboard you buy. The motherboard in turn dictates many facets of.
The system's capabilities and performance.

Finding the Arithmetic Mean with Excel's AVERAGE Function

Find the Arithmetic Mean or Average with the Excel Average Function. Ted
French
MEASURING AVERAGE OR CENTRAL TENDENCY IN EXCEL
Mathematically, there are a number of ways of measuring central tendency or,
as it is more commonly called, the average for a set of values. These methods
include the arithmetic mean, the median, and the mode.
The most commonly calculated measure of central tendency is the arithmetic
mean - or simple average - and it is calculated by adding a group of numbers
together and then dividing by the count of those numbers. For example, the
average of 2, 3, 3, 5, 7, and 10 is 30 divided by 6, which is 5.

To make it easier to measure central tendency, Excel has a number

of functions that will calculate the more commonly used average values. These
include:

The AVERAGE function - finds the arithmetic mean for a list of numbers

The MEDIAN function - finds the median or middle value in a list of

numbers

The MODE function - finds the mode or most commonly occurring value
in a list of numbers

THE AVERAGE FUNCTION'S SYNTAX AND ARGUMENTS

A function's syntax refers to the layout of the function and includes the
function's name, brackets, comma separators, and arguments.

The syntax for the AVERAGE function is:

= AVERAGE ( Number1, Number2, ... Number255 )

Number1 - (required) the data to be averaged by the function

Number2 to Number 255 - (optional) additional data values to be included in

the average. The maximum number of entries allowed is 255.

This argument can contain:

a list of numbers to be averaged;

cell references to the location of the data in the worksheet;

a range of cell references;

a named range.

FINDING THE AVERAGE FUNCTION

Options for entering the function and its arguments include:
 1. Typing the complete function, such as =AVERAGE(C1:C7) into a
worksheet cell;

2. Entering the function and arguments using the function's dialog box;

3. Entering the function and arguments using Excel's Average function

shortcut.

AVERAGE FUNCTION SHORTCUT

Excel has a shortcut to entering the AVERAGE function - sometimes referred to
as AutoAverage due to its association with the better known AutoSum feature -
located on the Home tab of the ribbon.

The icon on the toolbar for these and several other popular functions is the
Greek letter Sigma (). By default the AutoSum function is displayed next to
the icon.

The Auto part of the name refers to the fact that when entered using this method,
the function automatically selects what it believes is the range of cells to be
summed by the function.

FINDING THE AVERAGE WITH AUTOAVERAGE

1. Click on cell C8 - the location where the function results are displayed;

2. As shown in the image above, only cell C7 should be selected by the

function - due to the fact that cell C6 is blank;

3. Select the correct range for the function C1 to C7;

4. Press the Enter key on the keyboard to accept the function;

5. The answer 13.4 should appear in cell C8.

EXCEL AVERAGE FUNCTION EXAMPLE

The steps below cover how to enter the AVERAGE function shown in row four
in the example in the image above using the shortcut to the AVERAGE
function mentioned above.

ENTERING THE AVERAGE FUNCTION

1. Click on cell D4 - the location where the formula results will be

displayed;
 2. Click on the Home tab of the ribbon

3. Click on the down arrow beside the AutoSum button on the ribbon to
open the drop down list of functions

4. Click on the word Average in the list to enter the AVERAGE function
into cell D4

5. Click on the Functions icon on toolbar above the to open the drop down
list of functions;

6. Select Average from the list to place a blank copy of the function in cell
D4;

7. By default, the function selects the numbers in the cell D4;

8. Change this by highlighting cells A4 to C4 to enter these references as

arguments for the function and press the Enter key on the keyboard;

9. The number 10 should appear in cell D4. This is the average of the three
numbers - 4, 20, and 6;

10.When you click on cell A8 the complete function =AVERAGE(A4:C4)

appears in the formula bar above the worksheet.

Notes:

Individual cells, rather than a continuous range can be added as

arguments but each cell reference must be separated by a comma.

Text entries and cells containing Boolean values (TRUE or FALSE) and
cells that are blank are ignored by the function as shown in rows 6, 8 and
9 above.

After entering the function, if changes are made to the data in the selected
cells, the function, by default, automatically recalculates to reflect the
change.

HOW AUTOAVERAGE SELECTS THE ARGUMENT RANGE

The default range includes only cells containing numbers, the range of
selected numbers is interrupted by a cell containing text or a blank cell.
 The AVERAGE function is designed to be entered at the bottom of
a column of data or at the right end of a row of data. It looks first for
number data above and then to the left.

Since the AVERAGE function is, in effect, guessing at the range it selects
for the Number argument, this selection should always be checked for
correctness before pressing the Enter key on the keyboard to complete the
function.

BLANK CELLS VS. ZERO

When it comes to finding average values in Excel, there is a difference between
blank or empty cells and those containing a zero value.

Blank cells are ignored by the AVERAGE function, which can be very handy
since it makes finding the average for non-contiguous cells of data very easy as
shown in row 6 above.

Cells containing a zero value, however, are included in the average as shown in
row 7.

DISPLAYING ZEROS
By default, Excel displays a zero in cells with a zero value - such as the result of
calculations, but if this option is turned off, such cells are left blank, but still
included in average calculations.

To turn this option off:

1. Click on the File tab of the ribbon to display the file menu options;

2. Click Options in the list to open the Excel Options dialog box, and then

3. Click on the Advanced category in the left hand pane of the dialog box to
see the available options;

4. In the right hand pane, in the Display options for this worksheet section
clear the check box for Show a zero in cells that have zero value check
box;

5. To display zero (0) values in cells ensure that the Show a zero in cells
that have zero value check box is selected.