NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Module Goals SECTION 1 - GAS EXPLORATION Introduction Seismology as an Exploration Method Other Exploration Methods Review Lo... eeeeeeeeenee SECTION 2 - DRILLING Introduction Pre-Drilling Activi Drilling Methods Drilling Equipment .. Well Completion . Review 2... SECTION 3 - WELLSITE FACILITIES Introduction Wellsite Facilities... Dehydration ‘Testing & Sampling .......... Freezing & Hydrate Prevention Measurement & Control Equipment Review3.... SECTION 4 - PRODUCTION FACILITIES Introduction ....... Gathering Facilities Low-Pressure Production Corrosion Control . cee Regulations & Operating Practices Review 4.0.2... : SUMMARY 0... cccccecceeeccteeetteeeteteeteeeeee ee S2 GLOSSARY 56 ANSWERS. --61PLEASE NOTE ‘Operations personne! use & combination of skill, knowledge, and technology to accomplish specific goals. A key objective of the Gas, Controller Training Program is to promote an understanding of ‘theoretical basis for operational decisions used on te job every day, Tis training program enhances job-related skills by providing relevant and current information with ieamediate application for employees. Information contained in the modules is theoretical. A foundation of ‘basic information facilitates an understanding of technology’ and its application. Every effort has heen made to rellect pure scientitie principles inthe tining program. Nevertheless, in some cases, pure ‘theory conflicts withthe practical realities of daily operations. Usefulness to the employee is our most mmportant priority during the development of the materials in the Gas Controller Training Program NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Gas Controller Training Program © 2000 Enbridge Technology Inc. Reproduction Prohibited July 2000 ENBRIDGE TECHNOLOGY INC. Suite 601, PO Box 398 10201Jasper Avenue Edmonton, Alberta Canada T5J 2/9 Telephone +1-780-412-6469 Fax +1-780-412-6460 Reference: G0.1 Natural Gas Production Jan 2003STUDY SKILLS Each of the modules in the Gas Controller Training Program is designed in a Performance Based Self Instructional format. This ‘means that you are responsible for your own learning and for ensuring that you are ready to demonstrate your knowledge and skills. Our focus is on the performance of the necessary skills and demonstration of the knowledge needed to perform your jab, 1. The modules are designed for short but concentrated periods of study from ten to forty-five minutes each. Remember that gencrally one week of self-study replaces 10 hours of in-class attendance, For example, if you have a three week self-study block, then you have to account for 30 hours of study time if you want to keep pace with most learning programs. 2. When you are studying the module, look for connections between the information presented and your responsibilities on the job. ‘The more connections you can make, the better you will be able to recall, 3. There are self-tests at the end of each section in the module. Habitually completing these tests will ensure your knowledge of the information, Use the test to measure your understanding. If you have an incorrect answer, check the information in the section of the module to find out why the error was made, Remember, you are responsible for your own performance. 4, Start studying each section of the module by reading the objectives and the introduction. This provides both the focus for your learning and a preview of the test items 5. Each module is prepared to adapt to a number of different earning styles. Some learners will proceed directly from the introduction and objectives to the review questions. Then the; will study any topic that is missed. Most leamers, however, work from the introduction through to the end of the text in a systematic way. Whichever way you choose to lear, you are free to use the materials as you see fit.6. Every module has a performance based test. Each item in the test is related to an objective for each section. To prepare for the test, you should ensure that all section reviews are completed and understood. Many leamers review the material in the module before taking the test 7. To aid your understanding and enhance your time in the learning activities, new terms, concepts and principles are printed in bold face along with their definition highlighted in italics. These are also listed in the Glossary of Terms supplied at the end of the module, 8. To prepare for the Performance Based test, many have had success by reading the module Summary and Glossary. Items in the Glossary are cross-referenced to the place in the module where they were first introduced. This way, if there is a topic or a definition that you do not recognize, you can easily find it in the module,NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION NTRODUCTION Natural gas production is a complex process. The first step in the process is exploration for subsurface hydrocarbons. Once library and field research locate potential hydrocarbon reservoirs, drilling is, required to confirm their commercial viability. Drilling activities include pre-drilling, drilling and well completion, A variety of equipment is available for both conventional and directional drilling. Gas wells are eventually abandoned when compression to gathering system pressure is no longer economic. Gas production involves installation of wellsite facilities that process the gas before it enters a transmission pipeline. Wellsite equipment is usually required to separate liquids from the gas, dehydrate the gas and/or compress the gas to gathering system pressure. Wellsite equipment is also required to measure and control gas flow. Field treatment facilities are configured to transport field gas to a transmission system or to a gas plant for further processing, while avoiding transmission problems, such as hydrate formation. Corrosion is another major concer in the gas gathering system. Corrosion is the result of an electro-chemical reaction, and can be prevented using various methods including cathodic protection, All phases of natural gas production ate governed by legislation, regulation and/or accepted operating practice. ‘This module provides a comprehensive overview of the process of natural gas production. Controllers can apply this knowledge of field production and treatment to optimize pipeline operation.MODULE GOALS PREREQUISITES GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM ‘This module presents information on the following goals. It explains common techniques used in the exploration for natural gas. It describes various methods used to drill for natural gas. It explains how wells are completed and eventually abandoned, It describes the function and operation of facilities found at wellsites. It explains operation of production and gathering facilities. It describes corrosion protection and regulatory features associated with pipeline transportation of natural gas. FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL GasNATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Geologists and geophysicists study the changes in rocks, which may be buried up to several thousand feet below the surface. Their expertise guides the search for hydrocarbon reservoirs. A well- developed theory or intuition may direct the search for natural gas to areas where there are large tracts of sedimentary rock. In the early days of exploration, wells were often drilled on mere hunches. These wells were known as wildcat wells. Today, with the growing market for natural gas, the high cost of drilling, and advances in earth sciences and technology, finding gas is not so much guesswork as detective work. Often, the modem search is directed as much by library research as by field exploration. A review of published information sometimes confirms the presence of oil and gas. Once explorers have convinced ‘managers and investors that oil or gas deposits likely exist in an area, further exploration work is undertaken to confirm their presence. Should this information not be available from regulatory agencies or previous surveys, one ot more of the exploration methods described in this section are used to develop a picture of the underground formations. After completing this section of the module, you will be able to; + Recognize the role of seismology in locating underground gas formations. + Identify and compare common techniques used to locate gas reservoir formations. |GAS) EXPLORATION INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVESSEISMOLOGY AS AN EXPLORATION METHOD GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM ‘The earth’s crust is composed of layers that vary in density and thickness, Seismology is a technique that uses sound or shock waves, such as those from a controlled explosion or a repeated pounding, to measure a variety of characteristics of each layer of rock in the earth’ crust in a study area. Energy released below the surface, such as in an explosion, travels in all directions. As the energy strikes each subterranean layer, part of the energy is reflected to the surface where it can be detected and recorded. By analyzing variations in energy reflection, geologists and geophysicists obtain data to compile a map of subsurface rock formations. Sedimentary rock was formed in layers at the bottom of an ancient ‘ocean, as the weight of the water compressed the sand, silt and clay at the bottom, Because sedimentary rock and gas deposits were both formed at the bottom of ancient oceans, they are often found together. Different types of rock distort and reflect an energy wave in different ways (see Figure 1), It is therefore possible to distinguish between various types of rock layers. The reflected energy waves are recorded and later evaluated to determine the characteristics of the subsurface formations. tii Figure 1 Seismology in the Field {An explosive charge is detonated and several detectors in the area record the ‘Sound waves reflected off layers of rock in the earth’s crust. A computer is used {fo.generale @ 2-D or 3-0 picture ofthe underground strat.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Instead of explosives, a technique called vibroseis is sometimes used, In this method, a surface vibrator generates low-frequency sound waves by pounding the earth By examining the map of the various subsurface layers, geologists can identify the likely characteristics of the rocks. The distortions, fractures, faults, and formations can thus be located. This process will show the likely source rocks for hydrocarbon formation. ‘The caprocks and reservoir locations can then be pinpointed. (Details of reservoir formation and location are presented in the module FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL Gas). Seismology is the most commonly used technique of oil and gas exploration. Over the years, with the application of high speed digital computers, the results of seismic surveys have become more detailed and more precise. Digital mapping has in fact revolutionized oil and gas exploration, Two- and three-dimensional images of the underground formations can be prepared, ‘Three-dimensional seismic imaging can compile data from several thousand locations over a large area. A computer ean then convert these data into a three-dimensional picture of the underground formations. Three-dimensional seismic imaging is especially useful in areas where the gas deposits are small and complicated. 3-D imaging, however, is very expensive, and is not normally used until more traditional 2-D methods have already established that oil or gas is likely to be present. While seismology is certainly the most commonly used oil and gas exploration technique, other technologies are also used. The following OTHER technologies are some of those often used in combination with EXPLORATION seismology: . surface geology METHODS * geochemistry + gravity survey + magnetic survey + radar + infrared sensingGAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM SURFACE GEOLOGY Surface geology is the oldest method of oil exploration. Its accuracy, however, is limited. In the early days of exploration hydrocarbons were found at ground level. Wells were then drilled at that point Other surface features, such as salt- or sulphur-water seepages are also indicators of oil and gas possibility GEOCHEMISTRY Soil samples from holes 10 to 30 feet (3 to 10 metres) deep can be analyzed for hydrocarbon content, Often a ‘halo’ effect will be observed around commercial oil and gas reservoirs. The highest concentrations of soil hydrocarbons may be found around the periphery of the deposit, Gravity meters are devices that measure variations in the earth s GRAVITY SURVEY oravitaional fied. These variations are too small to be noticed by human senses but gravity meters are sufficiently sensitive to measure them. This information is used to determine the depth and nature of subsurface rock (see Figure 2). Gravimetric readings are also used in combination with seismology to make better decisions about the possible location and extent of reservoirs. Figure 2 Gravity Survey and Gravity Meter Variations in the earth's gravity can indicate locations of gas deposits. Some Teatures in the earth’s crust tend to increase the earth's gravity, while others ‘mako it woaker.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Magnetic surveys are carried out with instruments called magnometers. Magnometers are devices that detect minute fluctu- ations in the magnetic field that surrounds the earth. These fluctu- ations can supply information about the shape, size and composition of subsurface rock. The Magsat, a satellite designed to survey magnetic features, has gathered significant information from many faint magnetic fields within the carth’s crust. Magsat data, used in combination with other data gathering methods, help geologists and geophysicists make better decisions about possible locations of oil and gas reservoirs, Both ground and airborne radar accurately map features of the earth’s surface and provide clues to the nature of the underground formation, Radar can pierce cloud cover or dense jungle foliage to produce good uality images of the earth’s surface. Infrared sensors are devices that sense minute changes in temperature. Carried aboard aircraft or satellites, infrared sensors gather various types of information. Infrared sensing can detect water intrusions, faults, and buried minerals MAGNETIC SURVEY RADAR INFRARED SENSING[GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM 1. What is the most commonly used natural gas exploration REVIEW 1 © technique is cata? a) Seismology b) Gravimetric ©) Infrared testing 4d) Radar sensing 2. When is three-dimensional imaging especially useful? a) When a large area must be examined b) When the gas deposits are stall and complicated ©) When good surface images are needed through cloud cover or jungle foliage 4) When minute changes in temperature must be detected 3. What is an exploration technique using devices that measure variations in the earth's magnetic field called? a) Gravimetric b) Radar imaging ©) Infrared sensing d) Magnetic survey 4, How do infrared sensors sense minute changes? a) In temperature b)_ Incolor ©) In rock porosity 4) Inclectricity Answers are at the end of this module.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION DRILLING The only way to prove the accuracy of geologists" detective work jg §§ ——=—— to drill. ARer the research, seismological study and imaging analysis, INTRODUCTION a well must be sunk to the suspected reservoir. A variety of drilling methods, techniques and equipment are available, each with ils own application. When the well reaches the reservoir area, itis tested and completed. Before any drilling takes place, however, a number of pre-drilling activities must take place firs. These pre-drilling activities are explained at the beginning of this section of the module, After completing this section of the module, you will be able to: edenty the procedures involved in pre-deling activites OBJECTIVES + Recognize and compare techniques used in conventional and rotary drilling. + Identify the components of a typical drilling rig. + Compare vertical, horizontal and slanted drilling operations, + List four procedures of well completion,ENVIRONMENTAL, SITE PREPARATION 10 PRE-DRILLING ACTIVITIES CONSIDERATIONS GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Pre-drilling activities can be divided into two major categories. First, environmental considerations must be addressed. With the approval of an Environmental Impact Statement and issuance of a drilling permit, actual site preparation can begin. An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is normally prepared before any work can commence on a site. Several key questions must bbe considered in the preparation of the EIS. For example, will any leaks affect water sources? Does the area have valuable atchaeo- logicalipalacontological resources? Some of the possible environ- ‘mental considerations include: + water run-off and drainage + wildlife habitat upset + disposal of drill cuttings, and + archaeological studies. All possible impacts on the environment should be considered and reported in the EIS. The Environmental Impact Statement may form part of the drilling permit request. Even if further investigation is required, once the acceptability of the site for drilling has been established, site preparation can begin. Before drilling can begin, the site must be prepared. This preparation ‘must provide enough space at the site for such facilities as: + the drilling equipment + auxiliary equipment + pipe storage + waste disposal + safety equipment, and + crew quarters, As well, the site and site access routes must be prepared firmly enough to withstand the weight of heavy drilling equipment and ‘material, A conventional drilling rig capable of drilling to 20,000 feet (6100 metres) may require as many as 45 semi-trailers to transport equipment to the drilling site.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Site preparation can include: + preparing an access road to the site + clearing the site of bush and other impediments + levelling the site using bulldozers + digging waste pits, and lining them if necessary, and + constructing crew quarters Drilling methods depend on the type of well, the type of rock formation andthe location ofthe drilling action, dn exploration welt, DRILLING or wildeat well, is one which is drilled to determine whether gas.» METHODS exists in the sub-surface formation. If an exploration well discovers gas, several more wells may be drilled to assess the viability of producing from the formation. A development well is a well which is drilled in an existing field to increase production. If development wells are drilled between existing wells, they are known as infilling wells. If they are at the edge of the field, these development wells are called step-out or outpost wells Drilling methods and the results obtained from drilling have changed SGNjVENTIONAL greatly since the early wells of the mid-nineteenth century. In 1859, 5 Rit LING. oil was discovered near Petrolia and Oil Springs, Ontario. The method used at that time was cable-tool drilling. A sharply pointed bit attached to a cable was repeatedly dropped to punch its way into the rock. Today, the cable tool method has been replaced by rotary drilling, as shown in Figure 3. This method facilitates vertical, slightly angled or directional drilling, Wells can be drilled directly into gas-bearing formations at depths in excess of 30,000 feet (9,100 metres) Rotary drilling is a drilling method in which a bit is attached to a string of pipe. The bit and string are rotated to drill into the ROTARY DRILLING subsurface rock. A circulating fluid, called drilling mud, removes the cuttings and provides some lubrication to the rotating bit. By adding lengths of pipe to the top of the string, lower depths can be reached. Once the site is prepared, the rotary drilling equipment is set up. Spudding in, the frst step in drilling, is drilling a shallow large- diameter hole and lining it with a casing set in cement. This surface casing may extend from 200 to 4,000 feet (60 m to 1,220 m), depending cn the final well depth, The casing helps to prevent contamination of near-surface formations that may contain fresh water 112 GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM ‘The casing also serves as the point where blowout preventers (BOPS) ate attached. A BOP can be thought of as an extremely large ON/OFF valve attached by a high-pressure flange to the top of the surface casing. During normal operations, the blow out preventers are open and allow the drill pipe to pass through. If pressure from underground formations forces oil and gas up the Grilled hole, the BOP closes tightly around the drill pipe to keep the oil and gas from spewing out of the hole. The BOP ensures the safety of the crew and protects the environment. iL Figure 3 Conventional Rotary Drilling Tripping in or out of a hole refers to the process of lowering or raising the drill bit out of the hole. The drilling crew uses joints of pipe, called drill string, which are attached to a high-strength steel cable to raise and lower the drill bit, The metal cable is wound on a rotating drum, then travels up to @ large stationary pulley, called the crown block, on top of the derrick. The cable then travels straight down the center of the derrick, where itis attached to the travelling block. The travelling block is the largest pulley of the hoisting system, and has a hook that attaches to the rotating equipment.ature cas proouction ‘When tripping out, the pulley system pulls two or three 30-foot (9 m) {joints of drill pipe out of the hole, depending on the size of the drilling rig. Each joint is manually unscrewed from the joint below it in the drill string. With manual guidance, the pulley system then carries the joint to a rack where it is carefully arranged in the exact, order in which it was removed from the hole. The process is then repeated until all the joints have been removed from the hole. To trip the drill string back in, the process is reversed as one by one the Joints are lowered into the hole, In turbo-drilling, the mud drives a turbine or turbines attached to the >55-DR LING drill bit. The result i tha th bit can have a much higher rotational TURBO-DRILLING speed, and the penetration rate is increased. This method is also used in dircetional drilling. One disadvantage of conventional vertical wells is that they come DIRECTIONAL DRILLING into contact with only @ small portion ofthe reservoir Wells may, O/RECTIONAL DRILLING also be drilled horizontally, on an angle (slant) or curved (whip- stock) when it is not possible to locate the drilling rig directly above the reservoir, or for environmental or other reasons (see Figure 4). A horizontal well can produce several times as much oil and gas as a conventional well because it traverses a greater distance through the reservoir. Directional drilling also means that fewer wells are needed to produce the same amount of oil and gas 4 4 \ Marsh o other i t ecological sensitive i area Directional Drilling The figure shows from lof fo right, a conventional wel, horizontal wel, slant well, and whip-stock well. 1314 DRILLING EQUIPMENT CONVENTIONAL, DRILLING EQUIPMENT GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Drilling equipment comes in an array of sizes and configurations, The smallest rigs are truck-mounted, self-contained units. The largest are used in off-shore drilling and are ship- or platform-mounted units. The drilling equipment consists of the hoisting, rotating and drilling components, all supported on a mast or derrick. The most visible portion, the derrick, is what people generally call the ‘rig’. Drilling the hole into the ground is accomplished by a rotating drill bit, which cuts into the rock (see Figuce 5). The cuttings are then removed by the fluid circulating system. There are several types of drill bits. The most common are steel-toothed rotary bits, polycrys- talline diamond compact (PDC) bits and diamond bits. - The roller cone bit shown is one of the most common typos of dil bits in use today. Special equipment is used to rotate the drill bit. This equipment consists of: + swivel © rotary table » kelly + rotary drive + kelly bushing, and + drill string,NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION The swivel, attached to the travelling block, allows the rotating equipment to turn freely without twisting the drill cable, The swivel also has a pressure seal and opening for circulating drilling fluid (‘mud’) down through the drill string, The drill string is the length of. pipe that goes from the drilling rig down to the drill bit in the ground. Attached to the swivel is the kelly, which is a hollow, multi-sided length of steel pipe, usually square or octagonal. The kelly is attached to the swivel at one end and to the drill string at the other. The crew lowers the kelly and multi-sided kelly bushing assembly until they lock into the rotary table. Motors then turn the rotary table, which turns the kelly, the attached drill string, and therefore the drill bit at the bottom of the drill string. Just above the drill bit is a heavy section of pipe called the drill collar. The purpose of the drill collar is to add weight to the drill bit to help it drill through the rock. The drill cable does not extend all the way down the hole. Rather, the drill cable is only used to lift or lower a distance the length of one to three joints of drill pipe. When the drill string must be extended as the hole gets deeper, the drilling crew attaches another section of drill pipe to the drill string. The new joint of pipe is attached between the kelly and the top of the down-hole drill string. Each joint of drill pipe is 30 feet (9 m) long. Up to three joints of drill pipe can be added to the drill string at a time, depending on the size of the rig. The erew can drill down a maximum of 90 feet (27 m) before adding additional joints to the drill string. ‘The driller raises and lowers the drill string by rotating the drum. The drum is the central piece of equipment of the drawworks, on which the drill cable is wound. It controls the raising and lowering of the travelling block and the weight of the drill-pipe on the bit. Rotating the drum in one direction lowers the drill string, while rotating it in the opposite direction raises the drill string The rotating drill bit cuts the subsurface rock into fragments called drill-cuttings. Mud is pumped down through the drill pipe and carries the drill-cuttings up through the annulus, the space between the drill pipe and the outside of the hole. As shown in Figure 6, a shale shaker removes most of the drill cuttings from the mud. A de-silter and de-sander remove the very small cuttings passed through the shale shaker. The de-gasser removes any gas from the mud. Clean mud is then stored in mud pits or tanks before being pumped back into the drill hole. The weight of the mud prevents pressurized formation fluids from coming to the surface unexpectedly. 15as conTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Ped gure 6 ‘Mud Circulation Tho rotating dil bit cuts the subsurface rock into fragments called drill. cutings. The weight of the mud prevents pressurized formation fluids from coming to the surface unexpectedly. Clean mud is then stored in mud pits or tanks before being pumped back info the drif hole, ‘DIRECTIONAL DRILLING While conventional or vertical drilling is the shortest path to a production zone, itis becoming increasingly more common to drill EQUIPMENT 1 slant or horizontally, Slant or horizontal dling is expecially popular in environmentally sensitive areas and gives the additional benefit of reaching a larger area of the gas-producing zone, More typically, from an upright rig, the first part of the hole is vertical. Then it kicks off or is deflected so that the bit may end up several hundred metres offset from its surface entry. Several wells can be drilled from one site. When the degree of deflection results in a quick turn, itis called short radius. A gradual deflection gives a Tong radius, 16NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION ‘Some rigs are capable of being positioned at a slant. The drilling proceeds ina straight line slanted fom the vertical. In these cases, SEANT the travelling block and swivel do not hang from the crown, but move on rails. These rigs are frequently used in horizontal drilling as described below (see Figure 4). In horizontal drilling, the well is started vertically, then is gradually deflected until it reaches 90 degrees, becoming horizontal HORIZONTAL Deflections of 3 to 10 degrees over 300 feet (91 m) are not ‘uncommon, In this type of drilling, the drill string does not rotate. Instead, the mud drives a directional motor, or turbine, which in turn rotates the bit. Special gyroscopic compasses and electronic instrumentation track and control both the location and direction of the drilling tool (see Figure 4). A blowout is an uncontrolled escape of pressurized formation fluids set on corral ere of peel meters BLOWOUT possibility of a blowout occurring, A BOP is an arrangement of large, high-pressure valves at the top of the well, which when closed, form 4 pressure-tight seal to prevent the escape of fluids from the well. A kick is an unexpected entry of pressurized formation fluids into a well while drilling. A kick can occur if the pressure in the well relating to the head of the drilling fluid (mud) is less than the pressure of the formation. A kick can lead to a blowout if not controlled quickly. ‘The possibility of fire is an ever-present concern on a drilling rig. Crews must be trained in fire prevention and fire fighting. However, in the case of a large or uncontrollable fire resulting from a blowout, a specially trained crew must be brought in to extinguish it. When dealing with formations that contain hydrogen sulphide (H,S), any escape of gas presents a particularly hazardous situation. Also called sour gas, HS is an extremely toxic gas that is also flammable. In low concentrations, it smells like rotten eggs. Larger concen- trations quickly overwhelm the sense of smell. The result can be unconsciousness and death. Rig crews are therefore trained in the use of HyS detectors and Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA). 17GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM ‘Once the reservoir destination area has been reached, the well is WELL tested and then prepared for production if found to be commercially COMPLETION viable. Part of well completion is preparation for long-term operations during production and for eventual abandonment of the site, The start of the well-completion process is testing to determine the volume and pressure of the gas, While the well is being drilled, cuttings and fluids coming out of the well with the mud ate examined by geologists and geochemists to gain information about the formations and rock structures through, which the well penetrates. Drill Stem Testing (DST) is done to determine the commercial viability. The drill string may be tripped out and a string of test tools added. The drill string is tripped back into the hole. With the string in place, the test tools isolate the potential pay zone. Gas can then flow to the surface in a controlled environment, Observations of the formation pressure and the flow rate of the ges are used to evaluate the potential of the well. If it is determined that the well is not viable, it is abandoned. DRILL STEM TESTING —TELL COMPLETION nee it has been determined that a well is viable, the well is prepared WELL COMPLETION soy production. Ths is called well completion (see Figure 7). The drill string is replaced with steel casing that lines the total length of the well bore. This is cemented in place by forcing cement down the casing and back to the surface through the annular space around it. 18NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION ig ve ina Tee} Cig Press Sar Maser ie Tar es nomen Casa. Prtn Cag Figure 7 Well Completion This figure shows casing, tubing and a Christmas tree installed at a well. The {gas production is normally taken from the casing. An intermediate casing is ‘often used fo avoid problems in formation pressure during drilling operations. A perforating gun is then lowered on a wire line (o the production zone. The perforating gun makes perforations in the casing, cement and surrounding formation and the high formation pressure forces gas into the casing, as shown in Figure 8, Perforations provide a free path for gas flow into the production casing, Tubing is then installed for the removal of liquids. 1920 GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Figure 8 Perforations ‘A perforation gun blows holes through the casing and cement, allowing gas to center the well casing. Sometimes gas in the formation may not flow readily due to poor permeability, Ifthe formation is reactive to acid, a process known as acidizing is employed. In acidizing, acid with preferential reaction 10 the formation rather than to the casing, is pumped down the ‘production casing, through the perforations and into the formation. ‘The acid etches channels in the formation and increases porosity. Another process used (o increase permeability is fracturing, whereby a specially blended high-pressure liquid is pumped into the perforations, breaking up the formation much like driving a wedge into the formation, Fracturing is followed by the addition of sand or other granular material, known as proppant, to the fluid. The porous ‘material holds (props) open the fracture when the pressure is removed. The propped-open fractures enhance gas flow.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Preparation of the wellsite before the construction of facilities is similar to the preparation of the site before drilling, In this case, however, the site is more permanent, The access road is improved to prepare it for regular use over a period of years. Depending on the area, the site may be fenced in. Fencing is usually required in populated areas or where cattle or wildlife are present. A gravel bed is usually laid around the wellhead and facilities, Should DST indicate that a gas well is not potentially viable, it is called a dry hole. The well is plugged with cement, abandoned without further effort and the site restored, A producing well is abandoned at the end of its economically productive life. When the pressure in the well is depleted and the gas no longer freely flows into the gathering system, either a compressor is installed or the well is abandoned, Eventually, the pressure in the ‘well falls so low that using a compressor is no longer economical, at which point the well has to be abandoned. Regulatory bodies stipulate the procedures that must be followed when abandoning a well. Normally, the well must be filled with mud and a cement plug must be used to separate the lower portion of the well from all potable water reservoirs through which the well passes. ‘The upper portion of the well must also be cemented and capped, ‘The area surrounding the well must be cleaned of all foreign material, and any contaminated soil must be removed and disposed safely. Current regulations require restoration of the area around the wellsite to its natural condition. WELLSITE PREPARATION WELL ABANDONMENT CONSIDERATIONS 222 REVIEW 2 GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM 1. What is normally completed before beginning to drill a well? 8) Blowout preventer (BOP) b) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) ©) Self-contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) 4) Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) bits 2. What does a wellsite preparation include? a) Hiring the drilling contractor b) Pigging the line ©). Spudding in the rig d) Preparing the access roads 3. What is driling mud used for? a) To fill the space in the annulus, while at the same time cooling the rotating bit b) To cool the rotating bit, while at the same time carrying the weight of the drill string ©) To carry the drill cuttings away from the shale shaker, while at the same time filling the space in the annulus 4d) To remove the cuttings, while at the same time providing some lubrication to the drill bit 4, What is a large ON/OFF valve attached by a high pressure flange to the top of the casing? a) Itis a blowout preventer b) Tis an annulus ©) Itisakelly 4) Iisa drill string 5. What is the advantage of wells that are drilled on an angle or horizontally? a) They use less casing for a given length of drill string b) They manually trip out through the pulley system ©) They pass through a greater distance of the reservoir 4) They avoid areas not part of the leascholdNATURAL GAS PRODUCTION 6. What does the kelly, that is a hollow, multi-sided length of stee! pipe connects with? a) It connects drill string and the swivel b)_ It connects travelling block and the rotary table ©) It connects drill string and the crown block 4) It connects drill bit and the drill collar 7. Dril Stem Testing (DST) is done to test what? a) To test commercial viability of the gas well b) To test durability of the drill string ©) To test density of the circulating mud 4) To test intensity of the gas flare 8. What happens in normal gas well completion? 8) DST increases porosity in the reservoir formation bb) fracturing the rock formation and adding proppant enhances gas flow ©) acidizing fractures the rock to close the reservoir formation 4) fracturing perforates the casing and closes the reservoir formation Answers are at the end of this module. 23NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Wellsite facilities control gas flow from the wellhead and treat the gas by removing entrained liquids and particulates. Wellsite gas is ‘usually treated before entering the transmission pipeline. Both pressure and temperature in the reservoir formation are higher than at the wellsite. Condensation of water vapour and hydrocarbons can occur. These hamper operation and can damage instrumentation Sulphur, in the form of HyS, may be present in the gas at the wellhead, Since H)S is hazardous to personnel and to the pipeline, it must be removed. This section describes the purpose and operation of wellhead equipment, including separators, filters and dehydtators, This section also presents information on wellhead testing, sampling and measurement equipment, as well as flow and pressure control After completing this scetion of the module, you will be able to: + Identify the features and functions of a typical gas wellsite facility + Describe three common methods of gas dehydration + Define two sampling techniques used to analyze gas quality + Explain the importance of measuring and controlling sulphur content and dew point in natural gas. + Name three methods of freezing and hydrate prevention. + Identify the purpose of three types of control devices at a wellsite. INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES 2526 WELLSITE FACILITIES PIPING GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Wellsite facilities include all of the equipment and piping located inside the fence that encloses the area. The piping and equipment located a the wellsite are required inorder to: ‘control the flow of gas from the wellhead + teat the gas coming out of the well * separate any liquids from the gas + temporarily store the liquids separated from the gas, and + remove any solid particles from the wellhead gas. Another group of facilities that may be located at 2 wellsite are separators. Separators remove liquids from the gas. Entrained liquids ‘must be removed before the gas can be transmitted to distribution or to storage. Sample testing and sampling facilities may be provided at the wells, although full quality analysis is not usually accomplished here. Instead, samples are collected for analysis at a remote laboratory site. Finally, gas production is monitored and controlled at the wellsite, Both flow and pressure are reported to a controller. Fach of these groups of facilities will be described in greater detail ‘We will begin with the piping and facilities connected to the wellhead, At the wellsite, the wellhead is connected to piping, vessels and instrumentation (see Figure 9). Regulations stipulate the distance that the wellhead must be located from the vessels. The pipe connecting the wellhead to these vessels is above ground. It must, therefore, ‘contain an expansion loop. The expansion loop ensures that the pipe does not suffer excessive stress from expansion and contraction due to temperature change.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Figure 9 Typical Wellsite Facilities at a Gas Well Piping is shown in green, and instrumentation in blue. A separator removes liquid from wellhead gas (refer to Figure 10). SEPARATORS A separator is similar to a scrubber, except that itis designed to remove larger quantities of liquid from the gas. Gas with entrained liquid enters the separator from the side and near the top. A mist extractor is normally installed at the top of the separator. Liquid droplets are trapped in the fine mesh of the mist extractor. When the droplets grow large enough, they precipitate and fall to the bottom of the separator, while the gas passes through the mist extractor, and exits at the top of the vessel. The liquid collects at the bottom and exits through a valve, which opens when the liquid reaches a pre- determined level The separated liquids are then piped to a tank. When the level in the tank reaches a specified limit, a signal is sent to the Control Centre to alert the Controllers, who arrange for a tank truck to drain the tank. If the tank is not drained before a second level switch in the tank is, activated, the wellsite control system closes the Emergency Shutdown (ESD) valve to shut in the well. The tank must be drained and the ESD valve manually reopened before production can continue. At some sites, liquid accumulation may be piped out if volumes warrant and if equipment is in place. 7as conTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Figure 10 Liquid-Gas (2-Phase) Separator The gas from the separator may be dehydrated in a glycol contactor. (A more complete drawing of the glycol dehydration system is shown in Figure 14 later in this module). Both the separator and the dehydrator have a pressure relief valve and a drain, The pressure relief valve opens automatically if the pressure in the vessel exceeds a safe limit, The drain is usually used only to empty a vessel completely for maintenance purposes. GAS DEHYDRATION Gas leaving the separator and/or dehydrator is measured by an orifice flow meter. The gas then flows through a pressure control valve before entering the pipeline. The pressure control valve ensures that the pressure of the gas entering the pipeline does not exceed the pipeline pressure limits. The controller for this valve may be pre-set ‘or may accept input from the flow meter and from the Control Centre. 28NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Gas separation and dehydration facilites can be located either at the STORAGE & DISPOSAL wellsite or ata location central to several wells. Separators accumulate a quantity of water andor liguid hydrovarbons, There are OF PRODUCED LIQUIDS several options for the removal of these liquids. They may be stored in tanks for periodic removal by a tank truck or pumped through a pipeline for injection into a disposal well. Altematively, the liquids might be treated to separate the heavy hydrocarbons and water. The ‘water may be injected into an oil reservoir to enhance recovery. ‘Natural gas is mainly methane but also contains particulates, water and heavier hydrocarbons. Heavier hydrocarbons are those with five CAS TREATING ‘or more carbon atoms in each molecule. Often, these heavy hydrocarbons are called “pentanes plus” or Cs,.. Many of these hydrocarbons were in a gascous state as a result of the elevated temperatures in the reservoir. At the surface, these C;, hydrocarbons cool and condense into liquid, These liquids may cause further problems, such as hydrate plugging, The gas is treated to remove these hydrocarbons. Removal techniques may be applied at the wellsite, field compression station or at a gas plant. Entrained solids (particulates) and liquids in produced gas cause problems if not controlled or removed. For example: SCRUBBING + at the wellsite, gas is often withdrawn from the main stream for use a5 fuel and in instrumentation. Solids and liquids in the gas can foul bumers and instruments; therefore, they must be removed, + compressors can be damaged by particulates and liquids, so scrubbers are installed at compressor inlets, + flow measurement equipment designed for gas provides erroneous, readings if liquids are present in the gas. + solids in the gas can erode metal surfaces over time. The effect is much like sand blasting. * water may freeze in the piping, blocking flow and/or damaging the Pipe. + liquids may collect in low areas, forming slugs of liquid, which can cause severe equipment and transmission problems. For these reasons, gas scrubbers and separators are used to remove entrained solids and liquids from the gas stream, 29as conTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM clone scrubber tangentially and acquires a spiral CYCLONE SCRUBBER “a8 enters a cy motion (see Figure 11). The gas is forced to change direction to exit the vessel. The entrained liquid and solid particles, with their greater inertia, are unable to change direction and are forced to separate from the gas stream and fall to the bottom of the scrubber. Figure 11 Cyclone Scrubber Filters work by passing the gas through a medium with very small FILTERS sages (sce Figure 12)-Any particle that i larger than the size of the passages becomes trapped within the filter and is removed from the gas stream. The filter must be occasionally cleaned or replaced. Filters are normally used to remove solid particles. Some, known as filter! separators, are designed to remove liquids as well. 30NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Figure 12 Particulate Filter Gas enters the particulate fiter atthe inlet. Each of the fiter tubes in the bundle Js encased in a filer or sock, Passing through the filler passages removes any particles that may be entrained in the gas. The fitered gas exits the fitar {through the itr tubes fo the outlet chamber. Prossure gaugos are provided to indicate the degree of fiter plugging by monitoring upstream and downstream pressure. A sufficient concentration of water molecules must be present in| ———— order for hydrates to form. Therefore, an obvious method of DEHYDRATION preventing hydrate formation is to remove (dehydrate) water ‘molecules from the gas. There are three common methods used to dehydrate gas + line heaters — hydrates are prevented from forming and water from freezing by passing the natural gas through a bath of hot water and glycol, + glycol absorption — a method of gas dehydration in which the ‘molecules of one substance fill the gaps between molecules of another substance. + solid desiccant adsorption ~ a method of gas dehydration in which small particles of one substance are attracted to the surface of larger particles of another. 3as conTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM LINE HEATERS Justas raising the temperature of water prevents it from freezing, raising the temperature of natural gas and water vapour prevents hydrates from forming. A common application of this principle is the line heater. A line heater is a hot bath of water and glycol through which the natural gas pipe passes (see Figure 13). The temperature of the gas is then raised to a level above the hydrate formation temperature, The gas re-enters the pipeline at an elevated temperature to prevent hydrate formation or water freezing in the pipeline. Figure 13 Line Heater Gas is burned inthe fire tube to heat the glycolWwater bath. Gas is circulated through the hot bath in a bundle of tubes. This transfers the heat of the burner {othe gas to help prevent hydrate or water formation. GLYCOL DEHYDRATION J glycol dehydration, “wet” gas (gas containing water vapour) and a glycol solution are contacted in, counter-current flow in a packed vessel. Normally, di-ethylene glycol (DEG) or tri-cthylene glycol (TEG) is used. As shown is Figure 14, the gas enters the contactor at the bottom and naturally rises, while the glycol enters at the top and naturally falls. The water entrained in the gas stream is absorbed by the glycol solution 32NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Figuro 14 Schematic Diagram of Glycol Dehydration The “ich” glycol (containing water) leaves the contactor at the bottom, while “ay gas ext atthe top and leaves the system. The rich glycols heated reboiler so thal the water absorbed vaporizes and is vanied to almosphere. ‘Tho loan” glyco is thon ro-crculated to th top of the contactor to ogi the eye again. A solid desiccant dehydrator uses a substance called an adsorbent, | >> which atracts water molecules to its surface. Some desieeants, on SOLID DESICCANT saturation, may be regenerated by dry air or heat. An example of this, form of desiccant is sil This product is often found packaged with consumer goods to protect them from water vapour, Solid desiccant dehydrators are not common at wellsites. Gas wells with low flow rates may use dehydrators with caleium chloride. Dry calcium chloride is solid. As it adsorbs water it becomes a thick slurry which cannot be regenerated. The slurry must be periodically disposed of and the solid desiccant replaced. The solid desiccant method is effective at removing water vapour and preventing hydrate formation, It is adaptable to different operating conditions. There are, however, higher operating costs, since the calcium chloride must be replaced periodically, Ifa regenerative solid desiccant system is used, operating cost becomes relatively high. Wellsite dehydration is therefore usually accomplished with glycol dehydrators 33TESTING & SAMPLING SULPHUR CONTENT DEW POINT CONTROL GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Quality analyses are done at both the wellsite and at a remote lab. Operators collect gas samples at the wellsite and send them to the lab in a sample bottle. A sample bottle is a container, normally constructed of high-strength steel, which must be able to withstand the pressure of the pipeline. Gas samples are taken by attaching the sample bottle to a pipe nipple. Opening valves on the nipple and on the sample bottle enables gas to flow into the bottle. When the pressure in the bottle reaches the pressure in the pipe, the valves are closed and the bottle removed. This sample is called a spot sample. In some instances, itis desired to obtain an average sample over a period of time. In these cases, an automatic device allows small amounts of gas into the bottle over a specified period of time, until the pressures have equalized. This is called continuous sampling and gives a sample which is representative of the period over which the sample was drawn, Sulphur content in natural gas leads to corrosion of pipelines Pipeline companies specify upper limits for the amount of sulphur that can be present in gas. Sulphur is normally removed from the gas at a gas plant rather than at the wellsite, Chemical and electronic ‘means are available for determining the amount of sulphur in the gas. However, electronic methods are now more common, Sulphur is ‘most often found in natural gas as hydrogen sulphide (HS) or sour gas, which is extremely toxic as well as corrosive in the presence of water. Al facilities have H,S alarms to warn workers to take corrective or emergency action if HS concentrations exceed a pre- set limit. The dew point is the temperature at which liquid condenses from the ‘gas at a given pressure. The gas stream usually has different dew points for water vapour and hydrocarbons. Pipeline companies specify maximum dew points for gas entering their system and gas producers must treat their gas to reduce the dew point to these specifications. Dehydration reduces the water dew point, while removing heavier hydrocarbons reduces the hydrocarbon dew point. For further information on the importance of dew point in the transmission, storage and distribution of natural gas, see the module Fuxpamentats oF NATURAL Gas.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION A device to determine the dew point is shown in Figure 15, Additional information on this device is included in the module Gas MEASUREMENT n Seed Figure 18 A Device fo Determine the Dew Point Ice forms when water is cooled below its freezing point. Ice deposits in a pipe or pipeline can partially or completely block the flow, Water expands when frozen and can burst pipes if allowed to accumulate, Hydrates may form when natural gas and water exist together under certain conditions. Hyérates are not a chemical compound. There are no chemical bonds between the gas and water molecules in hydrate molecules. Rather, hydrates occur when hydrocarbon molecules ‘occupy spaces, or voids, between water molecules. Hydrates have the general appearance of packed snow. The problem caused by hydrates is a partial or complete blockage of the pipeline. FREEZING & HYDRATE PREVENTION 35,GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM ‘Some common methods for preventing hydrate and ice formation include: + addition of inhibitors to gas + increasing the gas temperature (ie., with the use of a line heater) + dehydration of the gas (for example, with a glycol dehydration system). Inhibitors are substances that act as anti-freeze to lower the freezing FOTN OF te Taya sense ac caer ose Jyvdrates form. Examples of inhibitors are methanol, ethanol and iso- propanol, If inhibitors are injected into the gas, the formation of hydrates may be prevented, These substances exhibit a preferential attraction to water molecules, preventing the water molecules from freezing or forming hydrates. A disadvantage of the use of inhibitors is the cost of the injected substances, which are not normally recovered. Necessary controls depend on the equipment at the wellsite, but MEASUREMENT & some controls are common to most locations. CONTROL 44 the wetthead, there may be an Emergeney Shutdown (ESD) EQUIPMENT valve. This valve is automatic and is actuated by on-site instrumen- tation in case of an abnormal condition. The ESD valve can also be closed manually if required PRODUCTION RATE Regulatory bodies normally stipulate the maximum rate at which a CONTROL Well may produce. The operator too, may wish to control the rate of production. Production rate control may be implemented to reduce entrainment or to comply with contract restriction. With low or depleting pressure or at very high flow rates, heavier hydrocarbons vaporize into the gas stream. Ifnot removed, these heavy hydrocarbons create operational problems. Flow controllers at the wellsite are used to restrict the rate of gas withdrawal. These controllers may be instructed by local setpoints or by an external signal ftom a Control Centre or office. ‘The production flow controller is usually tied in with the pressure controller.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION ‘The pressure at wellsites and in the pipeline must be carefully PRESSURE CONTROL controlled for proper operation, as well as to avoid risks to personnel, equipment and the environment, Pressure control is usually accomplished using a pressure control valve (see Figure 16). For example, a pipeline may have a maximum operating pressure of 500 psig (3440 kPa). The gas pressure might be 1000 psig (6895 kPa) afer passing through all the welsite facilities. A pressure control valve is used to throttle the gas to the required pressure so that it does not exceed the pipeline limit Figure 16 Pressure Control Valve A pressure control valve has a controller, which determines the amount of throtting necossary. This control can receive input from multple sources, ‘such as pressure taps, flow meters or a remote Control Centre. 738 GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM All pressure vessels are required by law to be protected by one or ‘more pressure relief valves, as shown in Figure 17. ‘These valves are designed to open when the pressure in the vessel exceeds a pre-set limit. This is to prevent the vessel from rupturing due to excessive well, relief valves may prevents explosive pressure. At a remote location, such as a ga vent to the atmosphere, Flaring, where possibl or toxic gas from accumulating in any particular area Figure 17 Prossure Relief Valve When the pressure atthe valve not exceeds a limit (set using the serow shown atthe top) the valvo is forced fo open. This provents tho prossure in a vessel from rising so high as fo cause the vessel to rupture,NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION 1. What must be done to entrained solids and liquids found in > E=\7)=\np a the gas that comes out of tho ground? REVIEW 3 a) They will be removed from the gas b) They will be frozen to precipitate out of the gas ©) They will be scrubbed and filtered to remain with the gas 4) They will be extruded using a mist extractor 2. What does the cyclone scrubber remove from the gas stream? a) It removes entrained liquids and solid particles b)_ It removes hydrogen sulphide (HS) ©) Itremoves small particles 4) It removes hydrate formations 3. What is the vessel, that includes a mist extractor designed to knock liquid droplets out of the gas stream, precipitating the liquid at the bottom and extracting the dry gas at the top, called? a) Itis called cyclone serubber 1b) Itis called solid desiccant filter ©) Itis called 2-phase separator 4) Itis called glycol dehydration unit 4. How do line heaters prevent the formation of hydrates? a) By removing solid particles from the gas ) By increasing gas temperature ©) By absorbing water vapour from the gas 4) By removing hydrocarbon liquids from the gas 5. What are the two most common methods of weilsite dehydration? a) They are a liquid desiccant and a glycol dehydrator bb) They ate heating using a line heater with a solid desiccant ©) They are removal of liquids in a separator and a glycol dehydrator 4) They are glycol dehydrators and solid desiccant 39GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM 6 Wht is the Emergency Shutdown (ESD) valve? 4) Itis automatic and actuated by instrumentation at the site b)_Itis used by the Controller to throttle the gas to the required pipeline pressure ©) Itis designed to open when the pre-set pressure in the vessel is exceeded 4) It boosts the flow rate of the gas to the pressure required for the pipeline Answers are at the end of this module.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION a iil I|PRODUCTION FACILITIES Field treatment of natural gas may include one or more of the following processes: separation of liquids, dehydration and INTRODUCTION compression. This section discusses possible configurations for ‘transporting field gas to a transmission system. Corrosion is a major concern in pipeline operation. The corrosion process is explained in this section, as are methods for preventing both internal and extemal pipeline corrosion, ‘This section of the module concludes with a review of regulations and operating practices for natural gas production facilities. After completing this section of the module, you will be able to: OBJECTIVES + List the components and functions of a typical gathering system. + Identify the need for and types of pressure control. + Relate the causes of gas pipeline corrosion to their methods of control + Identify the typical operating practices specified by regulations. 4as conTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Before entering the gathering system, produced gas may be treated GATHERING py: FACILITIES * separating oil, hydrocarbon liquids and/or water at the wellsite or a treatment facility, or + dehydrating the gas at the wellste or a treatment facility In addition, gas may have to be compressed in order to enter the gathering system. As shown in Figure 18, 2 typical configuration for a large gas field could consist of + dehydrators at individual wells + multiple pipelines leading from the wellsites to a field compressor station + ahigher-<: ;pacity pipeline transporting the gas from the compressor station to a gas plant + a gas plant that removes H)S from the gas, if necessary, and removes the heavier hydrocarbons from the gas + compression facilities to increase pressure so that the gas can enter the main transmission pipeline + a transmission line transports gas from production to a distribution network or to a storage facility. A transmission line may also transport gas from a storage facility to a distribution network, Figure 18 Typical Gathering System Configuration 42NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION ‘The need for compression is determined mainly by the pressure of the gas at the wellhead, If wellhead pressure is high enough to allow +LOW-PRESSURE the gas to flow at the desired rate into the gathering or transmission PRODUCTION lines, no compression is necessary. It is more economical to transport gas at elevated pressures. It is, therefore, desirable for compressors to be located at individual gas wells, However, this is done only if economically viable. Wellsite compressors may be small and skid-mounted, Compressors must be large enough to compress the gas enough to enter the pipeline, At some facilities, gas from a number of wells flows to a single compressor station. Here, the pressure is boosted so that it can enter a larger-capacity gathering line or a transmission pipeline. It is usually more economical to have one large compressor rather than several small ones. This kind of compression is known as production compression. Corrosion is an ever-present concern in any well casing or pipeline. Corrosion can occur inside the pipe as a result of corrosive liquids or CORROSION gases, and on the outside of the pipe because of a corrosive environment, Internal corrosion occurs when components of the gas, CONTROL combine with water vapour to form corrosive fluids. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide (CO, and H,S) in the pipe are particularly likely to cause corrosion in the presence of water vapour. Gas production companies must implement measures to protect their pipelines from corrosion. Corrosion is the result of an electro-chemical reaction. An electro- chemical reaction occurs in a chemical cell such as an electrical battery, Three elements are required to cause corrosion, + First, an anode or an electron donor is needed for an electro chemical reaction to start. + Next, a cathode or an electron receiver must be present for an electro-chemical reaction to continue. + Finally, an electrolyte or a medium through which ion transfer can occur completes the requirements. For corrosion to occur, all three must be present, along with an appropriate conductor. In @ laboratory setting, such an clectro-chemical reaction can be demonstrated (see Figure 19). 43as conTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Figure 19 In the laboratory beaker, two electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte. The Zine anode corrodes, while the ron cathode doas not. The conventional electric Current flow is from the postvely charged cathode to the negative anode through @ conductor. The flow of electrons is in the opposite direction. The ‘anode, as the electron donor, is negatively charged. The cathode, as the receiver ofthe electrons, is positively charged. The result ofthe donation of ‘electrons by the anode is the formation of fee ians of zine. Those negatively Charged ions move through the alectroyte to tho positively charged cathodo. The anode, therefore, corrodes as a result ofthe electric current Buried pipe is usually coated to protect against all types of corrosion Pipe can vary in composition as can the surrounding soil conditions. The result of any breakdown in coating protection can be the formation of an electro-chemical cell, In such a case, one part of the pipe can become an anode. Another part of the same pipe can be a cathode. The pipe itself serves as the conductor. The electrolyte, which is formed by the earth salts in solution with the moisture in the ground, is the medium of ion transfer that facilitates corrosion at the anodeNATURAL GAS PRODUCTION ‘The most effective method of preventing internal pipeline corrosion iNTERNAL CORROSION is by removing all water from the gas, thereby removing the path of PROTECTION electron transfer. Another method is the introduction of inhibitors into the gas. Corrosion inhibitors prevent corrosion on the inside of the pipe in the event that the gas or a chemical in the gas is acting as the electrolyte. Inhibitors work by preventing chemical reactions at both the anode and the cathode. One of the more common inhibitors does this by exhibiting an attraction for oxygen ions. ‘Oxygen ions are often involved in the corrosion process and the inhibitor prevents the oxygen ions from participating in chemical reactions. This prevents corrosion from occurring, Coatings are used on the outside of buried pipe to prevent external EXTERNAL corrosion from groundwater and soil. Coatings can be paint, enamel CORROSION or tar. Common modem coatings are extruded polyethylene (yellow- BROTECTION jacket) and fusion-bonded epoxy. The coating isolates the pipe from the groundwater, effectively removing the electrolyte from the chemical cell. Without the electrolyte in contact with the metal pipe, corrosion cannot take place. Coatings are not perfect, however, and small imperfections, also known as holidays, allow external cottosion to take place. Additional corrosion protection is therefore necessary. Cathodic Protection (CP) is a way of controlling the direction of electron flow through the chemical cell. An anode bed (often made of graphite) is buried in the ground near the pipeline. Low resistivity wires are connected to both the anode bed and the pipe. An external voltage source from a device called a rectifier, which converts an alternating current (AC) from normal power lines into direct current (DO), is applied. The ground completes the circuit through what is called an impressed current system (refer to Figure 20). The applied voltage forces the flow of current through the electrolyte from the anode bed to the pipe, which is now the cathode. Thus, the anode bed will corrode instead of the pipe. The anode bed must be replaced periodically. 45as conTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Figure 20 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection ‘An extemal DC voltage source (converted from AC powerlines by a rectifier) impresses current on the pipe via the anode bed. 46NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Figure 21 Sacrificial Anode Protection A sacrificial anode (zinc) provides the curren, protecting the pipe Another method of cathodic protection is the use of a sacrificial anode. In this method, a metal anode such as pure zinc, which is ‘more susceptible to corrosion than iron, is connected to the pipe with insulated wire and is buried alongside the pipeline. The electro- chemical reaction then takes place in the electrolyte. The zine anode is consumed by the corrosion process and must be replaced on depletion, This method of cathodic protection is used where there is no external source of electricity, or where an impressed current system is impractical 47REGULATIONS & OPERATING PRACTICES LICENSING & PERMITTING SIGNAGE GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM Regulatory bodies keep track of all oil and gas pipelines and facilites in their area. Such factors as pipe specifications, maximum, operating pressure, location, and other operating practices may be controlled by regulatory bodies. No pipeline or facility can be constructed, operated or abandoned without a license or permit, In this way, regulatory bodies ensure the correct procedures are followed by the companies that own and operate the facilities. Accurate records must always be kept for all oil and gas pipelines and facilities. Facilities and pipelines are required to have signage. The names of the owner and operator of any facility or pipeline must be displayed on all signs, slong with an emergency phone number at which the operator may be contacted. Regulatory bodies may also require wellsites and above-ground facilities to have their location posted. In ‘Western Canada, which is the source of most Canadian production «gas, the location is identified by a series of numbers called a legal subdivision or LSD. In Eastern Canada, locations are given by townships and concessions, Pipeline signs must indicate the contents of the pipeline (c.g., “Sour Gas”, “High Pressure Natural Gas”, or “Crude Oil”), All posted information must be centrally located and accessible to operators and potential users. All signs must be kept in good repair and be clearly legible. If any pipeline operation or associated equipment poses a threat to human safety, that information must appear on the sign. Waring, signs are required for high pressure pipelines and sour gas pipelines because of the hazard presented, Signage is also required at cathodic protection stations.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Alot and gas companies are required o have a writen emergency ENVIRONMENTAL & plan to cover various situations including environmental incidents. Emergency plans specify the personnel responsible for particular EMERGENCY PLANS: actions. Notification and evacuation procedures for residents in the vicinity of any facilities must be included in the plans. If human life or the environment is threatened, it may be necessary to implement an emergency procedure immediately. The plans for these procedures, must be known in advance. ‘Training for emergencies is also required by law in some areas, and sometimes mock emergencies are staged. Mock emergencies serve two purposes: + to practice the procedures that are in place, and + to find ways of improving the procedures. Most oil and gas workers are trained in fire-fighting, first aid, CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), and HS procedures to protect themselves and their co-workers in the event of an emergency. Design standards for pipelines and facilities have been developed by —GENERALDESIGN organizations such as the CSA (Canadian Standards Association), ce oN ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), API (American Petroleum Institute) and ANSI (American National Standards Institute). While these bodies have no regulatory authority in themselves, national and provincial/state laws usually require adherence to their standards. These standards specify minimum requirements for designs of pipelines and facilities. For example, if a pipeline of a certain diameter is to be built to a certain design pressure, the standards specify the grade of pipe that must be used. If the pipe is to be used for sour gas, or at low temperatures, then the standards specify special materials for pipe and fittings. In areas where a pipeline leak can cause major damage (such as environmentally sensitive areas and populated areas) the pipe that is used is de-rated. This means that its maximum allowable pressure is rated at less than it would normally be. This procedure allows an extra factor of safety and decreases the possibility of a leak 49THIRD-PARTY DAMAGE INSPECTIONS GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM ‘An ever-present concem for gas companies is damage to pipelines and facilities. Damage can be caused by many different activities. Construction erews are frequently responsible for damage to pipelines. For example, earthwork for road-building is carried out over pipeline rights of way. Excavating a trench for a new pipeline on the same right of way as an existing line can be hazardous and has been known to damage the existing line, Farming operations do not normally affect a pipeline, but deep tillage may go deep enough to damage a pipeline. Drilling for any reason is a potential source of damage to a pipeline, Water wells, post holes, anode placement, and seismic surveys are some possible examples. All pipelines must be inspected regularly. Regulatory bodies determine the types and frequency of inspection. Pipeline companies use light planes and helicopters to fly over their lines to search for signs of leaks. On a specified cycle, the lines are “walked”. This is an inspection at ground level where personnel travel along the length of the right-of-way looking for leaks. Signs of leaks include odours, and/or dying or dead vegetation. The personnel on the ground carry gas detectors. Cathodic protection systems are also regularly inspected to assure that the protection systems are functioning properly and to determine ifthe anodes require replacement. ‘An expensive, but very informative, method of internal inspection is, the use of a device called a smart pig. A smart pig travels inside the pipeline and, using electronic sensors, examines the wall thickness of the pipe. It produces a record that identifies variations in wall thickness and signs of corrosion at various locations for the entire distance recorded by the pig. Smart pigs are especially useful in the inspection of sour gas pipelines to determine if any internal corrosion has occurred,NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION 1. Why are compressors located at a central station? 2) To regula the as low into the pipctne REVIEW 4 b) To control the liquid flow into the pipeline ©) To boost the gas flow to pipeline pressure d) To throttle the gas flow to pipeline pressure 2. What causes corrosion inside the pipe? ) An electro-chemical reaction between different liquid coatings b) A flow of current from a cathode to an anode through an electrolyte ©) The formation of chemicals from the combination of CO, and HyS with water vapour 4) ‘The electro-chemical reaction of different combinations of CO, and HS reacting with the pipe coatings 3. Ametal such as pure zinc, which has a higher potential than steel pipe, is attached to the pipeline with insulated wire and buried alongside the pipeline. What is this process is termed? a) Cathodic protection b) Oxidation ©) Yellow jacket coating 4). Rectifier protection 4, Why are walking inspections are carried out? a) To monitor construction activities b) To perform smart pig runs ©) To check for pipeline leaks from the ground 4) To inspect pipeline maintenance activities Answers are at the end of this module. 5152 SUMMARY GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM SECTION 1 - GAS EXPLORATION + Scismology is a technique that uses sound or shock waves to measure characteristics of each layer of rock in the earth’s crust in a study area in order to compile a map of the subsurface formations. + Seismology is the most commonly used technique in oil and gas exploration. + The application of high-speed digital computers now enables the preparation of two- and three-dimensional images of underground formations. + While useful, 3-D imaging is very expensive, and is normally used only after 2-D methods have established the likelihood of oil and gas formations in an area + Other exploration techniques used in combination with seismology include surface geology, geochemistry, radar, and infrared sensing. + The gravity survey technique measures variations in the earth’s mal field to determine the depth and nature of subsurface + Magnetic surveys detect minute fluctuations in the magnetic field surrounding the earth, These fluctuations supply information about the shape, size and composition of the subsurface rock. SECTION 2 - DRILLING + Drilling is necessary to confirm the accuracy of exploration work. + Pre-drilling activities include preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and site preparation, + Site preparation includes construction of access roads, clearing and levelling, waste disposal, and building crew quarters, + Wells can be drilled vertically, slightly angled or directionally at depths in excess of 30,000 feet. + Conventional drilling methods include rotary drilling, in which a it is attached to a string of pipe and rotated, Turbo-drilling is also used in both conventional and directional drilling.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION + Directionally drilled wells may produce more oil and gas because they travel a greater distance through the reservoir, + Drilling equipment includes the drill bit, drill string, swivels, and kelly. Rotary drive for the system is provided by motors, In turbo- drilling, mud is pumped down the hole to drive one o more turbines, + ABlowout Preventer (BOP) is required during drilling and well completion to prevent uncontrolled escape of pressurized formation fluids + Well completion should include preparation for both production and eventual abandonment. + Well completion activities include drill stem testing, preparation for production and perforation of the casing, + Gas wells are eventually abandoned when production is no longer economical SECTION 3 — WELLSITE FACILITIES + Gas wellsite facilities are required to control gas flow from the wellhead and treat the gas by removing liquids and solids, + Wellsite separators may be installed to remove liquid hydrocarbons and water from the gas. + Testing, sampling and measurement equipment is usually installed at the wellhead. + Wellsite gas treating equipment must be installed a minimum distance from the wellhead, as stipulated by regulations, + Liquids may be separated from the gas stream. These liquids may be transported from the wellsite via truck or pipeline. + Gas scrubbers and separators remove entrained solids and liquids. Cyclone scrubbers and separators are both used, with the latter being more common, + Filters remove solid particles from the gas. + Line heaters increase gas temperature to inhibit the formation of hydrates. 53.GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM + Dehydration prevents hydrate formation by removing water ‘molecules from the gas. Glycol dehydration is the most common ‘method of gas dehydration. Solid desiccants may be used in some applications. + Dew point is the temperature at which liquid condenses out of the gas. Gas usually has different dew points for water vapour and hydrocarbons. + Sulphur in natural gas leads to corrosion. In addition, HS or sour gas is toxic, + Hydrates form when water and natural gas exist together under high pressure and low temperature conditions. Hydrates can be avoided by heating and/or dehydrating the gas, or by adding inhibitors. + Equipment at the wellhead controls the rate of well production and ‘gas pressure as the gas enters the pipeline. SECTION 4 - PRODUCTION FACILITIES + Gas is usually treated before entering the gathering system. Field treatment may include separation of liquids and/or dehydration, + Compression may also be necessary for field gas to enter the gathering system. Often, several wells flow to a common ‘compressor. + Corrosion can occur on both the inside and the outside of a gas pipeline. Components of the gas can combine to form corrosive fluids + Corrosion results from an electro-chemical reaction involving an anode (electron donor), a cathode (electron receiver), and an electrolyte. Electrons flow through a conductor from the anode to the cathode, causing corrosion at the anode. + Internal pipeline corrosion can be prevented by removing water from the gas or by using inhibitors. + Cathodic protection prevents extemal corrosion by reversing the flow of electrons in the electro-chemical reaction. The sacrificial anode is a method of cathodic protection.NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION Regulatory bodies keep track of oil and gas pipelines and facilities. Regulatory bodies stipulate requirements for licenses, design specifications, signage, and emergency planning, Legislation usually requires that gas production facilities adhere to accepted design standards. Legislation may also cover third-party ‘damage and inspection procedures 55.GLOSSARY GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM acidizing a process whereby acid with preferential reaction to the formation rather than to the casing, is pumped down the production casing, through the perforations and into the formation. (p. 20) annulus the space between the drill pipe and the outside of the hole. (p. 15) anode an electron donor necessary to begin an electro-chemical reaction. (p. 41) Blowout an uncontrolled escape of pressurized formation fluids, such as oil, water of gas. (p. 17) blowout preventer (BOP) a type of valve attached to the top of a well’s surface casing that serves to protect the crew and the environment from possible spewing oil and gas. (p. 12) cathode an electron receiver needed for an electro-chemical reaction to continue, (p. 41) Cathodic Protection (CP) an extemal anti-corrosion method relying on a source of electricity that reverses the normal flow of electrons from an extemal anode to the pipe so that the external anode cortodes instead of the pipe (p. 43) coatings substances such as paint, enamel or tar used on the outside of buried pipe to prevent external corrosion caused by contact with ‘groundwater and soil. Common types of paint used in coatings are fusion-bonded epoxy and extruded polyethylene. (p. 43) continuous sampling sampling procedure consisting of allowing small amounts of gas, into a sampling bottle over a specified period of time to achieve an average sample. (p. 32) corrosion inhibitors chemical substances that are introduced into the gas in order to prevent corrosion inside of the pipe. (p. 43)NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION de-gasser a piece of equipment that removes any gas from the drilling mud, (p. 15) de-rated pipe pipe whose maximum pressure rating is less than its actual capacity, This pipe is used as a safety measure in environmentally sensitive or populated areas where a pipeline leak could cause major damage. (47) derrick the visible portion of a drilling well. Also called a rig. (p. 14) decsiltr/de-sander pieces of equipment that remove the very small cuttings passed through the shale shaker. (p. 15) development well well drilled in an existing ld to increase production. (p. 11) dew point the temperature at which liquid condenses from the gas at a given temperature. (p. 32) drill bit a rotating device that cuts into the ground and loosens it, so that the cuttings can be removed by the fluid circulating system. (p. 14) drill collar heavy section of pipe just above the drill bit that adds weight to the Grill bit to help it push through rock. (p. 15) Drill Stem Testing (DST) 4 procedure carried out after a well is drilled to determine its commercial viability. (p. 19) drill string the length of pipe that goes from a drilling rig down to the drill bit in the ground. (p. 15) drilling mud a circulating fluid that removes cuttings and provides lubrication to the rotating bit during rotary drilling. (p. 11) drum central piece of equipment of the drawworks, on which the drill cable is wound. It controls the raising and lowering of the travelling block and the weight of the drill-pipe on the bit. (p. 15) 8758 GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM dry hole a well that is not economically viable. (p. 20) electrolyte a medium through which ion transfer can occur. (p. 41) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) a mandatory, pre-drilling report detailing all potential impacts of drilling on a given site, (p. 10) exploration well a well drilled to detect the presence of gas in a rock formation; also known as a wildcat well. (p. 11) fracturing ‘a process in which a specially blended high-pressure liquid is pumped into the perforations, breaking up the formation much like driving a wedge into the formation. (p. 20) glycol absorption ‘a method of dehydrating gas in which the molecules of one substance fill the gaps between molecules of another substance. (p. 29) glycol dehydration a process used to dehydrate gas in which wet gas and glycol are contacted in counter-current flow in a packed vessel. (p. 30) gravity meter a device used to measure variations in the earth’s gravitational field. ©.) hydrates substances that may form when natural gas and water exist together under certain conditions. (p. 33) infilling well a development well drilled between existing wells. (p. 11) inhibitors substances that act as anti-freeze to lower the freezing point of water, (p. 34), kelly the multi-sided piece of steel that is attached to the drill string at one end and to the swivel at the other end. (p. 15) kelly bushing 2 multi-sided component that locks into the rotary table. (p. 15)NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION kick an unexpected entry of pressurized formation fluids into a well while drilling, (p. 17) line heater a hot bath of water and glycol through which the natural gas pipe passes. (p. 30) magnometer a device, often used in magnetic surveys, that can detect minute fluctuations in the earth's magnetic field. (p. 7) proppant following fracturing, the addition of sand or other granular material to the fluid, The porous material holds (props) open the fracture when the pressure is removed. (p. 20) rectifier a device that converts alternating current (AC) from normal power lines into direct current (DC). (p. 43) rotary table a piece of equipment that turns the kelly, the drill string and drill bit. (p15) sacrificial anode form of external corrosion protection where a metal anode (c.g., zinc) having a higher potential than steel pipe is used. This type of cathodic protection does not require an extemal source of electricity (p. 45) sample bottle container, normally constructed of high-strength steel, used to take a sample of gas from the pipeline. (p. 32) seismology an exploratory method that uses the reflection of sound or shock ‘waves to map the various layers of the earth's crust. (p. 4) separator 4 piece of equipment designed to remove liquid from the gas. (p. 25) shale shaker ‘ piece of equipment that removes most of the drill cuttings from the mud, (p. 15) 59GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM smart pig electronic device that travels inside of pipelines to inspect and provide an accurate and informative record of variations in wall thickness and signs of corrosion at various locations along the pipe. (p. 48) solid desiccant adsorption ‘method of gas dehydration in which small particles of one substance are attracted to the surface of larger particles of another. (p. 29) sour gas (HS) hydrogen sulphide, an extremely toxic and flammable gas. (p. 17) spot sample a sample taken at one point in time. (p. 32) spudding in the drilling of a shallow, large-diameter hole lined with a casing set in cement, As the first step in rotary drilling, it serves to prevent contamination of neat-surface formations that may contain water, (p.1) swivel an attachment to the travelling block that allows the rotating equipment to turn freely without twisting the drill cable. (p. 15) rravelling block the largest pulley of the hoisting system in rotary drilling, its hook attaches to the rotating equipment. (p. 12) tripping in or out in rotary drilling is the process of lowering (tripping in) or raising (tripping out) the drill bitin the hole, (p. 12) turbo-drilling a type of drilling whereby the mud pumped down the hole drives a turbine or turbines that are attached to the drill bit. (p. 13) vibroseis 2 particular technique of seismology that uses a surface vibrator to send low frequency sound waves through the earth’s surface. (p. 5) well completion the testing and preparation of a well after it is found to be commercially viable. (p. 19)REVIEW 1 La 2.6 Bd 4a NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION REVIEW 2 REVIEW3 REVIEW 4 L 2, ’ a a La 2a Be 4b Se 6a Le de 3a Ae ANSWERS 61