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Pulse And Digital Modulation

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UA UB WLE bN UB UuKFL UOuuMJ U w wLKF uDK dE
UJ d UuKFL UUO qI Wd WOL
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PCM edL wCM sOLC WOMI (PAM ,PWM ,PPM) WOCM sOLC d WOL
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bu b
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PCM M wUE 5 UI eO9
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(Analog Signals) WOKUL U

UB WOO WOzUdNJ U q b WOM d UDI WKu dOG U LO
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V.(t)

V.(t) A-

- t

-
t A-

udJO U qJ WOO Wu qJ

(Digital Signals) WOLd U

uU s UB U p U se l UdOG bM b U LO
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qJA WOL U WOKU9 U
qJA WOKU9 U WOKU9 U
?qJA WOL U WOL U
qJA WOKU9 U WOL U

 WOKUL U WOKUL U WOKUL U WOL
U
nU pJHed

eOd

WOL
UUO WOKUL U WOL
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WOKUL UB eN s qC qLFU WOu WdI WOUFH WOLd UB eN U9
UD_ `OB WOUJWOKUL WLE_ w tM q WOLd WLE_ vK (Noise) guA dOQ uJ
U UOMI bU WOLd WLE_ w Y UM fH vK U s b Z WOUJ
bF* wLd
WUL( s_U WOU eO UNODF U2 UUO dOHA vK WOLd WLE_ bLF
WOKUL WLE_ s WUB d WOLd WLE_ bF

rJ% dOHA se WOLd U W'UF w Wu; UOMI WOLd WLE_ b

UNM UOK UN WOL

d WLE bFL UOU r
WOKUL WLE_ s bOIF d WOLd WLE_ bF

WOKUL WLE_ l WUI b dO UD dF UNU

(A/D) wLdwKUL qu

s WKK v?? WOKUL U?? qu vK W??O? c?? bLF
A/D Analog to Digital A/D ADC WO cN ed UuKFL U dOG U I UCM
s U {u se b w WLEM uB UMO U?? wHJ YO
(5) qJA k WOKUL U U

 qd v wL
d wKUL qu WO qd rI
A/D
U WOE( rO c w (Sampling) UMOF c
1 0 1
`B YO b d w WKB* WOKUL U
se U w WKBHM U
WOEK rOI VdI WOKL w (Quantization) rOLJ
wL
wKUL qu qJ v UMOF c WKd w c w (Samples)
Levels b Uu 
1 0 wzUM UEM u b WOL u rOLJ Uu  UD WOKL w (Coding) eOd
wL
d wKUL qu WOKLF w
bMB jDL (6) qJA sO

m1 (t)
WOKUL U Sampling Quantization Coding
4-

3-

2-
m (t) mq (t)
1-

0-
t
msec UMOF c rOLJ eOd WOL
U
m1 (t)
-1 - m1 (t)
-2 -
4- 4-
-3 -
3- 3-
-4 -
2- 2-
1- 1-
0- 0-
t t
-1 - -1 -
msec msec
-2 - -2 -

-3 - -3 -

-4 - -4 -

wL
v wKUL s quK w
bMB jDL qJ

m (t) UNU dL WOKUL UuKFL U m (t) YO

A
WOO U UbFM
qONK

t (msec)
(7) qJA w sO u UL m (t) A sin (2 ft)
2
b wL
dwKUL qu WOKL w b U rNH wJ
-A
T WOKLF c UNO dL w  qdL d s
WOO U qJ
(Sampling) UMOF c WKd
UOI dL tIK r (sample) WMOF c_ U ` (gating) Vu WOKL UMOF c WOKL qL
WOKUL U WF rEM qJA WKBHM rO
c UEU WOKLF dJhold rU dF pc
U s UMO c r t vK hM w (Sampling Theorem) UMOF WdE ndF s b UM
v p fs 2fm WLEM uB 2fm s qI (fs) UMOF c d (fm) vB
_ d WOKUL
UNUMO s WOKUL U Ud sJL
s fs UMOF c d q
U XuJU d 2fm d l fs d tO U c d vb
UMOF U nO UuJ sO (aliasing error) qb QD b 2fm

 wQ U b m (t) 8 sin (2 1000 t WO WUFLU WKL WOO U U????

A U U
m (t)

A=8
8

fm U d
t (msec)
0.5 1 fm = 1000 Hz

T b s
1 1
T= = = 1 ms
fm 1000
fs XuJU d
fs = 2fm = 2 (1000) = 2000 Hz

Ts UMOF c s
1 1
Ts = = = (0.5) (10)-3 = 0.5 ms
fs 2000
ns d q w UMOF b
fs 2000
ns = = =2
fm 1000

UMOF c WOKL vK WK

U (8) qJ sO
UMOF c WOKLF U OO{u

p (t) m (t)
mS (t) = m(t)p(t)

TS
(?)
() ()

UMOF c vK U qJ

qJAU WKUL UC p (t) WOC U d{ vK bLF UMOF c WOKL (8)qJ s k

U s dF UMO vK uB r sm (t) UuKFL US bU dF UU WU
(9) qJA w `{u u UL UMOF c_ WOKLF b s bbF b sJL WOK_

 ms (t)
m (t)

t wdJ
wdJ UH ms (t) t

p (t)

m (t) ms (t)

t
ms (t) t
V (t)

p (t)

wdJ UHL WIdD UMOF c_ U qJ

vK bLF w (S/H) UH c_ bU UMOF c sJL UL

S/H Sample and Hold
(10) qJA w UL luL sA WOU uJ YO UHL b

R
R
-
-
r + +
C VD
V (t)
s1 Q TS
C R

(S/H) UH c_ WIdD UMOF c_ U qJ

Quantization rOLJ WKd

WKdL c bN WOL
v WOKUL U qu qd s WOU WKdL w rOLJ WKd
UeOd WOKL qN UL rOLJ Uu s u d
v WMO q WLO
VdI v
s b v dH c rI [-A ,A] dH sL{ U b m (t) UuKFL U dHM
wQ UL WUL Ub UuL

2A
(1) ...................
L
UMb c UMU w Ub UuL b L YO
L= 2n = 23 = 8
WMO q qOL Coder edLK W WOzUM UU b qL n

b q qL w UMOF c d s U w ms (t) U sO (11) qJA
(T) d q w UMO 10 s uJ se U w WKBHM U c k rLJL
v A = 4 U WLO
v A=4 U WLO
vB
sO WUL rOI r bI (12) qJ w U
1 WUFL s V tOK c uL u q sO WUL YO (L = 8) Uu 8
2A 2 4
= = =1
L 8

dL bM WOKOUL U WLO

V0 (t)
9 /2 -

7 /2 - m1 (t)

4-

bN
5 /2 -
3-

3 /2 - 2-

Voltage
1-
/2 - V1 (t) t
0-
msec
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 - - /2 - 2 3 4 5 6 -1 -

-2 -
qbL bM WOKOUL U WLO

-3 /2 - -3 -

-4 -
-5 /2 - T

-7 /2 -

-9 /2 -

UMOF c d qJ UMOF c d qJ

u qJ 1 = Ue [3.5 , -3.5] dH w [ -7 , 7 ] dH w UuL dB r b

2 2
tI c uL s
rOLJ QD WMOFK WOdI WLOI WMOFK WOIOI WLOI WMO q?? r??
`{u (1) b???
WMO q eOd WMOF tO Xd
w uL (Quantization Error)

WMOFK WOdI WLOI WMOFK WOIOI WLOI rOLJ QD W???E

w??? u??? ? L?  WMOFK WOdI WLOI WMOFK WOIOI WLOI

(n = 3) eOd rOLJ QD WMOF r

WMOF tO Xd
rLJL d rLJL qb
100 5 -0.5 0.5 0 1
110 7 -0.3 2.5 2.2 2
111 8 0.3 3.5 3.8 3
111 8 0.3 3.5 3.8 4
110 7 -0.3 2.5 2.2 5
100 5 -0.5 0.5 0 6

 001 2 0.3 -2.5 -2.2 7
000 1 -0.3 -3.5 -3.8 8
000 1 -0.3 -3.5 -3.8 9
001 2 0.3 -2.5 -2.2 10

:Quantization Noise rOLJ guA

WMOFK WOdI WLOI rLJL qb bM WMOFK WOIOI WLOI sO U
d UM (1) b s k
- , dHU b guA c uJ rOLJ guA dH c vb (rLJL d bM
2 2
WO UFL s rOLJ guA s U O{U dF [0.5 ,-0.5]
WOO U w W
UD bF
A2
(2) ................... S=
2

WOO U U qL A YO
rOLJ guA w W
UD bF
2
A2
(3) ................... Nq= =
12 3L2
rLJL w WbL UuL b L YO
(SNR) guA U b
v U b
WvK qB 3 WUFL vK 2 WUFL WLI
WO WUFLU
(4) ................... SNR = { S
Nq
}= 3 2
2
L

ULK L2 UuL b ld l U d U UM VUM SNR k 4 WUFL s

iOH v R c d_ vK SNR XU rLJL w WbL UuL b
guA dOQ

sOLC UE WUu XK m (t) = 4 sin (2 100 t) WOO U XLK U???

wQ U b = 1 Volt L = 8 UuL b b c PCM ed wC

2 WUFL s S W
UD bF
2
A 42 16
S= = = = 8Watt
2 2 2

 3 WUFL s Nq rOLJ guA W
U bF

2
A2
Nq = = = 0.083Watt
12 3L2

4 WUFL s SNR bI

SNR = { NS } =
8
0.083
= 96.4
q

d WIdD UN UC lOD

3 2 3 2
SNR = L = 8 = 96
2 2

Coding eOd WKd

WMO q UD r UNO wL
d wKUL qu qd s dO_ WU WKdL w eOd WKd
p WOzUM UU WMO q UMK oU UMU w (Binary Coding) U OzUM eOd rLJL d bM
w n WOzUM UU b L UuL b sO W
UM Uu 8 t rLJL _
(5)................... L=2n

UMO dAF (1) b w UUO oU UL vK ULU edL s WU U qJ U

(13) qJ wU qJA vK uJ

WMOF eOd 100 110 111 111 110 100 001 000 000 001
U qJ
WMOF qJ
edL d
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
WMOF r

(Pulse Modulation) wCM 5LC

YO s UCM hzUB dOOG r WKU WuL WLEM UC WKK b vK dD c bLF
UMOF WLO
V UJL d dF U
w v dD c nOMB r pc

PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation PAM WCM U 5LC

PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PPM Pulse Position Modulation bL WOMe WDIM w WKU WuL WCM U VUM
WOMe WEK fH w UuKFL U U l U d U UM

 PWM WCM d 5LC

U U l U d U UM bL WOMe WDIM w WKU WuL d WCM d VUM
WMOF UH UU WCM d e YO U U WCM U UI l WOMe WEK fH w UuKFL
WCM WF sOLC l WUI guAU dQ q
sOLC c bF

PPM WCM UJ 5LC

U U l U d U UM bL WOMe WDIM w WKU WuL WC Wb WCM l
u VUM
UU WCM l
u dOQ e YO sOU WCM d U UI l WOMe WEK fH w UuKFL
guAU dQ q
_ bF
WMOF U
wKUL UCM sOLC W UM_ (14) qJ `{u

UuKFL U

UM_ qJ PAM

wCM sOLCK W t

PDM

PPM
td

UN UNUO s bL dOB

UB WLE eOK ndJOL bF w WLE_ c b
U s be U w tb sJL dO d UD d v U

wCM 5LC U nA

PAM LPF M (t)
ddL `d WUu PAM WCM U sOLC U nA r
PAM U nA qJA
(15) qJ k .(LPF) iHM
bU (PPM) WCM l
u sOLC U ( PWM) WCM d sOLC U nA r
iHM ddL `d bU UNHA r s PAM WCM WF sOLC U v UNKu qUJ
(16) qJ k

 PAM
PWM qUJ iHM ddL `d UuKFL U

PWM

t
TS 2TS 3TS 4T
s qu qJ
v PWM PPM wU PPM
PAM U

t
TS 2TS 3TS 4T
PAM

PCM ed* wCM 5LC

s teOL UL WOHUN UB WLE w U b U uO WLE_ d s sOLC c bF

guA b{ WOU WOUF
PCM Pulse Code Modulation TDM wLd lOL w tb

tuO s
dO d UD d v tU
t WU) UI U eN bOIF
d UDM bU WOHUN UB w U WOKLF  d UDM d qOKI r
WOuB W
UD rEF ed YO WOHUN UMIK UDM U u d s ( 3.4kHz ....0.4kHz)
d s UDM c sL{

PCM U nA bOu

U c nA WO PCM U bOu WOKLF WOzd UuJLK w
bMB jDL (17) qJ sO
WOL
U v WOuB WOKUL U qu vK bLF w

WOKUL U LPF iHM ddL `d UMOF c rLJ ed wuu u

A/D wL
wKUL u

8bit PCM

PAM

uwu u eOd pJH iHM ddL `d WOKUL U

UI

PCM U UI U qJ

w uM vK PCM U bOu WO hOK sJL

sL{ WOuB d ddL p (LPF) iHM dd9 `d v WOKUL U U r
(3.4kHz ....0.4kHz) d U*
U bF0 WOHUN UMI U d fm fs 2fm d UMOF c WUu UMOF cR
U* 6.8KHz s d c fs = 8kHz WOUWMO 8000
u  d v WMOF VdI rLJ* uI YO rOLJ WUu UMOF rOLJ r
.(256 = 28) eOd WKd w WMO qJ 8bit UL WU w u  256 b
d 8bit s uJ wzUM bF u  q qOL p eOd WUu UMOF eOd r
u qJA U c

WOu U v Wu* U qu u u u b
64kbit/sec (64000 = 8000*8) U Wd PCM U wuu u s WU) U vL

w uM vK rO PCM U nA U

v WOu* PCM
U qu uu u v WKI * PCM U qb
Wu U
.PAM U 5LC UC v Wu* U u eOd pJH uI
WKd* WOuB U vK uBK LPF iHM dd9 `d b

 wK{UH edwCM 5LC
b WIU WMOF v W WOK{UH WLO
qJ vK WMO q U r sOLC c w
WLOI UNU s
WKLL U b qOKI uKDL d UDM d qOKI vK sOLC c qLF pc WIKD
dO WIU WMOF WOU WMOF sO dH U WU w sOLC c b qCH WMOFK

Delta Modulation M U 5LC

WC U u WIU WMOF WOU WMOF sO dH U U w Wu WC U r sOLC c w
UDM qOKI r t k cN vL WU dOG WLOI WCM qL U U dH U U w WU
18 18 qJA k PCM ? WUI d
UNU UNOd WuN sOLC U bOu w WbL WOdJ b eOL

m (t)

x (t) 4-
3- ^ (t)
3- m
2-
2-
1-
1- t (ms) t (ms)
0-
0- 10
10 5
5 -1 -
-1 -
-2 -
-2 -
-3 -
-4 -
T

U sOLC U UNM wb VdI UuKFL U qJ

M ,PCM wUE 5 WUI

M PCM sO WUI w b sO

M UE PCM UE WOU r
d

jO bIF U UE 1

WDu WOU WHKJ 2

b X WMOF qL X s dQ WMOF qL WMOFK U b 3

dOG dO d UDM d 4

U u u v U A/D D/A u 5

wHUN U w U OLU UEM c UL U b U uO d PCM UE bF

U OKL

 bF* U
vK bF U U lOL UOMI b
1 UM
2 UM
3 UM
4 UM
5 UM
6 UM

d UDM dF qUJ G p UMI fH

c c
t t L UB UMI
UOKL b WOHUN UB w
f f
S1 S2 sO WOHUN ULUJL s dO b U bFL U
C
WOJK UB w UB UM
fH vK rUIL
t
s b?? UbM U??B? U??M?
fH qJA U??C?H? S??
f
S4 w U s d qI sJL wJ bFL U b
(19) qJ tH X
u
time (t) se
space (si) UCH
bFL U s u WL UM
frequency (f) d
code (c) ed SDM wUJ* rOIU bF* U
SDM qJ WOdG oUML vK WUL uMI d rI
s U
UD WIDM q vDF YO WOJK UB w
b?? lML UN U???L? WIDML s?? nK d??? 
sJL b??F? oUM w?? d???  d??J? U??F? q??b???
WIDM q w bFL U s d_ u_ b

FDM d rOIU bF* U

1 UM
2 UM
3 UM
4 UM
5 UM
6 UM

c U d qB vK uM c qL bLF
f

UN qJ sOF d UD hOB p WKdL

UuKFL U?? d?? qbF p r U??
t WKBHM Wd U
UD vK uBK WKU US
FDM qJ UB UM
fH vK X
u fH w U F UNU
(20) qJ k
SDM Space Division Multiplexing
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexing U?? c?? qBH UI UN uI
TDM Time Division Multiplexing
UDM ddL Ud bU
CDM Code Division Multiplexing

 TDM wMe rOIU bF* U
UHU p b UB j w U eN sO se rOI vK uM c qL b bLF
sO WMeL rOI c VKD UB WLE WF U v R c WOU WOMe dH s
(21) qJ k UI U eN

TDM ,FDM d wMe rOIU bF* U

d UD s d hOB p d wMe rOI eO s UH r uM c w
dO oOM WMe v U uM c sJ U UI eN sO U OM U
UDM c rOI YK
(22) qJ k eN_ c bOIF v WU{U Ud UI eN sO

1 UM
2 UM
3 UM
4 UM
5 UM
6 UM

1 UM
2 UM
3 UM
4 UM
5 UM
6 UM

c
c

f f

t
t

TDM. FDM qJ TDM qJ

:CDMA ed rOIU bF* U

1 UM
2 UM
3 UM
4 UM
5 UM
6 UM

c WUL uMI WU qG bFL U?? s uM c w

s U U e U UN q UDS p U WOKL w
sJL UI UN w U UL UDM qU b r
f
U v R c e vK UM UN q U?? vK dF
U t UL WIU WLEU WUI tb w WLE_ WF
t (23) qJ k UI U UN sO WMe v
CDMA qJ

qIM j eOd
eOd b UB j WUu WKdL WOzUM UuKFL s dFL WOzUM ud VOd rOEM
bN WHK ULM
qIM j) d UDM l rz d UDM qOKI

 DC dL * WOuH Wd qOKI
UB UM d U Wd U

ULM c r s
U WU WC WUu 1 oDML WU qL (UNRZ) dHBK uF b l WODI U u/
(24) qJA `{u u UL U lDI 0 oDML WU qL sO w

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
UNRZ qJ

WdI UUL w b uN pc DC dL WOuH Wd vK u t tuO s

WU q9 (URZ) dHB v uF l WODI U u/
UNRZ Unipolar Non Return to Zero UD dF sJ U WU WC WUu (1) oDM*
URZ Unipolar Return to Zero
WU w U qd (bit) WOzUM s nB UF
(25) qJA `{u u UL (0) dHB

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
URZ qJ

DC dL * WOuH Wd qKI t_ oU  uLM s qC uLM c bF

WUu (0) oDM* WU (1) oDM* WU q9 BNRZ dHB v uF b l WODI wzUM u/
(26) qJA `{u u UL WODI w W UF U WU UC

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

BNRZ qJ

 (DC) dL * WOuH Wd UHU uLM c U1
BNRZ Bipolar Non Return to Zero WODI U u/ l WUI
BRZ Bipolar Return to Zero
oDM* WU q9 BRZdHB v uF l WODI wzUM u/
w W UF U U WU UC WUu (0) oDM* WU (1)
(27) qJA w UL WOzUM s nB w WODI

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

BRZ qJ

U l UD vK b (DC) dL * WOuH Wd iH w qC_ u

WU WU WODI (1) oDML WU qL (Biphase Manchester Code) uD wzUM d AU u/
oDML WU w fJF b d UNHB w Wu WOD
v qIM r WOzUM s nBM U
.(28) qJA w `{u u UL0

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

uL qJ
uD wzUM dAU

WIU ULMU WUI U b d_ qC_ bF

U?????????A
qIM j eOd UL s d u s Y

 WOLd 5LC d
Wd W sOLC (ASK) U W sOLC q WOL
d U qIM d d b
(PSK) WuD W sOLC (FSK)
WOJK UIOD s bbF w U b Ud wL
d sOLC u j s u??_ c bF
v WU{U WOJK WLE_ w U WOKLF  d UDM UHU eOL WOJK
WOJK WLE_ w WOKUL U vK UNKOL UOJK UNU sJL WOL
d U

dG UNOK UMO iF U r b

UDM d qOKI qIM Wd U guA dOQ qOKI

UML WLE WuOK WOJK nuN q WOJK UIOD s bbF w dD c b
WOJK UB w uL w b UL rJ WLE WOUMB UL
_ ndJOL

(ASK) U W 5LC
bu WU w UOKF WLOI v 0 dHB WU w v_ WLOI s WKU WuL U W t bBI
sOLC c uNH (29) qJ `{u 1

m (t)
t

(1) oDML WU w 1 ASK mc (t)

BPF t
0 oDML WU w 0

ASK

U W sOLC qJ

teOL s Envelope Detector G nU bU U c nA r

WOD) dO dOGK b U qOK d UD d b

FSK Wd W 5LC

b cQ YO WHK d vK 0 wIDML dHB (1) wIDML bu U sOLC cN bBI
sOLC c uNH (30) qJ `{u d d WLO
s vK sd b WLO
uJ sOU

 Vm (t)

PCM
VCO
Vc (t)

FSK U bOu

V FSK

Wd W sOLC qJ

WOJK WLE_ s dOJ w b XuHU t rJ cc VCO

PSK WuD W 5LC

WOzUM qbL U V WKU U u dOG YO uD d dOG vK sOLC c bLF
WO U uF c WOL
d UB w U b U uO u_ d s bF

d UDM d dG
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
WOU u 5LC c lL
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator U w WOD) dO dOGK U dO
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
PSK Phase Shift Keying d_ WLE_ s q U b v U
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
tu s
(Binary PSK) WOzUM WuD W 5LC

5LC c uNH (31) qJ 5 5KL 5LO b WKU( Wu* u cQ tO

m (t)

Mc (t)

uD W sOLC qJA

BPSK wzUM

BPSK

 (QPSK) WOUd WuD W 5LC

w WKL rO l b WKU( Wu* u cQ YO wL 5LC WOMI s U u

(32) qJ k[ 2 , ,
2
,0]

01
00 01 11 10
135 00
sOLC qJA
W uD W 45
QPSK WOUd

11 10
225 315

(MPSK) Uu* bF WuD W 5LC ?

WKL; rOI s WuL sL{ s WMOF WLO WKU( Wu* u cQ YO wL 5LC WOMIu
YO WOzUM wU_ UDM U vK bLF c
Nb = L2og M = M = 2N

u e qJ UU b u Nb YO
WHKL u_ WMJLL U b u M

U?????????A
8PSK wUL WuD W sOLC UE s Y

GMSK wU' UOb W 5LC

1 1 0 1 WOLd UuKF* u% qB* uD Wd W 5LC s u u
FM d sLC bU U 5LC r iHM* d ddL U `d b r
U  d UDM s qKI U `d b GMSK U U `B
(33) qJ k U* uMI 5 qb b s qKI

wL
u U `d d sLC GMSK
U
UuKFL

wU UOb W sOLC qJ

 WK?????_

WOzUdNJ U u rd l d
(A/D) wL v wKUL u; qL `{u c wbMB jD* r
UE G nU U sOLC rOLJ guA UMOF WdE WO rOUH* d
GMSK UE ASK UE BPSK
WOLd WLE_ Ue d
WOLd WLE_ UOK d
PCM UE uO Ue d
m(t) = 10 cos (1000 t) WOU UuKF* U XOD
d q w UMOF b fs U UMO d ( fm) U d U WF wQ U b
bI L UuL b b UU WMO q qOL ed b
U j
UMOF c b U OKL
PCM sOLC UE WUu m(t) = 10 cos (800 t) UuKFL U XK
wK U bQ ( L = 8 1 = )
.SNR bI ? guA WU bF U WU bF
PCM U nA bOu WOHO rd l d
5F UB j WUu WKd WOzUM UuKF U 01011001101 wzUM ed XOD
b bM W&UM eOd U r
BRN dHB v uF l WODI wzUM u/
BNRZ dHB v uF b l WODI wzUM u/
uD wzUM d AU u/
bFL U u b
M UE PCM UE sO U

WO qL' s qJ WU) UF U X U WOB UF U  U l{

WOKU9 U WU( s WU) U
WOLd WLE_ l WUI dO d UD d v WOKUL WLE_ U%
b Uu  v UMOFK WOEK rOI VdI u rOLJ

 b WOL u UMOF UD WOKL u eOd

WOKUL UuKF* U s nF{ U d UMOF c s uJ
rOLJ guA dOQ q rLJ* w Wb * Uu * b ULK
n = L2 w n WOzUM UU) b L Uu * b 5 WF uJ
WCM UJ 5LC w UuKF* U U l U d U UM WCM d VUM
b* dOB UB WLE w wCM 5LC WLE b
TDM wLd lOL WLE w tb PCM 5LC Ue s
PCM UE s WHKJ d ( M) U UE bF

SDM wUJ* rO I bF* U u s
d UDM Ue eOd s WHK U/ b sJ1
wIDM* dHB wIDM* bu U r YO wLd 5LC UOMI b BPSK UE bF

WHK d vK
qB* uD Wd W U/ s U u/ GMSK UE dF
WO WK_ w WOB WU d
WOLd UB WLE UOK s
WOUF WHKJ wUF guA
dO d UD dF UNU qLFU WdI b ?
wMF wLd wKUL qu WO
UNLOLJ UMOF c UeOd UMOF c
p dO UeOd UMOF rOLJ ?
WO dA oOI% UMOF WdE dA
Tm/2 Ts 2fm = fs ? fm fs . 2fm fs
w( = 1 L = 8) PCM UE w rOLJ guA WU bF uJ
p dO 0.083w ? .1w .96w
wCM 5LC d s
PPM ? PSK ASK
wLd 5LC WLE s
p dO PWM ? PPAM .GMSK

 b????????u

U???u* U??A U??OzuN

Antennas And Wave Propagation

 Uu* UA UOzuN
ULNMO q
UM ju qIL qdL W w UB UEM WOU_ UuJL U IU X
q
U ju d UCH UOzuN WuEM W vK eOd rO bu c w

bu b
vK U
uJ pM l
u bu c p bF
WOKLF UNUb UUA d WO OUMGdNJ Uu* hzUB r eO9

_U jO; u' G UI vK dF
WOKLF tUb tU  w OUMGdNJ nOD w Wud d UD b%
UDI uNH `{u

UOzuN hzUB r dA
WOKLF UNUb UNBzUB UOzuN u r dF

 WOOUMGdNJ Uu*
UuKFL qL w WOOUMGdNJ UuL Y U wzu v wJK UB UE U
v WDIKL WOOUMGdNJ UuL qu UI wzu v U C U UL bBL s WKdL
UI WN w nAJK WUM WOzUdN U
d WOOUMGdNJ WuL hzUB W s b UNu UNBzUB UOzuN Wb b q

WOOUMGdNJ UuLK UA ju u G hzUB vK dF v WU{U UUA

The Electromagnetic Wave WOOUMGdNJ Wu* hzUB

iF l ULNCF sbUF H wOUMG U E wzUdN U s WOOUMGdNJ WuL uJ
1 qJA w `{u u UL ULUA U l

E vzUdN UL b

UA U
X
S

H wOUMG UL b

WOOUMGdN Wu qJ

wQ UL WOOUMGdNJ WuL hzUB r hOK sJL

UNUI bM UNd qI WOUd 3 108 WGU uC Wd s dI Wd UCH w dAM
qUM ju WFO u V d_ U_ w
YO Wu* d dU jd wu u UN
c
=
f
dLU WuL u
edONU WuL d f
WOUd 3 108 WGU uC WdC

U I `CO UL UF WdF wzuN rOLB d{ WOOUMGdNJ WuL u WdF bOHL s

w OUMGdNJ nODU dF ULO l

UD vK WO OUMGdNJ Uu* d b9
(The Electromagnetic Spectrum)

UJv dF b UNS WHK* U_ s bd UUA WO OUMGdNJ Uu* UI bM

wU UNHdF sJL w uH qb s U C wUF b

uO UJF
Wu* UF U& dOG t bBI Refraction U J

t d j v j s tUI bM W OUMGdNJ
zU 5Du 5 qIM YO WHK WOzUdN hzUB

.(2) qJA dEUdM

WO OUMGdNJ Wu* dOOG u Reection UJF

c qBH e U vK UNuI  W O ju fH w UNU&
dJM WOOUMGdN Wu qJA WOzUdNJ hzUB) w tF nK d j s ju
(3) qJA dE
UM U( Ue s d vK WO OUMGdNJ Wu* bI u Diffraction uO(
(4) qJA dE UNNu w ozuF s
UbM Ue UJ* fH w Ubu bM d 5u u Interference qb
WUI Uu* c d uJ

qdL qE WIDM

uK dEM

qE WIDM

qd wU dEM qI

l
uL b s WOOUMGdN Wu uO qJ UJF qJ

u Fading uH)
UCH w UNUI bM nFC YO WO OUMGdNJ Wu* b w dOG
U J _ `D s UJFU bF quF WO p b qI * v qd* s
UC Wu' quF dOQ qFH UOKF u' UI w

 Ud V rK 100 wu u WOOUMGdN Wu U???
c
=
f
c 3 108
f= = = 3GHZ
100 10-3

WOOUMGdNJ Uu* UA d
j WFO v WU{U WuL c d vK wU q JA WOOUMGdNJ WuL UA bLF
WUL  Uu*WOD  WO{_ Uu* v UUA d V u_ rOI sJL UA
WOzUCH Uu*

(Ground Surface Waves) WOD WO{_ Uu*

bL d U d UUA bM _ `D l wMM UN_r cN XOL b

edOuKO 500 v edOuKO 150 sO WO{_ UuL bU sODI sO UB bM

w qL UB WOKL w UuL s uM c b Ue UM

Wd UB w b wN c duKO 4000 v qB bOF UU 
v uu
t UL WM  uB UNM qOK VUF dQ bF Uu* c UA U1 WOUF WOuu
Wu' u_U dQ

wN uOF r U
WUB dO UNKF U2 WOU WOzUdN b U UD
edOuKO 350 wu b U* d UDM Wb

d UH dE dO UF WO{_ u_ UF b * wzuN

(Sky Waves) WUL Uu*

rO wdOHuu_ WI q UNUJF qFH _ v W OU uF UL u UN r w w
e YO Ud vKdOHuu_ WI q UuL c UNFDI w WUL bLF U I UNd
fJFM wU UCH v oKDM edOUO 30 wu WMOF WLO
s Ud U d UU
5 qJA w sO u UL _ v

 wU UCH v
edOUGO s d

dOHuu_

WUL UuL

dOHuu_ WI s WUL UuL UJF qJ

4000 v qB UA oOI sJL YO w Y UOKL w dJ WUL UuL b

UB w WUL UuL b Ue r bO dE w duKO

WOU WOzUdN b v U WD U%
edOUO 30 3 WOUF d UD sL{ UB
dOu vK U _ `D dQ

WO UD; s dO bF

bOF UU * UB oOI% sJ1

w qL uOF U
uO dLU dOG w dOHuu_ WI vK UL U UE dI b
Wu' dEU UdQ WU{UWM  uB

dO d UD d VKD w UB WLE w U s jLM c b sJ1

(Space waves) WOzUCH Uu*

WLOI uD UA v qOL wN c edOUO 30 s vK U uJ UuL c d
WOUMB UL
_ d WOzUCH UB w _ `D vK Wd j WLE sO UB oOI

sOL
v WOzUCH UuL rIM
qJA UI wzu v U wzu s dU qB w w dU* Uu*
WKd* WOzUCH Uu*WOU

`D s UNUJF bF UI wzu v qB w w _ s W
JFM* Uu*
(6) qJA w `{u u UL WKdL WOzUCH UuL s WKOK
W qJA _

qd qI
dU Wu

WJFM Wu

WOzUCH WuL UA qJ

W j u dA tS UB UOKL w WOzUCH UuL b t dcU db s

oOI WMJL WU d U sJL UI wzu U wzu sO (Line Of Sight) dE
WOU W
F s Wd j

R (km) = 4 ( ht (m) + hr (m) )

d uKOJU UI wzu U wzu sO WUL R

dLU _ `D s U wzu UH ht

dLU _ `D s UI wzu UH hr

hr UI wzu ht U sO Wd j

ht
hr
_
U wzu
UI wzu

UI U j wzu sO Wd j qJ

W j u vK WEUL l UI U wOzu sO WMJL WU d V U???

d 36 U ULNM >q UH XLK ULNMO

 R (km) = 4 ( hr (m) + ht (m) )

vK qB WUFL w iuFU

R (km) = 4 ( 36 + 36 ) = 4 (6 + 6) = 48 Km

UB v WU{U UHK Y w ndJOL UB w WOzUCH UuL b dJ

WOUMB UL
_ d
w UB UOKL w UuL c b Ue
WOU WOuu W
dO UuKF* qIM U* d UDM
wN uOF U
WUB WHKJ s be U2 bOF UU * U bM WuI UD b d
vK qLF YO UdO ZK dD*U Wu' quFU UdO s d dU* Uu* dQ
UNOA UNUF{

_U jO; u' G UI
u' G WOL

sO UG s Wd WIO
WI s U u w{_ u G
UG iF uOKON sOdOM sObON sO_ UG
sOdO
8 qJA w dNE UL WUH VM d_

u G UuJ qJ U u bF
UOU UNOL _U u G jO
_U jOL
_ vK UO QA w b U LN
wzu s UNUI bM WOOUMGdNJ UuL t s d c ju u u G
UNUI UN dF w dOQ UuL c UI WOHO rNH UI wzu v U
_U jOL u GK j d
rbI s b d UJ s
WOUM* WID dOHud WI w WOz U
W v 9 qJA s dNE UL u G rI
dOHuu_ WI dOHud  WI

 Troposphere WOUM* WID dOHud WI
- 140
- 130 s bL u G s vKH WID dOHud qL
- 120
- 110
- 100 dOHuu U dI (16km) UH v d `D u
dOHud WI bF
- 90
- 80
- 70
b WOUML WID UNOK oKD UML dOG w WUFH WID
- 60
- 50 UD_ uOG UCU WID c w Wu duE lOL
- 40
- 30
dOHud - 20
UKI b?? pc WOKd nuF Wbd nuF
- 10
km u jG{ d Wu s p l U fID UML
dOHud

G w uuL UL U rEF vK U C dOHud WI

vK UMFH ULK WID c w d U h
UM u
u GK WOOzd UID qJA
10 qJA w dNE UL
guA UNUI WOOUMGdNJ UuL UA UH w dR sJL WIU quF lOL
UB WLE rEF vK guA v R WID c w Wu duE s ZUM

r
UCH +1000 C
400

dOHuu_

50
-40 C
d sO W
F qJA dOHud
w d `D s UH 16
dOHud -80 C
u G UI
d u _ +10 C

Stratosphere dOHud WI
u U dIU eOL _ `D s U dI r 50 UH v bL dOHud WI u lI
nOF{ d OQ WID c bF
U_ cN UL U bFM UL UNO u jGC d W
WOOUMGdNJ u_ vK

 Ionosphere dOHuu_ WI
b w WIDML UN_ r cN XOL b
U dI r 400 WUG r 50 UH s WID c bL
s UbL w W
UD s dO UOLJ UG c UB V _U WDOL UGK sQ UNO
WOHM u WOLA WF_
w WOz UI l s WMQL WIDML nQ
WID c dNE _ `D s U dI r 90 50 UH vK D WI
b YOUNM w
UNBzUB r s qOK WLK b l e wU
bU UB WOUJ du U2 VLF b iHM* d Uu* fJF
WOU U bI dO UFQ UOzu
(MF) ju* (LF) iHM* d Uu h9
edOUO 3 s Ud qI w Uu* fJF
d UU dOQ c qI edOUO 3 s Ud be w Uu* vK dR
pL _ `D s r 100 UH vK lI O2 5 _ Ue sQ s QAM E WI
UNBzUB r s qOK U dI wH U dI r25
U dI r 1900 v ju* b* UBU `L wUU edOUO 20 WUG Uu fJF
d UU dOQ c qI edOUO 20 s Ud be w Uu* vK dR
s UdI r 20 pL r 200 UH vK lI 5dOM Ue sQ s QAM F1 WI
UNBzUB r
S U d UNCF 5u HF wUF d Uu iF UB vK qLF
.F2 WID WUu UN J rF1 WID s U C d9 E WID d w d

WI lI 5bON uOKON 5 _U UG s bbF sQ s QAM F2 WI

d_ Uu_U W U d_ WID w _ `D s U dI r 400 UH vK F2
wUF d U w W U b* bOF UB w W OL d_ WID wN c WOUF

bOF UUv d WOUF UuL UA vK qLF YO edOUO 30 v HF
UJF uJ wUU F vb b W I JA O UbM F2 F1 wI d b UL
O UNUI UuL
U C qC uB r UN tM qC
qOK UNM dOHuu_ UI sO 11 qJA

 F2- layer U??NM w??
F1- layer _
E- layer
D- layer
UI qJA
UNM WMQL u ud u

qdL
_

q?? OK w??

F- layer

UI qJA
qOK WMQL u
qdL
_

dOHuu_ UI s Uu* UJF w dR* quF

UNKB sJL w WUL vKdOHuu_ WI v WOOUMGdNJ UuL UF W dR q
dOHuu_ WUJ dOQ bu q dOHuu_ WI s UNUJF w WKdL U d dR nO Y
u tJ w tdI

Radiation Angle UF WdOQ

U wzu o_ j sO uBL We pK UNQ UF W dF

qI We c UU WOJ W
WKdL WuLK eHI WU UF W sO W
F uJ
w (Critical Angle) Wd We v qB v U WD s dI WuLK eHI WU
Ue WMQL WID vK WD
U UuL UbM bd W d UNQ sOF
d bM UNHdF sJL
q WMQL WID sL{ wMM WOOUMGdNJ u_ lOD Wd We WLO
s UF W
dOHuu wU UCH v W
d dL

C
qb d fH UN Wu Uu 12 qJA w dNE
A B

We
WHK UF Ue dOHuu_ WI
Wd
B WuL eH
_ wU) UCH v dOHuu_ WI d A Wu*
C WuL eH
s d UN UF W _ _ v uF
U dI W 90 Wd( We
UuL uK qJA

uJ _ v uF wMM UNS c Wd( We U UF We UNU - B Wu*
sJ1U dG eHI WU 
v uF V  B Wu* UNK w s bF WU 
bM _ v uF wMM C Wu*
B Wu* UF W Wd( We s dG UN UF W

Frequency d dOQ

WUL w wUU dOHuu_ UID UN

d oL U UJF vK WKdL U d dR
d d dF
WMOF UF W bM d UU WUL c e Y UNKB sJL w
tQ Critical Frequency
v dOHuu_ UI d UL _ v uF UNS tM WKdL U d c d
U d d s vK d b WOUMB UL
_ d UBS c wU UCH

Layer Density WID WU dOQ

w oUM s uJ WMQ WI q U sOL 13 qJA dNE

c v Wud Wu* qb UbM WLEM dO WDu WU w sQ U WIDM
_ v bzU wMM UNS WIDM*
d U J uJ UNO WOUF WUJ vDu WIDM* w rE_ sQ WIDM
_ QD
WLEM sQ WU
v _ s bOF wMM UNS WIDM* c v Wu* qb UbM sQ hUM WIDM
wU) UCH

sQ h
UM

sQ rE

sQ U

qdL qIL

Wud UuL UJF vK dOHuu_ WU dOQ qJA

 Skip Distance and Skip Zone XuH WIDM eHI WU
Uu qJ vK dAM sJL WMOF d bM WKdL WOOUMGdNJ UuL S rKF UL
14 qJA s `C UL WUL Uu WO{
dOHuu_

v qdL s WUL UNQ eHI WU ndF sJL

WUL Wu
_ v bdL WUL WuL UNO uF WDI
WO{ Wu
UI UNKLA w WIDML UNQ XuH WIDM dF

XuH WIDM
eHI WU
UuL UI UbM nFC w WDIM s b Y
bdL WUL WuL UNO uF w WDIM v WO{_
WIDM eHI WU sO W
F qJA _ v
WO{_ UuL XuH

U???????A
u G UI sL{ UuL UA vK _ WI dOQ w Y

tBzUB Wud d UD
d rO U tM e vK XdF
WOL t d r
wOUMGdNJ nOD U IU X
300GHz WUG 3kHz s bL c Wud d UD r
u UB WLE w WU

rd vK WU
bb uM pc qEO UB WLE w U b d_ UDM c bF
YO
We b
dN w UuKFL qIM eOK s e
b U w Wb Ub U_ s
WKIL uMI s sOL qI vK eOK s b
G w UUA UL_ `O{u
l Wud d nOD wUL e sO 1 r
b
WOKLF UNUIOD r v WU{U  u

U???????A
Wud eK WOU Wb UOL dF c b s Y

 b wKLF oOD UA jL d UB Wd We

bOF UUL Wd UB w WO{ UuL dAM edOuKO 30-3 VLF b WCHML d
d `D X WKC UL_ w UuGU UB .Very Low Frequency

sH UuG l W U r 5000 v 1000 s WDuL UUL UB WO{ UuL dAM edOuKO 300-30 LF WCHML d
Wd WL w .Low Frequency

UOL UUG d UN WU UHJ LF d c b dzUDK sJL

Y w bL WuL u V WUL nK WDuL UUL UB WO{ UuL dAM sJL edOuKO 3000-300 MF WDuL d
.AM w Y w b edOuKO 1606 526 d UDM dU WOzUC WUL .Medium Frequency

bOF UU d UB WUL dAM WO{ UuL edO UO 30 3 HF WOUF d
.SW dOBI WuLU w Y w U dI r 500 50 s .High Frequency
.Amateur Radio uN u UUL dAM WUL UuL
U dE U F WKu

.VHF uMI UHK Y UuL wU qJA dAM edO UO 30030 VHF b WOUF d
.FM w Y j UB dU WOzUC .Very High Frequency
r 80 40 WdI UUL UB LOS Wd
WOD eN_ wUMB UL w WOL UB w

UHF uMI UHK Y dU WOzUC Uu 3 0 0 0 - 3 0 0 UHF WOUF u d

LOS Communication ndJOL UB edOUO .Ultra High Frequency
bUA WKIML UdF sH dzUD w qIMK WKU
UHF WLE s dOJ
WdA vUDL UF UO w U Ou

ndJOL WOUMB UL
_ d UB d e WOzUC Uu edOUO 303 SHF uKF WIzU d
d WdJ UIOD d .Super High Frequency

d ndJOL WOUMB UL
_ d UB d e WOzUC Uu edOUO 30030 EHF uKF WGU d
UJA sO se w WbL Atomic Clocks Wc UU .Extremly High Frequency
WOKIL Ub hB UDM c s d_ e

 (Polarization) WOOUMGdNJ Wu* UDI

WdF s bOH U sJ WOOUMGdNJ WuLK wzUdNJ UL U tQ UDI dF

WuL UDI
UL UI wzu UDI uJ UbM b WKdL WuLK UI qC
U wzu UDI
L
dL U UDI V U uL U OI UI wzu Vd UHK UI U w
dE wueHK YK wI_ UDI b XU WOLUF WLE_ VK S
] Vd
X
u UNUI
uLF UDI bU dO `L v UN lL w UeLK

UCO UDI dzb UDI wD UDIw UDI s WOz u

W UM
UDI s UU UM Wu* UA UM U D wzUdNJ U* qJA tO wD) UDI
UL wD)
_ `D  U u wzUdNJ U* wzuN uJ UbM tOK qB wI_ UDI
WHKL sOu quF W UI d guA qbU dQ q
tQ UL
`D vK U uL wzUdNJ U* wzuN uJ UbM tOK qB uLF UDI
wD) UDI u `{u U 5* qJA _
E
WuL WbI H
wOUMGL UL
wI wzu

_ wzUdNJ UL
WOzUdN uD
E
WOOUMG uD wI UDI

E
uL wzu WuL WbI wzUdNJ UL

wOUMGL UL
_ H
uL UDI

uLF wI_ wD UDI qJA

qJA UDI dOG Wu* UA UM dz wzUdNJ U* qJA tO dzb UDI

dz qJA U uHK wzuN uJ UbM UDI s uM c vK uB( sJ1 se ldL 

 J wzUdNJ U* rd tO UCO UDI

Wu* UA UM U UCO
W UDI u 16 qJA dNE

W UDI u qJA
UCO dzb wD

UCO dz wD

Antennas UOzuN
UI U eN W
XGK ULNL wJK UB UE w WLNL dUMF s wzuN bF

tM vM U OU wzuNK S
S U q JA WOOUMGdNJ W
UD UI UF vK qLF WKu tQ wzuN dF

s uJ UOzuN WuEM
vK u' v U UN s WOzUdNJ bI UF s UMMJ9 w _ u U wzu
WO OUMGdN u
qJ
b v u' w dAM* WO OUMGdNJ u_ qu% s UMMJ9 w _ u UI wzu
UI UN v tu WOzUdN
b sJL YO U C UI wzu vK oDM U wzu UHu WdF bOHL s
UOzu ndJOL WLE UOzu s d O w U u UL UI U UOKL w wzuN
WuOK UB WLE
q JA wzuN s WOOUMGdNJ UuL UF UN r w WOHOJ s Q pU w dD b

UdJ v UF eF U OKL WU UM

s U Lz ZM Radiation UF uI sJL U
WO s d b WId b eK tS wzuN s UF U sJL v WUL
wzuN w UO d U
wzuNK WOzUdNJ WUD U

 UNUF d* Wu* u nB U uD wzuN rOLB
wUOI wzuN s j d rbI s b WOKLF UNUHu UOzuN hzUB r v dD q

ULF WFzUA Decibel qb b v WU{U Isotropic Antenna pde

w UHJ fHM qLF dE wzu tQ pde wzu dF

w UL Spherical d q J tUF uL UU lOL
WU wzuN u Field Strength UL b uJ (17) qJA
tMJ UHuL cN wUO
wzu UM qO U OKL
bM ULO
UOzuN WLE l WUILK dE ldL b
dB qb bu wzuN (Gain) V U
wzu UF jD qJA UOI b WOUO
b s U uN Decibel qb U
pde
wLUuK UOIL tQ qb sU O{UdF Gain VJ
L dB UB VJ sOLO
sO WMK
s dOF sJL
wU qb bu U d JL bI V

dB = 10 Log ( Pout )
Pin

Antenna Characteristics UOzuN hzUB

rEF dA U q JA tKL U b eOL w WLNL hzUB s b wzu qJ bu
wzu d vK bM c w edM UI U UOzu XU u hzUB c w UOzuN
wQ U hzUB c r s UOzuN rEFL U_ UU WuL nB

Gain VJ
WFML W
UD WU v sOF U w wzuN s WFML W
UD WU sO WM tQ VJ dF

wzuN V UI WU ULNO WKb W
UD dU WDIM fH bM wUOI wzuN s
dB qbU

Input Impedance wzuN qb WFU2

WM UNQ wzuN qb WFUL dF
qIM j l wzuN qOu Ud tQ wzuN qb dF

18 qJA w `{u u UL wzuN qb wd bM UO WLO
v bN WLO
sO

 V in WuL oOI W b?? bb w UNdF s UH

I in

bM t qBL qIM j WFUL wzuN WFUL sO Matching

sO sO WFULL WuL bBI qIM j WFUL s wzuN WFUL
qb WFULL WU v_ b d WFUL uJ sOOzUdN
wzu qb WFUL qJA ULNMO W
UD s b
d UI ULC p WOU b

Directivity WOU&
sOF U w tM WFML W
UD eOd vK wzuN b
UN bBI
WOU cN lL c wzuN vL UU WOI s d
dO UOzu UM Directional Antenna W
UDK tuL wzuNU
Y YO 19 qJA w UL Omnidirection Antenna W
UDK WNu
b U p WK s UU lOL w U q JA UN
U
w Y UD iF w
tu dO wzu qJA
Radiation Pattern UF jD
qJA w UL jOL u v wzuN s UB W
UD lu WOHO `{u jD s U
tNOu WOHO w wzuN cN WOKLF UIOD bb w wzuNK UF jD WdF bzU sLJ

uLF jDL 90
180
wzuN u
225 wzuN u 135

r uL
270 90

315 45

VDI wzUM wzuNK UF jD qJA

Antenna Efciency wzuN UH

Pin tO WKb bI v Pr wzuN s WFML bIK WuL WM UNQ dF

Pr
=( ) 100 %
Pin
wzuN UH YO

 uU wzuNK WKb bI Pin
uU wzuN s WFML bI Pr

V U wzuN qB td w uKO 100 U b

u U UN U????
U wzu s WFML bI
wzuN UH
uKO 5 U wzuN w WFzUC bI Q XLK

WFzUC bI Pin wzuNK WKb bI Pr wzuN s WFML bI

5 - 100

uKO 95

wzuN UH

Pr WFML bI

Pin WKb bI

95
95 %
100

Antenna Dimension wzuN UF

sJL YO Ud vK wUU UNKI UNFA u w WuL u vK wzuN u bLF
`O fJF wzuN UF XK
wzuN UNF qUF w U d ULK t uI
s uJ V tu S WOOUMGdNJ UuL UF w WOU UH wzu UM q_
UNUF dL U wuL uD UB U UHUC

0.25 WuL u l u bU dUM b sJL u q

S U
WuL nB wzu bF
UOzuN s d_ u_ rEF uD tM QA c U_ t YO b WFzUA UOzuN s (0.5 )

0.95 U u UFH uDU wzuN dUM u U w bL WuL u vb

uD wzuN q WuL u

UFH YO
d dH w WuL u

5% wu q
w wzuN q UNd v wzuN q WuL u w UH c V uF
d dH w UNd s

UOzuN u r
oOD wzu q rz YO UOzuN s bF u WOJK UB WLE w b
WdF vK eOd l WbL UOzuN u r dFM bNL wKLF
UDI tKJ wzuN r
UF jD V J
wKLF b t d b*

Half Wave Dipole Antenna VDI wzUM Wu* nB wzu

UL UNFA w WuL u nB tu wbF pK s VDI wzUM wzuN uJ tUJ j w
d_ UOzuN rEF tM XIKD c U_ wzuN c bF
(21) qJA w sO u
edOUO (10000 3) d b*
_ `D s tUH vK UL 2.5dBwu V J
. Linear wD UDI

wU& wzu t jD* dNE (21) qJA w UL UF jD

U w W U UOzuN s dO u tM vM c U_ bF
wKLF b
UHK UI
wzuN u
0
30

60
2

90

4 4

120

150
180

tUF jD VDI wzUM WuL nB wzu qJA

 Folded Dipole Antenna uD* VDI wzUM wzu
q r YO VDI wzUM WuL nB wzuN duD bF c uDL wzuN 22 qJA sO
U OJOUJO u
tKF UL ( ) UNu WKu U F sODI
2

tUF jD uDL VDI wzUM qJA

edOUO (10000 50) d b*

.2dB wu V J

. wD UDI

(22) qJA w UL UF jD

d UD dF lL YO U qJA wueHK UI U w wKLF b
.(Wide Bandwidth) dO

Monopole Antenna VDI U wzuN

UNM eF _ `D u l{u qu s U u UN dL WuL u l tu mK U
(23) qJA dE Omnidirectional UU lOL w tUu lA uN U OU U Ozu bF

edOUO (10000 10) d b*
2.5dB wu V J
. wD UDI

(23) qJA w u UL UF jD

Y w UL UU& lOL s UI YK fOz qJA b wKLF b
WKIM* Wd* UOzu w UI

 wzuN u

VDI U wzuN

WcG j

jDL ed UF jD

tUF jD VDI U wzuN qJ

Yagi Uda Antenna wU wzu

uD wzu VDI wzUM wzu u wUUO tLLB r vK wU WuHBL U C vb
(24) qJA w ULUNuL fuF s UEM
qB Folded Dipole
OK
u wU{ dBM fUF
wzUM nK l{u wzuN U fH s uMB VDI wzUM s
wJF U w UNHFC wU_ U w wzuN U WuI vK fUF qLFVDI
t s be UL
OK
dB
wU{ dBM tuL
VDI wzUM U l{u wzuN U fH s uMB VDI wzUM s
WOU sO bN

wzuNK VJ WOU Ue fU tu s d b sJL t kL s

edOUO 10000 50 d b*
fuF UNu* b wzuN rOLB vK UL 20dB - 5dB 5 U d V J
wD UDI
dNE UL WOU& UOzuN s wU wzu bF
(24) qJA w u UL UF jD
tUF j/ s
UDL UI ULO
UA WOKLF UOzuN d s wU wzu bF
wKLF b
U C FM U UHF VHF Wd U
UDM vK WUHK

 VDI wzUM wzu
UNu
z
fU

x
u q

tUF jD wU wzu qJA

Horn Antenna u wzu

UF jD v WU{U u wzu s bF UL sO 25 qJA ndJOL UOzu s bF

edOUO 10 - 1 dO d qL UD d b*
q 20 10 U
V  V J
wD UDI
WU  vK UL WOU wzuN cN WOU& dF 25 qJA w u UL UF jD
tKJ u Wu lDI
bF lL YO ndJO* UB w wU qJA wzuN c b wKLF b
d_ vK tOd WuN t WH Ue

WOU e

WOzd e

tUF jD u wzu s WHK ULM u qJA

 Dish (Parabolic) Antenna sB wzu

dFIL UdL qFH UL tR w WF_ lOL vK qLF s qJ vK dFI wbF `D
edOUO 10 -1 dO d qL UD d b*
b * sB dD vK UL q 4010U
V  V J
cG* UDI b UDI
26 qJA w tUF j/ s dNE UL oO{ d
ed tUF We uJ UF jD
wKLF b
w ndJOL UJ sO qdK ndJOL d U w dJ wzuN c b
d WUHK UDL UI WOzUCH UB w tb dAM UL Wd j UB
WOUMB UL
_

wz uN qJA
tUF jD wMB

Cassegrain Antenna sdU wzu

uU fUF l{u YO sOU tbU UL t WOMB UOzuN s wzuN c bF
w `{u u UL wOzd wMB fUF v UuL fJF uIO w
u cGL U bL
(27) qJA
edOUO 10 - 1 dO d qL UD d b*
b * sB dD vK UL q 40 10 U
V  V J
cG* UDI b UDI
s UF w dOJ dG wzu s b WIO{ UF We vK uB( sJ1 UF jD
jI fUF wu fUF b w UOzuN
WOUMD UL_ l UB WO{_ UD; w b wKLF b

 wOzd fUF

wzu qJA
sdU w
u cG

uU fU
Wu qO

Sector Antenna wUDI wzuN

b U UD
wDG b UU U UI UF ed Directional tu wzu s U u
sO u UL U dI b
1 d b
4 uD WKOD Wu tAO tKJ U 60 90 120 t
.(28)qJA w

 GSM b * uOK) UEM d UD d b*

V  V J
V J u 0 rJ r U wU&  wzuNU WUI U
WODG b* w (3dB) V  u  b
L UNODG d* WOK) WU  vK UL
u UL V J u  U r WOK) WU  Ue Wd bM dOG WOK WU 
(29) qJA w `{u

WOK bU
WD 0 dB V

3 dB V

6 dB V

9 dB V
_

WOK WU wzuN V sO W

F qJA Sector Antenna wUD
wzu qJA

 wDUDI
UD v tu UF We qJA uJ UF jD
WOUF e WOK) qU WODG r 120
WOK ed w wUDI wzuN b wKLF b
WOUDI UOzuN l{u YO WuOK UB WLEQ
qU WODG d Vu vK UOzu W U Sector
(30) qJA w sO u UL WOK WU
W uOK UB d qJ
Smart Antennas WOc UOzuN
WOUD
UOzu

w (Smart Antennas) WOc UOzuNU dF U U bdN

s bF
WuOK UB WLEQ Base Station WOK ed UOzu u

XU dO UF jL ULF vK WOc UOzuN qL dJ uI

WF_ bF `L WOMI b YO d WOK ed wzu s
qJA s `C UL Multibeam Scanning

WOc UOzuN w UF jL qJA r WUI U u W UOzuN s uM c nAJ

bL Wb wzuN UF tOu bOF
UND s UNNOu w rJ U WUFL Vu UE vK UOzuN c qL bLF
w UEM c Ue r uOK UB bU
w UOzuNU
fH w sd d fH b U od s WOLd WOJK UJA WF U
ud nODK qC U b du U2 WIDM*
UUO qIM d Wd dOu _ 5 %
fHM ud* U& w wzuN V  U sJ1 YO uK qJA UB WOu 5 %
.Interferes qb UU& w UF iOH Xu

q uOF iF s wUF WOc UOzuN S UeL s rd vK

WHKJ U wUU Transceiver UI U WLE bOIF
WuF d X ud qd WOKL
qI * hA Wd UUO bF qI

w UN UNb lOu UNu UM Wb u_ s UOzuN c WdF bOHL s
UN lL w UeLK dE WOJK WLE_ nK

U?????A
WO UOzuN s US V Xd WJA WB* ld*U sF
w UI eN UOzu WODdA UOzuN w9UuK wzuN weK( wzuN wIK( wzuN

WK?????_

UNBzUB r w U WO OUMGdNJ Wu* uJ 3

WO OUMGdNJ Uu* UA d UBU d
bU UB uO Ue 5
WUL  Uu* WOD  WO{_ Uu*
U wzu s (km 35) bF vK _ `D s (m 25) tUH UI wzu l{

5OzuN 5 W j u s oI% _ `D s m 36 tUH
_U jO; u' G w W Ozd UID US d
dOHuu_ UI s WI q UNR w nzUu r d
p dOQ U dOHuu_ UI vK fLA W WF_ uBH UNM qOK dOQ uU
UB UOKL vK
dOHuu_ s Uu* UJF w dR* quF w U
WO d

d( d Wd( UF W
XuH WIDM eHI WU  ?
WO d e( wKLF oOD UA j/ d b* 5
LF HF UHF EHF

Wu* UDI WdF s bzUH U 5

UDI u d
uLF UDI wI_ UDI rdU `{

 WO d

dB q b ? (Isotropic) wUOI wzuN wzuN
tKL U b% wzuN eO9 w hzUB) r d
sdD s be U0 qK
U w t qB* qIM j WFU2 wzuN WFU2 5 Wu* oOI% b ?
UFUL* XHK
0.95 U c WuLK UFH
uD b wzuN UF U bM
WO UOzuN s >qJ wKLF b u U
wMB wzuN wU wzu
wUDI wzuN VDI U wzuN ?
WHK* dUM qL d r tUF j/ r wU wzu r
UN lL w Ue* b WOc UOzuN qL dJ d
WO qL' s qJ WU) UF U X U WOB UF U  U l{
_ `D s W JFM dU 5L  v WOzUCH Uu* r IM
Wu' duE lOL UN b% w WOUM* WID w dOHud  WI
bOF UU * Wd UB w b WCHM* d b
UOzuN s Sector Antenna wUDI wzuN bF
WNu*
iHM* V J UOzuN b wMB wzuN bF

wQ U2 WOB WU d
Wu' quF rEF UN b u' G UI
dOHud  dOHuu_
dOHbON dOHud?
dOHuu_ WI s Uu* UJF w dR WOU quF s
Y W WID w sQ WU
d U lOL WKd* Wu* d ?
wzuN UF b c U
UNO U rO w WU * qd* b
d U2 TO qOGA d ?

 WOc UOzuN uO s
uKF WIzU d v U% WHKJ U bOIF
iHM V  qb qUA s be?
WO OUMGdNJ Wu* UDI b WO s
.E wzUdNJ U* . H w OUMG* U*
d U2 w UA W ?
u wzu bF

iHM V  wU& U Ozu
d U2 w ndJO* UB UOzu s ?
t wU wzu eO2 s
wU& wzu V 
U
`O dU lOL d s l b* b ?
v QK wzuN s UF Ue
wzuNK WUD U U d U
`O dU lOL v wzuN u U ?
2
U (100M HZ) Ud w Wu* u
U 30 U 3
U 0.3 U 300 ?

 b????????u

q???????????????IM uD
Transmission Lines

 q?????????IM uD
dGK d cMUN UL b b
UB UE _ WOzd UuJL b qIM uD bF

dA lU dI nBM w
UuKFL U?? qIM WHKL UOzuN WLE WOOUMGdNJ UuL b sJL
WCHM UHJ sJ WKu UUL

uD bU tIOI sJL c d_ WOU UHJ U qIM U U U UB WLE w

(Transmission Lines) qIM
qIL qdL sO qu wzUeOH UL vK qIM j `KDB oKD
q Guided Media WNuL jzUu qIM uD s bF u bu
WdB UO_ WuL quJ WOzUM WOJK uD

bu b
vK U
uJ pM l
u bu c W s pzUN bF
Two Wire Lines WOzUM WOJK  uD) dF

Coaxial Cables Wu; quJ dF

Impedance Matching UFUL* Wu0 uBI* `{u
UNOL Standing Waves dI * Uu* uNH dA

Optical Fibers WdB UO_ uD d= F

 WObF* qIM uD UOU Xu

q
Q qIL v bBL qdL s U qI w UB UE w qIM j WOzd WHOu
qIM j WOzUdNJ WOzUeOH u vK dG c oI bLF W
UD w UOC s b

U Lz dc l WObFL qIM uD UOU Xu r bu c s _ e w g

UMM
WuL WOzUM WObFL qIM uD lOL qLA u_ c

UOU_ Xu r
WUD bB qd* 5 tKOu YO UB UE w WOzUdNJ b s e qIM j bF

(1) qJA w `{u u UL WOzUdNJ b UL v R  nU UN qI *

I
qIM j l
u qJ
UB UE w

qdL V qIL

qIM j

(2) qJA w UL (G) WOKu (C) WF (L) WO (R) WUI qI j qJ
I R L

j WUJL b qJ G
u b tu qI V C

uD bu qIM j WUI R YO

uD bu qIM j WO L
uD bu qIM j WF C
uD bu qIM j WOKu G

 vK UNLO
bLF qIM j u vK Wu (Constants) Xu c uJ
(GCLR) Xu lOL rO j) u 5 Wd WF uJ YO qIM j u
L WO( R WUI* rO vK U O J UdOQ uJ WKUM _ pL
G WOKu* C WF  rO vK U O J UdOQ uJ _ 5 WU *
_ tM uMB* bF* WOu
_ 5 WUF U*

U???????A
Xu rO
vK _ sO WUF UL bFL WOu dOQ pz l g
UUL rKF bUL
qIM j

vK qLA w (Line Losses) qIM j bOUH0 vL ULO qIM j d WuIM* WUD s e lOC
R WUI* V d qJ vK lOC (Copper Losses) WOU bOUH
5 WUF U* vK d( dOQ s ZM (Dielectric Losses) wzUdNJ UF bOUH
qIM j u
qu* u w OUMG* U* s e UF s ZM (Radiation Losses) UF bOUH
d U bM ULO tDO v
dOQ s dOJ d uJ WF  WO( dOQ S WOU d WuIM* U uJ UbM
WuIM* U UF{ w WOKu* WUI*
UO WOuH 5 WF b% Characteristic Impedance (Z0) eO2 WFU2 qI j qJ bu
WF s WOUF d bM UNU sJ1 qIM j vK WDI bM
L V
Z0 = C ( )=
I

dMNU qIM j WO L YO
L = 400 mH

UHU qIM j WF C
ZL
qdL
C = 40nF

f =100MHZ
qIM j eOLL WFULL WLO
V U????
qIM j (3) qJA w sOL
qJ

 G WOKuL R WUIL dOQ UL sJL b U WKdL U d UL
L
Z0 = C ( )

400 10-6
Z0 = 40 10-9

Z0 = 10000 = 100 ( )

Two Wires Lines WOzUM WOJK qIM uD

lMB U U U WU U ULNMO WObFL _ s tQ wzUM wJK qIM j dF
uJ U U UG WUF UL U UdNJK qOu bO U W uOMu_ UM s _
pO s

qIM j b* e j u* j) UNM dc WOzUM WOJK uD s bF UJ bu
wL; wzUM wJK 

Parallel Line u* j)
q WuL uD s bF UJ UM sJL
WOHUN uD) w dGK uD w U 1b b b Two-Wire Open Line uH* j)
U tbU uO U bOF oUMLK WOU)
Two-Wire Ribbon (Twin Lead) Line wDdA 5u* 5JK  j)
(4) qJA w 5 u UL qJA
ULNMO qBH 5u 5JK s j) c uJ VOd
bN WOJO U W 5KO wu s WU U
WOU) dR* s ULNUL ULNO
300 v qB Z0 eOL* WFUL*
WUHK U qIM fOz qJA b b
sOJK j qJ
wDdA sOuL iHM* dF  WOUF UHJ Ue* r
s W&UM WO OUMGdNJ U*U dQ uOF r
guA U

 Twisted Pair Line b* e j
(5) qJA w 5 u UL qJA
w UL U F 5b 5eF 5JK s U VOd
(5) qJA
U (150) v (75) s Z0 eOL* WFUL*
bL e j qJ w qLF bM U qJA j) c b b
(Noisy Environment) WuA WO

bu guA WOu W UG v 5JK  UH R YO guA US dQ Ue* r
d pK  w bu* guA WOu q s 5JK  b w
U d U bM Dielectric Loss WOUF bI UH s j) c wUF uOF r
WuIM*

Two-Wire Shielded Line wL; 5JK qIM j

.(6) qJA w 5 u UL qJA

U w 5u{u 5JK s j) c uJ VOd

WUL qLF WOU WJ UN jO 5KO wu WU

wU G WOUM WJA WODG r 5 w 5JK K
(6) qJAdE WULK
(100 50) 5U Z0 eOL* WFUL*
wLL sOJK qIM j qJ UbM WOU ( WOU eN_ bK b b
wU) guA dOQ e
WJA od s _ v guA WOu mdH r YO guA US dQ Ue* r
w{_U UNK r w WOUM

t c wUF 5u V WKu WU * tb bM WuIM* U tUF{ uOF r

WOzUM WOJK uD) Ue

wU WOzUM WOJK uD Ue r hOK sJL U q JA
qIM uD s d_ u_U W UI UNML UH
UNF qUFK WOU WOM UN v U% wN UA bbL WKN

 WOzUM WOJK uD) uO

U Wd UH wUU UN d UDM dG
U bM WHKJ UH wUU bOF* UD; b U v R U2 bIH WOU
bOF UU *
WHK* guA UB s WO OUMGdNJ bU dQ UNLEF
UuKF* qI w Wd  U_ W s qKI U2 UNOK XBM WOUJ

Impedance Matching UFUL* Wu

w WuL s sJL b
d oOI V tS (7) qJA w UL U F sOOzUdN sO j bM
sOb sO WFULL
(Z in2) WOU b qb WFULL WU (Zout1) v_ b d WFUL uJ vMFL
v v_ b s W
UD s sJL b
d UI UL{ u WuL oOI s bN
WOU b

`{u w
bM jD qJ 1 2
Zin1 Zout1 Zin2 Zout
sO sO WFULL Wu v_ b WOU b

WU b d WHKL WOzUdNJ eN_ b sO WuL oI b U w

w UL w `{u u UL Wu u bU p oOI

ueHK q WFUL
300

300 75 75 300

wzu

75 eOLL tFUL u qI j

WuL WOKL w uL b qJ

 Wu wu b r bI qJA s `C UL
U  75 qIM j WFUL 300 wzuN WFUL sO v_
UI r pc (300) UHK UN qb WFUL U  (75) qIM j WFUL sO W?? OU
UHK UN v wzuN s U u
rE

bdL W
UD bI U 100 U U UN w d b
XU U????
qIM j w Wd W
U qJ vK UNFOL lOC 20 U (Reflected Powe)
U wzuN UNKOu rO w WOKFH bI bI VU

wzuN s bdL bI wzuNK u bI wzuNK WKb bI

20 - 100

80

Standing Waves dI* Uu*

qdLU WcGL b WN s qIM j sO WFULL w WuL oOI d{ o UL UMd
d WN s wzuNU WKIL
ZL qL WFUL WLO
s ZO qIM j eOLL WFULL WLO
XHK b U sJ

(ZL Z0)
s Uu uJ YO bBL v bzU bd j d WKdL W
UD s e S WU c w
UL qIM j u vK UuL
Load qL( v qd* s WKd* Uu*
qd* v qL( s bd* Uu*
w Standing Waves dIL UuL uN v R iF ULNCF UuL c qb
bzUF W
UD c YK bdL UuL WKdL UuL sO qb WKB UNQ UNHdF sJL
(9) qJA bBL qdL d WUI w j WUI w Wd bO
UH qJ vK lOC
dIL WuL dU `{u

 dIL WuL dU qJ WKdL WuL bdL WuL

V max

V min dIL WuL

j eOLL WFULL ZL qL WFUL sO dH bI vK bBL v bdL W

UD WLO
bLF
WO U Wb uIM p vK UM Z0 qIM
[ ZL = ] (Open Load) U uH qL( uJ UbM
W
UD c N qL bu t_ bBL s WKdL UuLK qU b b UM
uJ dIL WuL U dH U UO sJL U rE j WUN bM WOuH uJ
WU c `{u (10) qJA sJLU d
[ ZL = 0] (Short Circuited Load) uBI qL( uJ UbM
w WOuH dO qIM j u vK UuLK qU b U C b WIU WU w UL
d uJ dIL WuL pc sJLU d uJO UO U dH U qIM j WUN
WU c `{u (11) qJA sJLU

1 1
2 2
1 1
V 4 I 4
I V

j Wb j WUN j Wb j WUN

qL qL
S.C O.C

HIGH Zo LOW Zo HIGH Zo LOW Zo LOW Zo HIGH Zo LOW Zo HIGH Zo

S.C uBI qI j WU qJ O.C uH qI j WU qJ

[ ZL = Z0 ] qIM j) eOL* WFULLK WU  qL( WFU2 uJ UbM

bu bFM UL UNM e bd qLK qIM j s WUDK UI d qB WU c w
(12) qJA dE qIM j vK dI L UuL
I,V
j Wb j WUN
j vK dIL UuL uJ ZM o UL
WOu rE sO WM Z0 ZL wLO
sO dHU WDd qIM
ZO = ZL ZL
WOu WM vb dIL WuLK Vmin WOu q
Vmax
VSWR dIL WuL qUF dIL WuL
ZL = Z0 UbM j WU
Vmax
qJ
VSWR = U sOF WODI cR YO
Vmin

sJL UM qIM j d W
UD qI UH UO
w VSWR dIL WuL qUF WdF s UH
WO WOKLF UEL qO
WOKL X O WOU WU w Perfect U U qIM j d WUD qI uJ VSWR = 1 UbM
WUD qI w dO UH v WU( c dOA 1.5 VSWR > 1 UbM

Poor Matching WUD qI UH UH vK dR WU( c bF

VSWR > 2 UbM

UO
r UbM qI qd sO jdK UB WLE b w qI j b U???
WLOI U Uu 10 UNLO
XU j w dIL WuLK vLEF WOuH bI
Uu 3 U XUJ dIL WuL WOuH dGB
b * qIM j) VSWR dI * Wu* qUF WLO V
Matched u j) c q 5

V max 10
VSWR = = = 3.33
V min 3
(2) s d (3.33) b * jK dI *Wu* qUF WLO U0
u dO bL j Q ZM

Reection Factor b qUF

W
UD qI WOKL qIM j UH UOI b qIM j eOLL hzUB s b qUF bF
l qIM j Wu b V qIM UH UH vK p b qUF WLO
ULK t YO
tQ dF
`O fJF qL

 KR edU tO ed VT WKdL WuLK vLEF WLOI VR bdL WuLK vLEF WLOI sO WM
VR ZL - Z0
KR = = ................... 1
VT ZL + Z0

Wu WM tM dF U U b qUF KR YO

qL WFUL ZL
qIM j eOLL WFULL Z0
WO W
F s KR WLO
U sJLO WdF VSWR WLO
XU
VSWR - 1 ................... 2
KR =
VSWR + 1

S WdF KR WLO
XU S fJFU
1+KR
VSWR = .................... 3
1-KR

U?????A
ZL
VSWR X 31 sO
F bU
Z0

.(100 ) bI qL v W
UD UB (Z0 = 75 ) U eOL WFUL qI j bU U???
b * jK VSWR dI * Wu* qUF bI V
WIU  uD) w Wu ; VSWR WLO V j) UH vK oK
1+KR
VSWR =
1-KR
ZL - Z0 100 - 75
KR = = = 0.142 sJ
ZL + Z0 100 + 75

vK qB WUFL w iuFU
1+KR 1 + 0.143
VSWR = = = 1.33
1-KR 1 - 0.143

WOU UH v dOA p S (1.5) s q w (1.33) U jK VSWR WLO U0

j) c bU qL( v WUD qI w

 Coaxial Cables Wu; quJ
UOK s hKK UNLOLB r YO b WFzUA qIM uD u s WuL quJ bF
WuIF WHKJ WOU UH qI j ULF v WU b WOzUM uD UNM wUF w

wU_ VOd
s (13) qJA w `{u u UL Coaxial Cable uL qOJ Vd
U qIM wK qu
quLK Shield WUL qLF Copper Mesh WOU WJ qJA wuD wU qu
WO OUMGdNJ b s wKb
5Ku* 5 qBH Dielectric WU U
WOU) dR* s qOJ WUL( U wU

qUJ VOd qJ
wK qu
uL
U
wU qu
wU WOU WJ

Ub
UJ tb s WUG V u q b YO WuL quJ s bb u?? UM

WOHUN UB UJ w l UD vK b WuL quJ XU Wd
d v b
UL p l WOUF UHJ WdB UO_ quJ UNb r q
WHKL rUIL sO jdK
q WOKLF UIOD s bbF w b WuL quJ X
UHK eN v UOzuN s WUHK U qI
U r eN l Wb * pK U h qOu UUG WBB* quJ
UdO U bu Oscilliscope

Wave Guides Wu* W v U eN s U qIM ndJO* UD w b

WOUF ndJO* d vK
b s bbF w dAM* quJ UHK UJ bb9 w

 q d U u qLA w RG u WuL quJ b U U U

UB WLE w UNb dJ w U 50 U eO2 WFUL0 (RG8) (RG58)

WHK*
s WUHK U qIM U U b 75 U eO2 WFUL0 (RG6) (RG59)
UHK eN v UOzuN
WOMH UNBzUB r s UuKF v WU{U WbL u_ dN sO (1) b

WOUF u d bM bIH WOUF d bM bIH

Size r Coax. Type uL qUJ u
Loss at UHF 400 MHZ Loss at HF 100MHZ

4.7dB 2.3dB dO RG 6

5.9dB 2.9dB ju RG 59
9.4dB 4.3dB dOG RG 58U
8dB 3.7dB ju RG 8X
4.1dB 1.9dB dO RG 8U
4.5dB 1.9dB dO RG 213
1.5dB 0.5dB dO VK j Hardline

WuL quJ s bF u b

Wu; quJ uO Ue r

wQ UL UeL r hOK sJL
Hard VKB uM w (1.5GHZ) v WUF u_ w (1GHZ) v qB l d UD
WuIM* UuKF* WOL s be U2Line Coaxial
qOJ q dBM WO OUMGdNJ Uu* _ UF s "UM bIH bF
r w WOU( WJA u V U* WO OUMGdNJ U*U qb dQ
WuA* sU_ w b WUM UNKF U2 UNCQ
VOd WKN
WUB wN wUU qu wKOGA dL
UNLP WuL quJ uO r U
bI
d UU bIH c e 5Ku* 5 WUF U* qu* WUI s ZM UO U
b WOUF bI qL% w UNUOUJ

 Optical Fiber WdB UO_
Ue UuKFL U UB U w WKzUN u
WOzdL WOHUN UB w dDL
UB WLE vK VKD U v bb U F
d Xd lu b v WU{U
WOUF WUB
dOJ WF
UUK WMU b UF vI WbOKI qIM uD S bu c Wb w X UL

U Oze bI rK WOzUCH UB WO{_ ndJOL WLE U UB UJA beL
WKJAL cN

qI WF UB UJ b v WU QA bI UM s
bU tIOI sJ c d_ X
u fH w WUB
b WKzU UUO
edO1016 WUG edO 1012 s UNd UD b w WdB UO_

Ue s WuMB WUH WIO

uO UNQ WdB UO_ dF

bF UuKFL qIM uI WMO dOF qJ vK pO
(24) qJA w UL qIL v qdL s u{ v UNKu
WdB UO_ qJ
WdB UO_ uO Ue
WOJK WbOKI qIM uD Xu
U U uB WLNL UeL s bbFU WdB UO_ UL
wQ U UeL c r s WuL WOzUM
zU U L wMF U2 WOzuC d bM UDM U V b WOUF UNF
UuKF* s
b WOU Wd UO_ c d tU sJ1
bOF* UDLK WU  wUU b qOK qOu WOKL WUD bI
be WU  vK
WOUM  (5Km) qUI (50Km) s
WUM* c V WO OUMGdNJ b s WU WUM
WUD lA t UL UdNJK qU dO dB nOK
b V uN wUU
d_ UB WLE l
qIM se UOKL qN U2 WJOL dO u WHOH
(25) qJA dE VOd bbL
Wud UNKF U2 WObF* UNOL UNOK XBM sJ1
UA bO
WdB UO WJ qJ  WdJ F UB WMOF Ub

 UNLQ uOF U
dB UEM VOd bM WOUF WOzb WHKJ
bF* WJA WUO UJ bb9 UOKL Vb WOU WOM u v WU(

WdB UO WOKLF Ub

UB UJ w U O Wb UuJL s WdB UO_ bF

dE dO_ uM w l qJA UNb dA bI p l
w UNb dJ YO UN lL w bbF UeLK
duKOJ 5 bb9 - YO b* bOF UB UJ
rUF rEF w WdB UO_ uD s
(26) qJA dE WOHUN UJA w rUI* 5 qu
Xd uU( UJ w UUO qI
b s bbF w dAM* quJ UHK UJ
UO WJA bbL qJ
l
uL b w WdB UNOK XBM WU WdJ F UB

w
u G
WdB UO_ VOd
VKI UDG
s (27) qJA s `C UL wU qJA dB nOK uJ
uC t s qIM c wKb U * q1 Core VKI
VKIU jO% w WOU) U* uCladding UDG
fJ vK qLF YO VKI U s WU q uJ
dB nOK UuJ qJ VKI q qEO dLU uC
WOU) dR* s nOK WUL( WOJO U s U u Buffer Coating G

dB nOK d uC UA

YO UB WLE w WbL WdB UO_ quJ wU_ uJL WdB UO_ bF

Carrier UuKFLK q U uC b
uC UAU WU ozUI iF v dD s b dB nOK qL b dA
u* w tUI bM td iHM WOUd (3 108) WGU td d( UCH w uC dAM
UCH s WU d_

YO Refraction U J t b WUJ WCHM U v WUJ WOU U s uC UI bM
(28) qJA w 5 u UL WUJ WOU U* v t
dHBKWU  ( 2) U J W UbM `B w ( 1) uI  W UNQ Wd( We dF

(29) qJA w 5 u UL

UJ s UFA U

dJM UF

2 = 0 WUJ WCHM U 2 WUJ WCHM U

Wd We = 1 fJFM UF WUJ WOU U 1 WUJ WOU U

j
U UF
j
U UF

Wd We qJ uC UJ qJ

wzuC UFAK Reection UJF b Wd( We WLO s (1) uI  W XK

(30) qJA w 5 u UL WCHM* WUJ U* d

UJF qJ Wd We > 1 WUJ WCHM U

uC 1 2 WUJ WOU U

j
U UF
fJFM UF

UFAK wKb wKJ UJF b vK bLF WdB UO_ d uC UA o UL ZM
Wd We s dG We uC US tOK qB c wzuC

WdB UO_ w 5u

d_ u_ w tM d OJ q
WdB UO_ w u Loss bIH s ZM sOu S U q JA
WOzuC U sOu wUU bIH v R w U_ W s b p l qIM uD s
U WU Wd bb wUU d UDM WF vK wK dOQK dE WuIML

wN nOK w bIH u r U

v tu uC hL w WKOKI VzuA iF V b Absorption Loss UB bI
wU pK w wzUdN UO d s ZUM bIHK tUA qJAd

YO WKu U UO `B WdB UO_ lOMB WFO V b Scattering Loss dUM bI
w vI WOuJdJO UNE sJL WLEM dO e uN UO_ cN bA WOKL V
UC UDG U v WHK UUU uC dUM V dB nOK

WF UA w wMe UH V bIH c b Pulse Spreading Loss WCM UA bI

WHK U  w dO w uC

wzuC wzUM UNFA w uC Uu u V b Wu* u dUM uK dUM bI
UNuA v wUU UNu s UuL c Wd vK dR UL nOK qb bM LED

nOK w u dOGB UM V bIH c b Radiation Loss UF bI

WO u bM b bIH cN sJL Coupling Loss We* bI

U WN w dB nOKU uC bB WK
dU dB nOK WK
UI WN w uC nUJ dB nOK WK

WdB UO_ u
u W bu U q JA WUILK bL UOFL V WdB UO_ u s bbF bu
w WdB UO_ s WOz
Single Mode Step-Index Fiber uD) U J qUF dH* jLM nOK
Multimode Step-Index Fiber uD) U J qUF bF* jLM nOK
Multimode Graded Index Fiber b* U J qUF bF* jLM nOK

uD) UJ qUF bOu jLM nOK

uJ (31) qJA w sO u UL qUJ u vK uCK b U UM _ r cN wL
tUN v dB nOK Wb s UNUI UM Wu WOzuC WF_

VKI UDG

wzu{ UF

uD UJ qUF bOu jLM dB nOK w uC U qJ

UDG dD
s 0.1 v 0.05 ) b dOG dD
Core VK
nOK cN bu (31) qJA s `C UL
WU ULNM q uJ UDG U UJ qUF s d VKI U UJ qUF uJ

uM c Ue r
U * w d9 nOK u vK dAM* WF_ q _ WuIM* WOzuC U UuA b
uuK se fH dG t H
UuKF* U w Wd  U wUU d U* U
UO_ s uM c b WOMODKH UB Wd WdF bOHL s

wN uOF r U
U WuFB WOU uM c U WHKJ
VKIK b dOGB dDI V nOK c v uC bB j WuF
nOK w uC U ( Laser ) eOKU tOu wU wzu{ bB b V

uD) UJ qUF bF* jLM nOK

uD UJ qUF bFL jLM dB nOK w UFA U qJ

(32) qJA w UL dB nOK u vK uCK U s d UM _ r cN wL b

U UJ qUF uJ UDG dD

s U dI 0.4 mK VKI dD
S (32) qJA s `C UL
ULNM q WLO
U l UDG U UJ qUF s d VKI

uM c Ue r
WFHd dO tHKJ S wUU U WuN
dO uC bB v t _ nOK c s uC d U WuN

WOKb UJA uU UJ w b qCH uM c WdF bOHL s

 wN uOF r U
WM w dO u b v U * bF R WuIM* WOzuC U tuA b
UNu UUA
UO_ s d_ u_ w duu U2 q UuKF* U Wd wUU d UDM d

b* UJ qUF bF* jLM nOK

UJ qUF wUU dOG WUJ lMB nOK U sJ uCK U s d bu uM c w
uC U UM v p R UDG WU bM dG WLO
v edL bM dO WLO
s b
XU dO
(33) qJA w sO u UL dLU

bL UJ qUF bFL jLM nOK w wzuC UFA U qJA

Ue uM cN bu UDG dD

s U dI 0.4 mK VKI dD
S (33) qJA s `C UL
sOIU sOuM sO U D nOK c bF YO t WU uO

Optical Communication System dB UB UE

w WOz e W s (34) qJA w sO u UL dB UB UE uJ

qdL qIL
wzu{ bB WdB UO_ qO wzu{ nU

WOzUdN U WOzUdN U

dB UB UE qJ

Optical Transmitter wzuC dB qd*

UuKFL U WKbL WOzUdNJ U u c wzuC bBL u t wU_ e uJ
UBL c r eOK v WU{U uCK WFAL ued UOzUM bF
WOzu{ Uv
 WOHU WUHK U U
U sOLC r YOUNKI q
U c sOLC s b
WOL
d WOKUL UuKFL U WUu WOzuC

 The Fiber Optic dB nOK
U IU UN w u_ qLA qIL v qdL s WOzuC U qOu uI c u

Optical Receiver dB qI*

bL v qd WOzUdN U v UNKu UNHAJ uI WOzuC U qI c e u
 nUN UN UHK WU vK dNE

qdL s >q UuJ sO c (35) qJA dE qOBH s b eL dB UB UE Wb

sOdB qIL

WOzUdN U wL
wKUL rz UO v bN b wzu{ bB wzu{ U

UuKF

dB qO

wzu{ U
wzu{ nU bN v UO b wL
wKUL rz WOzUdN U
UuKF

sOdB qIL qdL UuJ qJ

s uJ dB qd*
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WOHUN UMI UD U c S UMOF c WdEM U I 4000Hz bM udJOL
U d nF{ bIL d d UM
v U WOuB
0 1 2 3 4 20
edOuKO d w U OLU U UOI ` d dF c 8000Hz WuIML
qJ bF ULO dM UL UB uM
bb

 wx uMI lOL UOLU UUE bu
w uM vK u UM 32 s uJ UO bLF* u (E1) lOL U
SS7 U UEM d_ seK UM WOUuKF* WOuB U qIM b WOHU UM 30
125sec U c UM
32 hBL se rI
wx UM
q s V
125 sec
= 3.9 sec
32
3.9 sec
488ns WU qJ hBL se uJ pc (bit) WOzUM UU 8 s WOM Wd q uJ
32
(23) qJA w UL b WOzUM WU qJ
125 sec

0 1 2 3 4 5 15 16 17 29 30 31

3.9 sec
se UM
WOHU uM

ss7 UM

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

488 ns

E1 lOL U qJ

UOzUM 8 Wd q w bu 8000Hz u UMOF c WdE V WOuB U UMOF c d _

c UM UMI w UuKFL ddL bF u 64KHz = 8000Hz UOzUM 8 UM
q d S
wU E1 ? w UuKFL ddL bF S E1 UNM uJ w uMI lOL bFL
2.045Mbps = 64KHz UM
32
WOuB U qIM b UM s uJ UOJd bLF*u T1 lOL U
uJ cN Framing bit U se WU vb Bit b WOzUM WU U q w UC WOUuKF*
wU UEM c w UuKF* qI bF
WOzUM 193 = 1+ [UOzUM 8 WOM Wd UM
24 ]
1.544bps = 8000Hz WOzUM 193
125 sec

1 2 3 4 5 6 24

5.2 sec
WOHU UM
U se WU
0 1 7
651 nsec

T1 lOL U qJ

 rIL w LCM WOHUN uDU rJ b u bLF

rUI u sJL L WOHUN WJA w rIL WHO vK
WOMOD KH UB Wd b
.E1 lOL U sO ULUJL dOO UNHO w WOb WOMu rUIL uF
dO b UN du sO w bu c q vK WOKL rUIL
DTC WOL
d UJdU rJU WU bu s

rI*U WU) UOd WLE

WO UNL qN WU UOd w
W b pc WJA w nuN UQ UND uD) U_ W b qL
SS7 U WLE_ WOKd uK
r I* UNM uJ w bu s b Q WU) JA* UN
WOU) WOKd uU WU) JA* `O{u qO
dA*U WU) qUA* `O{u UN
(PCM channels) WU* uMI s U*UJ*U WU) U * ndF

duH WLE
UUO bUI UEM jd t s UL rIL s UB ULUJLK qO UE s U w
WO uI vK u
W*UJ* b X uKD* rd VUD rd
W*UJ* b W*UJ* b aU
rIL w (Hard disk) VK d
vK UuKFL c e
dOu UNKu ULUJL d
qOKU WU eN v tKI r
WO dDU U UuKFL qI WOKL r sOdALK
UUO WJ od s UuKF* qI
qI r s WU WO OUMG Wd WUu UuKF* d
d WLE b (25) qJA 5 UNKOK% rO Wd_ c
du UE qJ rUI* w WO OUMG* Wd_ vK bLF c duH

rOd WLE
sOF wL
b WJA q wK rI qJ d_ U
_ s eOL r
dA nU qJ
UNLOEM W q w UB uI rO
d WD V

 L rIL WF vK rI qJ wL
d bL w U
_ b bLF
tK rIL wL
d bL
wHU r
40000 du wMF UL (295xxxx , 296xxxx,297xxxx, 298xxxx) wU u edL wKL
U U u b uJO wL
d bLU U O dOG bK b w rUIL w U
WIDM q vDF UB oUM b v WOHUN WJA UNODG w WUL rI rO
d WOKL rOEM
(Code) U MOF e
w b w `{uu UL oUML u XLE sODK wH

04 sOM WIDM
970 02 295
09 dJu fKU WIDM
ed e r
r

wb WIDML rIL nUN 02 WHC uM ju WIDM

08 e WIDM

b tLOEM (ITU-T) UB wb U uI wb ed vL e rUF w W qJ
wb edU uKDL dALK WOHUN WJA r s Wb vK b wb UB WOKL UM
216 fu 20 dBL 962  970u sODKH

(Common Channel Signaling System No. 7 (SS7 or C7) WdA* UMIK U UE

rUIL sO UU bb WLUJL b WOKL w rJ w b uud s WuL u
WU U qzU U s rUIL sO WKuL WOL
d uMI s WJ vK UL UNzUN
(Signaling messages)
1975 U UEM c d s WOJd_ AT&T Wd XU
uD WLE WuL w WOc WJA U OLU dAMO bF ULO UB wb U bL c
w rJ w d WOUJ wDF qUH
WU Ub qOFH WOHUN U*UJ* rUIL sO dF w ULUJLK WO c b
b*U b 5D K w WOU* U_
.1800xxxxxx wLd UNL U OLU UA v w UeL s bbFU UEM c eOL
Call Setup W*UJLK eOON WOKL w WOU Wd
WOuB uMI b w d WOKU
q WU) UNUb WOc WJA rb
WUF U*UJ*U dA* vK W*UJ* U r Wb) cN Toll Free wU* rd
UB w vL U lb WI nuN Ub q lb WI  U*UJ* Wb
oL lb U
UD pc uL Wb WOMODKH

 UN ud* dO lM WOHUN U*UJ* w rJ w WOUF

rUI*ubMN uI  5L I 5 UB w WKJA u bMF WOHUN WJAU rJK WO dOu
s UEM c uJ UNK JA* WdF* U qzU qOK
dUM sO U ddL b sOU uM
w (Signaling Link) U j
WOUXuKO 64 UuKF qI bFL WJA
r
d rI q qL SS7 WdAL UMI U WJ w (Signaling point) U WDI
rIL WHO e q b signaling point code U WDI e vb wLU b
U UI s u W UM WJA q
WOK; rUI* w b SSP Wb) qu% WDI
SSP Service Switching Point
STP Service Transfer Point uF rUI w b STP Wb) qI WDI
SCP Service Control Point
WOHUN U*UJ* dOO uI w WOb rUI*
rUI* 5
WJA WOc WJA jd WU qLF WO w b SCPWb)U rJ WDI
WUF UB
(26) qJAU `{uu UL U j od s UuJL lOL q r

SSP STP SCP

SSP SS7 LINKS

STP SS7 LINKS
SCP

WdAL UMIK U UE qJ

U?????A
WJA UNbI w Ub WdFL pIDM w UB WdA sOdAL Ub ed l

 PBX U) wKb wdH rI*
WOK WJ t qB UdA URL w b
PBX Private Branche WF rUIL c?? q UL b?? vM w U?? bL dOG
Exchange
Udu sJL w Ub WHK u b
WJA c jd eK d r
WL UNM bu l sJL
wQ U WUF WOHUN WJA l dOGB WOKb
WU WOK WJ UQ tF qUF r ed* r I* vK tHdF r b wL b
d E1 US WU WOHU uD bF U ed* r I*U PBX wKb wdH r I* q

w UJA c eOL s UHU URL uM uI

U/ WOKb WJA U 5 WOKb U*UJ* dOE UB WdA uM U R* lb
UNM WU) U*UJLK p eK
qB sJ1 L WdA W RLK lU wMH q s WOKb WJA UQ rJ WOUJ
wKb r I* vK WOKb WJAK WFU uD) s s wb wMu UB WOUJ
UB Wd q s pc UOI dU uD u bM eK 5 w dU
UB Wd v ud WKU( U*UJLK WOK dOu UB Wd s dUI b WOUJ
UUO qI eN uB qI eN WOLd WUF s nUN eN s WHK u UN qLF sJ1
UU l  WJA c q d r v WOKb WJA s UB eK t k
jI U

WOHUN U*UJ* uUMO

sJL VUD r
d t wLM c rIL fH w uKDL r
d U WU w WOHUN WLUJLuUMO
WO uDU p `O{u
-48v WOu 50mA UO nUN r I* e WUL  l WU w
WLGM w (Dial Tone) VKD WLG UU uI WU( c r I* w rJ b nAJ
c uKD* nUN r UI eU r I* wMF nUN WUL l bM UNFL w
440Hz d_ 350Hz ULb 5c s uJ U
b* sL{ lI uKD* rd U U bb rJ b uI uKD* rd dA* VK bF
WOK W*UJ W*UJ* vL  t H r ILK U FU U t H r ILK wLd

 r I* w tD rd uKD* nUN j lOD  UUO bU hH rJ b uI

d' U UQ rJ b uI uGA dO U S uKD* rd WU h r
vK U U c Uu 90 bN dH AC d WOzUdN U w (Ringing signal)
WLG rJ b qd Xu fH w uKD* rdK nUN UN w 5d qOGA
VUD dALK (Ring Back tone) bzUF d'
r s VUD nUN j tHU j 5 J `H uKD* rd nU WUL l bM
rJ b od s uB U qIM
uGA* j) WLG vb WU WLG bS uI r I* w rJ b S uGA j) U
620Hz 480Hz 5c s uJ uGA U L VKD UbM dA* v r I* UbOF WLG w
WOU nB bI0 d vK WFDI WLGM c uJ
uD c (27) qJA `{u 5dD b bM WUL  r I* f % bF W*UJ* UN r

nU nU

r IL
WUL  l

VKD WLG
nUN r

bzUF d WLG
d U
WUL  l
WUL
WLUJL UN
WUL  oK WUL  oK

qJ

U?????A
UL -48V WOuH nUN rIL e WUL l U w

VUD r
d t wLM c rIL fH w uKDL r
d u b WU w
Dial tone VKD WLG US uI WU( c r I* w rJ b nAJ WUL  l WU w
WIU  WU( w UL
b* sL{ lI uKD* rd bb rJ b uI uKD* rd dA* VK bF
d r I* wL b sL{ lI r ILK wLd

qJA U uKD* nUN tO wLM c r I* l SS7 U qOFH rJ b uI
r I od s SSP U UE bU uKD* r I* l dU U j du dU
WOb U*UJ* dd9 w U( pc dU j du r STP U UE bU u
WJA w WOb rUI* od s
WLG U uKD* r I* w rJ b qOFH r uKD* rd WMLC U qd
uGA uBH uKD* rd sJ r d'
Wd( ddL WdF* E1s ? WuL s WOU qJ XuKO 64 dd9 bF0 WOHU UM ` r
qJA `{u WOKd u s WJA UNCF rUI* jd uKD* r I* vK WOHUN
WOMOD KH UB WJ w WOb rUI* uF rUI (28)
wb rIL wb rIL
tK wMODKH e wMODKH

qJ wMu rIL wMu rIL

tK wMODKH e edL

wMu rIL wMu rIL

fKU edL fuOU edL

tUL  oKG* rd t wLM c r I* w rJ b uI W*UJ* UN bM

U YF
W*UJ* UN WOHUN UMI d r ILK U j s

(Transmission Media) qd WuEM

ULO rUIL j WOKL UL vK tLN uI c WJA s e p WOKd u qJA
WOHUN WJA q tLN tu U ULN rI VU qd Wd vb Wd bu cN UNMO
WOKd uU WKu UNUUN uJ WU b qd eN s WuJ Wd s U w
d qIMK qU
qJ vK UuKFL lOL UNLN uJ w lOL WLE vK qd Wd u
Wd{ WOL
d WOKUL rUIL s WKdL UuKFLK lOL WOKL WOKd uK WHKL u_
qIM WHKJ qOKI v R UL qIM j fH vK uMI s dO b Z od s WF Ue

lOL WLE
wKUL lOL UE
w uM vK lOL r tO U Lb
b U (FDM) d UDM rOI vK bLF UEu
.108KHz v 60KHz s d UDM WO_ WuL* vK uBK UM 12 q lOL& r

UDM UM 60 vK u% W Oz WuL vK uBK WO UuL fL q lOL& r

552KHz v 312KHz s d

UM 300 vK u% dO WO Oz WuL vK uBK WO Ozd UuL* c s W L q lOL& r

kwJ qJA UNH qdL w dLU uMI vK uB U r UI WN w
(29) qJA
wKUL lOL UE uO
WU* uMI b Wb uMI 5 U qb WOUJ
dOJ eN_ r Wd  b XBMK WOKUI

552 5
5
504
4
108 456
12 3 3
408
2 2
360
UE qJ 72 1 1
3 312
wKUL lOL 68
2
64
1
60KHZ
WO WuL WOz WuL dO WOz WuL

WOLd lOL WLE

wU WOKUL WLE_ s eOL TDM wMe rOI vK bLF WLE w
UO dOG eN_ r UNuM 5 qbK W{d q
UUO qI WOUJ uMI s d bF lOL WOUJ
XBMK W{d q
WOL
d lOL WLE s Uu bu

(PDH) WMeL t WOLd WOKJON

lOL r w_ UEM wH UuKFL qI Wd bF duDu wU b vK UEM c bLF
wU qd vK 2048kpbs UuKF qI bFL E1s ?

E2 vL U qOJA 8,448Kpbs qI bF0 4E1s lOL& v_ WKd*

E3 vL U qOJA 34,368Kpbs qI bF0 4E2s lOL& WOU?? ? ? WKd*
E4 vL U qOJA 139,264Kpbs qI bF0 4E3s lOL& WU?? ?  WKd*

 E0-64Kbps
E1-2.048Kbps
1 E2-8.448Kbps
E3-34.368Kbps
1
1
WOL
d WOKJON qJ 2 1 E4-139.264Kbps
2
(PDH) WMeL t 3 2
30 3
4 3
4
UM
4
UM

UM
UM

U OJ udU De-multiplexing lOL p r (TI) wJd_ UEMU qLF r bL fHM
ucL qdLU
UEM c uO r s
sJ1 (2.048Mbps) E1 w OQ U vK uBK U O J qd* lOL d* d{
WKd W wD
WdB UO_ l UNDd UO*U bu dOUF vK UUL b
2Mpbs ? s WHK* qd* oOD UM w WKBHM (multiplexers) UFL b v WU(
140Mpbs v
b PDH UE s w_ wJd_ UEM ou
JA* UA WOKL w WuF
140Mpbs s d UuKF qI bF* uu sJ1

(SDH) WMeL WOLd WOKJON

vb c wJd_ UEM U O oDL UEM c tA
PDH Pelsiochronous Digital Hierarchy c w VKG r b
SONET WMeL WdB WJA
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
vL WIU lOL WLE UNM XU w uOF vK UEM
SONET Synchronous Optical Network
STM Synchronous transport modules s UuKFLK rOI lOL WOKLF uI w bu
wU w (STMs) WMeL qIM ULM SDH ?
63E1s qIM l sJ1 STM1 : 155.52 Mbps
STM14= 63E1sX4 qIM l sJ1 STM4 : 622.08 Mbps
STM16 : 2.488 Gbps

STM64 : 9.9539Gbps

 WO hzUBU eOL
UO*U bu WdB quJ SDH ? eN 5 qu dOUF
JA* UA rJK d WuN
sJ1 (2.048Mbps) E1 w OQ U UMU bM U O J qd* lOL d* v WU( b
lOL qd s WKd w U vK uB(
b STM b s (E1) w_ (T1) wJd_ UEM lOL& sJ1
STM64 WKd w U uB dOJ qIM bF
STM UN q vK bIU eOL WO w qOu w Ring WIK( UO b
U d U * vI sU * b lD - S 5HK sU  od s 5dD s
`{u UL UNJ w ULU WOMOD KH UB Wd uI uD UEu
WIK( (31) qJA

fKU
B A
tK

sOM
A B
B A

B A B A
WOKOIK
dJu

STM1 b b qJ (SDH) WMeL WOL

d WOKJON qJ
qd r
w uuL

WOKd u
v WOKd u qOu d rI
WOUM quJ d qOu WId
ndJO* d qOu WId
WdB UO_ d qOu WId

 WOUM quJ
c w dBI U UNbU uO U rUIL sO U qI WOKL w U Lb
UNOK bLF U
fOzd rIL WLbI dOGB rUIL iF sO jd vK UL

Microwave ndJO*
UI U wOzu sO (Line of site) dE j u vK bLF qd WId w
jdK WKb WIdD UNCF rUIL jd su b vK WF ndJO WJ UM r sODK w
WdB UO_ bbL WJ w lD
JA W uB bM

WdB UO_
U$S WOMOD KH UB Wd XU 5D K w
qu WJA W bbLK WOU_ WOM dE rUIL sO WOKd jzUu qC WdB UO_ bF
qB UNzUA w w dO UF WdB
WOUJ  UFL dI b* lOL v w WdB UO_ UJ UA UN lL w bbF UeLK
bK p w UB UD
uD b fJF U bK
w sOLI sO UB dLU `L WKb U vK u YO U WOHUN UJA rLB
lDIK ULNMO WOKd WKu dF U

U?????A
WdAK Ue rNb WId D uI WOMODKH UB Wd l oOMU

WOHUN WJA w WU UIOD

u* UN s U*UJ*
WJA d qIMK WKU
WOKUL U v qdL dD s WOL
d UuKFL u UN uL dN
qUF VOuK sJL WOL
UuKF v WOKUL U qu uIO qIL dD w U WOHUN
(33) qJA w ULUB wd bM u UN u eK YO UNF
WOUX 300 Wd qLF XU w uL eN v dN
wLKJ UB w Modem WLK VOu uD l sJ X
u p w WUM Wd pK XU b

Demodulator - Modulator
qI Wd U?? s b U UNUF w UuKFL r U??
uL d UUO

 uL b qJ

.u* qLF nO

WOHUN WKu d WOzUdNJ b qLJ u* S d VU l UB b * VKD UbM
v u* qd YO UF nUN qFH UL U U9 (DTMF) rd VK U qd t Wuu*
uKD* nUN r r I*
5d U uKD* u* f YO uKD* rd v 5 U US r I* uI
u* dz jd r I* uI r s d u nU WUL UMF u UL U U9 UB qI
b c qJA u* UN 5 WIKG dz UMb `B cN uKD* u* dzb qB*
ULNMO UB UM
U qJ vK d dD v UNKOu bd w WOLd UuKF* US qB* VU( uI
nUN j vK t uL * d UDM u 4KHz s q d U OL WMLC
vK UM UM u* UNKI YO UB WN v WOHUN WJA d WOKUL U qIM
Ud1 bb s WOL U v WOKUL U qu% r U qI w b * 5LC
t jd* VU( UN v b

fUH
WOHUN WJA WUu d UJ s uBM ozUu u qIM b nUN j l qu UNu

fUH qLF nO

qd YO nUN qFH UL UU9 UB UAS fUH uI
tO qd* fUH r q9 DTMF ULG
UN jd* uKD* wHUN jK 5 WLG US r I* uI
u UL U U9 r I* 5 tMO UB S uI c fU
uI r s wHUN UB w nUN WUL l rb
fU UN qJ ULNMO UB UM qJA U2 qI * qd* w jd r I*

 fUH dFO p WOHdF WLG US qd* fUH uI
b fUH d d gb* s
U OHU UB fO fU UNu UB bB qI *
bMKJ_ q 5 nUN d q
q 1843 U td sU bM J bR tO qd* fUH s WOOd WLGM wQ UU
q 5 WM 5 nUN uN bF r fU UNu qI * Q qdLK WOOd WLGM
vM w WOU_ U* d d w
r t tdF c fUH bF ULO UNOK ULNM q Wd YO s sUN'  UuKF* U p
Xu p w uu eO v d jG{ UOu ULb UU U resolution dI W
UN l w WdA r Data Compression UuKF*
b * eOd WFO UNU d* WHB r fUH
u light sensor dOG wzu{ f d0 p UNU d* Wu dI qd* fUH b
WU * pK w uK dI f* uI  ld dLOKO l dOG WU  wDG YO Wu
d WLG qd tS UCO XU U 1300Hz d WLG US UNM dF tS u XU S
WU * w uK uD q w dI UNUN v UNb s Wu u f* d1 cJ 800Hz d
Wu qU d r v cJ dI* uK U F ULGM qd UNu uJ w dOGB
UI v ULGM WLd b uI c qI * fUH v WOHUN WJA d ULGM qIM
fHM d WU WUu W vK UIM c lD WKI * WLGM d U F UCO u
qd* fUH w wzuC f* tO d c uK_
eOK d qLF w uU WFUD WNUA UOMI vK Wb eN_ bLF
w fUH eN qL XLE w uud `zuK s b bQ UB wLUF U U

fUH eN lOD YO UdO bL eOd Wd q WMOF hzUB tb qO q UO WF

s d fU WKd lOD fUH UL UNMO ULO uBM ozUu UI U qO fH v WOLML
d uJ u ld qO U YU qO s w rUF w UOU dAML fUH eN rEF oU qO
ISDN WbL WOL
d uD d U OL
qd lOD ld qO eN UL UI U w

Leased Line dR* uD) WOMI

sb sOF
u sO WBB qOGA od s UNLbI UB Wd uI WU Wb w
Wd b WU eN od s b Wd
Ou sOF
u sO dRL WOHUN uD sR
c dOQ U r dU U B dL
c d WuIML U vK WEULK WU eN du c nUN Wb e s uD
WHKJ c dO UF wHUN UB WOMI WUI WFHd UNb WHK uJ qb s uD

U UuKFL UUO s dO WOL qIM URL UdA WU dQL U WLN bF

tUUO buI dL UB v WHKL tUJ w
vb uL UN tO U UN v dRL uD U
CSU Channel service Unit
UU UN c Vd j q WUN bM eOd lI CSU/DSU
DSU Data Service Unit wHUN j w rJK (CSU) UMI Wb b?? sOb s
UUO WON w rJK (DSU) UUO Wb b?? dQL
j d UNKI
WOMI v WU dNE tS fOzd VJLU dH q VKD WMOF WdA dH b be UbM
(Frame Relay) U qI WOMI U UM s Wd d WHK q
d

Frame Relay U qI WOMI

UUO _ r cN vL (Packet Switching) We qu UOMI s U qI WOMI bF

Frames U vL b qJ vK UNU r WKdL
56 sO d UUO qI Wd WOU WO
uu WOMI c du UL
e& tO r qu% UE We( qu%
qJA UNU Packets e v UUO WNu Wb WOMI c duWOU w XUO 45v WOU w XuKO
qd* 5 UM e r YO qBHM sO (Permanent Virtual Circuit) WLz WdU bS p r
qI *
WJ w sUN 5 UB WdU
WJ d UUO tJK c UL b WKIL WKdL eN_
We( qu% b WDL WOx dE p dO WOUFH WOMI c lL U qI
UUO ob rJK rJL UEM UUO tOu
WJA s VF nH UL WJA fO UD_ WUF s WRL w WOMI c w eN_
iF s WU WF UJ WU WF UJ sOL
v U qI WJ rIM U s
WOMI c eOL
dQ * uD) ISDN UJ s WHKJ q d UO du
U s WHK u qI vK bI
d_ UOMI s bOIF q j v WU(
bL w dAM dO d UN bu w uM URL UdA WOMI c q s bOH
UNMO ULO UUO qI eK

 ISDN WKUJ* WOLd Ub) WJ
Ub vK uB dAL UJS ` YO WOL
d UUO qIM wL
wHU j w
bOKI wKUL j l WUILU b wL
wHU j vK UUO qI WOHU WLUJ WKUJ
WOHUN WJA uD b UN q
WOKUL v WOL
d UUO qu v U c wD
sOdALK ISDN ? Wb UB
UNL u b v rIM d UDM b (ISDN) WKUJL UbK WOL
d WJA uD
u PRI WOzb Wd U WJA ju _ uM
qIM B UM 30 vK u WOUX UO 2 s E1 U
PRI Primary Rate Interface
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(DSL) wLd dA* j

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d dAL j WOMI dN UM
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d
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 dALK ULF WFOD uF p 1104KHz v qB w WKI * WUI UUOK
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SDSL Symetric Digital Subscriber Line. Y qI U w dOJ UHK* qI w
VDSL Very high Speed Digital Subscriber LIne.
qB sJ1 b WOU Wd eOL UHK
DSLAM DSL Access Multiplerxer.
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(ATM) se qIM u/

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B-ISDN Broadband ISDN.
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Wd WOU WOL

WJ w (BISDN) Wb
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vB
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UUO qI WOKLF b q
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l qU qJA WIu eN_ lOL uJ b ATM WOMI b

UOUJ s uBI UH
ATM WOMI eOL s . ATM UHu
WOUF Wd 
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 qd WdG dU jd c r I* w e' u U
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 jd dOJ UF  quJ b

nUN fI nUN UN r I*U lu sze
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WKd* UUO UDM U U  WKI * UUOK hB* UDM ?
d U q

 b????????u

W?OJK U??B WLE??

Wirelss Communcations Systems

 WOJK UB WLE
WOdG WIDML WU d bF V ozu uu WOJK UB b cF UbM
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v WU X bI Wu Wd Wd WKIML UdL w W U UB UM Wd Wd v WU
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bF
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bu b
vK U
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U u uuK q d WOJK WLE vK dF
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 WOJK WLE_ aU
UB d w edO dMN _ qCH eF 1885
s U uJ U UN U YO U DO U UE U u
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b bM pK  w WIO{ W l nK s U uN
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U&U 1923 U bM Wd Xd WdA qIM* U) ud wL U* b U 1921

(Simplex) b
WdJ F UO t YO dO qJA dA uD b ud U WOU WO*UF d( uK
s Y b WOU WO*UF d( UNU UF* UU w tM vM ` wU qJA
Private Mobile Radio `KDB dN dJ F b dO ud nUNK bb u
WU) WUIM nUN WLE PMR
AT&T WdA U Mobile Telephone Services (MTS) qIM* nUN Wb) uN 1946
UO WU) UO  s bbF w l{u qIM* nUN U w{U* dI s UOMO L) w
WOJK ud eN r s qK c ued d bF UJ dOJ uD U d
WOzUdNJ WUDK UNN s iH

 b UN wd q be WdA dzb sJ b bOU qL wJK UN dN 1965

5uI l{ Y d b rOEM v WU( dH pK w dN UO  be s

UN UFdA
WU qIM* nUN Wb bI w U b* Uu w UdA s bbF dN b
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u Wb) w
dI s UOMOUL w uNE uD w uOK) nUN WLE b v
AT&T WdA WFU Bell Labs q s uOK) UEMK WO_ f XF{ b XU 5 w{U*
w (AMPS) dN 5 UOMOUL w du r UNIOD W UOuuMJ sJ 1948 U
s bbF w UEM c dA b 800MHz d UN hB WOJd b* Uu
rUF bK
UE dDO uOK nUN UEM WO dOUF l{ r bF U w GSM UE dN 1991
WOU) tMOQ rUF lOL w dO qJA dA rUF w uOK) nUN u vK GSM
tKL c rd fHM rUF s bbF w qIM hAK UJU qF Roaming u
w WOJK UIOD s bbF dN dO_ W w d_ Ue* s bbF v WU{U
qLF d UL Bluetooth uuK WiFi U u q WMOF UIOD UB Ub sR
WOU UUO qI Ud UIOD s bbF sRO WuOK) UB w*U UE duD vK
s tS UI UNb v WU bu c w WeOK UKDBL s dOJ b dE
rQ b wQ ULO U I dBL b r s U bI UB c wUF dOH qC
WbL UKDBL

dBL eOK vMFL wdF vMFL

GSM Global System for Mobile Communication. WKIML UB wLUF UEM
BSS Base Station Subsystem. bUI WD wd UE
NSS Network Switching Subsystem. qu wd UE
OMSS Operation And Maintenance Subsystem. WUOB qOGA wd UE
BTS Base Transceiver Station. bUI UB WD
BSC Base Station Controller. bUI WD w rJ UE
MSC Mobile Switching Center. edL rIL
GMSC Gate way Mobile Switching Center. u rI
PSTN Public Switch Telephone network. WUF nUN WJ
VLR Visitor Location Register. dze l
u q

HLR Home Location Register. wOzd l
uL q
EIR Equipment Identity Register. WKIML bu Wu q
IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity . WOb UN Wu
AUC Authentication center. oOu ed
IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity. dALK WOb WuN
TMSI Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity. t
RL dAL Wu
PLMN Public Land Mobile Network. IMLK WUF WO{_ WJA
SIM Subscriber Identity Module. dAL Wu W
UD
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System. qIML nUNK uDL UEM
GPRS General Packet Radio Service. U OJK e qIM WUF Wb
EDGE Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution. .GSM WLE_ sL qIM bF
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System. IMLK wLUF UB UE
HCMTS High Capacity Mobile Telephone Services. WF wU qIML nUN Wb
MS Mobile Station. uOK UNWKIML bu
ME Mobile Equipment. qIML UN
PIN Personal Identification Number. wBA ndF r

PUK Personal Unblocking Key. wBA p r

SMSC Short Message Service Center. dOBI qzUd Wb ed

VMS Voice Mail System. wuB bd UE
OSS Operation Support System. qOGA r UE
CCBS Customer Care and Billing System. duH sOdAL Ub UE
NMC Network Management center. WJA ed
HSCSD High Speed Circuit Switched Data. Wd WOU UUO qu
TCH Traffic Channel. UuKFL qI UM

CCH Control Channel. rJ UM

BCCH Broadcast Control Channel. YU rJ UM

CCCH Common Control Channel. WdA rJ UM

DCCH Dedicated Control Channel. WdJ rJ UM

CT2 Cordless Telephone 2. wU qO wJK nUN

DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone. sL wL
d wJK nUN
FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread spectrum. dAML nOD d eH

WLL Wireless Local Loop. WOJK WOKL b

MSISDN Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number. wb dAL nU r

TDD Time Division Duplexing. wzUM wMe rOI UE

 WOK) bO WbOKI WOJK WLE_

sOQ WLE_ cN wU_ bN U WOU WOLUF d bF WbOKI WOJK WLE_ dN
(1) qJA kPSTN WUF nUN WJA UND WKIML UO UdLK UB

dB
WHOF{ U WOu XU wKUL UEM vK UUL
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b WOKb U d b U O b WODG WU 
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(Cellular Systems) WuOK) WLE_

d b U vL oUM v Wb WIDM rOI u WuK WLE_ w wU_ bL
fH b U w qb lML d qJ WCHM U W
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 qJ qJ

G1 1980 qO'
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.FM sOLC UE Analog wKUL UEM FDMA d rOI b XU UOuuMJ
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qO hzUB
bu WO dOUF u bF WHK d vK bLF UEM w WIu dO
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G2 1992 wU qO'

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UUA qN UL
QPSK sOLC WOL
d UOuuMJ CDMA FDMA TDMA uu UOMI b Wb
L WOMI
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 .TDMA b WOJd bL Uu DAMPS WK?? ? ? 

.TDMA b rUF s bbF U GSM

.CDMA b WOJd bL Uu :(CDMAOne) IS-95

qO c eOL
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(Phase2) G2.5 2001- 1999 uD* wU qO'

UUO qI Wd Ue WOU{ WLE b r YO YU qO u u uD qO bF
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.GSM UE duD b GPRS Wb

L WOMI
GSM WLE vK b w GPRS UE DAMPS UE duD b EDGE

.(CDMAONE) IS-95 duD b w CDMA2000 1X

G3 2001 YU qO'

bbF Z qUJ u tu b GSM UE WU wU qO WLE tII c dOJ UM bF
WOUMB UL
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L WOMI
b CDMA s u?? u WCDMA UI U w QPSK 5LC
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 qO c eOL
bu w*U UOI
1G 2G 2.5G 3G
Global Rooming bu w*U u&
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WuOK s WLE_ u nK 5

ANALOG

TDMA
UdO WOUM UL
CDMA2000 1 CDMA2000 1 EV-DO
cdmaone
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(GSM) WKIM* UB w*UF UEM

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bu
bK 213 w Wb cN
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u WOJ WLE_ u s % 82 s d t U qL dA UOK 2 UIU b rUF u
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 GSM UE v WU(
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WO UHuLU lL
uBK bO qI WOu
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UEM VOd
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MS uOK) UN' WKIM* bu

BSS bUI UD wd UE
NSS qu WJ wd UE
OMSS WUOB qOGA wd UE

 (MS) WKIML bu UD wd UE
(BSS) bUI (NSS) qu WJ wd UE d UJ

GSM UE VOd qJ

(MS) WKIM* bu

dAL Wu W
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r
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dALK wBA nUN
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EEPROM WUJ dIK WKU
d ZdK (ROM) jI d
d vK u (Microcontroller) ZUF
(7) qJA jUUO se

 uJ r
u PIN d r
bU W
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RAM I/O FLASH
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UD w e UU WF s
CPU
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d U WU r W
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U?????A
dAL Wu W
UD vK e w UUO UuKFL iF w Y

Ciphering dOHA Authentication oOu WOKL w b w WHKL dOHA UL vK u UL

b dAL UUO UuKF UNO e dc b dAL Wu W

UD S p v WU{U
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References:
Simon Haykin, Communication Systems ,4th Edition, Wiley & Sons, 2001.
Martin Roben, Analog And Digital Communication Systems, 4th Edition, Prentic Hall 1998.
Rodger E. Ziemer and Roger L. Peterson, Introduction to Digital Communications, Second Edition, Prentic Hall 2001.
Morris Tischler, Antennas And Transmission Lines.
Jack Hudson, Jerry Luecke, Baisic Communications Electronics.
Gordon L. Stuber, Principles of mobile communications, Second Edition, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002.
Bruce R .Elbert, The Satellite Communication Applications Handbook, Second Edition, Artech house, 2004
Siegmund M. Redl, GSM and Personal Communications HandBook, Artech House, 1998
William Webb, The Complete Wireless Communications Professional , Artech House, 1999.
Juha Korhonen, Introduction to 3G Mobile Communications, Second Edition, Artech House ,2003.
Friedhelm Hillebrand ,GSM and UMTS: The Creation of Global Mobile Communication, Wiley ,2001.
William Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications, McGraw Hill, 2001.
Gunnar Heine, GSM Networks: Protocols, Terminology and Implementation, Artech House, 1998.
Tarmo Anttalaien, Introduction to telecommunication network engineering.
Stephen J .Bigelow, Joseph J. Carr, and Steve Winder, Understanding Telephone electronics.
Roger l. Freeman, Fundamental of Telecommunication.

Websites:
http://www.gsmworld.com.
http://www.howstuffworks.com.
http://www.web-ee.com.

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