2006 4

(
) ()

()

0.3
(
5%
300km M = 0.25
500km
M = 0.41
M = 0.7 0.8

(
) 0
()

()

1
M = 2
(
2003 )
M 5

2006 4 1
 3

1 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 11
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 17
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4 21
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5 29
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6 35
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4

7 43
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.7 Crocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.9 Taylor-Maccoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

8 59
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

9 71
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.4 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

10 93
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
10.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
10.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
 i

11 99
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.7 Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
 1

1.1

(compressible uid) (pressure) (volume)
(density)
gas dynamics (
convective velocity)

1.2
V a

V
M (1.1)
a
( )
2 p
a = (1.2)
s

p s
s

2
( (1.55) )

1.3

1

V
=0 (1.3)
2 1

2 = (/x, /y)
1
V V
=0 V + =0 (1.4)
x x x

V V
or (1.5)
x x V

(1.2)

p a2 (1.6)
1
V 1 p
V = (1.7)
x x

p
V V (1.8)

1.61.8 p

V 2 V V
2 or M2 (1.9)
a V V
(M = V /a)
(1.5)
V
(1.10)
V
(1.9)

V2
M2 = 1 (1.11)
a2
M < 0.3 M 2 < 0.1
0 (
) ()
[ ]1/(1)
0 1
= 1 + ( 1)M 2 (1.12)
2
(M 1)
1
1 M2 (1.13)
0 2
M = 0.3 /0 0.96 5%
M = 0.3 M = 0.3
M = 1
6 (/0 0.63)
1.4. 3

1.4

(incompressible ow) M < 0.3

(subsonic ow) 0.3 < M < 0.8

(transonic ow) 0.8 < M < 1.2

(supersonic ow) 1.2 < M < 5

(hypersonic ow) 5 < M (bow shock)

shock layer

1970

1.5

(continuity equation)

(equation of motion) (momentum equation)

(equation of energy)

(state equation)

T Sutherland

( )3/2
T T0 + C
= (1.14)
0 T0 T +C
C = 110 T0 0 T0
3

Q
E F
G
+ + + =0 (1.15)
t x y z
4 1

= (, u, v, w, et )t
Q (1.16)

E 2
= (u, u + p, uv, uw, (et + p)u) t
(1.17)
F = (v, vu, v 2 + p, vw, (et + p)v)t (1.18)

G 2
= (w, wu, wv, w + p, (et + p)w) t
(1.19)
v = (u, v, w) (1.20)
2
et = (ei + v /2) (1.21)

ei et +

1.6
M = V /a

= Cp /Cv

Re = V L/ = V L/

P r = Cp /k

1.7

1.7.1
= const
p = f (, T ) T

p = RT (1.22)

R R = 287m2 /(s2 K)

1.7.2
ei

ei = Cv T (1.23)

Cv (calorically perfect gas)

1.7. 5

1.7.3
h h = ei + p/

h = Cp T (1.24)

Cp

1.7.4
(specic heat) 1 C Cp
Cv 2

R R
Cp = , Cv = , Cp Cv = R (1.25)
1 1

Cp = 1005m2 /(s2 K), Cv = 718m2 /(s2 K)

Cp = 1.004kJ/kgK, = 1.40
Cp = 1.155kJ/kgK, = 1.33
Cp Cv

Cp
= (1.26)
Cv

(2 ) = 1.4
f

Cp 2 f +2
= =1+ = (1.27)
Cv f f

He, Ne, Ar, Xe

f = 3(x, y, z = 5/3

(O2 , N2 f = 5(x, y, z + 2(
2 = 7/5 = 1.4

f = 6(x, y, z + 3( 3
= 8/6

5
1 (1.28)
3

1.7.5

dQ
dS = (1.29)
T
6 1

dS dQ
J/(KgK)

dQ = dei + pdv (1.30)

v (v = 1/) (1.29)

dQ dei + pdv
dS = =
T T
Cv 1
= dT + Rd
T
Cv R
= dT d
T
Cv Cp Cv
= dT d (1.31)
T

S
S = Cv lnT (Cp Cv )ln + C (1.32)

C Cv

S C
= lnT ( 1)ln + (1.33)
Cv Cv
T C
= ln + (1.34)
1 Cv

S T C
= ln 1 + (1.35)
Cv Cv

(1.34) (1.35)
( )
S S T 1

= ln (1.36)
Cv 1 T

Cp , Cv

p = RT (1.37)

p = RT + RT (1.38)

1.37
p T
= + (1.39)
p T

1.31) Cv

dS dT d
= ( 1) (1.40)
Cv T
1.7. 7

1.39)

dS dp d
= (1.41)
Cv p

S
= lnp ln + C
Cv
p
= ln +C (1.42)

p
exp(S/Cv C) = exp(C) exp(S/Cv ) = (1.43)

exp(C) C
p
= Cexp(S/Cv ) (1.44)

S1 S2

T2 p2 T2 2
S2 S1 = Cp ln R ln = Cv ln R ln (1.45)
T1 p1 T1 1

p, , T
S2 S1
S1 = S2

( ) ( )1 ( )(1)/
p2 2 T2 2 p2
= , = = (1.46)
p1 1 T1 1 p1

1.7.6
(sonic velocity)
(shock wave)

a= RT (1.47)

(u = 0, p, , T )
8 1

(du, p + dp, + d, T + dt)

x
(du)
du

(a, p, , T )

(a du, p + dp, + d, T + dT )

x x
p T
Aa A(+d)(adu)

Aa = A( + d)(a du) (1.48)

d
du = a (1.49)

du > 0 d > 0 (wave

front)
(control volume)

pA (p + dp)A = (Aa)(a du) (Aa)a (1.50)

Aa

dp = adu (1.51)

2 (1.49) (1.51) du

dp
a2 = (1.52)
d

()
( )
p
a2 = (1.53)
s

p
= const (1.54)

1.8. 9

p
a= = RT (1.55)

15 C a = 340m/s 15.5 C
a = 1, 490m/s
1.55

1.8
()

1.8.1

1.8.2

3
()

1.8.3

V ( a
a 1
sin =
= (1.56)
V M
M
= 90

1
tan = (1.57)
M2 1

 11

2.1
( 1
( ) ( )
d u2 u2
ei + dV + ei + uj dAj = ui ij dAj q dA
(2.1)
dt 2 2

u2 /2 dAj dA(

j 1 ei
2
1
2

q = kT (2.2)

k T
1

m
= 1 u1 A1 = 2 u2 A2 = const (2.3)

1 2 ()
1 2
2.1
2 ( ) [ ]
u2 1 1
ei + ei2 + u22 ei1 u21
uj dAj = m (2.4)
2 2 2
12 2

1

ui ij dAj = u1 p1 A1 u2 p2 A2 (2.5)

ij p


q dA
=Qm
(2.6)

Q
[ ]
1 2 1 2
m ei2 + u2 ei1 u1 = u1 p1 A1 u2 p2 A2 + Q m
(2.7)
2 2
( )
p1 p2
u1 p1 A1 u2 p2 A2 = u1 1 A1 (p1 /1 ) u2 2 A2 (p2 /2 ) = m
(2.8)
1 2
(2.7)
[ ]
p2 1 2 p1 1 2
m
ei2 + + u2 ei1 u1 = Q m
(2.9)
2 2 1 2
h
p
h = ei + (2.10)

[ ]
1 1
h2 + u22 h1 u21 = Q m
m (2.11)
2 2

W Q 1

1
h + V 2 = H0 = (2.12)
2
H0 (stagnation enthalpy)

h = cp T, H0 = Cp T0 (2.13)

(Cp )

1
Cp T + V 2 = Cp T0 (2.14)
2
T0 0

Cp
R
Cp = (2.15)
1
Cp T
R a2
Cp T = T = (2.16)
1 1
2.2. 13

a2 = RT 2.14

a2 1 a20
+ V2 = (2.17)
1 2 1
a0

a2 1 +1 2 a2 1 2 a20
H0 = + V2 = a = + V = (2.18)
1 2 2( 1) 1 2 1
()
a
V = a = a
(2.12)
Vmax h = 0

( )1/2

Vmax = (2H0 )1/2 = (2cp T0 )1/2 = 2 RT0 (2.19)
1

H0 T0
a 2.18 (2.19)

+1
Vmax = a (2.20)
1

2.2

2.2.1
(2.14) cp T
V2 T0
1+ = (2.21)
2cp T T

R R a2
Cp = Cp T = T = (2.22)
1 1 1
2.21
( 1)V 2 T0
1+ = (2.23)
2a2 T

T0 ( 1) 2
=1+ M (2.24)
T 2
M = V /a T T0

14 2

2.2.2
(2.24) a M

( )1/2 [ ]1/2
a0 T0 1
= = 1 + ( 1)M 2
(2.25)
a T 2
adiabatic

2.3

2.3.1
1.46
p
= const (2.26)
T /(1)
(p0 , T0 ) (p, T )
( )/(1)
p0 T0
= (2.27)
p T

2.24
( )/(1) [ ]/(1)
p0 T0 1
= = 1 + ( 1)M 2
(2.28)
p T 2

2.3.1M = 1

(M ) (p/p0 )
0.3 0.94
0.5 0.84
0.8 0.66
1.0 0.53
2.0 0.13
3.0 0.027
2.4. 15

2.3.2
1.46

= const (2.29)
T 1/(1)
(0 , T0 ) (, T )
( )1/(1)
0 T0
= (2.30)
T

2.24
( )1/(1) [ ]1/(1)
0 T0 1
= = 1 + ( 1)M 2
(2.31)
T 2

p0 0 0
p0 0

2.4

p , , T , a
p0 0 T0 a0 (2.28) (2.31) (2.24)
(2.25) M = 1
( )/(1)
p 2
= = 0.5283 (2.32)
p0 +1
( )1/(1)
2
= = 0.6339 (2.33)
0 +1
T 2
= = 0.8333 (2.34)
T0 +1
( )1/2
a 2
= = 0.9129 (2.35)
a0 +1

= 1.4
(
a T
p
() V
( )1/2 ( )1/2
2 2
V = a = (RT )1/2 = a0 = RT0 (2.36)
+1 +1
16 2

2.35
(2.19) (2.36) (2.19)
( )1/2
V 1
= (2.37)
Vmax +1

 17

1 ( 1

3.1
x x A(x) p(x), (x),
V (x)

(x)V (x)A(x) = const (3.1)

3 x

d/dx dV /dx dA/dx

+ + =0 (3.2)
V A

dx dx
d dV dA
+ + =0 (3.3)
V A

1
dV dp
V = (3.4)
dx dx
dx dx

V dV = dp (3.5)

dp
+ V dV = 0 (3.6)

(1.52)
dp = a2 d (3.7)

3.6
d
a2 + V dV = 0 (3.8)

18 3

a2 3.3
V A

dV dA 1 dp
= = 2 (3.9)
V A M2 1 V

dA dV
= (M 2 1) (3.10)
A V

M 2 1(M )
(M > 1) (M < 1)
(dV > 0)

M > 1 (V > a) dA > 0

M < 1 (V < a) dA < 0

3.9

M 2 1 < 0)

dA > 0

dV < 0 (3.9) dp > 0

dA < 0

dV > 0 dP < 0

M 2 1 > 0)

dA > 0

dV > 0 (3.9) dp < 0

dA < 0
dV < 0 dp > 0

M = 1 3.9dV
dA = 0
3.2. 19

M=1

)

M=1

3.2
A M

A V
V A = V A = (3.11)
A V

V A

(3.11)

{ [ ]}1/(1)
0 2 1
= = 1 + ( 1)M 2
(3.12)
0 +1 2
2.31) 2.33)

( )1/2 ( )1/2
V (RT )1/2 (RT )1/2 T T0
= = (3.13)
V V V T0 T
{ [ ]}1/2
1 2 1
= 1 + ( 1)M 2
(3.14)
M +1 2

2.242.34
3.123.143.11

[ ](1/2)(+1)/(1)
A 1 1 + 12 ( 1)M 2
= (3.15)
A M 1
2 ( + 1)

M < 1 (M > 1) (A/A > 1)

20 3

A1 A2 (3.15)
[ ](1/2)(+1)/(1)
A1 M2 1 + 12 ( 1)M12
= (3.16)
A2 M1 1 + 12 ( 1)M22

(3.9) (3.10)

3.3
choking

3.113.15)
[ ](1/2)(+1)/(1)
V A 1 + 12 ( 1)M 2
= =M (3.17)
V A 1
2 ( + 1)

M = 1 1

m
max
( )(1/2)(+1)/(1)
2
m
max = A 0 (RT0 )1/2 (3.18)
+1
( )(1/2)(+1)/(1)
2 A p0
= (3.19)
+1 (RT0 )1/2

A (p0

(3.19)
max = V A
m (3.20)

(2.33) V (2.36) p0 /0 = RT0

(3.15) A/A M

(M ) (A/A )
1.5 1.18
2.0 1.69
2.5 2.64
3.0 4.23
4.0 10.7
5.0 25

 21

4.1


r

( )
1 2
Tw = T 1 + r M (4.1)
2

(T )ad 1 2
=r M (4.2)
T 2

(T )ad = Tw T (4.3)

0.825 r 0.865

0.875 r 0.890

4.1
r r = 0.89

(M ) (Tw /T )
2 1.7
3 2.6
5 5.5
8 12.4
10 18.8

4.1:
22 4

4.2
4.2.1

(u) (v)
+ =0 (4.4)
x y
( ) ( )
u u dp u
u +v = + (4.5)
x y dx y y
( ) ( ) ( )2
T T dp T u
Cp u +v =u + k + (4.6)
x y dx y y y

p = RT (4.7)

4.2.2

U V
+ =0 (4.8)
x y
[ ]
U U U
U + V = ( + t ) (4.9)
x y y y
[( ) {( ) ( )} ]
H H t H 1 1 U
U + V = + + 1 + t 1 U (4.10)
x y y P r P rt y Pr P rt y

U, V x, y H

+ 1 (U 2 + V 2 )
H=h (4.11)
2

h

= ei + p
h (4.12)

t P rt

4.3. 23

4.3
P r = 1 = 1
L.Howarth, C.R.Illingworth, K.Stewartson

(viscosity law)
( )
T
= (4.13)
0 T0

0.5 < < 1

b
Tw T0 + S 1
b= (4.14)
T0 Tw + S 1
Illingworth-Stewartson (x, y) ( x, y)
x y
p1 c1 c1
x
= b dx, y = dy (4.15)
0 p0 c0 c0 0 0

c x
c1
c21 = ( 1)cp T1 (4.16)

0 c1

c20 = ( 1)cp T0 (4.17)

T1 x T1 = T1 (x) c1 x
c1 = c1 (x) p1 p1 (x) 4.15

x
=x
(x) (4.18)

y1 = (x, y) 4.15

y = y(x, y) (4.19)

x y x
, y

x=x
, y = y(
x, y) (4.20)

(4.4)

u, v (4.21)
y 0 x 0
(chain rule) x y x
y
x
d y bp1 c1 y
= + = + (4.22)
x dx x x y p 0 c0 x
x y
y x c1
= + = (4.23)
y y y y x c0 0 y
24 4

x
x x
/y = 0 (4.15)

d
x bp1 c1
= (4.24)
dx p0 c0

4.23)

dx y bp1 c1 y
= + = + (4.25)
x dx x x y p0 c0 x x y
y x c1
= + = (4.26)
y y y y x c0 0 y

4.21 u, v

0 0 c1 c1
u= = = (4.27)
y c0 0 y c0 y
( )
0 0 bp1 c1 y
v= = + (4.28)
x p0 c0 x
x y

u u

c0
u
u = (4.29)
c1 y

( )
u c1 bp1 c1 c1 y c1 2
u = + (4.30)
x c0 y p0 c0 x c0 y x c0 y2
( )2 ( )
u c1 bp1 c1 y 2
v = + (4.31)
y c0 p0 c0 x
x y y2

( )3 [ ( )2 ]
u u c1 p1 b 2 2 1 dc1
u +v = + (4.32)
x y c0 p0 y y x
y2
x c1 d
x y

1
h1 = cp T1 + u21 = cp T0 (4.33)
2

1
h = cp T + u2 (4.34)
2

4.33
1
c21 + ( 1)u21 = c20 (4.35)
2
x

1 dc1 1 u1 du1
= ( 1) 2 (4.36)
c1 d
x 2 c1 d
x
4.3. 25

4.32
( )3 ( )2 ( )3 ( )2
c1 p1 b 1 dc1 c1 p1 b 1 u1 du1
= (4.37)
c0 p0 c1 dx y c0 p0 2 c21 d x y

x
x
x y
= + (4.38)
x
x x
y x

x = x(
x), y = y(
x, y) (4.39)

(4.24)

u1 u1 p0 c0 u1 y
= + (4.40)
x x bp1 c1 y x

u1 x
u1 du1 p0 c0
= (4.41)
x dx bp1 c1
4.374.41 (4.29)
( )3 ( )2
c1 p1 b 1 dc1 1 u1 2 du1
= u (4.42)
c0 p0 c1 dx y 2 c21 d
x

4.32)
( )3 ( )
u u c1 p1 b 2 2 1 u2 du1
u +v = ( 1) 2 u1 (4.43)
x y c0 p0 y y x
y2
x 2 c1 dx

x
(4.5) 4.26)
( ) ( )
1 u 1 c1 T c1 c1
= b0 (4.44)
y y c0 0 y T0 c0 0 y c0 y

T
=b (4.45)
0 T0

T p p1
= = (4.46)
0 T0 p0 p0
p = p1
4.44
( ) ( )3 3
1 u 0 bp1 c1
= (4.47)
y y p0 c0 y3

1 dp T p1
= (4.48)
dx 1 T1 x
26 4

p = RT, p1 = 1 RT1 (4.49)

1 T
p1 = p2 RT = 1 RT1 = (4.50)
1 T1

p1 du1
= 1 u1 (4.51)
x dx

1 dp T du1
= u1 (4.52)
dx T1 dx

(total enthalpy)

cp T + 12 u2 H
S= 1= 1 (4.53)
cp T0 H0

S
1 S 0 (4.54)

4.53 T

u2
T = (S + 1)T0 (4.55)
2cp

T1
T T0 u2
= (S + 1) (4.56)
T1 T1 2cp T1
4.164.17

T C2 ( 1)u2
= (S + 1) 02 (4.57)
T1 C1 2c21

4.52
{ ( )2 }
1 dp c0 1 u2 du1
= (1 + S) u1 (4.58)
dx c1 2 c21 dx

4.5
( )3 ( )
c1 p1 b 2 2 1 u2 du1
2
( 1) 2 u1
c0 p0 y y x
x
y 2 c1 dx
{ ( )2 } ( )3 3
c0 1u 2
du1 0 bp1 c1
= (1 + S) 2 u1 + (4.59)
c1 2 c1 dx p0 c0 y3
4.3. 27

( )5
2 2 c0 p0 du1 3
= (1 + S) u1 + 0 3 (4.60)
y y x
y2
x c1 p1 b dx y

u

c0

u u (4.61)
c1
u1
c0
1
u u1 (4.62)
c1
(4.41)
( ) ( )2
u1 c1 p1 c1 d c1 c1 bp1 d
u1 = u 1 b u
1 = u
1 (c1 u
1 ) (4.63)
dx c0 p0 c0 d
x c0 c0 p0 c0 dx

4.60
( )5 ( )3
c0 p0 du1 c0 1 d
(1 + S) u1 = (1 + S) u
1 (c1 u
1 ) (4.64)
c1 p1 b dx c1 c0 dx

= u (4.65)
y 0

4.26
c1
= u (4.66)
c0 0 y 0

c0
= uu
(4.67)
y c1
u

y v

= v (4.68)
x 0

x
y
= +
x x
x y x
bp1 c1 y
= +u (4.69)
x
p0 c0 x

/ x

( )
p0 c0 y
= u
x
bp1 c1 x x
( )
p0 c0 y
= v+u (4.70)
bp1 c1 0 x
v (4.71)
28 4

v
u
, v

=u
, =
v (4.72)
y x

4.60
( )3
u
u c0 1 dc1 u1 2u
u
+ v = (1 + S) u
1 + 0 2 (4.73)
x
y c1 c0 d
x y

u
u 2u
u
+ v = 0 2 (4.74)
x
y y

P r = 1 Illingworth-Stewartson

u
1
f () + f ()f () = 0, = y (4.75)
20 x

f

= f () 20 u
1 x
(4.76)

x
, y, b
x
b1 C1
x
= dx (4.77)
0 C0
0
y
C1
y = dy (4.78)
C0 0 0

Twall T0 + 110
b = (4.79)
T0 Twall + 110

f () T ()

T 1
( 1)M12
=1 2 1 [f ()]2 (4.80)
T0 1 + 2 ( 1)M12

()0 ()1 (

 29

p p
Cp 2
(5.1)
(1/2) V
p p , , V
(5.1)

( )
p p p p
Cp = 2
= 2
1
(1/2) V (1/2) V p
( )
2(p / ) p
= 2
1
V p
2
( )
2 a p
= 2
1
V p
( )
2 1 p
= 2
1 (5.2)
M p

p
a2 = (5.3)

5.2

5.1
V V (u, v, w)

=V
V + q (5.4)

q
q = (u, v, w) (5.5)

= (V + u, v, w),
V V 2 = (V
2
+ u)2 + v 2 + w2 (5.6)

u, v, w V (5.7)
30 5

2.18

a2 1{ 2 } a2 1 2
+ (V + u)2 + v 2 + w2 = + V (5.8)
1 2 1 2

5.8 a2
( )2
1 a (V + u)2 + v 2 + w2 1 M2
+ = + (5.9)
1 a 2a2 1 2

( )2
a 1 2 (V + u)2 + v 2 + w2
=1+ M ( 1) (5.10)
a 2 2a2

p T
( )/(1)
p T
= (5.11)
p T

( )2
T a
= (5.12)
T a

5.125.105.11
( )/(1) [ ]/(1)
p T 1 2 (V 2 + u)2 + v 2 + w2
= = 1+ M ( 1) (5.13)
p T 2 2a2
[ { }]/(1)
1 2 u u2 + v 2 + w 2
= 1 M 2 + 2
(5.14)
2 V V
{ }
2 u u2 + v 2 + w 2
1 M 2 + 2
(5.15)
2 V V

(5.7)
(5.2)
{ }
2u u2 + v 2 + w 2
Cp = + 2
(5.16)
V V

2u
Cp (5.17)
V

2u v2
Cp r2 (5.18)
V V

vr x
Cp = 2u/V
5.2. 31

5.2
Cp

5.2
( ) ( )
1 p 1 p p0
Cp = 2
1 = 2
1 (5.19)
2 M p 2 M p0 p

p p0 (2.28)
[ ]/(1)
p0 1
= 1 + ( 1)M 2 (5.20)
p 2

p p
[ ]/(1)
p0 1
= 1 + ( 1)M
2
(5.21)
p 2

(5.20),(5.21) (5.19)
{[ ]/(1) }
1 1 + 12 ( 1)M
2
Cp = 1 (5.22)
2
2 M 1 + 2 ( 1)M 2
1

M = 1
Cp
{[ ]/(1) }
1 1 + 12 ( 1)M
2
Cp = 2 1 1 (5.23)
2 M 2 (1 + )

M = 0.6, 0.7, 0.8

5.3
0
0 (staganation point)
1
5.1 p p0
Cpst

p0 p
Cpst = 2
(1/2) V
( )
p pp0
1
= 2
(1/2) V
[( )/(1) ]
2 1 2
= 2
1+ M 1 (5.24)
M 2

(5.21)
32 5

M 1
( )/(1)
1 2 2 4
1+ M 1 + M + M + (5.25)
2 2 8

(5.24)
1 2
Cpst 1 + M (5.26)
4
Cpst M

M = 0.6, 0.7, 0.8

5.4
1
(critical Mach number)

2
(M cr
)3 (3 K 2 )(M
2
cr
)2 + 3M
2
cr
1=0 (5.27)

K
(u ) ( )
i Cp
K = ( + 1) ( + 1) i (5.28)
V max 2 max

a2 1 a2 1 2
+ V 2 = + V (5.29)
1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2
V a2 = a2 +
V (5.30)
2 2
M

V2 V2
M2 = =
a2 a2 + 1 2
2 V 1 2
2 V
2
( )2
V
a2 V
V
=
2 2
( )2
1 V 1 V
1+ 2 a2 2 a2
V
V
( )2
2 V
M V
= ( )2 (5.31)
1+ 1 2
2 M 1 2
2 M
V
V

( )2
V (V + u)2 + v 2 2
V + 2V u + u2 + v 2 u
= 2
= 2
1+2 (5.32)
V V V V
(5.31) ( )
2
M 1 + 2 Vu
M2 (5.33)
1 ( 1)M
2 u
V
5.4. 33

Prandtl-Glauert
( )
u Cp 1 Cpi 1 u
= = = (5.34)
V 2 2 1 M
2 1 M
2 V i

i
(5.34) (5.33)
( )
1+ 2
2
u
V
1M i
M 2 = M
2 ( ) (5.35)
1 ( 1)
2
M u
2
1M V
i

M = 1
1 ( )
1+ 2
2
u
V
1M i
2
1 = M ( ) (5.36)
1 ( 1)
M 2
u
2
1M V
i

(5.27)

NACA0012 0 x/C = 0.12C

V /V = 1.19
 35

(1 M
2
)xx + yy + zz = 0 (6.1)

()xx , ()yy , ()zz 2 M = 1

0 (M < 1)
M > 1 (
1

2
(M 1)xx yy zz = 0 (6.2)

6.1

(full potential equation)

(a2 2x )xx + (a2 2y )yy + (a2 2z )zz 2(x y xy + y z yz + z x zx ) = 0 (6.3)

( )

Vx = x , Vy = y , Vz = z (6.4)

(2.18)

1 2 a2 1 2 a2
(x + 2y ) + = V + (6.5)
2 1 2 1

()
(6.3) (6.5)

(6.3)

) = div V
div (V = 0
+V (6.6)
36 6

= ()
div ()

2
(V = 1 p = a
)V (6.7)

dp = a2 d p = a2 (6.8)

(6.7)
V
2
(V
V = a V
)V (6.9)

(6.6)
= div V
V (6.10)

(6.9)

(V
V )V
= a2 V
(6.11)

(6.4)
V
(6.3) 6.11

6.11

6.2

v V

=V
V + v v V (6.12)

= ,
V v = (6.13)

= V x + (6.14)

= (Vx , Vy , Vz ) = (V + u, v, w)
V (6.15)

(6.3)

2x = (V + x )2 = V
2
+ 2V x + 2x = O(0 )
xx = xx = O()
2y = 2y = O(2 )
6.2. 37

yy = yy = O()
2z = 2z = O(2 )
zz = zz = O()
x = V + O()
y = y = O()
(6.16)

V 0 (O(0 ))
1 (O()) 1 0 1
0.1
(6.5)
1
a2 = a2 + ( 1)(V
2
V 2)
2
1
= a2 + ( 1)[V
2
(V + x )2 2y 2z ]
2
1
= a2 + ( 1)[2V x 2x 2y 2z ]
2
= a2 + O() (6.17)

6.166.17 (6.3)

{ }
1
a2 + ( 1)(2V x 2x 2y 2z ) V 2
2V x 2x xx
2
{ }
1
+ a2 + ( 1)(2V x 2x 2y 2z ) 2y yy
2
{ }
1
+ a2 + ( 1)(2V x 2x V 2x 2z ) 2z zz
2
2 {(V + x )y xy + y z yz + y (V + x )zx } = 0 (6.18)

1
1

(a2 V
2
)xx + a2 yy + a2 zz = 0 (6.19)

a2

(1 M
2
)xx + yy + zz = 0 (6.20)

(6.1)

1 M
2
> 0 1 > M

(1 M
2
)xx + yy + zz = 0 (6.21)

1 M
2
< 0 1 < M
2
(M 1)xx yy zz = 0 (6.22)

38 6

6.3
(6.1)
()
2

6.3.1
(x, y) Plandtl-Glauert (6.1)
1 M12
2 1 2
+ =0 (6.23)
x2 1 M1 y 2
2

M1 M1 = 0.4
M1 = 0.7

(x) (x) y (x)
y = t1 f = 1 cf = 1 f (6.24)
c c c c
t1 (thickness) c (chord length) 1 = t1 /c (thickness
ratio) f = df ()/d

( ) (x)
dy
= V1 = V1 1 f (6.25)
y y=0 dx c

x y = 0
(5.17)
( )
2u 2
Cp1 = = (6.26)
V1 V1 x y=0

6.3.2
(, ) (, ) V2
M2

( )
V1 V1 1 M12
(x, y) = A (, ) = A x, y (6.27)
V2 V2 1 M22

(x, y) (, )

1 M12
= x, = y (6.28)
1 M22
6.3. 39

(6.27) (6.28) (6.23)

2 1 2
+ =0 (6.29)
2 1 M22 2

M1 (6.23)

M2 (6.29)

(6.25) (6.27)
( ) ( )
V1 1 M12 ( )
x
=A = V 1 1 f (6.30)
y y=0 V2 1 M22 =0 c

2

1 M12
A 2 = 1 (6.31)
1 M22

A
(6.30) ( ) ( )

= V2 2 f (6.32)
=0 c
V2 M2 2
(6.25)
1 Cp1 2 (6.26) (6.27)
( ) ( )
2 2
Cp1 = = A (6.33)
V1 x y=0 V2 =0

Cp2
( )
2
Cp2 = (6.34)
V2 =0

Cp1 Cp2
Cp1 = ACp2 (6.35)

2 2

1 2
Cp1 Cp2
M1 M2
40 6

2 (6.31) 6.35)

1 M12
A 2 = 1 (6.36)
1 M22

(A)

Cp1 = ACp2 (6.37)

2 M2 = 0
(6.36)

2 = 1 (6.38)
A 1 M12

Cp1
Cp2 = (6.39)
A

Cp2 = f (2 ) (6.40)

2 1 6.38
( )
1
Cp2 = f (2 ) = f (6.41)
A 1 M12

(6.39) 1
( )
Cp1 1
=f (6.42)
A A 1 M12

Cp1 1 M1 A

6.3.3 Prandtl-Glauert
(6.42)
( )
Cp 1
=f , AR 1 M12 (6.43)
A A 1 M12

AR ()
2
( )
Cp 1
=f (6.44)
A A 1 M12

A
6.3. 41

A = 1
(6.44) A = 1 ( )

Cp = f (6.45)
1 M
2

M 0

Cpi = f (i ) (6.46)

i
(6.45) (6.46)

= i (6.47)
1 M
2

Cp = Cpi (6.48)

1/ 1 M
2

L M

CL = CLi , Cm = Cmi , = i (6.49)

A = 1/ 1 M 2

(6.44) A = 1/ 1 M
2

Cp 1 M2 = f ( ) (6.50)

M 0

Cpi = f (i ) (6.51)

= i


Cp 1 M
2 =C
pi (6.52)

Cpi
Cp = (6.53)
1 M
2

CLi Cmi i
CL = , Cm = , = (6.54)
1 M
2 1 M
2 1 M
2

A = (6.44) A =
( )
Cp 1
=f (6.55)
1 M
2

Cp

Cp (6.56)

 43

7.1

105 cm

1) 2)
3)

7.2

(

1 V1 = 2 V2 (7.1)

x
p1 p2 = 2 V22 1 V12 (7.2)

1 1
h1 + V12 = h2 + V22 (7.3)
2 2

p1 p2
= (7.4)
1 T1 2 T2

S2 S1 (7.5)
44 7

()1 ()2
V p h T

R p p Cp
h = Cp T = = , = = (7.6)
1 R ( 1) Cv

Cp Cv

7.3

7.3.1

p1 1 p2 1
H01 = + V12 = H02 = + V22 (7.7)
1 1 2 1 2 2

(H0 )1 = (H0 )2 (T0 )1 = (T0 )2 (a0 )1 = (a0 )2 (T )1 = (T )2 (a )1 = (a )2 (7.8)

H0 = Cp T0 T0
a20 = RT0
(2.34) a2 = RT
T
(2.19)

(Vmax )1 = (Vmax )2 (7.9)

7.3.2
(7.1)(7.4) (V2 , p2 , 2 )
2 , V2 M1

[ ]
p2 2 1 V12 2 2 1
= 1+ 1 =1+ (M 2 1) = M2 (7.10)
p1 + 1 p1 +1 1 +1 1 +1
2
2 ( + 1)M1
= (7.11)
1 ( 1)M12 + 2
V2 1 2 1
= + (7.12)
V1 + 1 + 1 M12
T2 2( 1) M12 + 1
= 1+ (M12 1) (7.13)
T1 ( + 1)2 M12
7.3. 45

a21 = RT1
(M1 )

2 +1
(7.14)
1 1

shock stando dsitance 0

7.3.3 M1 M2
M1 M2

( 1)M12 + 2
M22 = (7.15)
2M12 + 1

(7.15) 2.24
( )1
T 1 2
= 1+ M (7.16)
T0 2

T0 T2 /T1
1 2
T2 T2 /T0 1+ 2 M1
= = 1 2
(7.17)
T1 T1 /T0 1+ 2 M2

(1.22)

T2 p2 1 p2 V2
= = (7.18)
T1 p1 2 p1 V1

7.1 M

T2 p2 M2 a2 p2 M2 T2
= = (7.19)
T1 p1 M1 a1 p1 M1 T1
(1.47) 1
T2 /T1
( )2 ( )2
T2 p2 M2
= (7.20)
T1 p1 M1

(7.17) (7.20)

1 2
p2 M1 1 + 2 M1
= (7.21)
p1 M2 1 + 1 2
2 M2

46 7

V2 2 p pM 2 RT
V 2 = 2
a = M 2 a2 = = pM 2 (7.22)
a RT RT
(7.2)

p1 + 1 V12 = p2 + 2 V22 (7.23)

2 2 (7.22)

p1 + p1 M12 = p2 + p2 M22
p1 (1 + M12 ) = p2 (1 + M22 )
p1 1 + M22
= (7.24)
p2 1 + M12
(7.99) (7.24)

M1 1 + 1 2
2 M1 M2 1+1 2
2 M2
= (7.25)
1 + M12 1+ M22

2
M12 + 1
M2 = M1 , M22 = (7.26)
1 M1 1
2 2

M2 = M1
2
M12 + 1 ( 1)M12 + 2
M22 = = (7.27)
1 M1 1
2 2 2M12 ( 1)

M1 1 M2 1 (7.28)

1
M1 M2 (7.29)
2

= 1

7.4
(7.1) (7.2) (7.3) V1 , V2
(Rankine-Hugoniot)
p2 ( + 1)2 ( 1)1 ( + 1)(2 /1 ) ( 1)
= = (7.30)
p1 ( + 1)1 ( 1)2 ( + 1) ( 1)(2 /1 )
2 ( + 1)p2 + ( 1)p1 ( + 1)(p2 /p1 ) + ( 1)
= = (7.31)
1 ( 1)p2 + ( + 1)1 ( 1)(p2 /p1 ) + ( + 1)
(p2 /p1 1 + )

( )
p2 2 p2 2
= ln = ln (7.32)
p1 1 p1 1
7.4. 47

p
= (7.33)
p1 1
p = p2 p1 = 2 1 1

( ) ( )
p2 + 1 V2 + 1 V2
= / 1 (7.34)
p1 1 V1 1 V1

7.4.1

()1 ()2 1.44)

p1 p2
= C exp(S1 /Cv ), = C exp(S2 /Cv ) (7.35)
1 2

p2 /p1 S2 S1 p2 /p1
= exp{(S2 S1 )/Cv } = ln (7.36)
(2 /1 ) Cv (2 /1 )
(7.10) (7.11)
[ ( ) ] {[ ][ ] }
S2 S1 p2 1 2 ( 1)M12 + 2
= ln = ln 1 + (M 1)
2
(7.37)
Cv p1 2 +1 1 ( + 1)M12

S2 S1
> 1 if M1 > 1 (7.38)
Cv
S2 S1
< 1 if M1 < 1 (7.39)
Cv

(compression shock) (rarefaction shock)

( (7.5))M1 > 1

(T2 /T1 )/(1)

S2 S1 = (Cp Cv ) ln (7.40)
p2 /p1
1.45
S2 S1 Cp T2 p2
= ln ln (7.41)
R R T1 p1
Cp /R = Cp /(Cp Cv ) = /( 1)

S2 S1 T2 p2
= ln ln (7.42)
R 1 T1 p1
48 7

(T02 /T01 )/(1)

S02 S01 = (Cp Cv ) ln (7.43)
p02 /p01

(1) (2)

S1 = S01 , S2 = S02 (7.44)

S2 S1 = S02 S01 (7.45)

T02 = T01 (7.46)

Cp Cv = R (7.47)

(7.43)

S2 S1 S02 S01 p01

= = ln (7.48)
R R p02
p01 /p02 > 1

7.40
p1 1 T1 T2 1 p2
p = RT = = (7.49)
p2 2 T2 T1 2 p1
7.40
S2 S1
= ln(2 /1 )/(1) + ln(p2 /p1 )1/(1) (7.50)
R

7.4.2
p
p0 (2.31)
( )/(1)
p1 1 2
= 1+ M1 (7.51)
p01 2
( )/(1)
p2 1 2
= 1+ M2 (7.52)
p02 2

p02 /p01
( )/(1) ( )/(1)
p02 p02 p2 p1 1 2 p2 1 2
= = 1+ M2 1+ M1 (7.53)
p01 p2 p1 p01 2 p1 2
7.5. 49

(M1 ) (p02 /p01 )

2 0.72
3 0.32
5 0.06
8 0.008

7.1:

p2 /p1 (7.10)
( )/(1) ( )
1
p02 1+ 2
2 M2 2 1
= 1 2
M12 (7.54)
p01 1+ 2 M1
+1 +1

(7.15)
( )1/(1) ( )/(1)
p02 2 1 1 2 1
= M2 + (7.55)
p01 +1 1 +1 + 1 + 1 M12

M1 1 p02 /p01 1
(7.1) M = 8 1%

7.5
(Prandtl)
V2 /V1 M1 (7.12)

V2 1 2 1
= + (7.56)
V1 + 1 + 1 M12

V12
( )
1 2 2 1 2 1 2
V1 V2 = V + a2 = V12 + a2 = V (7.57)
+1 1 +1 1 +1 1 1 + 1 max

(2.12) 2.18
0 h = 0 T = a = 0

2 2
Vmax = V12 + a2 (7.58)
1 1

V Vmax (2.37) (7.57)

V1 V2
V1 V2 = a2 =1 (7.59)
a a

V = a 7.81

50 7

V1
>1 (7.60)
a

V2
<1 (7.61)
a

1 2 a2 +1 2
V + = a (7.62)
2 1 2( 1)

V = a

V 2 < a2 (7.62)
( )
2( 1) 1 2 a2
V 2 < a2 = V + V 2 < a2 (7.63)
+1 2 1

V 2 < a2 (7.64)

V a
V a
M M

V2 V2
M2 = 2
< 1 M2 = 2 < 1 (7.65)
a a

(M < 1)

T > T a > a (7.66)

V V
< M < M (7.67)
a a
M < 1 M < 1

V 2 > a2 (7.62)
( )
2( 1) 1 2 a2
V 2 > a2 = V + V 2 > a2 (7.68)
+1 2 1

V 2 > a2 (7.69)

M M

V2 V2
M2 = > 1 M 2
= >1 (7.70)
a2 a2
7.6. 51

(M > 1)

T < T a < a (7.71)

V V
> M > M (7.72)
a a
M > 1 M > 1

7.6
oblique shock
wave (bow shock;
)

Vn Vt

Vn2 1 2 1
= + 2 (7.73)
Vn1 + 1 + 1 Mn1
Vt2 = Vt1 (7.74)

(7.12)

x ( x
V1 V2 x

Vn1 = V1 sin , Vt1 = V1 cos (7.75)

Vn1 V1 sin
Mn1 = = = M1 sin > 1 (7.76)
a1 a1
Vn2 V2 sin( )
Mn2 = = = M2 sin( ) < 1 (7.77)
a2 a2

V1 cos = V2 cos( ) (7.78)

52 7

V2 cos
= (7.79)
V1 cos( )

1 V1 sin = 2 V2 sin( ) (7.80)

(7.10)
p2 2
=1+ (M 2 sin2 1) (7.81)
p1 +1 1
(7.11)

2 ( + 1)M12 sin2
= (7.82)
1 ( 1)M12 sin2 + 2

7.797.80
2 V1 sin cos( ) sin tan
= = = (7.83)
1 V2 sin( ) cos sin( ) tan( )

( 1)M12 sin2 + 2
M22 sin2 ( ) = (7.84)
2M12 sin2 + 1

p2 /p1
( )
p2 1
= 1 + M1 sin 1
2 2
(7.85)
p1 2

( )
2
2 Vn2
p1 p2 = 2 Vn2
2
1 Vn1
2
= 1 Vn1
2
1 2 (7.86)
1 Vn1
p1 /p2 ( )
p1 2
= 1 + M2 1
2
sin2 ( ) (7.87)
p2 1

( )
2
1 Vn1
p1 p2 = 2
2 Vn2 1 2 (7.88)
2 Vn2
7.877.85
( )
2 1
1 + M2 1
2
sin2 ( ) = ( ) (7.89)
1 1 + M12 sin2 1 1
2

( )
( ) M 2
sin 2
1 1
2 1 2
M22 1 sin2 ( ) = ( ) (7.90)
1 1 + M1 sin 1 12
2 2
7.6. 53

1 1
M12 sin2
M22 sin ( ) =
2 2
( ) (7.91)
1 2
1 1 + M12 sin2 1 1
2

1 1
2 1
= (7.92)
1 2
1 2

1 M12 sin2
M22 sin2 ( ) = ( ) (7.93)
2 1 + M 2 sin2 1 1
1 2

(7.82) 7.84

M12 sin2 1
tan = 2 cot (7.94)
M12 ( + cos 2) + 2

7.827.83

( + 1)M12 sin2 tan

= (7.95)
( 1)M1 sin + 2
2 2 tan( )

tan( )
tan tan
tan( ) = (7.96)
1 + tan tan
tan =
M1
0 0
sin = 1/M1 =
(detached shock)
M1 = 2.5 = 30
= 30
M1 2.5 (attached
shock)
T2 /T1 7.817.82
{ }
T2 p2 1 2 ( 1)M12 sin2 + 2
= = 1+ (M12 sin2 1) (7.97)
T1 p1 2 +1 ( + 1)M12 sin2

u2 2(M12 sin2 1)
= 1 (7.98)
V1 ( + 1)M12
v2 2(M12 sin2 1) cot
= (7.99)
V1 ( + 1)M12

V2 = (u2 , v2 )

u2 = V2 cos , v2 = V2 sin (7.100)

54 7

u2
u2 V2
= cos (7.101)
V1 V1
7.79
u2 cos cos
= cos = (7.102)
V1 cos( ) cos + sin tan
cos( )
tan 7.947.98
7.99

7.7 Crocco
(bow shock)

(total enthalpy)
1
H0 = h + V 2 = const (7.103)
2
n n
H0 h V
= +V (7.104)
n n n
constant
H0

Q = T S = ei + pv = h vp (7.105)

ei h = ei + p/ =
p + pv v v = 1/ (7.105)
1
h = T S + vp = T S + p (7.106)

n
h S 1 p
=T + (7.107)
n n n

(7.107) (7.104)
H0 V S 1 p
V =T + (7.108)
n n n n

(s )
V p
V = (7.109)
s s
7.8. 55

(n )

V 2 p
= (7.110)
R n
(7.110) (7.108)
( )
H0 S V V
=T +V + (7.111)
n n n R

(r, , z) z z

V V
z = + (7.112)
r R
z
( ) 1 1 Vr 1 V V
z = V
= (rV ) = (rV ) = + (7.113)
z r r r r r r R
Vr = 0V = V
7.111)
H0 S
=T + V z (7.114)
n n

H0 ) homogeneous
0 H0

T S
z = (7.115)
V n
S/n = 0
z

enntropy layer)

7.8
2 3
(wedge; 2
) (cone; 3 )

( () 2
2
(detach)

57.6 detach
56 7

C1
1
C2 2
C1

7.9 Taylor-Maccoll

conical ow
(r, , )

= 0, V = 0 (7.116)

=0 (7.117)
r

V
= 0

1 2 1 1 V
V
=
2
(r Vr ) + (V sin ) + =0 (7.118)
r r r sin r sin

V
2Vr + V cot + + V =0 (7.119)

{ }
1
( V )r =
(rV sin ) (rV ) = 0 (7.120)
r2 sin
{ }
1 Vr
( V
) = (rV sin ) = 0 (7.121)
r sin r
{ }
1 Vr
( V ) =
(rV ) =0 (7.122)
r r

7.122
V Vr
V + r =0 (7.123)
r
7.9. Taylor-Maccoll 57

7.117
Vr
V = (7.124)

dp = V dV = d(V 2 )/2 (7.125)

V 2 = Vr2 + V2

dp = (Vr dVr + V dV ) (7.126)

dp
= a2 (7.127)
d

7.1267.127

d 1
= 2 (Vr dVr + V dV ) (7.128)
a

1 1 2
H0 = h + V 2 = Vmax (7.129)
2 2
h
a2
h = Cp T = (7.130)
1

1
a2 = ( 1)(Vmax
2
V 2) (7.131)
2
7.128
( )
d 2 Vr dVr + V dV
= (7.132)
1 2
Vmax Vr2 V2

7.124 V
7.119

dV d
2Vr + V cot + + V =0 (7.133)
d d

7.132
( )
dV
1 d 2 Vr dV
d + V d
r

= (7.134)
d 1 2
Vmax Vr2 V2

7.133
( ) ( )
1 2 dV dVr dV
(Vmax Vr V ) 2Vr + V cot +
2 2
V V r + V =0 (7.135)
2 d d d
58 7

7.124 (Vr

dV d 2 Vr
= (7.136)
d d2
7.135
( ( )2 ) ( )
1 dVr dVr d 2 Vr
Vmax Vr
2 2
2Vr + cot +
2 d d d2
( ( ))
dVr dVr dVr d2 Vr
Vr + =0 (7.137)
d d d d2

( ( )2 ) ( )
1 dV r dVr d 2 Vr
Vmax Vr
2 2
2Vr + cot +
2 d d d2
( )2 ( )
dVr d 2 Vr
Vr + =0 (7.138)
d d2

Vr Vr 7.124
V
V = 0 7.124
( )
dVr
=0 (7.139)
d w

= s
 59

8.1
B727, B737, B747

(transonic ow)
1
V
V a, M= 1 (8.1)
a

1 2
V p (8.2)
2

( )2
(1/2)V 2 1 V 2 V 2
= M (8.3)
p 2 p/ 2 a 2

M 1 O(1)
M 1 (y
) 2 (M 1
90

dy 1
= (8.4)
dx 2 1
M

2 2
(1 M
2
) + 2 =0 (8.5)
x2 y

M 1 0 M 1
(8.5)

2 2 1 2 2
2 1 2
(1 M
2
) + = M
2
( + 1) + 2M + (8.6)
x2 y 2 V x x2 V x xy xy

2 2 1 2
(1 M
2
) 2
+ 2 = M
2
( + 1) (8.7)
x y V x x2
60 8

(throat)

= sin1 (1/M ) + = /2

8.2

(sweptback angle) y
35 A310 = 28
B2 = 33 B747 = 37.5 M = 1.4 = 45
M = 2 = 60 = 75
Mn = M cos
1

Mn < 1 ( )

Mn > 1 ( )

X-29

(transonic aerodynamics) 1970

peaky blunt
Pearcey Whitcomb
(shock-free supercritical wing)

8.2.1
(supercritical region)

(MDD ; Drag Divergence Mach number) (shock
8.3. 61

stall)

M L/D
(supercritical wing) 1974 NASA Langley
Richard Whitcomb 12 14%
N ACA641 212(6
12 12% ) MDD 0.7
MDD 0.81

(blunt nose; )

M = 0.8 CL = 0.61 = 0.11

1965 NASA 1969 NASA Whitcomb
Vought F-8 Crusader 19711972

15%
DC10, L1011, C5A

8.2.2 (peaky airfoil)

1962 Pearcy DC8

A300B(1972 )
M = 0.73 = 0.08CL = 0.77

8.3
(wave resistance, wave drag)
3% 20%

M = 0.8
M = 1.4

p01 p02
p02
<1 (8.8)
p01
62 8

7.48
( )
S2 S1 p01 S2 S1 p01
exp = = ln (8.9)
R p02 R p02

8.4

P
p2 p1 p2
P = = 1 (8.10)
p1 p1

7.10
p2 2 1
= M2 (8.11)
p1 +1 1 +1

(8.10) P M1

2
P = (M 2 1) (8.12)
+1 1
(7.31)
( )
+1 p2 +1
2 1 p1 + 1 2 P + 1
= p2 +1 = 1 (8.13)
1 p1 + 1 2 P + 1

7.36
( )( )
p2 1 p2 1
s2 s1 = Cv ln + Cp ln = Cv ln (8.14)
p1 2 p1 2

(8.10) 8.13
( ) ( )
s2 s1 +1 1
= ln(1 + P ) ln 1 + P + ln 1 + P (8.15)
Cv 2 2

( 1 ) P 1

s2 s1 2 1 3 2 1 4
= P P + (8.16)
Cv 12 2 8 2

7.50
s2 s1 +1 3 +1 4
= P P + (8.17)
R 12 2 8 2

8.5. 63

3
(Crocco)

M1

s2 s1 2 2 2
= 2
(M12 1)3 (M12 1)4 + (8.18)
R 3 ( + 1) ( + 1)2

8.5
M 0
0 M 1

8.5.1
2 von Karman
(8.7) 3

2 2 2 2
M ( + 1) 2
(1 M
2
) + + = (8.19)
x2 y 2 z 2 V x x2

1
x y z
(8.19)
2 2
(1 M ) 2 2 M 2 ( + 1)2 2
2 2
+ 2 2 + 2 2 = (8.20)
X x Y y Z z V X 3 x x2

x X, y Y, z Z, (8.21)

2
(1 M ) M
2
( + 1)2
: : : = const (8.22)
X2 Y 2 Z2 V X 3

w (x y )
= f , (8.23)
V (x/l) l b

( )

w z
z=0
= (8.24)
V V
64 8

(8.23)
( ) (x y )

= f , (8.25)
V Z z z=0 (x/l) l b

l X, b Y (8.25) 2


V Z
= const (8.26)

(8.22) x z 3
2
(1 M )
2
: 2 = const (8.27)
X Z

(1 M2
)Z 2 CX
= const = C 2 Z = (8.28)
X2 (1 M
2 )1/2

C 2 (8.28) (8.26)

1 (1 M2 1/2
)
= const (8.29)
V X

(8.22) 1
2
(1 M ) M2
( + 1)2 M2
( + 1)
: = const = const (8.30)
X 2 V X 3 V X 1 M 2

(8.29) (8.30)

(1 M
2 3/2
)
2
= const (8.31)
M ( + 1)

2/3
1 M 2

2 ( + 1) ]2/3
= const (8.32)
[M
constant

1 M 2
= 2 ( + 1) ]2/3
(8.33)
[M

1 , 2 M1 , M2

1 M12 1 M22
= (8.34)
[M12 ( + 1)1 ]2/3 2
[M2 ( + 1)2 ]2/3
2

8.5. 65

8.5.2

5.17

2u 2 2
Cp = = = (8.35)
V V x V X x

2
Cp

= const (8.36)

V X

(8.30)
2
Cp ( + 1)M
= const (8.37)
1 M 2

M 1 (1 M
2
)
(8.32)
2
Cp ( + 1)M
2 ]2/3
= const (8.38)
[( + 1)M

2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
Cp = const (8.39)
2/3
Cp
2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
Cp = Cp 2/3
(8.40)

2 1

2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
Cp = Cp
= fp (, AR) (8.41)
2/3
2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
CL = CL 2/3

= fL (, AR) (8.42)

2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
CM = CM 2/3
= fM (, AR) (8.43)

2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
CD = CD = fD (, AR) (8.44)
5/3

AR

66 8

l t p
D
D pl (8.45)
CD
D pl
CD = 2 l
2 l
Cp = Cp (8.46)
(1/2)b U (1/2)b U

t
tan = = (8.47)
l
8.39)
2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
Cp 5/3
= const (8.48)

8.46
2 1/3
[( + 1)M ]
CD 5/3
= const = CD (8.49)

AR
= [( + 1)M
AR 2 1/3
] AR (8.50)

(8.22) 1 2

(1 M
2
)Y 2 1 M2 Y
= const = const (8.51)
X2 X

Y
= const = AR (8.52)
X

1 M2 AR = const (8.53)

M 1 (8.53) 0
(8.32)

1 M2
= const (8.54)
2
[( + 1)M ]1/3
(8.53) (8.54)
2
[( + 1)M
]1/3 AR = const = AR (8.55)

AR
CDi
CL2
(8.56)
CDi =
AR
L/D
dCL /d()

MDD B727(AR=7.20)B747(6.96)
A310-200(8.80)DC-10-40(7.50)
8.6. 67

8.6
()

NACA Richard Whitcomb 1953 Richard

Witcomb 1980 37 NASA

(winglet)

YF102 M=0.98

8.7

(wave drag)
2 l l
U
Dw = f (x)f () ln |x |dxd (8.57)
4 0 0

f S(x)

dS(x)
f (x) = (8.58)
dx

x
l
x= (1 + cos ) (8.59)
2

0xl 0 (8.60)

f


f =l An sin n (8.61)
n=1

8.57
2 2
U l
Dw = nA2n (8.62)
8 n=1
68 8

8.61
x 0
S(x) = f (x)dx = f ()(l/2) sin d (8.63)
0

{ ( ) ( )}
l2 sin 2 sin(n + 1) sin(n 1)
S() = A1 + + An (8.64)
4 2 n+1 n=2
n1

V ( )
l
l3 1
V = S(x)dx = A1 A2 (8.65)
0 8 2

von Karman ogive body

x = l = 0 8.64

l2 4S(l)
S(l) = S( = 0) = A1 A1 = (8.66)
4 l2

8.62
An = 0 n2 (8.67)

Dw
2
2 U [S(l)]2
Dw = (8.68)
l2

4 S(l)
CDw = (8.69)
l2

( )
S(l) 1
S() = + sin 2 (8.70)
2

von Karman ogive body

Sears-Haack body
= 0 S = 0 (8.64)
A1 = 0 V 8.65
16V
A2 = (8.71)
l3
8.62 0

64V 2 2
Dw = U (8.72)
l4
8.7. 69

1.2

1.0

CD
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

M
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8.1:

x = l/2

24V
CDw = (8.73)
l3

24V
CDw = (8.74)
l3



( )
4V 1
S() = sin sin 3 (8.75)
l 3

Sears-Haack body

8.7 CD 0.4
m = 1.5 CD 1.0
mach independence
 71

9.1
M = 1.55.0

(thermal barrier)

X-1

SR71 M=3 M=2

9.2
() (rotational ow)

u u v v
A1 + B1 + C1 + D1 + E1 = 0 (9.1)
x y x y
u u v v
A2 + B2 + C2 + D2 + E2 = 0 (9.2)
x y x y

A, B, C, D x, y, u, v (x, y)
(, ) (, )
72 9

(chain rule)

u u u
= + (9.3)
x x x
u u u
= + (9.4)
y y y
v v v
= + (9.5)
x x x
v v v
= + (9.6)
y y y

(9.3) (9.6) (9.1)

A1 (x u + x u ) + B1 (y u + y u ) + C1 (x v + x v ) + D1 (x v + y v ) + E1 = 0 (9.7)

x, y, , x, y, , uxi , v , u , v

(A1 x + B1 y )u + (C1 x + D1 y )v + (A1 x + B1 y )u + (C1 x + D1 y )v + E1 = 0 (9.8)

(9.2)

(A2 x + B2 y )u + (C2 x + D2 y )v + (A2 x + B2 y )u + (C2 x + D2 y )v + E2 = 0 (9.9)

(9.8) (9.9)
( )( ) ( )
A1 x + B1 y , C1 x + D1 y u X
= (9.10)
A2 x + B2 y , C2 x + D2 y v Y

X = (A1 x + B1 y )u (C1 x + D1 y )v E1
Y = (A2 x + B2 y )u (C2 x + D2 y )v E2 (9.11)

9.2.1
A B (indenite)
(9.10) 0

A +B , C +D
1 x 1 y 1 x 1 y
=0 (9.12)
A2 x + B2 y , C2 x + D2 y

,
ax2 + bx y + cy2 = 0 (9.13)

a = A1 C2 A2 C1 , b = A1 D2 A2 D1 + B1 C2 B2 C1 , c = B1 D2 B2 D1 (9.14)

9.2. 73

9.89.9 u, v

A +B , C +D
1 x 1 y 1 x 1 y
=0 (9.15)
A2 x + B2 y , C2 x + D2 y

ax2 + bx y + cy2 = 0 (9.16)

(, ) (x, y) (x, y)

= (x, y), = (x, y) (9.17)

= const y = f (x) = const

y = g(x)

x = x(), y = y() (9.18)

9.17) = (x, y)

(x, y) = 0 (9.19)

y x x
( ) ( ) ( )
y
0 =0 (9.20)
x y y x x

(/y)x
( ) ( )
x y y
( ) = (9.21)
x
y
x

=
( ) ( dy )
y d
= dx (9.22)
x d

=
( ) ( dy )
y d
= dx
(9.23)
x d

9.15 y2

A x + B , C1 xy + D1
1 y 1
=0 (9.24)
A2 x + B2 , C2 x + D2
y y

(9.21)
( dy ) ( dy )

A1 dx
d
+ B1 , C1 dx
d
+ D1

( dy
d
) ( dy
d
) =0 (9.25)

A2 dx
d
+ B2 , C2 dx
d
+ D2
d d

74 9

(dx/d)2

A dy B dx , C1 dy dx
1 d 1 d D 1 d
d
=0 (9.26)
A2 dy B2 dx ,
d d
dy dx
C2 d D2 d

( = const)

ay2 by x + cx2 = 0 (9.27)

a = A1 C2 A2 C1 , b = A1 D2 A2 D1 + B1 C2 B2 C1 , c = B1 D2 B2 D1 (9.28)

( = const)

ay2 by x + cx2 = 0 (9.29)

( )2 ( )2
dy dy dx dx
a b +c =0 (9.30)
d d d d
(x, y)
= const = const

9.2.2
x = x(), y = y()
dy
d
= dx
(9.31)
d

(9.30)

a2 b + c = 0 (9.32)

(discrim-
inant)
b2 4ac > 0 2

b2 4ac = 0

b2 4ac < 0
(9.32)

b b2 4ac b + b2 4ac
+ = = (9.33)
2a 2a
+ ,
dy dx dy dx
+ =0 =0 (9.34)
d d d d
2 C + , C

9.3. 75

9.3
(x, y)

u v u(x, y), v(x, y)

x = x(), y = y()

u u x u y
= + (9.35)
x y
v v x v y
= + (9.36)
x y

(9.1) 1 (9.2) 2
( )
u u v v
1 A1 + B1 + C1 + D1 + E1
x y x y
( )
u u v v
+2 A2 + B2 + C2 + D2 + E2 = 0 (9.37)
x y x y

u u
(1 A1 + 2 A2 ) + (1 B1 + 2 B2 )
x y
v v
+(1 C1 + 2 C2 ) + (1 D1 + 2 D2 ) + 1 E1 + 2 E2 = 0 (9.38)
x y

u/x u/y (9.35) u

x
1 A1 + 2 A2 x 1 C1 + 2 C2 x
=
y
= = (9.39)
1 B1 + 2 B2
y 1 D1 + 2 D2 y

(x, y) (9.26)

A1 y B1 x C1 y D1 x R2
= = (9.40)
A2 y B2 x C2 y D2 x R1

(A1 y B1 x )R1 + (A2 y B2 x )R2 = 0 (9.41)

(C1 y D1 x )R1 + (C2 y D2 x )R2 = 0 (9.42)

x , y

(A1 R1 + A2 R2 )y (B1 R1 + B2 R2 )x = 0 (9.43)

(C1 R1 + C2 R2 )y (D1 R1 + D2 R2 )x = 0 (9.44)

A1 R1 + A2 R2 C1 R1 + C2 R2 x
= = (9.45)
B1 R1 + B2 R2 D1 R1 + D2 R2 y

76 9

(9.38) u, v (9.39) (9.45)

1 R1
= (9.46)
2 R2
1 , 2
(9.38)
{ } { }
u 1 B1 + 2 B2 u v 1 D1 + 2 D2 v
(1 A1 + 2 A2 ) + + (1 C1 + 2 C2 ) +
x 1 A1 + 2 A2 y x 1 C1 + 2 C2 y
+1 E1 + 2 E2 = 0 (9.47)

(9.45)
u y u v y v
(1 A1 + 2 A2 )( + ) + (1 C1 + 2 C2 )( + ) + (1 E1 + 2 E2 ) = 0 (9.48)
x x y x x y
x (9.39)

(1 A1 + 2 A2 )u + (1 C1 + 2 C2 )v + (1 E1 + 2 E2 )x = 0 (9.49)

(9.38) (1 B1 + 2 B2 ){ } +
( ) ( )
1 A1 + 2 A2 u u 1 C1 + 2 C2 v v
(1 B1 + 2 B2 ) + + (1 D1 + 2 D2 ) +
1 B1 + 2 B2 x y 1 D1 + 2 D2 x y
+1 E1 + 2 E2 = 0 (9.50)

9.39

(1 B1 + 2 B2 )u + (1 D1 + 2 D2 )v + (1 E1 + 2 E2 )y = 0 (9.51)

(9.49) (9.51) 1 , 2

(A1 u + C1 v + E1 x )1 + (A2 u + C2 v + E2 x )2 = 0 (9.52)

(B1 u + D1 v + E1 y )1 + (B2 u + D2 v + E2 y )2 = 0 (9.53)

(9.41) (9.52) 1 , 2 (9.41) (9.46) R1 , R2

1 , 2

(A1 y B1 x )1 + (A2 y B2 x )2 = 0 (9.54)

A y B x , A2 y B2 x
1 1
=0 (9.55)
A1 u + C1 v + E1 x , A2 u + C2 v + E2 x

(A1 y B1 x )(A2 u + C2 v + E2 x ) (A2 y B2 x )(A1 u + C1 v + E1 x ) = 0 (9.56)

u , v , x

{A2 (A1 y B1 x ) A1 (A2 y B2 x )} u

+ {C2 (A1 y B1 x ) C1 (A2 y B2 x )} v
+ {E2 (A1 y B1 x ) E1 (A2 y B2 x )} x = 0 (9.57)
9.3. 77

x (A1 B2 A2 B1 )u
+ {(A1 C2 A2 C1 )y (C2 B1 C1 B2 )x } v
+ {(A1 E2 A2 E1 )y (B1 E2 B2 E1 )x } x = 0 (9.58)

(A1 B2 A2 B1 )u
+ {(A1 C2 A2 C1 ) (C2 B1 C1 B2 )} v
+ {(A1 E2 E1 A2 ) (B1 E2 B2 E1 )} x = 0 (9.59)

(compatibility equation)

T = A1 B2 A2 B1 , a = A1 C2 A2 C1 S = C2 B1 C1 B2
L = A1 E2 A2 E1 M = B1 E2 B2 E1 (9.60)

(C + )
y x
+ =0 (9.61)

(u, v)

u v x
T + (a+ S) + (L+ M ) =0 (9.62)

(u, v) +

y x
=0 (9.63)

(x, y) C
C

u v x
T + (a S) + (L M ) =0 (9.64)

(u, v)
+ , 9.33

b b2 4ac b + b2 4ac
+ = , = (9.65)
2a 2a

(u, v)

78 9

9.4 2
2 1) (6.11) 2) (=0)

u u v v
(a2 u2 ) uv uv + (a2 v 2 ) =0 (9.66)
x y x y
u v
=0 (9.67)
y x
(9.1) (9.2)

A1 = a2 u2 , B1 = uv, C1 = uv, D1 = a2 v 2 , E1 = 0 (9.68)

A2 = 0, B2 = 1, C2 = 1, D2 = 0, E2 = 0 (9.69)

(9.14) (9.60)

a = (a2 u2 ), T = a2 u2 , S = 2uv, L = M = 0 (9.70)

b = 2uv, c = (a2 v 2 ) (9.71)

a ( a c

9.4.1
9.65

uv a V 2 a2
= (9.72)
(a2 u2 )

V 2 uv aV 2 V 2 a2
=
V 2 (a2 u2 )

(v V 2 a2 ua)(u V 2 a2 va)
= (9.73)
(u V 2 a2 va)(u V 2 a2 va)



(v V 2 a2 ua)(u V 2 a2 va)

= uv(V 2 a2 ) v 2 a V 2 a2 u2 a V 2 a2 + uva2

= (u2 + v 2 )a V 2 a2 + uvV 2

= V 2 a V 2 a2 + uvV 2 (9.74)

(u V 2 a2 va)(u V 2 a2 va)
= u2 (V 2 a2 ) v 2 a2
= u2 (u2 + v 2 ) u2 a2 v 2 a2
= (u2 + v 2 )(u2 a2 )
= V 2 (u2 a2 ) (9.75)
9.4. 2 79

v V 2 a2 ua
= (9.76)
u V 2 a2 va

v
a
V 2 a2

u
= (9.77)
1 uv V 2aa2

u M 2 1
v 1
= (9.78)
1 uv M12 1
tan tan
= (9.79)
1 tan tan
= tan( ) (9.80)

v 1
= tan , tan = (9.81)
u M2 1

+ = tan( ), = tan( + ) (9.82)

x
V

u = V cos , v = V sin (9.83)

(x, y) , V
( ) + ( )

9.4.2
(u, v) + (x, y)
u v x
T + (a+ S) + (L+ M ) =0 (9.84)

(9.70)
L=M =0 (9.85)

u a+ S v
+ =0 (9.86)
T
(9.70) 9.72)

a+ S (a2 u2 )+ 2uv uv + a V 2 a2
= = = (9.87)
T a2 u2 (a2 u2 )

(u, v) + (9.86)

u v
+ =0 (9.88)

80 9

(u, v) (x, y)
9.64
u v
+ + =0 (9.89)

(x, y) (, )

y x
+ = 0 (on C + ) (9.90)

u v
+ = 0 (on + ) (9.91)

y x
= 0 (on C ) (9.92)

u v
+ + = 0 (on ) (9.93)

9.83
u V cos V
= = cos + V ( sin ) (9.94)

v V sin V
= = sin + V cos (9.95)

9.88) (9.82)

u v
+ (9.96)

( )
V V
= cos V sin + tan( + ) sin + V cos

V
= (cos + tan( + ) sin ) + V ( sin + tan( + ) cos ) = 0 (9.97)

cos
cos + tan( + ) sin = (9.98)
cos( + )
sin
sin + tan( + ) cos = (9.99)
cos( + )

(9.97)

V
cos + V sin = 0 (on + ) (9.100)

V
cos V sin = 0 (on ) (9.101)

9.4. 2 81

sin =
V 1 V 2
V = M 1V =0 (9.102)
tan
+ +
+ ,

dV M 2 1 dM
d = M 2 1 = (9.103)
V 1 + 1
2 M
2 M

M
V

(9.103) M = V /a
dV da
dM = V 2 (9.104)
a a
H0 2.18
1 2 a2
H0 = V + = const (9.105)
2 1

2ada ( 1)V dV
V dV + = 0 da = (9.106)
1 2a
(9.104)
( )
dV V ( 1)V dV dM 1 2 dV
dM = + 2 = 1+ M (9.107)
a a 2a M 2 V
9.103
M M

M
M= (9.108)
+1
2 1 2
2 M

2.18
V2 a2 +1 2
+ = a (9.109)
2 1 2( 1)

a a2
M2 1 + 1 a2 + 1 a2 V2 + 1 M2
+ = = 2 = (9.110)
2 1 2( 1) a2 2( 1) V 2 a 2( 1) M2
(9.108)
M + , d

M2 1 dM
d = (9.111)
1 1 2 M
+1 M

9.103
dV dV /a dM
d = M 2 1 = M2 1 = M 21 (9.112)
V V /a M
82 9

(9.108)
(9.111)
[ ]
1 1 M2 1 1 1 M2 1
a = tan tan (9.113)
1 (M 1) 1 (M 1)
+1 2 2 +1 2 2

(M )
[ ]
1 1 M2 1 1 1 M2 1
(M ) = tan tan (9.114)
+1 2
1 (M 2 1)
+1 1 (M 1)
2 2

a = (M ) (9.115)

+ + a
M = V /a = 1 a
(u, v)

(u, v) u v
M = 1 r = a

+1 1
1

r= a (9.116)
2
= r = a

Vmax (2.20)

+1
Vmax = a (9.117)
1
M M

+1
Mmax = (9.118)
1
M M = (9.108)

+ = a = const (9.119)

= a = const (9.120)

M M

1 1
(M ) = tan1 (M 2 1) tan1 M 2 1 (9.121)
+1 +1
9.110
9.5. 83

(x, y)

(u, v) P P 1 +
2 1 2
M

+ (M ) = 1 + (M1 ) (on + ) (9.122)

(M ) = 2 + (M2 ) (on ) (9.123)

P (, M )
M (9.108) M

1
tan = (9.124)
M2 1
(x, y) (x, y)

+ = tan( ), = tan( + ) (9.125)

9.4.3
(x, y) (u, v)
(x, y) (9.90) (9.93) +
( ) ( )
x u y v x y u v r V
+ = , , = =0 (9.126)

(x, y) (u, v) C+

(9.91) (9.92)
( ) ( )
x u y v x y u v r V
+ = , , = =0 (9.127)

(x, y) (u, v)
C +

9.5
(simple wave

9.5.1
0 = 10
10
84 9

V0 V0


+
, V0 +
V V

V

9.5.2
0 = 10
10
V0

+

, V0 +
V V

V

9.5.3

( 180
(Prandtl-Meyers expansion)

9.6. 85

130.45 (9.121) M
( )
+1
= 1 (9.128)
1 2

= 1.4 = 130

9.6

(6.22)

2 2
2 2 =0 = 2 1
M (9.129)
x2 y

= V 1 (x y) + V 2 (x + y) (9.130)

= x y = x + y (9.131)

= x y =

= x + y =

9.6.1

v 1 dy
= = (9.132)
V V y dx

( )
dyu
= V (9.133)
y y=+0 dx
86 9

( )
dyl
= V (9.134)
y y=0 dx

Cp 5.17
2u 2
Cp = = (9.135)
V V x

(9.129)

= f1 (x y) + f2 (x + y) = f1 () + f2 () (9.136)

9.131

= x y, = x + y (9.137)

(x, y)

x = x y =

x = x + y =

P p

p = f1 (P ) + f2 (P ) = f1 (Q ) + f2 (R ) (9.138)

(
) Q P
P Q R P
A
M 0

f2 (R ) = 0 (9.139)

f1

P = f1 (Q ) (9.140)
Q (
P
P
f2
P = f2 (Q ) (9.141)
Q P () Q
P

(simple wave)

9.6. 87

f1 = f1 ()

f2 = f2 ()

df1 d df1
= = (9.142)
y d dy d
= x y 9.133
( )
df1 dyu
= = V (9.143)
y y=0 d dx

df1 V dyu
= (9.144)
d dx
u = f1

V dyu V dyu
u = f1 () = ()d = ()d (9.145)
0 dx M 1 0 dx
2

df2
= f2 (x + y) = (9.146)
y d

( )
df2 dyl
= = V (9.147)
y y=0 d dx

f2 l

V dyl V dyl
l = f2 () = ()d = ()d (9.148)
0 dx M 1 0 dx
2

x 9.1459.160
V dyu V dyu
u(x, +0) = = = () 1 = (9.149)
x x dx dx

x 9.148) (9.160)
V dyl V dyl
u(x, 0) = = = () 1 = (9.150)
x x dx dx

5.17 Cpu
Cpl
( )
2u(x, +0) 2 V yu 2 yu 2 dyu
Cpu = = = = (9.151)
V V dx dx M 1 dx
2
( )
2u(x, 0) 2 V yu 2 yl 2 dyl
Cpl = = = = (9.152)
V V dx dx M 1 dx
2

88 9

9.6.2
L D M
(9.151) (9.152)
l l[ ]
1 1 2 2 dyl dyu
L = 2
V (Cpl Cpu )dx = V + dx (9.153)
2 0 2 0 dx dx
l[ ( ) ( )]
1 dyl dyu
D = 2
V Cpl + Cpu dx (9.154)
2 0 dx dx
l [( )2 ( )2 ]
21 dyl dyu
= V2
+ dx (9.155)
2 0 dx dx
l
1
M = 2
V (Cpl Cpu )xdx (9.156)
2 0
l[ ]
21 dyl dyu
= V 2
+ xdx (9.157)
2 0 dx dx

yu (x) yl (x)

CL , CD , CM
l[ ]
2 dyl dyu dx
CL = + (9.158)
l 0 dx dx l
l [( )2 ( )2 ]
2 dyl dyu dx
CD = + (9.159)
l 0 dx dx l
l[ ]
2 dyl dyu x dx
CM = 2 + (9.160)
l 0 dx dx l l

3
dyu dh
= + + (9.161)
dx dx
dyl dh
= + (9.162)
dx dx
camber) g(x) =
dg(x)/dx h(x) x

yu = x + g(x) + h(x) (9.163)

yl = x + g(x) h(x) (9.164)

g(x)

dg
= , g(x = 0) = g(x = l) = 0 (9.165)
dx

l l
dg
dx = dx = 0 (9.166)
0 0 dx
9.6. 89

9.158
4 4
CL = = (9.167)
M2 1

9.159
l{ ( )2 }
41 2 dh
CD = ( + ) + dx (9.168)
l 0 dx
( ( )2 )
4 dh
= 2
+ + 2 (9.169)
M 1
2 dx

()2
l
1
2 = 2 d (9.170)
l 0

CDtot = CDwave + CDth + CDf (9.171)

CDwave

42
CDwave = (9.172)
M2 1

9.167
4
CL = (9.173)
M2 1

2 9.169
( ( )2 )
4 dh
CDth = 2 + (9.174)
2 1
M dx

CDf CDf 0.005

9.160

1 4 2 1 l
CM = x[d(g + h) + d(g h)] (9.175)
2 l2 0
1 4 2 S1 S2
= +
2 M 1
2 M 1
2 l2
1 2 S1 S2
= CL + (9.176)
2 M2 1 l2
90 9

l( ) l
dyl dyu
+ xdx = x(dyl + dyu )
0 dx dx 0
l
= 2xdx + x[d(g h) + d(g + h)]
0
( 2)
l
= 2 + x[d(g h) + d(g + h)]
2
( 2)
l
= 2 (S1 S2 ) (9.177)
2
S1 f = g + hf(0)=f(l)=0) x S2
f = g hf(0)=f(l)=0) x
xac (aerodynamic center)
[ ]
xac 1 1 S1 S2 1 S1 S2
= + = 1 + (9.178)
l 2 2 l2 2 S2

chord) 25%

9.6.3

detached shock wave)

M
2
1

L/D B747 L/D = 17
L/D = 7 MDIV
M = 1.2

9.6.4

2 2
Cpu = () Cpl = () (9.179)


4
cL = (9.180)
M2 1
9.6. 91

42
cD = (9.181)
2 1
M

()
cM = 0 (9.182)

9.6.5
x = xf
y = f x = xf y = f
0 CL CD CM

CL = 0 (9.183)
4 4 (f /l)2
CD = 2 = (9.184)
M 2 1 2 1 (xf /l)(1 xf /l)
M
CM 1/2 = 0 (9.185)

l( )2
1 dh
2 = dx (9.186)
l 0 dx
h(x) f = h(xf )
xf = l/2 CD
( )2
16f 4
CD = = 2 (9.187)
M 1 l
2 2 1
M

4
CL = (9.188)
M2 1
[ ]
42 2 (f1 /l)2 (f2 /l)2
CD = + + (9.189)
M2 1 M 2 1 (x1 /l)(1 x1 /l) (x2 /l)(1 x2 /l)
2 f1 f2
CM 1/2 = (9.190)
M2 1 2l

f1 = h(x1 ) f2 = h(x2 )

9.6.6

cL = 0 (9.191)
92 9

( )2
416 f
cD = (9.192)
M 1 3
2 c

()

2 4f
cM 1/2 = (9.193)
2
M 13 c

x = l/2 f f /c

l2 + 4f 2
R= (9.194)
8f

 93

10

p0 ambient pressurepa

p0 /pa

pe
(pe = pa )
( pe = pa )

10.1
(sonic nozzle)
convergent nozzle
pa p0
pa 1 pa /p0 = 0.53

shock cell

underexpansion)

()
pa /p0 = 0.53 1.9

1 pe

10.2

(supersonic nozzle)
94 10

(throat)

10.3
p0
pa ambient presure

(over-expansion):

(optimum expansion)

(under-expansion)

jet boundary

barrel shock
barrel shock
barrel shock

10.4

(convergent-divergent nozzle)
M = 1
(throat)
10.5. 95

()

15 (

(gimballing)

(contoured nozzle)

(
2 ) (
)
(CFD(
) )
15
80% 80%
()

10.5
(thrust)

e + (pe pa )Ae
T = mV (10.1)

T m
(e Ve Ae )e Ve
pe pa Ae

10.6
(specic impulse)

I T
Isp = = Veq = (10.2)
mp m

96 10

I Veq T
Isp = = = (10.3)
mp g g mg

T 1 mg

1kg 1
450 LE7A 450

10.7

((1/2)v 2 )
RCS(Reaction Control System)
2
RCS(Reaction Control System)

m j Vj (2/( + 1))/(1) p0j Sj

C = 2 S
= 2 S
(10.4)
(1/2) U ref (1/2) U ref

10.8

()
Prandtl

1 2
= (M 1)1/2 (10.5)
D 2.405
D M M
p0 pA
( )/(1)
p0 1 2
= 1+ M (10.6)
pA 2

L Tam

2(M 2 1)1/2 h
L= (10.7)
(1 + h2 /b2 )1/2

b h
10.9. 97

10.9
M=0.5

x = 4D
rib 3

u v U/y

St = 0.19, 0.42, 0.81

10.10
M = 1.5

x = 5D
3

2 x = 6 7D
worm 3

10.11

(entrain)

lobed nozzle

vortex generator

98 10

10.12
Mc 0.6
Brown-roshko 2
(

 99

11

(hypersonic ow) M 1

V = V + v, v V (11.1)

v V a

11.1

(shock
layer)

(dissipation)

11.2

1500K N2
O2 2 2
kinetic energypotential energy

(dissociation)
O2 O + O (11.2)

(chemical reaction)

N2 + O2 2N O (11.3)
100 11

() (k)

(equilibrium state) (nonequilibrium state)

frozen ow

11.3
e

1 RT h/kT
e = 3 RT + 2 + RT + eel (11.4)
2 2 exp{h/kT } 1

1 (translational energy) 2
3 4
h/k O2 2230K N2 3340K h
(Planck constant)
5
N, O, N O, N2 , O2

1, 500K N2 , O2

3, 000K O2 (dissociation) M=6

O2 O + O () (11.5)

N O

N2 + O2 2N O (11.6)

5, 000 6, 000K O2

O2 O + O () (11.7)

N2

N2 N + N () (11.8)

O O+ + e (11.9)
N N + + e (11.10)

NO NO + e
+
(11.11)
11.4. 101

M T /T0 T0 (K)
4 0.2381 1260
6 0.1220 2459
8 0.07246 4140
10 0.04762 6300

11.1:

(11.1) (2.24) T0
T = 300K h = 10km T = 223K
h = 30km T = 227K h = 50km T = 210K
2km/s
2.5M J/kg 10km/s 45M J/kg 10km/s

c/c
c/c TPS
room
temperatureT0 = 300K M = 8
T /T0 = 0.07246 T T 22K
Tair = 132K 141 condensation

11.4

Cp T = 6000K
T = 8000K Cp 20 Cp (T = 288K)

T = 8000K satellite velocity; 7.9km/s)

1.25

Cp = R (11.12)
1

11.5
11.2XO2 , XN 2 , XO
(Mole fraction) Ns /N
Ns s N
102 11

(km) (kg/m3 ) 109 ) (K) XO2 XN 2 XO (m)

200 0.3 1026 0.031 0.455 0.514 197.0
170 0.9 892 0.044 0.548 0.408 75.61
150 2.1 733 0.055 0.616 0.330 30.93
140 3.9 625 0.062 0.652 0.286 16.92
130 8.2 500 0.071 0.691 0.238 7.72
120 22.6 368 0.085 0.733 0.183 2.69
110 96.1 247 0.123 0.770 0.106 0.60
100 558.2 194 0.177 0.784 0.039 0.10

11.2:

(rareed gas ow)

11.6
(hypersonic similarity parameter)
(M )2
M
M
(hypersonic
similarity rule)

K = M (11.13)

M
a 1
sin = = (11.14)
V M

(11.15)

1 1
1 (11.16)
M M

11.13 K

K = M 1 (11.17)

11.6. 103

11.6.1
Cp
( )
p p p p 1
Cp = 2
= 2
= 2 p
2
2 2
(11.18)
(1/2) V (1/2)p M M

p
2 2p
p = (11.19)
M
11.18 K
2 2
( ) ( )
2M 1 2K 2 1
Cp = 2
p 2 2
= 2
p (11.20)
M M M K 2

(11.21)

p = p(
x, y, z, , M , / ), x
= x/l, y = y/l, z = z/l (11.22)

11.20

Cp = K 2 P (K, , )/M
2
(11.23)

x y
= = (11.24)
l l

11.23
Cp Cp Cp
= P (K), or = P (K, ), or = P (K, , / ) (11.25)
2 2 2

CL
CL
= L(K) (11.26)
2
CD
CD CD
= D(K), or = D(K, , / ) (11.27)
3 3

8.44

K = M = const M = const (11.28)

M = 3, = 10 , = 1/3

M = 5, = 6 , = 1/5
K = 1 Cp / 2

104 11

11.6.2

+ 1 2 sin sin
M 2 sin2 1 = M (11.29)
2 cos( )


M 1, 1, M 1 (11.30)

1 (11.31)

sin , sin , cos( ) 1 (11.32)

(11.29) O(2 ), O( 2 ))
+1 2
M 22 1 = M (11.33)
2
M 2 2
( )2
+1 +1 1
= + + (11.34)
4 4 M

M M
+1
= (11.35)
2

p1 p2
p2 p1 2 2
= (M 2 sin2 1) (M 2 2 1) (11.36)
p1 +1 +1

Cp 11.18
p p 2 p p
Cp = 2
= 2
(11.37)
(1/2) V M p
11.3611.34
2 p2 p1 2 2
Cp = 2
= (M 2 2 1) (11.38)
M p1 M 2 + 1
2 2 + 1 2
= M (11.39)
M 2 + 1 2
= 2 (11.40)

= 22 (11.41)
(
)2
+ 1 + 1 1
= 22 + + (11.42)
4 4 (M )2
11.6. 105

Cp = 2 f (M , ) (11.43)

Cp
= f (M , ) = f (K, ) (11.44)
2
(11.25)
=

11.6.3 Prandtl-Meyer
9.115) 9.121

= ((M ) (M ))
( )
+1 1 1 2 1 1 2
= tan M 1 tan M 1
1 +1 +1

(tan1 M 2 1 tan1 M 2 1) (11.45)

M M

M M

M2 1 M (11.46)

x (x 1)tan1 x
1
tan1 x = + (11.47)
2 x
11.45
( )
2 1 1
= (11.48)
1 M M
( 1)/2 M
M 1
=1+ M (11.49)
M 2

( )
p p 2 p
Cp = 2
= 2
1 (11.50)
(1/2)V M p
p/p
( )/(1)
p0 1 2
= 1+ M (11.51)
p 2
Cp
( )
2 p p0
Cp = 2
1
M p0 p
{[ ] }
2 /(1)
2 2 + ( 1)M
= 1 (11.52)
M2 2 + ( 1)M
106 11

M, M
[( )2/(1) ]
2 M
Cp = 2
1 (11.53)
M M

(11.49)
[( )2/(1) ]
2 1
2
Cp M = 1+ M 1 (11.54)
2

2 2
M
[( )2/(1) ]
Cp 2 1 1
= 2 2 1+ M 1 (11.55)
2 M 2

Cp
= f (M , ) = f (K, ) (11.56)
2
11.25

11.7 Newton

Newtonian Flow
(M )

1687

(mass ux)

Mn = V sin (11.57)

(mVn ) = V sin V sin = V

2
sin2 (11.58)

p p = V
2
sin2 (11.59)
11.7. Newton 107

p p
Cp = 2
= 2 sin2 (11.60)
(1/2) V
Newton 2
(Mach number indepedent
principle)
Cp

11.7.1
11.60 Lees

Cp = Cpmax sin2 (11.61)

Cpmax

p02 p
Cpmax = 2
(11.62)
(1/2) V

p02 ()
Rayleigh Pitot tube formula
p02
( )/(1) ( )
p02 ( + 1)2 M
2
1 + 2M
2
= (11.63)
p 4M 2( 1)
2 +1

p02 11.63
( ) ([ ]/(1) [ ] )
2 p02 2 ( + 1)2 M
2
1 + 2M
2
Cpmax = 2
1 = 2 2 2( 1)
1
M p M 4M +1
(11.64)

M
[ ]/(1)
( + 1)2 4
Cpmax (11.65)
4 +1

Cpmax 1.839 for = 1.4 Cpmax 2.0 for = 1.0 (11.66)

1 M

R0
= Cp /cv , Cp = Cv + R = Cv + (11.67)
M
R0
108 11

11.7.2
l
11.60
l l
ds ds
CL = Cp cos = 2 sin2 cos = 2 sin2 cos (11.68)
0 l 0 l

CL 2 sin2 (11.69)

l l
ds ds
CD = Cp sin = 2 sin2 sin = 2 sin3 (11.70)
0 l 0 l

11.8

strong interaction
weak interaction
Prandtl

P r = 1, = 1.4
p
= 0.514 + 0.759 (11.71)
p

3 C wall /
= M , C= (11.72)
Rex T /Twall

P r = 0.725, = 1.4
p
= 1 + 0.31 + 0.0502 (11.73)
p

11.9. 109

(DSMC : Direct Simulation Monte Carlo Method)

300, 000f t(92km)

11.9
Fay and Riddle

Fay and Riddle qst

( ) [ ]
0.763 due hd
qst = 0.4
(t2 t2 ) (w,t w,t )0.1
(Ht2 Hw,t ) 1 + (Le0.52
1) (11.74)
(P rw,st )0.6 dx Ht2
st

P rw,st t2 , t2
w,st , w,st
Le Lewis number

Di Cp
Le =
(11.75)
k
Di k/(rhoCp ) hd

hd = CO hO + CN hN (11.76)

CO , NO hO , hN


( )
due 1 2(pe p )
= (11.77)
dx st Rb e
() ()e
()w Rb