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The Copulative Predication
The Copulative Predication
1. (a)Mary is quiet.
(b) Jack is a doctor.
(c) Susan is of my age.
(d) She will make a good mother.
These sentences contain a copula (be in sentences a,b,c) or a copula-like verb (make in
sentence d) which functions as the link between the subject of the sentence and the constituent
which predicates about the subject. This element is called a predicative. The copula or the
copula-like verb and the predicative form a copulative predicate.
As we can see the predicative can be expressed by a wide range of phrases. Only the copula BE
allows the full range of predicatives, the other copula-like verbs allow only a limited number of
possibilities.
THE COPULA BE
If we look at the sentences under 1, we shall immediately see that it is the predicative not the
copula which assigns a property to the subject, namely Mary is assigned the property quiet,
Jack the property a doctor, aso, which means that the predication relation hold between the
subject and the predicative, and not between the subject and the copula. We can say that the
subject of the sentence is assigned a theta role and so is an argument of the predicative, not of
the copula BE. It can be demonstrated by the semantic relations that the predicative imposes on
the subject.
The sentences above are ungrammatical as the property assigned by the predicatice to the
subject violates the s-selection. A Spinster and buxom select a [+female] entity, while father
selects a [+male] entity.
One conclusion would be that the copula does not assign an external theta role because it does
not have substantive content. This means that the copula does not have an external argument ; it
only has an internal argument, a small clause which account for the predication relation
between the subject ant the predicative. The subject is base-generated in [Spec,SC] position
where it is assigned a theta role, and from ther it moves to [Spec,IP] to be assigned case and also
to satisfy the EPP, which says that all senteneces must have a subject. This means that BE
cannot assign case, which is in keeping with the fact that it does not assign a theta role to an
external argument. So the copula BE behaves like an unaccusative verb.
Burzios generalization (i) a verb which lacks an external argument fails to assign Accusative
case
(ii)a verb which fails to assign Accusative case fails to theta-mark an
external
argument
Mary is quiet.
IP
Spec I
I0 VP
T V
-s V0 SC/AP
BE NP A
N A0
N0 quiet
Mary
The NP generated in the [Spec, SC] position will move to [Spec,IP] in order to be assigned case.
Another possible position would be [Spec, VP] which is empty because BU does not have an
external argument, so no theta role can be assigned in that position, but it is not a position in
which case can be assigned.
Conclusion
The copula Be is a raising verb taking a small clause as its complement, it lacks an
external argument, fails to assign case to its complement, does not assign a theta role.
Therfore it is an unaccusative verb which selects a small clause, the subject of the sclause
being generated in the [Spec, SC] position out of which it raises to be assigned case.
The copula BE is semantically light, which has been taken as a possible explanation for
the fact that it shares a number of properties with the auxiliaries.
It behaves like auxiliary verbs it undergoes movement to I0; it moves to C0 in question
formation; it is directly negated by not/nt, it can be stressed by emphatic affirmations, it
occurs in tags and codas
4. (a) Are they students?
(b) They are not/arent students.
(c) Oh, but they ARE students.
(d) They are students, arent they?
(e) They are students, and so are theor friends.
Like an auxiliary, the copula BE precedes the adverbs.
Unlike auxiliaries, which only allow one type of complement (VP), the copula allows a wide
variety of small clauses as complements (DP, AP, NP, PP, IP, CP).
The copula can co-occur with other auxiliaries, including auxiliary BE
When the small clause contains two NPs, any of the two can raise ti [Spec,IP]
To conclude, we can say that the copula BE is an unaccusative verb that has a number of
specific properties which distinguish it from regular unaccusatives and from auxiliaries
as well.
Small clauses are reduced clauses which lack the functional categories, mainlt Tense but which
denote predication relations, namely states of affairs which must receive temporal anchoring.
This is done by the verb the small clause is a complement of. The copula carries the markers for
Tense, Aspect, Agreement, Mood.
COPULA-LIKE VERBS
Fall, stand, make, sit, loom, remain, hold, run, get, lie, grow, go, turn, pass, seem, come,
etc
9. MAKE - If you work hard, you will make a good lawyer.(DP)
She will make a wonderful actress.(DP)
FALL The scheme fell flat.(AP)
He fell victim to her cruel remarks.(NP)
She fell an easy prey to him.(DP)
The house fell into ruins.(PP)
LIE The book lay open on the table.(AP)
The snow lay thick on the ground.(AP)
HOLD The argument holds true.(AP)
She always holds aloof from company.(AP)
STAND Tom stands alone amomg his mates.(AP)
We will stand firm.(AP)
Lady Jane stood godmother to her sisters child.(NP)
Those poor people stand in need of help.(PP)
SIT He sat tight on the saddle.(AP)
LOOM The castle loomed menacing in the distance. (AP)
REMAIN He remained a widower at the age of 30.(DP)
GET The sink got rusty.(AP)
GROW He has grown old.(AP)
TURN He finally turned a traitor. (DP)
They obliged the prisoners to turn Muslim. (AP)
PASS They pass for rich.(PP)
He passed for a doctor.(PP)
SEEM The students seem interested in linguistics. (AP)
COME The knot has come undone.(AP)
Copula-like verbs behave like the copula. They lack an external argument, their internal
complement is a small clause, so they are raising verbs like the copula.
IP
Spec I
I0 VP
T V
-ed V0
SC/AP
Fall
DP A
The scheme A0
Flat
Nevertheless, there are a number of differences between the copula and the copula-like verbs.
They preserve part of their lexical meaning (durative stay, remain, inchoative
become, get)
They impose certain selectional restrictions on the small clause (see the examples above)
They do not combine with the full range of small clauses as BE
They do not raise, do not invert in question formation, need do-support, are not negated
by not/nt, need do-support, do not appear in tags and codas.
Unlike the copula BE, when the small clause contains two NPs, only the NP subject, that
is the one generated in [Spec, SC] position can raise to [Spec, IP].
THE PREDICATIVE
Adjectives are heads that project structure according to X-bar, can be modified by an
adverb in the Spec position, can select a complement (PP , CP or IP), can also contain
adjuncts
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
They appear only in pre-nominal positions in English, unlike Romanian
15. an envious person / * a person envious
Nevertheles, there are a number of adjectives which appear post-nominally even when
used attributively - general, public, martial. laureate
17. secretary general, attorney general, notary public, court martial, poet laureate
There are adjectives which, under specific conditions, appear post-nominally even when
used attributively
Attributive adjectives have degrees of comparison, but only those which denote gradable
properties. They can be modified by degree words (quite, rather). Adjectives that denote
ungradable properties do not allow comparison or degree words.
When the occur in a string preceding the noun they are arranged on a very strict order
Adjectives may denote temporary or permanent properties, and depending on that they
may appear in pre or post-modifying positions
22. the only navigable river (permanent property) / the responsible man (trustworthy)
The only river navigable (transient property) / the man responsible (to blame)
Eg. Main, eventual, principal, utter, actual, favourite, former, mere, sole
25. The main purpose of his action has never been known. / *The purpose is main.
What we witnessed was an utter failure. /*The failure is utter.
Dont overestimate the actual importance of the act./ *The importance of the act is actual.
PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES
They select internal arguments (like verbs) to which they assign theta roles. They
generally subcategorize for PP, but the preposition is idiosyncratic, that is it cannot be
predicted from the properties of the adjective. Some adjectives subcategorize for IP
(infinitives) or CPs.
30. capable of decision; conversant with the subject; lacking in intelligence; dependent on his
family; answearable to the Prime Minister
They behave like verbs in a number of ways, but do not inflect for Tense and Agreement.
They take a subjected hosted by [Spec,AP] and a complement to which they assign theta
roles.This type of phrase is assumed to be a small clause
32. He became very angry with his sisters for their attitude.
IP
Spec I
I0 VP
T V
-ed V0 SC/AP
Become DP AP
He AvP A
PP
Very A For their
Attitude
A0 PP
Eg. Ablaze, afire, agog, aghast, afraid, asleep, akin, ajar, akimbo, alive, alike, alone, afloat,
aware, awash, astir, askew, averse, ashamed
2) both predicative and modifying in one meaning and only modifying in the other meaning
37. She gave me a very civil answer. /Her answer was civil.
He specializes in civil engineering / *The engineering is civil.
3) adjectives such as old, new, wrong when characterizing the refernt directly they are used
In both positions
a) Attributive A is B
40. Mary is smart.
Bobby is a fresher.
The district is in a state of chaos.
The problem is that he sould leave.
b) Equative A=B
41. The girl is Johns friend.
He is Secretary of State.
This girls is the most attractive of all.
The Nominal Predicative
Traditionally, one-argument verbs minimally contain one NP, which generally appears in the
subject position, but the main problem seems to be related to the position of that argument in
the argument frame of the verb, so the problem is whether it is the external or the internal
argument. The position of the argument has important consequences for the syntactic behaviour
of the verb.
One-argument verbs fall into two categories: a)unergatives and b)unaccusatives.
Eg. A) He may protest.
He overdosed.
He complained.
The children are swimming.
They were coughing because of the smoke.
B) There arose an unfortunate misunderstanding.
There came a cry of anguish from inside the house.
There appeared a ghostly face at the window.
In front of the house there stands a statue of the general.
There have arisen several problems.
A) Unergatives
Describe mainly volitional acts
The subject has control over the action, it is the initiator of the event, it is an Agent
The NP appearing with an unergative verb is its external argument
Is is not possible to have an postverbal imperative subject with unergatives
Eg. *Eat you up!
The past participles of unergative verbs cannot be used as adjectives in a post-head
position
Eg. *The man talked to was a neighbour of mine.
The past participles of unergatives cannot be used as an adjective in a pre-head position
Eg, * The yawned student eventually fell asleep in class.
Unergatives evince the feature of atelicity, in other words they do not presuppose an end
point
Eg. The boys cried with laughter.
Unergatives allow a so-called cognate object, an object which copies the semantic
features of the verb and which occupies the canonical position of the direct object,
namely after the governing verb.
Eg. They slept the sleep of the just.
They died a heroic death.
She dreamt a nice dream.
B) Unaccusatives
The subject of unaccusatives undergoes a change of location or state and has no control
over the action
The subject is not an Agent, it is generally assigned the theta-role Patient or Theme
The unique argument of an unaccusative verb is the internal argument
In Belfast English it is possible to have a postverbal imperative subject
Eg. Leave you now!
Arrive you before 6!
Be going you out of the door when he arrives!
The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as aadjectives in a post-head position
Eg, The train arrived at platform 5 is the London Express.
They arrested a businessman recently returned from Thailand.
The past participles of unaccusatives can be used as adjectives in a pre-head position
Eg. He is some kind of a fallen hero.
Unaccusatives evince the feature of telicity, namely they presuppose an end point.
Eg. The car had vanished from sight.
They do not allow a direct object
Eg. *The prices decreased cheese.
UNERGATIVE VERBS
a) predicates describing willed or volitional acts: work, play, speak, talk, smile,
grin, frown, grimace, think, mediate, cogitate, daydream, skate, ski, swim, hunt,
bicycle, walk, skip, jog, quarrel, fight, wrestle, box, agree, disagree, knock, bang,
hammer, pray, weep, cry, kneel, bow, laugh, dance, crawl.
b) verbs denoting manners of speaking: whisper, shout, mumble, grumble, growl, bellow,
etc
c) predicates describing sounds made by animals: bark, neigh, quack, roar, chirp, oink,
mew, etc
d) verbs denoting involuntary bodily processes: cough, sneeze, hiccough, belch, burp,
defecate, urinate, sleep, cry, weep, etc
Remark: the basic meaning of the verbs in the last two categories may not be that of
existence or appearance, but, when used in the there-insertion construction, they will
Different D-structures
Unergatives : NP [VP V]
Unergatives Unaccusatives
VP VP
NP V V
V0 V0 NP
This D-structure is in accordance with the case-assigning properties of the two classes of
verbs. Following Burzios generalization, a verb which lacks an external argument, that
is does not assign an external theta role also fails to assign Accusative case.Therefore,
the internal argument of unaccusatives has to move out of the VP internal position in
A. There-insertion
Only unaccusatives (with the exception of verbs of change of state) and passive verbs can occur
in the there-insertion construction, unergatives are not allowed in this construction.
There V NP PP
This construction simply postulates the existence of some entity and it may contain no locative
information. The existential there used in this construction is just a presentative construction,
which does not necessarily locate in space. There is devoid of meaning, it is an expletive
element. The internal argument of the verb must be [-agentive], it cannot have any control over
the action denoted by the verb. Such sentences usually express coming into being. (There began
a riot. / *There ended a riot). Not all unaccusatives allow the there-insertion construction. It is
mainly verbs of existence(the state resulting from the appearance of some entity) and verbs of
appearance (come into existence), which share the idea of existence. They also require a location
argument, be it overt or implicit, which means that these verbs have two internal arguments
one describing the entity that exist (Theme) and the other one describing the location at which
the entity exists (the location argument).Such verbs lack a causative variant.
There occupies the subject position, [Spec, IP] so the internal argument of the unaccusative
verb can remain in situ, inheriting case from there, with which it forms a chain <there i, NPi>. It
inverts with the auxiliary in question formation (Were there many children in the yard?)
There are unaccusatives derived from basically two argument-verbs causative predicates
which become intransitive and do not allow the there-insertion construction.The
causative component of the predicate disallows the there-insertion construction.
Existential BE interpreted as an unaccusative verb, a raising verb, just like the copula
IP
I
I0 VP
T V
-s
V0 SC
BE
A student in the room
Because of the Case Filter and the EPP, either the subject of the SC moves to [Spec,IP] or the
expletive there is inserted.
IP
There I
I0 VP
T V
-s V PP
In the room
V0 DP
BE a student
Starting from the analysis of exemples such as The light blinded him. or His attitude saddened
me., in which it obvious that a second causative predicate is involed, this predicate being in fact
an affixal verb, overt (-en) or non-overt () it is assumed that the VP shell comprises two
different projections: (a) an outer p shell headed by a light verb and (b) an inner VP shell
headed by the lexical verb. The light verb is an abstract, affixal verb which introduces the idea
of agentivity for unergative and transitive verbs and the idea of eventivity for unaccusative
verbs. Adjectives and verbs attach to this affix. The assumption is that the subject of unergatives
and transitives originates in [Spec, p], namely the spec position of the light verb, as the subject
of the agentive light verb, while the subject of unaccusatives originates in the [Spec, VP], namely
in the specifier position of the lexical verb.The lexical verb raises from V 0 to 0 to merge with
this feature.
I I
I0 p I0 p
there
0 VP 0 VP
DP V DP V
A cry of a cry of
Anguish anguish
V0 PP V0 PP
Came from came from
Inside the inside the
House house
There V PP NP
This construction need not be related to unaccusatives. There is a long list of verbs that can
occur in this construction. There in this construction carries a clear locative meaning.
Eg. A little boy darted into the room. / There darted into the room a little boy.
Verbs that can occur in this construction: amble, climb, crawl, creep, dance, dart, flee, float, fly,
gallop, head, hobble, hop, hurtle, jump, leap, march, plod, prance, ride, roam, roll, run, rush,
sail, shuffle, skip, speed, stagger, stray, stride, strut, swim, trot, trudge, walk.
3.Definiteness
Definite NPs, proper names and pronouns cannot normally be used as subjects of the
there-insertion constructions.
interpretations.
The set of sentences on the left refer to two unique, individual events one person who was sick
at some point in time or three pigs who are loose at some point in time, whereas the set of
sentences on the right have generic interpretations, referring to the inherent qualities of the
subjects (being tall or being stupid).
Conclusion
There has no meaning of its own
It is a semantically empty element, required for structural reasons it fills the subject
position
Its presence in the sentence is dependent of the presence of its associate, the postverbal
NP, which must be indefinite
(locative) PP V NP
Nevertheless, some unergatives can also be used in this configuration, namely verbs of manner
of motion and verbs of emission.
A resultative phrase is a phrase that denotes the state achieved by the NP argument of the verb
as a result of the action denoted by the verb. Such a phrase can be predicated only of the
immediately postverbal NP, namely the internal argument of the verb. In other words, only
those verbs that have an internal argument are compatible with Resultative phrases.
resultative constructions.
Eg. *The log rolled [its bark off]. / The log rolled off.
*The cart rolled [the rubber off its wheels].
The two NPs which appear in a postverbal position are not arguments of the unaccusative verbs,
they are not subcategorized for by the verb, so they cannot enter a resultative phrase.
Unaccusatives can appear with resultative phrases without the mediation of a fake
reflexive
Eg. * The water froze itself solid.
Generally speaking, the past participle of an unaccusative can be used as a noun modifier, both
pre and post-nominally, while the past participle of unergatives cannot.
The past participle of unaccusative describing atelic situations is incompatible with this position.
Telic unaccusatives are compatible with this construction.
Atelic unaccusatives verbs of appearance, verbs of disappearance, verbs of inherently
directed motion, verbs denoting an internally caused change of state.
Telic unaccusatives fall into two categories: firstly (a) verbs depicting a change of state which
can be interpreted as a property (eg. Fallen leaves, blistered feet) and which are freely used as
noun modifiers, and secondly(b) verbs depicting a change of location or of place (?a fallen child)
which are less felicitous as noun modifiers.
Phrasal intransitives
They are lexically complex verbs, made up of a verb and an Adverbial Particle. They evince a
high degree of idiomaticity. The transition from V AdvP to V Prt is made by a subgroup of
verbs that combine freely with a number of particles, mostly directional ones.
Eg. Puff across move across sending out smoke and/or panting noisily
Zoom across/along/away move across, etc swiftly with engine roaring
It is an unaccusative phrasal verb, and if we resort to the VP-shell analysis, the d-structure
representation of the sentence is the following.
IP
I0 p
0 VP
DP V
Came down
The Particles with the strongest meaning are the locative or directional ones. They preserve a
high degree of independence which is confirmed by their possible Preposing for emphasis
purposes.
IP
I0 p
0 VP
DP V
The balloon
V0 Prt
Go up
With unaccusative verbs the [Spec, p] position is a non-thematic position, so the particle can
move to that position and later on to [Spec,IP] which is also a non-thematic position with such
verbs.
Aspectual particles refer to the temporal dimension of the event. They may render a variety of
meanings:
a) the incipient character of the event out, in, off
eg. They set out to win support for their cause.
A hostile reaction has set in.
The cars set off in a cloud of dust.
b) the durative aspect on, away (they indicate the continuation of the event)
Most verbs combine freely with on.
Eg. Speak / work / walk on
The contribution of the particle to the global meaning of the verb may be null, in other words a
new meaning is created as a result of the combination. The meaning of the phrasal verb no
longer is a sum total of the meanings of the two components, namely the verb and the particle,
but a totally new meaning is now associated with the resulting phrasal verb.
Eg. Come round (regain consciousness)
Do up (be fastened)
Give in (yield)
Get along (manage)
Get by (survive)
Turn up (appear)
d) preposing stylistic device which applies for emphatic purposes. It applies where the particle
does not form a unit with the verb. It means that the subject remains in post verbal position,
while the particle moves before the verb. If the subject is an NP it can sometimes move in [Spec,
vp]. If the subject is a pronoun, it always moves in [Spec, vp].
Eg. Down came the prices.
Off came the actors fake beard.
Down the snow came.
In the sun went.
Down they came.
Down the snow came.
IP
I0 p
0 VP
DP V
The snow
V0 Prt
Come down
Inherent reflexives
There are a number of verbs which are inherently reflexives. The reflexive is specified as an
inherent feature by the Lexicon. Some of these verbs can subcategorize for a prepositional
object.
Complex intransitives
Complex intransitives are two-argument verbs, which have an external argument and an
internal argument which is not a direct object, but it generally is a prepositional object or and
adverbial modifier.
1.Prepositional intransitives
Prepositional intransitives are not a homogeneous class, due to various factors such as:
Examples:
1. A gang of thieves broke into her house last night.
He glanced through the article quickly.
In the examples above, the preposition retains part of its meaning.
2. Adverbs of time or manner (carefully, easily, frequently) can be inserted between the verb and
the prepositional phrase.
We will go very carefully into these proposals.
If the combination is idiomatic, it is no longer possible.
She gets at her husband frequently. / *She gets frequently at her husband.
This class includes verbs that subcategorize for a fixed particle and a fixed preposition followed
by its object.
In between the particle and the preposition an adverb of manner may be inserted:
Eg. They had done away reluctantly with that piece of legislation.
Eventive verbs, experiencer verbs and relational verbs subcategorize foe an indirect object
headed by the preposition to.
Eventive happen, befall the Dative NP expresses the experiencer or victim of the event
Eg. Whats happened to the old man?
A great misfortune has befallen the old man (the deletion of the preposition to is
obligatory)
Experiencer seem, appear, occur, sound, taste
Eg. How does it seem to you?
It has never occurred to her to ask herself that question.
The cake tastes funny to me.
Relational
a) general relational verbs indicating possession belong, possess
Eg. It belongs to me.
b) relations of inferiority bow to smb, cringe to/before smb, defer to smd/smth, submit to
smd,
yield to smth
Eg. The girl bowed to the audience.
I shall always defer to my taste / to his experience.
As the prepositional object is generally an experiencer, it not possible to passivize any of the
verbs in these categories.
Intransitives with two Prepositional Objects
a) V to about/upon/for
Eg. He lectures to undergraduates on the Elizabethan theatre.
You should appologize to Mary for your bahaviour.
Most of them allow passivization, and even have two passive counterparts.
Eg. We will have to speak to the tutor about the matter.
The tutor will have to be spoken to about the matter.
The matter will have to be spoken about.
NO passive
NO passive
NO passive
Reciprocal intransitives
Eg. The train and the bus collided.
The train collided with the bus.