Viscous Fluid Dynamics

Yoshiaki NAKAMURA

Department of Aerospace Engineering
Nagoya University

2011 10
October 1, 2011
2

(Preface)

(vorticity) (shearing
stress)

(laminar ow) (turbulent ow)

(separation)
(Navier-Stokes)

CFD(Computational
Fluid Dynamics)
(Reynolds number)

(eddy)

(turbulence model)
(eddy viscosity)

1995 9
 3

1 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 29
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3 53
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4 87
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5 101
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
 i

5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
 1

1.1
(viscosity)

(shearing-stress)

(governing equation)

(Navier-
Stokes equation)

(Boltzmann equation)
(Rareed gas ow)

[]
0

(specular reection)

(diuse reection)

[]
2 1

1.1.1 (Newton-Stokes)
()

u
= (1.1)
y

u x u/y
(Non-Newtonian uid)

v
y

yx

yx

1.1:

1.1.2 (molecular viscosity)

(1845; George Gabriel Stokes)

[ ] /[ ]
kg m/sec2 m/sec
[] = [ ]/[u/y] = = kg/(m sec)
m2 m

(SI) : N sec/m2 P a sec (P a:)

CGS : poise ()(= g/cm sec)

() kg/(m sec)
1.0 103
1.8 105
1.1. 3

1.1.3

(Sutherland)
( )3/2 ( )
(T ) T 1 + 110.4 /T
= = (1.2)
T (T + 110.4) /T

T
110.4
Maxwell Rayleigh (dilute gas)
( )
T
= (1.3)
0 T0
0.5 < < 1

1.1.4
(kinematic viscosity)

(1.4)

[]
[] kg/(m sec)
[] = = = m2 /sec
[] kg/m3

() kinematics

20
() m2 /s
1.0 106
1.5 105

air ( 15 , 760mmHg)
1 (P a) 1.01325 105 P a = 101.325kP a =
0.101325M P a(= 1013.25 hP a)
1.219 kg/m3
1.788 105 kg/s m
1.467 105 m2 /s
k 5.76 106 kcal/s m K = 2.42 105 kJ/(s m K)
Cp 0.23990 kcal/(kg K) = 1.004kJ/(kg K)
() Cv 0.17100 kcal/(kg K) = 0.716kJ/(kg K)
= Cp /Cv 1.4
4 1

p p

1.2:

1cal = 4.18605J
(water)

999.6 kg/m3
1.0 103 kg/s m
1.01 106 m2 /s
k 0.610 J/(s m K) = 0.610 W/m K = 6.10 104 kJ/(s m K)
Cp 4.182 kJ/(kg K)
() Cv * kcal/(kg K)
= Cp /Cv 1.

1.2
(stress)ij i, j i = 1, 2, 3, j = 1, 2, 3
x, y, z ij 2 (pressure)p
ij p (isotropy)

11 12 13 p 0 0 11 12 13

21 22 23 = 0 p 0 + 21 22 23 (1.5)
31 32 33 0 0 p 31 32 33

( )
1 ui uj
ij = div u ij + 2 + (1.6)
2 xj xi
ij

ij = 1 if i = j, ij = 0 if i = j (1.7)

1.2. 5

u2
u1
u3

1.3:

ij (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (u1 , u2 , u3 )
3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x1 , x2 , x3 ) x, y, z
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x, y, z) 11 = xx , 12 = xy ,

( ) ( )
u1 1 u1 u2 1 u1 u3
divu + 2 2 + 2 +
11 12 13 ( x1) 2 x2 x1 2 ( x3 x1 )

1 u2 u1 u2 1 u2 u3
21 22 23 =
2 + divu + 2 2 + (1.8)
2 ( x1 x2 ) ( x2) 2 x3 x2
31 32 33 1 u3 u1 1 u3 u2 u3
2 + 2 + divu + 2
2 x1 x3 2 x2 x3 x3

1.6 (strain rate) Sij

ij = div u ij + 2 Sij (1.9)

Sij ( )
1 ui uj
Sij = + (1.10)
2 xj xi

ui
ii = 3div u + 2 = (3 + 2) div u
xi
0 3 (x, y, z
)
( )
ij 2
= + div u
3 3
( )
2
+ bulk viscosity
3
0
2
= (1.11)
3
Stokes (Stokes hypothesis)
6 1

1.3

homogeneous

1.3.1
5

1 (translation)

2 (rotation)

3 extensional strain

4 shear strain

5 (dilatation)

ij xy = yx

xx xy xz

ij = yx yy yz (1.12)
zx zy zz
ij Sij
( )
1 ui uj
Sij = ij = + (1.13)
2 xj xi

Sij ij
( )
1 ui uj
ij = (1.14)
2 xj xi

ij = ji (1.15)

1.3.2

u v w
xx = , yy = , zz = (1.16)
| {z x} | {z }
y | {z z}
x y z

xx = Sxx , yy = Syy , zz = Szz

1.4. 7

xx + yy + zz = 0 Sxx + Syy + Szz = 0 (1.17)

dilatation
u v w
dilatation = xx + yy + zz = + + (1.18)
x y z
div v = 0

1.3.3
(Shearing-strain rate)

( ) ( ) ( )
1 v u 1 w v 1 u w
xy = + , yz = + , zx = + (1.19)
2 x y 2 y z 2 z x
xy = Sxy , yz = Syz , zx = Szx
3 (I1 , I2 . I3 )
(x, y, z)

I1 = xx + yy + zz (1.20)
I2 = xx yy + yy zz + zz xx 2xy 2yz 2zx (1.21)
 
 xx xy xz 
 
 
I3 =  yx yy yz  (1.22)
 
 zx zy zz 

I1

1.4
(Navier-Stokes equations) Navier(Claude Louis Marie
Henri Navier) 1826 (1827 ?) G.G.Stokes 1845
x u(t, x, y, z) u

u u u u
u(t + t, x + x, y + y, z + z) = u + t + x + y + z (1.23)
t x y z
x, y, z t

x = u t, y = v t, z = w t (1.24)
8 1

1.4:

1.23
u u u u
u(t + t, x + x, y + y, z + z) = u + t + ut + vt + wt (1.25)
t x y z

u u t t 0
Du u u u u u u
= lim = +u +v +w (1.26)
Dt t0 t t
|{z} x y z
| {z }

D/Dt substantial derivative

(Lagrange derivative) 1.26) (Euler)

x ( )
Du xx yx zx
=X+ + + (1.27)
Dt x y z

y ( )
Dv xy yy zy
=Y + + + (1.28)
Dt x y z

z ( )
Dw xz yz zz
=Z+ + + (1.29)
Dt x y z

(X, Y, Z)

Dv +
=X (1.30)
Dt


xx xy xz
=
yx yy

yz (1.31)
zx zy zz
1.4. 9

y t yx

sxx sxx
x
t yx
1.5:

div
v
z(}| ){
u v w u
xx = p + + + +2 (1.32)
x y z x
( )
u v w v
yy = p + + + + 2 (1.33)
x y z y
( )
u v w w
zz = p + + + + 2 (1.34)
x y z z

Stokes = (2/3)
1.31
( ) ( )
v u 1 v u
xy = yx = + = 2 + = 2 Sxy (1.35)
x y 2 x y
( ) ( )
w v 1 w v
yz = zy = + = 2 + = 2 Syz (1.36)
y z 2 y z
( ) ( )
u w 1 u w
zx = xz = + = 2 + = 2 Szx (1.37)
z x 2 z x

1.271.281.29

[ ( )]
Du p u 2
= X + 2 div v
Dt x x x 3
[ ( )] [ ( )]
u v w u
+ + + + (1.38)
y y x z x z
[ ( )]
Dv p v 2
= Y + 2 div v
Dt y y y 3
[ ( )] [ ( )]
v w u v
+ + + + (1.39)
z z y x y x
[ ( )]
Dw p w 2
= Z + 2 div v
Dt z z z 3
[ ( )] [ ( )]
w u v w
+ + + + (1.40)
x x z z z y
10 1

x y z
Euler
Leonhard Euler 1757
div v = 0 = const

Du p
= X + 2 u (1.41)
Dt x
Dv p
= Y + 2 v (1.42)
Dt y
Dw p
= Z + 2 w (1.43)
Dt z
2 = (x, y, z)
2u 2u 2u
2 u = + 2 + 2 (1.44)
x2 y z

() (1.41)

1.4.1
2 Langrange
Euler

1)

(t = 0)
t)X
u u = u(X, t = 0

du/dt

2)

Lagrange (x, y, z)

u u = u (
x, t)

D
= + v grad (1.45)
Dt t
|{z} | {z }


grad =
u v = (u, v, w)

1.4. 11

u=u( X ,t 2 )

u=u( X ,0 ) t=t 2

t=t 1
x = X
t=0

1.6:

1.4.2

(continuity equation)

+ div (v ) = 0 (1.46)
t
div =

+ (u) + (v) + (w) = 0 (1.47)
t x y z

+u +v +w + div v = 0 (1.48)
t x y z

+ v grad + div v = 0 (1.49)
t

D
+ div v = 0 (1.50)
Dt

div v = 0 v = 0 (1.51)

div v = 0

3
12 1

1.4.3
(the equation of state)
(thermally perfect gas)
p
= RT, pv = RT (1.52)

v = 1 / : specic volume
R :
R = R0 /M (M :)
R0 : gas constant
R0 = 8, 314 ( (1.61) )

1.1:

M = 29 R = 287[m2 /s2 K] = 287[J/kg K]

(1.61)
1 kb
Nb = 6.02 1023 mol

Ro
kb = = 1.38066 1023 J/K (1.53)
Nb
R0 (1.55)

()

pV = nR0 T (1.54)

n (the number of moles) R0

R0 = 8.314J/(K mol) (1.55)

V M

M
= (1.56)
V
(1.54)

M p nR0
p = nR0 T = T (1.57)

M
M (molecular weight)
n M

M
n= (1.58)
M
1.4. 13

(1.57)

p
M R0 p R0
= T = T (1.59)

M M M

MKS M g/mol
MKS (kg)

R0 R0 R0 103
(1.60)
M M 103 M
(1.55)

R0 J/(K mol) 8314 J

R= = (1.61)
M 103 kg/mol M kg K

8314 1.4.3 R0
()
(
(Temmann equation)

p = p(, ei ) = ( 1)ei pc (1.62)

ei = 7.15, pc = 300M P a
a

a2 = (p + pc ) (1.63)

1.4.4
(energy equation)

( ) ( ) ( )
Dei T T T
+ p div v = k + k + k + (1.64)
Dt x x y y z z
| {z }

ei k

{( ) ( )2 ( )2 } ( )2 ( )2 ( )2
2
u v w v u w v u w
= 2 + + + + + + + +
x y z x y y z z x
( )2
2 u v w
+ + (1.65)
3 x y z

1.76

u u v v
= xx + yx + xy + yy (1.66)
x y x y
14 1

(i, j)
ui
= ij (1.67)
xj

() (dissipation)

= [2(211 + 222 + 233 )(223 )2 + (231 )2 + (212 )2 ] + (11 + 22 + 33 )2 (1.68)

ij 1.13
ij = Sij
(1.64) 2
x
( )
u u u p
+u +v = + xx + xy (1.69)
t x y x x y

y
( )
v v v p
+u +v = + xy + yy (1.70)
t x y y x y

(1.69) u (1.70) v

( )
u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2
+u +v
t 2 x 2 y 2 (1.71)
p p
= u v + u xx + u xy + v xy + v yy
x y x y x y

u2 + v 2

2
u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2
+ u + v = 0 (1.72)
2 t 2 x 2 y

(1.71) (1.72)
( ) ( ) ( )
u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2
+ u + v
t 2 x 2 y 2 (1.73)
p p
= u v + u xx + u xy + v xy + v yy
x y x y x y

Q = ei + pv (1.74)

( Q
ei pv v
1.4. 15

{ ( ) ( )}
T T
Q = k + k (1.75)
x x y y

1.74
{ ( ) ( )}
Dei T T
= k + k
Dt}
| {z x x y y

( )
u v u u v v
+ (p) + + xx + yx + xy + yy (1.76)
x y x y x y

1.64

( )
u v u u v v
(p) + + xx + yx + xy + yy
x y x y x y
u v u v
= (p + xx ) + (p + yy ) + yx + xy
x y y x
u v u v
= xx + yy + yx + xy
x y y x
= v (1.77)

(1.76)

Dei
= q +
v (1.78)
Dt

q
q = kT (1.79)

1.76
( )
Dei ei ei ei
= +u +v (1.80)
Dt t x y

ei

ei + ei u + ei v = 0 (1.81)
t x y
(1.80) (1.76)

ei + (uei ) + (vei ) (1.82)
t x y

(1.76)

ei + uei + vei
t x y
( )
u v u u v v
= div (k grad T ) p + + xx + yx + xy + yy (1.83)
x y x y x y
16 1

(1.73)
(1.83)
{ } { } { }
u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2
+ ei + u + uei + v + vei
t 2 x 2 y 2 (1.84)

= div (k grad T ) pu pv + uxx + uyx + vxy + vyy
x y x y x y

( ) { }
1 2 u2
u + ei + div u + uei = div (k grad T ) div pu + div ( u) (1.85)
t 2 2

( ) ( ) ( )
xx xy u xx u + xy v
u = = (1.86)
yx yy v yx u + yy v

()
B a
( )
b11 a1 + b12 a2
B a = (bji ai ) = (1.87)
b21 a1 + b22 a2

()

1.85
( ) { ( 2 ) }
1 2 u
u + ei + div u + h k grad T u = 0
(1.88)
t 2 2

h (static enthalpy) ,
p
h = ei + (1.89)

total energyet
total enthalpyHt

et + div (uHt k grad T u) = 0 (1.90)
t

p
Ht


(u, v, w, p, , T, ) 7 7
(x, y, z )

1.5. 17

1.5
control volume

(divergence form)

+ div (u) = 0 (1.91)
t


) = f
(u) + div (u u (1.92)
t
div div = f
u u


u1 u1 u1 u2 u1 u3

u u = u2 u1 u2 u2 u2 u3 (1.93)
u3 u1 u3 u2 u3 u3

[ ( )] [ ( ) ]
1 1
u u + ei + div u u u + ei u + q = f u
(1.94)
t 2 2

1.7:

V (divergence theorem)

div w dV = n w dA (1.95)
V A
div T dV = n T dA (1.96)
V A

A V n
T 2
w

18 1

A 2 n

V
A
1
n A 3

A4

1.8:

{ }

+ div (u) dV = dV + div (u) dV = 0 (1.97)
t t

2


dV + n (u) dA = 0 (1.98)
V t A

{ }

(u) + div (u u ) dV
fdV = 0 (1.99)
V t V

u dV + n (u u
) dA f dV = 0 (1.100)
V t A

{ ( )} { ( ) }
1 1
u u + ei dV + n u u u + ei u + q dA =
f udV
V t 2 A 2 V
(1.101)

p

Leibnitz

Leibnitz f

d f
f (r, t) dV = dV + n uA f dA (1.102)
dt V t A

uA A dA

uA = 0

d f
f (r, t) dV = dV (1.103)
dt V V t
1.5. 19

(f /t)
Leibnitz (f )

[ ]
d
dV = n (uA u) dA (1.104)
dt V A

[ ]
d
u dV = {n (uA u) u +
} dA + f dV (1.105)
dt V A V

[ ( ) ] { ( ) }
d 1 1
u u + ei dV = n (uA u) u u + ei +
u q dA
dt 2 2
V
A
+ f udV (1.106)
v

T = a b a b Tij = ai bj

[] n ij

x n1 11 12 13 n1 11 + n2 21 + n3 31
=
= y = n n2 21 22 23 = n1 12 + n2 22 + n3 32 (1.107)
z n3 31 32 33 n1 13 + n2 23 + n3 33

n n = (n1 , n2 , n3 )

n
n
=

11 12 13 n1 11 n1 + 12 n2 + 13 n3

n = 21 22 23 n2 = 21 n1 + 22 n2 + 23 n3
= (1.108)
31 32 33 n3 31 n1 + 32 n2 + 33 n3

= ij nj ei ei i

()

uA n (uA u)

uA

20 1

1.9:

Leibniz
h()
d
f (x, ) dx
d g()
h()
f (x, ) dh() dg()
= dx + f [h(), ] f [g(), ] (1.109)
g() d d

1.6

1.6.1

[ ]
DV V
= + (V ) V = p + 2 V (1.110)
Dt t

D/Dt V
(a pesudo-vector
expression
2
[ ( 2) ]
V V
+ V ( V ) = p + 2 V (1.111)
t 2

(A B) = (A )B + (B )A + A rotB + B rotA (1.112)

1.6. 21

A = B = V rot rot =
= V
[ ( 2) ]
V V
+ V = p + 2 V (1.113)
t 2

2 V

2 V = ( V ) ( V )
= (divV ) (1.114)

1.6.2
(1.113) rot

(V ) = 2 (1.115)
t
= 0


=V (1.116)

(1.115) 2

(V ) = ( )V (V ) (1.117)

1.115)

( ) V + (V ) = 2 (1.118)
t

D

)
= + (V (1.119)
Dt t
1.118
D

= ) V
( +2
(1.120)
Dt | {z }

Helmholtz
0

22 1

(Helicity)
v
(scalar product)

H= v
dV (1.121)

H NS

1.7
(cylindrical coodinates)(r, , z)

(vr , v , vz )
a) (radial direction)
[ ]
vr vr v vr vr v2
+ vr + + vz
t r r z r
[ 2 2
]
p vr 1 vr 1 vr 2 vr vr 2 v
= + + + + (1.122)
r r2 r r r2 2 z 2 r2 r2

b) (circumferential direction)
[ ]
v v v v v vr v
+ vr + + vz +
t r r z r
[ 2 ]
1 p v 1 v 1 2 v 2 v 2 vr v
= + + + + + (1.123)
r r2 r r r2 2 z 2 r2 r2

c) (axial direction)
[ ]
vz vz v vz vz
+ vr + + vz
t r r z
[ 2 ]
p vz 1 vz 1 2 vz 2 vz
= + + + 2 + (1.124)
z r2 r r r 2 z 2

() (r, , z) (x, r, )
(1.124) z x

1 1 v vz
v = (rvr ) + +
r r r z
vr vr 1 v vz
= + + + (1.125)
r r r z

( )
1
= , , (1.126)
r r z
1.7. 23

r 2
( )
2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
2 = = 2 + + 2 2+ 2 = r + 2 2+ 2 (1.127)
r r r r z r r r r z

(vorticity)
= v = rot v (1.128)

1 vz v
r = ()


r z

vr vz
= () (1.129)
z r

v v 1 vr 1 1 vr

z = + = (rv ) ()
r r r r r r

r
1.110
v 1
+ (v ) v = p + 2 v (1.130)
t

(cylindrical coodinates) (1.122) (1.124)

a)
( )
vr v2 1 p vr 2 v
+ (v ) vr = + 2 vr 2 2 (1.131)
t r r r r

u
(v ) = ur
+ + uz (1.132)
r r z
1.131 D/Dt
( )
Dvr v2 1 p vr 2 v
= + 2 vr 2 2 (1.133)
Dt r r r r

D v
= + (v ) = + vr + + vz (1.134)
Dt t t r r z

b)
( )
v vr v Dv vr v 1 p 2 vr v
+ (v ) v + = + = + 2 v + 2 2 (1.135)
t r Dt r r r r

c) z
vz Dvz 1 p
+ (v ) vz = = + 2 vz (1.136)
t Dt z

24 1

ez

1.10:

v =0 (1.137)

1 1 v vz
(rvr ) + + =0 (1.138)
r r r z

(v ) v

v = vr er + v e + vz ez (1.139)

er , e , ez r, , z
(1.130)
( )
v
(v ) v = vr + + vz (vr er + v e + vz ez )
r r z
/ /
vr v vr v vr vr
= vr er + vr2 er + er + er +vz e r + vz vr er +
r r r r |{z } z z
e

r, , z (er , e , ez )
(x, y, z)

er er e ez er
= 0, = e , = er , = 0, =0 (1.140)
r z
e er (1.131)

v2
{(v ) v}r = (v ) vr (1.141)
r
1.7. 25

(1.135)

( )
1 2
(v ) v = ( v) v + v (1.142)
2

2 v = ( v) ( v) (1.143)

( )

= v = er
+ e + ez (vr er + v e + vz ez ) (1.144)
r r z
1.140

() (1.144)
 
 er re ez 
 
1  
=v = 
(1.145)
r  r z 
 vr rv vz 

vr
11 = rr = (1.146)
r
1 v vr
22 = = + (1.147)
r r
vz
33 = zz = (1.148)
z( )
1 1 vr v v
12 = r = (1.149)
2 r r r
( )
1 vr vz
13 = rz = + (1.150)
2 z r
( )
1 1 vz v
23 = z = + (1.151)
2 r z
ij = Sij

ii = 2Sij (1.152)

1.7.1

[ ]
v v v v v vr v
+ vr + + vz +
t r r z r
[ 2 ]
1 p v 1 v 1 2 v 2 v 2 vr v
= + + + + + (1.153)
r r2 r r r2 2 z 2 r2 r2
26 1

v (swirling ow)

(axisym-
metric) z
0 }
vr = 0 vz = 0

(1.154)
= 0 z = 0

(1.153)
( )
v 2 v 1 v v
= 2
+ 2 (1.155)
t r r r r

r ( 2 )
rv v v v
= r 2 + (1.156)
t r r r
r
{ 3 }
v 2 v 2 v 1 v v
(rv ) = r 3 + + + (1.157)
t r r r2 r2 r r r2

r
{ }
1 3 v 2 2 v 1 v v
(rv ) = 3
+ 2
2 + 3 (1.158)
t |r r{z } r r r r r r

z = z
1 1 vr 1
(rv ) = (rv ) (1.159)
r r r r r
(1.158) 1.159)
r 2
( )
u u 2 u 1 u u
= + = 2
+ 2
r r r r r r r r
2 3 u 1 2 u 1 u 1 u 2 (1.160)
2
= 3
+ 2
2 2 + 3 u
r r r r r r r r r
3 u 1 2 u 2 u 2
= + + u
r3 r r2 r2 r r3

2 1 3 u 2 2 u 1 u 1
2
+ = 3
+ 2 + 3 u (1.161)
r r r r r r2 r r r
1.1581.158

( )
2 1
= + (1.162)
t r2 r r
1.8. 27

( )( ( ))
1
= r (1.163)
t r r r

( ) ( )
(m+1) r2 r2
(r, t) = Cm t exp Lm (1.164)
m=0
4t 4t

Lm Laguerre polynomials

ex dm ( m x )
Lm (x) =
x e (1.165)
m! dxm
m = 0 1.159 v
( ( ))
0 r2
v = 1 exp (1.166)
2r 4t

0 = C0 0

1.8
(r, , )
r

1 2 1 1 v
v = (r vr ) + (v sin ) + (1.167)
r2 r r sin r sin

vr , v , v r, ,
(

D v v
= + vr + + (1.168)
Dt t r r r sin

[ ] [ ]
Dvr v2 + vr2 p 2vr 2 v 2v cot 2 v
= Fr + vr 2 2
2
2 (1.169)
Dt r r r r r2 r sin

[ ] [ ]
Dv vr v2 v2 cot 1 p 2 vr v 2 cos v
+ = F + v + 2
2
2 2 2 2 (1.170)
Dt r r r r sin r sin

28 1

[ ] [ ]
Dv v vr + v v cot 1 p v 2 vr 2 cos v
+ = F + 2 v 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 2
Dt r r sin r sin r sin r sin
(1.171)
2
( ) ( )
1 1 1 2
2 = 2 r2 + 2 sin + 2 2 (1.172)
r r r r sin r sin 2

 29

2
(external ow) (internal ow)

2.1
2 (x, y) 2

x ( )
u u u p
+u +v = + 2 u (2.1)
t x y x
y ( )
v v v p
+u +v = + 2 v (2.2)
t x y y
2

2 2
2 = 2
+ 2 (2.3)
x y

= (/x, /y) =
(u, v) (x, y) p

x

=0 (2.4)
x

2)

=0 (2.5)
t

(steady ow) 0
(unsteday ow)

u v
+ =0 (2.6)
x y
30 2

y=h

y=0

2.1:

1) 1

u
=0 (2.7)
x
2.6
v
=0 (2.8)
y
y
v = const. (2.9)

v = 0 y y v

2.1.1 (Couette Flow)

M.Couette(19 )
(x )
U
(boundary conditions)

y = 0 u = 0, y =hu=U (2.10)

h
x (2.1)

p 2u
0= + 2 (2.11)
x y

v = 0 y (2.2)

p
0= (2.12)
y

p y y

p = p(x) (2.13)
2.1. 31

(2.11)
p 2u
= 2 (2.14)
x y
x 2.7y

dp d2 u
= 2 = const. (2.15)
dx dy
(2.15) y
dp du
y= + C1 (2.16)
dx dy
C1 y

dp y 2
= u + C1 y + C2 (2.17)
dx 2
C2 (2.10)

y = 0 C2 = 0
dp h U (2.18)
y = h C1 =
dx 2 h

C1 , C2 (2.18) (2.17) x u
( )
y h2 dp y( y)
u=U + 1 (2.19)
h 2 dx h h
2
dp
= 0
dx
U
u= y (2.20)
h

u U
= = (2.21)
y h
y

x Fx = 0

[]

2.1.2 (Poiseuille Flow)

y = b u = 0 (2.22)
32 2

y=b

y=0

u=u(y)
y=-b

2.2:

(2.22) (2.17) C1 C2

C1 = 0
b2 dp (2.23)
C2 =
2 dx
(2.17) x u
( )
1 dp ( 2 )
u= b y2 () (2.24)
2 dx
Q u y
b ( )
2b3 dp
Q= u dy = (2.25)
b 3 dx
Q u
{ ( y )2 }
3Q
u= 1 (2.26)
4b b

{ ( y )2 }
u = umax 1 (2.27)
b

2.1.3 (Hagen-Poiseuille ow)

2
Hagen 1839


v = 0, =0 (2.28)

(1.124)
( 2 )
d u 1 du dp
2
+ = (2.29)
dr r dr dx
2.1. 33

R x
u

2.3:

z x 0

0
du
r = 0 =
dr (2.30)
r = R u = 0
(2.29) (2.30)
( )
1 dp ( 2 )
u(r) = R r2 (2.31)
4 dx

dp
= const. (2.32)
dx

dp p1 p2
= (2.33)
dx l
l p1 p2

r = 0
( )
R2 dp
umax = (2.34)
4 dx

Q
R
Q = u(r) 2r dr
0

1 dp ( 2
R )
= R r2 2r dr
0 4 dx
( ) [ 2 2 ]R
1 dp R r r4
= 2
4 dx 2 4 0
( )
R4 dp
= (2.35)
8 dx
34 2

u
( )
1 1 dp
u
= Q= R2 (2.36)
R2 8 dx

() (2.36) p/x u u p/x

Reynolds u (p/x) 1/1.7
u (p/x)0.59
(
)

f (Darcy friction factor)

dp f V 2
= (2.37)
dx D 2
V

(
p1 R2 p2 R2 (2.38)

w (2R)L (2.39)

L 2

p1 R2 p2 R2 = w (2R)L (2.40)

p 2
= w (2.41)
L R
p = p1 p2

dp 2
= w (2.42)
dx R
2.37) 2.42)
f V 2 2
= w (2.43)
D 2 R

8w
f= (2.44)
V 2

2.2. 35

(2.31) r r = R

64
f= (2.45)
ReD
ReD
VD
ReD = (2.46)

f = 0.316Re1/4 3 103 Re 105 (2.47)

f = 0.032 + 0.221Re0.237 105 Re 3 106 (2.48)

()
L

L = 0.065 Re D (2.49)

L = 20 40 D (2.50)

2.2

()

(r, , z) z t r
(z
( 2 ) ( )
1 1
= + = r (2.51)
t r2 r r r r r

(1.120)
2 (1.120) () 0
z
1 1 ur
= (ru ) (2.52)
r r r
ur
u u 1
= + = (ru ) (2.53)
r r r r
36 2

r
1 uz u ur uz
= , = (2.54)
r z z r

Q
QxzW

2.4:

u
[ ( )]
0 r2
u = 1 exp (2.55)
2r 4t

Oseen(1912) 0 (r )
(circulation)

() (2.55) p(r)

I
= v dr = 2ru (2.56)

() v t

( )
2 1
= (2.57)
t r2 r r

() (2.57) (2.51) 2r r
2.2. 37

(2.57)
= 0 {1 exp( 2 )} (2.58)

r2 r
2 = = (2.59)
4t 2 t

() v

() (2.57) 2.3

(2.53) (2.58)
( 2)
0 r
= exp (2.60)
4t 4t

Stokes
r [ ( 2 )]
r
= 2r dr = 0 1 exp (2.61)
0 4t

2.58t 0
0 (r) (vortex lament)

()

2.5:

(2.55) u 2.6
( 2.5) t ( 2.6)
t
38 2

Circumeferential velocity
2.5

2
t=1000
1.5
t=2000
1
t=3000
0.5 t=4000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Radius r

2.6:

0 = 0
0
0
u = (2.62)
2r

r > 0 : = 0
r = 0 : = ()

diusion
u
( 2 )
u u 1 u u
= + 2 (2.63)
t r2 r r r

2.57

u =
2r
( )
u 1 1
= 2
r r r r 2
( 2 )
2 u 1 1 1 2 1
= +
r2 r r 2 2
r r 2
r r r 3 2

2 u 1 u u 1 2 1 1
+ 2 = 2 + 3 3
r2 r r r r r2 r r r r
1 2 1
= 2
2
r(r r r )
1 2 1
= (2.64)
r r2 r r

2.57
)
(r, 0) = 0 t=0
(2.65)
(0, t) = 0 t>0
2.2. 39

(similarity solution)

= r/ t

2.55 r 4t (solid rotation)

0
u = r = r (2.66)
8t

r
0
u (2.67)
2r

() Taylor
( )
1 r2
v = r exp (2.68)
2
( )
1 r2
= (2 r ) exp
2
(2.69)
2

v Taylor r
0

2.2.1

(induced
velocity) (Biot-Savart law)

l l dl dl
x

P (x, y, z) l

I
r dl (x )
up (x, y, z) = (2.70)
4 r3
r dl P

r = x x , r = |r| (2.71)

I
0 I r ds
B=
(2.72)
4 r3
(W b/m2 )I s ds
B
0 2.70

0 I = (2.73)

40 2

x'

dl Q ( x',y',z' )
r
P

v

(x,y,z)

2.7:

()
2.70vortex method

ri
L
ri (, t) 1 (ri rj ) (rj / )s(|ri rj |, i , j )d
= (2.74)
t 4 j=1 |ri rj |3

ri , rj i, j
s(y, i , j ) ()

1
s(y, i , j ) = (2.75)
[1 + 0.413(i2 + j2 )/2y 2 ]3/2
(core)

2.2.2
(angular velocityvorticity)
v
v = r (2.76)

1 1 ( 2) 1
= (rv ) = r = 2r = 2 (2.77)
r r r r r
2

() = 2 () (2.78)
2.2. 41

2.2.3

v2 p
= (2.79)
r r

(a) (b)

2.8:

( a

v = r r<a (2.80)
a2
v = r>a (2.81)
r
(2.80) (2.79) r

p r2
= 2 r p = 2 + pc (2.82)
r 2
(2.81) (2.79) r

p 1 2 a4 1
= 2 a4 3 p= (2.83)
r r 2 r2
r p 0
2 r = a() p pc

pc = 2 a2 (2.84)

r2
p = 2 2 a2 (0 < r < a) (2.85)
2
2 a4 1
p = (a < r) (2.86)
2 r2

42 2

2.9:

2.3
U

x (/x = 0)x

u 2u
= 2 (2.87)
t y
(y) v 0
u/x = 0

u v v
+ =0 =0 v=0 (2.88)
x y y

0 v = 0 y v = 0
2.87 u y
u x


t < 0 : u(t, y) = 0

t 0 : y=0 u=U (2.89)


y u0

x

y
= (2.90)
2 t

2 t
y

2.90

2.87
2.3. 43

(t, y) = (, )

(, )
= t
y (2.91)
=
2 t

= (t, y) (2.92)
= (t, y) (2.93)

t = t(, ) (2.94)
y = y(, ) (2.95)

(t, x) (, ) chain rule

y
= + = 3 = (2.96)
t t t 4 t 2 2
1 1
= + = = (2.97)
y y y 2 t 2
( )
2 1 1 1 2
= = = (2.98)
y 2 y y 2 2 4 2

(2.96) (2.98) (2.87) x

u
u = U f () (2.99)

U f

f + 2f = 0 (2.100)

()

2.100

(2.89) (, )2.91
}
=0 f =1
(2.101)
f 0
(2.100) 2 2.101
f

2
e d + 1
2
f () = (2.102)
0
44 2

e d =
2
(2.103)
0 2

2.102

2.99 u
[ ] [ ( )]
2 2 2 y
u=U 1 e d = U 1 erf (2.104)
0 2 t

erf (x) error function

x
ex dx
2
erf (x) = (2.105)
0

y v

o x

(a) (b)

2.10:

(vorticity)
2 z z
(= z )
( ) { }
v u u 1 2U { } U y2
(y, t) = = = exp 2 = exp (2.106)
x
|{z} y y 2 t t 4t
0

2.90
y = 0 y 0
y
(Cartesian Coodinates)
2.3. 45

2.11:

= rot v = v = (i/x + j/y + k/z) (iu + jv + kw)

( ) ( ) ( )
w v u w v u
= i + j + k (2.107)
y z z x x y

i , j , k x, y, z (unit vector) i i = 0, i j = k,

w v u w v u
x = , y = , z = (2.108)
y z z x x y

(diusion) y



(0, t) = (y, t) dy (2.109)
0

(2.106) y = 0

U
(0, t) = (2.110)
t

y
( )
U y2 2U y2 y 2U
(y, t) dy = e 4t dy = e 4t d = =U (2.111)
0 0 t 0 2 t 2

2.1102.111

U
=U (2.112)
t
46 2

2.12:

2.13:

= t
(2.113)

t
2.90


d 1
= (2.114)
dt 2 t

(shearing atress)
( )
u U 2 ( ) 12 1
w = = = U (2.115)
y y=0 U 2t t t
1
w t 2 x

2.4
2 2

2.4. 47

OS
y, v

O(/c)

x, u
b_

2.14: 2

u v
+ =0 (2.116)
x y
x y
( 2 )
u u 1 p u 2u
u +v = + + (2.117)
x y x x2 y 2
( 2 )
v v 1 p v 2v
u +v = + + (2.118)
x y y x2 y 2

x x = x(x 0)

y=0 : u = 0, v = 0 (2.119)
y : uu
, v v (2.120)

u
, v x y
u
, v

u
= cx, v = cy (2.121)

c > 0 c < 0

W
W = + i = Cz n (2.122)

n = 2 2 = /n n = 2 = /2
z z = x + iy c = 2C

2 2
2 = + 2 =0 (2.123)
x2 y
48 2

u
= , v = (2.124)
x y

2.121

c c
[ ]
u
m/s 1
[c] = = =
x m s
m2
[] =
s
(
ly

ly = (2.125)
c

y y c
= = =y (2.126)
ly /c

x y u v

u = cxf (), v = cf () (2.127)

f 2.127 (2.116)


= cxf () (2.128)

c
x
f () u, v

u= , v= (2.129)
y x
(2.127)

(2.127) u, v

2.121 (x = 0)
x
1
p + v 2 = p0 (2.130)
2
p v p0 p

p
<0 (2.131)
x
2.4. 49

b_ x

2.15:

3 (favorable pressure
gradient)
(x, y) (, )

(x, y) (, ) (2.132)

= x (2.133)

c
= y (2.134)

(chain rule)

= + = (2.135)
x x x
( )
2 2
= = 2 (2.136)
x2

c
= + = (2.137)
y y y
( )
2 c c c 2
= = (2.138)
y 2 2

= 1, =0 (2.139)
x y

(2.117) x
1 p
c2 xf c2 xf f = + c2 xf
2
(2.140)
x
(2.118) y
1 p
ccf f = c cf (2.141)
y
50 2

2.1402.141

uu
= cx, v v = cy (2.142)

(2.117) x

1 p
c2 x = (2.143)
x

p (
(2.141) x

1 2p
0= (2.144)
xy

y
p
= const (2.145)
x

2.143

1 p
c2 x = (2.146)
x

p p (2.146) (2.140)

f + f f f + 1 = 0
2
(2.147)

() (2.147) Falkner-Skan Falkner-Skan

f + f f + (1 f 2 ) = 0 (2.148)

2m
= (2.149)
m+1
m (
2.8
( x )m
ue
= (2.150)
u0 L
m = 1 (,ue x) = 1

f + f f + 1 f 2 = 0 (2.151)

m = 0( = 0) ue = const
Blasius () m
2.4. 51

m
~
m+1
~/2

2.16: (Falkner-Scan )

(2.16) ()

(2.147) (2.119)
(2.120) (2.126)(2.127)

y=0 =0 : u=0 f = 0 (2.152)

v=0 f =0 (2.153)

y : u cx f 1 (2.154)

(2.147)



f = m
m = g (2.155)


g = f g + m2 1
1 (f, m, g)

dy
= F (, y ) (2.156)
d

y F

y = (f, m, g)t (2.157)

F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ) t
(2.158)
F1 = F1 (f, m, g) = m (2.159)
F2 = F2 (f, m, g) = g (2.160)
F3 = F3 (f, m, g) = f g + m2 1 (2.161)

F1 , F2 , F3 f, m, g

f = 0, m=0 for =0 (2.162)

m1 for (2.163)

= 0 g = 0 g
m 1 = 0
g m = 1 (iteration)
Newton
52 2

Runge-Kutta
four-stage, fourth-order method

dy
= f (x, y) (2.164)
dx
Runge-Kutta

h( 0 )
yn+1 = yn + f + 2f 1 + 2f 2 + f 3 (2.165)
6
x x = xn yn x
(xn+1 ) yn+1

f0 = f (xn , yn )



f1 = f (xn + 2 h, yn + 2 hf 0 )
1 1

f2 = f (xn + 12 h, yn + 12 hf 1 )



f3 = f (xn + h, yn + hf 2 )

h = x 2.165 (1, 2, 2, 1) 6
6 1
x < 0 ( x = 0

y , f)
2.164 (scalar) (y, f ) (

y yn+1

yn

xn x n+1
h/2 x
h

2.17:

() 2.147 4
 53

3.1
0
(boundary layer)
(laminar boundary layer) (turbulent boundary layer)

(Reynolds number)
Re

UL
Re = =

U L

1904 (L.Prandtl; ; 1875-1953)

| eViQ:rotV=0j Ew

Qxl iwakej

y U(x)
x U(x) F|eVx

x

3.1:
54 3

d Ew Ew

L
3.2:

1 u/y y
u = u/y
()
2

(wake)
(total pressure)
(control surface)


(3.1)

L 1 (3.2)
L
L

3.2

(

3.2.1

chord lengthL
3.2. 55

U
2
( )

L/U (

2
U , L/U

u v U v
+ =0 + =0 v U (3.3)
x y L L

y v U 1

x
( )
u u u 1 p 2u 2u
+u +v = + + 2 (3.4)
t x y x x2 y

( )
U U U U 1 p U U
+ U + = + + (3.5)
L/U L L x L2 2
| {z } | {z }
2 U
U
2
L
3.2 2
U U
2 (3.6)
L2

2
( )2
U U 1
= 2 = = = Re1/2 (3.7)
L L LU Re L

Re
LU
Re = (3.8)

3.7

y x

y
( )
v v v 1 p 2v 2v
+u +v = + +
t x y y x2 y 2

56 3

p=

3.3:

( )
U U
L L U UL 1 p U
L
U
L
L
+ U + = + +
U
L L y L2 2

2
( )
U U2 U2 1 p U U
+ + = + + 2 (3.9)
L L L L L L y L2 L L
(3.5) (3.5) /L
(3.5) 1 /L x
y
y y
2
U 1 p
(3.10)
L L y

y p
2
U
p (3.11)
L L
y

( )2
p
2
(3.12)
U L
y 2
y

p
=0 (3.13)
y

3.2. 57

p : |e V
U : |eV x
p
p(x) U(x)

3.4:

3.2.2
x

p(x, ) = p(x, 0) (3.14)

U
=0 (3.15)
y

U U 1 p
+U = (3.16)
t x x

P 3.13
y

p P
= (3.17)
x x

3.16
U 1 p
U = (3.18)
x x
( )
U2 p
+ =0
x 2
x
1 1 2
p + U 2 = const. = p + U (3.19)
2 2
constant

U (x) 3.19 p
(3.18) p/x (3.4) u

58 3

X=X0 X1 X2
X

3.5:

3.2.3
x (3.4)

u v
+ =0 (3.20)
x y

u u u 1 p 2u
+u +v = + 2 (3.21)
t x y x y

u v
+ =0 (3.22)
x y

u u u U 2u
+u +v =U + 2 (3.23)
t x y x y

y=0 : u=v=0 (3.24)

U
y : u = U (x, t) =0 (3.25)
y

u v
+ =0 (3.26)
x y
u u 1 p 2u
u +v = + 2 (3.27)
x y x y

y=0: u = v = 0, y: u = U (x) (3.28)

(x

x = x0 : u = u(x0 , y) (3.29)

y v
3.2. 59

3.6:

3.2.4
(x, y)
3.6 x
y R

x
u R u u uv
+ u +v +
t R + y x y R+y
{
R 1 p R2 2u 2u 1 u u
= + 2 + 2 + 2
R + y x (R + y) x2 y R + y y (R + y)
}
2R v R v R dR Ry dR u
+ 2 x 3 x 3 dx v + 3 dx x (3.30)
(R + y) (R + y) (R + y) (R + y)

v R v v u2
+ u +v
t R + y x y R + y
{
2
1 p v 2R u 1 v
= + 2
2 +
y y (R + y) x R + y y
}
R2 2v v R dR Ry dR v
+ 2 x2 2 + 3 dx u + 3 dx x (3.31)
(R + y) (R + y) (R + y) (R + y)

R u v v
div u = 0 + + =0 (3.32)
R + y x y R + y

R (u) (v) v
+ + + =0 (3.33)
t R + y x y R+y

60 3

U d
x

3.7:

RR R

3.303.33 R

3.3
x

3.3.1
(H. Blasius; 1908Prandtl ph.D )
0

dp
=0 (3.34)
dx

U = U = const

u v
+ = 0 (3.35)
x y
u u 2u
u +v = (3.36)
x y y 2

y=0: u = v = 0, y: u = U (3.37)

3.3.2
x x y
U (x) u
(y)
u
= (3.38)
U
3.3. 61

U U

d1 d2
x
x1 x2

3.8: x u y x

x
2


t (3.39)

2 t x

tU = x (3.40)

(3.40)

x
t (3.41)
U

(3.38) (3.41)

y U
= =y (3.42)
x

= xU f () (3.43)

f ()

u= , v= (3.44)
y x

u, v (, ) (x, y) (, )

U
= x, =y (3.45)
x
62 3

chain rule

U
u = = + = xU f () = U f () (3.46)
y y y x

1 U
v = = = f () xU f ()
x x x 2 x x

1 U
= (f + f ) (3.47)
2 x
x, y ,

= (3.48)
x 2

U
= (3.49)
y

2 U U U 2
= = = (3.50)
y 2 y y 2

(3.46) (3.50) (3.36) f

f f + 2f = 0 (3.51)

(1908) Blasius s equation)

() 3.51

3.28 (3.46),(3.47)

y = 0 : u = 0 , v = 0 = 0 : f = 0 , f = 0 (3.52)

y : u = U : f = 1 (3.53)

() 3.51 (2.165)

3.3.3 Blasius
Blasius (3.51) (3.1)
0 u(y)
(3.36) 2 u/ 2 y = 0, 2 u/ 2 = 0
y v y =
0 (3.47)

1 U
v = (f + f ) (3.54)
2 x
3.1

f + f = 1.72 (3.55)
3.4. 63

3.1:
U u
=y f f = f f f
x U
0.0 0 0 0.3321 0
1.0 0.1656 0.3298 0.3230 0.1642
2.0 0.6500 0.6298 0.2668 0.6095
3.0 1.397 0.8461 0.1614 1.141
4.0 2.306 0.9555 0.0642 1.516
5.0 3.283 0.9915 0.0159 1.674
6.0 4.280 0.9990 0.0024 1.714
7.0 5.279 0.9999 0.0002 1.720
8.0 6.279 1.0000 0.0000 1.721

1.2
u/U ( =f')

1.0

0.8
u/U =f'

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

h
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3.9:

v

v
= 0.86 (3.56)
U xU

0 x y

() ()
()
1/7 (one-seventh power law)

u ( y )1/7
= (3.57)
U
()
64 3

y v
U

x
3.10: y v

y
U
U=0.99U
d u

x
0

3.11: 99%

3.4
(Boundary layer thickness)

3.4.1 99%
(
) U 99% = 99

u = 0.99U (3.58)

3.3.3

5.0 (3.59)

(3.42)

U
=y =5 (3.60)
x
y 99

x
99 = 5 (3.61)
U
3.4. 65

y
U

u(y)

P x
0

3.12:

99 3.42 3.61

Re = 5.0Re1/2
x (3.62)

Re Rex x

U U x
Re = , Rex = (3.63)

Re = 0.14Re6/7
x , Re = 0.37Re4/5
x (3.64)

Rex 1 1/2

() 30m/s 5m

3.4.2
(displacement thickness) 1
U u(< U )

U 1 = (U u)dy (3.65)
y=0

1
u
1 = (1 )dy (3.66)
y=0 U

66 3

y
U

0
2 x
3.13:

3.3 Blasius
(3.42) (3.46)

x
1 = (1 f ) d
y=0 U

x [ ]1
= f
U 0
( )
x
= 1 f (1 ) (3.67)
U

1
1 (3.1) 1 = 5

x
1 = 1.72 (3.68)
U

Re1 = 1.72Re1/2
x (3.69)

(3.61) (3.68) 1 1/3

1
= 0.34 () (3.70)

1
= 1/8 = 0.13 () (3.71)

1/7 ( (3.57)) (3.66)

(roughness)

3.4.3
momentum thickness
2

3.4. 67

2
U 2 = u(U u)dy (3.72)
y=0

U u

2
= 2
( )
u u
= 2 = 1 dy
y=0 U U

x
= f (1 f ) d (3.73)
y=0 U

= 5 Blasius f


x
= 2 = 0.664 (3.74)
U

Re = 0.664Re1/2
x (3.75)

1/3

3.4.4
1 2 Hshapef actor)

1 1
H= = (3.76)
2

H = 2.59

H = 1.4 H = 1.3)

H adverse
pressure gradient

H = 3.5

H = 2.4

68 3

n
y tw s
f
U x

3.14:

3.5
(skin friction)

3.5.1
shearing stress frictional stress
( )
u
w (x) = (3.77)
y y=0

y
frictional stress

3.3 Blasius

( )
U
w (x) = U f () (3.78)
x =0

U
= U (3.79)
x
(3.1)

= f (0) = 0.33 (3.80)

3.5. 69

3.5.2
3.79 Cf

w (x) 2 U
Cf = 2
= = 0.66 (3.81)
U /2 U x U x
x Rex ( U x/)

0.66
Cf = (3.82)
Rex

Cf x

0.0576
Cf = 1/5
(3.83)
Rex

0.0576 A
Cf = 1/5
, A = Rex,cr (Cf,turbulent Cf,laminar ) (3.84)
Rex Rex
Rex,cr

3.5.3
Df viscous drag

l
Df = b w cos ds (3.85)
s=0

b l
x s

cos ds = dx (3.86)

Df
lx lx ( )
u
Df = b w dx = b dx (3.87)
s=0 x=0 y y=0

lx x (

prole drag
0 (dAlembelts paradox)
U

Df (3.87),(3.79)
l
D = b w dx
x=0
l
U
= b U dx
x=0 x

= 2b U 3 l (3.88)
70 3

s
b

lx

3.15: 3

p p s
U p p


p p s

3.16:

2D = 4b 3 l = 1.328b U 3 l
U (3.89)

Df

Df
3/2
U
l1/2
1/2
1/2

l1/2

3.5.4 CDf
D

2Df
CDf = (3.90)
2 U
1 2 S
2
(1/2)U

S wetted surface area
3.6. 71

-1/5

CD = 0.074Re
-1/2 f
-2
CD = 1.328Re
f
10

Turbulent

CD (Plandtl)
f Laminar

(Blasius)
-3 transition
10 0.455
CDf= 2.58
( logRl)

-4
10 4 5 6

10 10 10

Re
l

3.17:

s
U ib_j Separation
Stagnation
i_j
s

3.18:

S = 2bl (3.91)

Df (3.89) (3.90)
1.328 1.328
CDf = = (3.92)
U l Rel

Rel

(3.92) Rel < 5 105 106 Rel

3.6
separation)

adverse pressure gradient(dp/dx > 0)

72 3

p p >
1 2
p p
y 1 2

x
s
_ tirecirculated flowj

,kinetic energy D

3.19:

Ew u u u
d :

( y) >0

( y) =0

( y) <0

_ t
y=0 y=0 y=0

3.20:

3.6.1

( )
u
=0 (3.93)
y y=0

(3.94)
y x

(3.95)
y x

3.6.2
(3.18) ,
dp
>0 (3.96)
dx
3.6. 73

(3.27) y = 0
( )
2u dp
= (3.97)
y 2 y=0 dx

(3.27) y

u u 2u v u 2u 1 2p 3u
+u + +v 2 = + 3 (3.98)
y x xy y y y xy y

y 0

u v u 2p
u=0, v=0, =0, = =0, =0 (3.99)
x y x xy

3.98
( 3 )
u
=0 (3.100)
y 3 y=0

u 2 2 u/y 2 0
(3.97)

(adverse pressure gradient)

( )
dp 2u
>0 >0 (3.101)
dx y 2 y=0

(favorable pressure gradient)

( )
dp 2u
<0 <0 (3.102)
dx y 2 y=0

( )
dp 2u
=0 =0 (3.103)
dx y 2 y=0

(3.9)

(p/x < 0) 3.21

(p/x > 0) 3.22

u dp
3.21 3.22 y = 0 dx >0
3.22

74 3

y y y
u 0 u z
2
u
0
y 2

X[Y

0 u 0 u u
2

y 2
y z0

3.21:

y y 0 y
u
l
r
K_
N

(inflexion point)

0 u 0
u
y 0
u
z0 y
2

3.22:

[]

dp/dx > 0

x
q
f
o
U

3.23:
3.6. 75

3.6.3
2
3.24

p p
Cp = 1 2
= 1 4 sin2 (3.104)
2 U

3.24:

subcritical : w

supercritical :

sub

super

3.25:

3.25
subcritical
supercritical
76 3

pressure drag
(critical) drag crisis

3.24 ( Cp = 1
Cp = 0

Cp = +1

U
= 2 sin x = 2x 0.333x3 + 0.0167x5 + (3.105)
U
x ( R x = = x/R, x
)U
= 104 110
(3.105) Hiemenz(1911)

U
= 1.814x 0.271x3 0.0471x5 + (3.106)
U
= 71.2 1.595U
= 80
Stratford
( )2
dCp
(x xB ) Cp
2
0.0104 (3.107)
dx
xB Thwaites
x0 ( )5
U
xB x0 dx (3.108)
0 Umax
x0

xB = 0.8606, sep = 79.8 (3.109)

sep (seperation)

3.7
DAlembert
5

(aerodynamic force)
(lift) (drag) (side force)
(pitching moment) (rolling moment) (yawing
moment) 3 3
(aerodynamic coecient)
3.7. 77

3.7.1
(lift) (drag)

3.7.2

CL
L
CL = 1 2
(3.110)
2 U S

CD
D
CD = 1 2
(3.111)
2 U S

CM
M
CM = 1 2
(3.112)
2 U Sl

L D M S l
2
(1/2) U Cl ( l)

3.7.3
CL CD Reynolds (CL = CL (Re), CD = CD (Re))

(similarity)
M (/)
CL = f (Re, M ) CD = g(Re, M ) CM = h(Re, M )

3.26 CD
CD Re = 103 CD = 1
103 105 CD = 1.2 Re = 3 105
drag crisis
sep

78 3

[]
f St

fD
St = (3.113)
U
D U
St = 0.2 []

Re 1 Oseen-Lamb
8
CD = (3.114)
Re[0.5 + ln(8/Re)]

= 0.577216

CD 1 + 10.0Re2/3 (3.115)

100

10

CD

0.1
0 2 4 6
10 10 10 10
R=VD/

3.26:

3.27 CD
CD 103 104 CD = 0.4
CD 0.4 Re = 3 105
(drag crisis) CD = 0.09

3.7. 79

100

CD
1

0.01
0 2 4 6
10 10 10 10
R=VD/

3.27:

Re 1 (Stokes) D

D = 6RV (3.116)

R CD

D 24
CD = 1 2
= (3.117)
2 V S
Re
Re = 2RV /

Stokes Stokes

v 1 p + v
=K (3.118)
t

v = 0 (3.119)

p = 0 (3.120)

=
(3.121)
t

()

Oseen
[ ]
24 3 9
CD = 1 + Re + Re2 ln Re (3.122)
Re 16 160
80 3

Stokes Oseen
Re 1
0 Re 2 105
24 6
CD + + 0.4 (3.123)
Re 1 + Re

3.7.4

3.116

Re 1 CDf CDp
(3.124)
Re 1 CDf CDp
CDf CDp

(induced drag) (trailing vortex)

(parasite drag)

(skin friction drag) (wetted surface)

(pressure drag)
9

(interference drag) 2 (
)

(trim drag)

(prole drag) 2

(cooling drag)

(base drag)

(wave drag)

CFD

2
3.28 Re 104
3.7. 81

(CD = 2.0) (
(2.1) ((1.6)(1.2)
(2.3)(1.2)(1.7)
(1.6)(2.0)
Re = 5 104 CD = 6 103
Re = 106 CD 4.4 103

CD CD
U
2.0 1.2

2.1 1.7

1.6
1.6

1.2
2.0

2.3

3.28: 2

3
3 3.29 (
Re 104 (CD = 1.07)
( 60 (0.5) (1.17)(1.4)
CD = 1.2 (0.4)
l/d = 0.5 CD = 1.151.0 0.902 0.854 0.87
2 3 3

3.7.5
(streamlined form) 2
CD = 2.0 CD = 1.1
CD = 0.15
82 3

1.07 1.17

cube disk

0.81
1.4

cup

0.5 0.4

60 cone

3.29: 3

2 CD = 1.2 2 : 1
CD = 0.6 4 : 1 CD = 0.35 8 : 1 CD = 0.25
CD = 0.3 2 : 1
CD = 0.2 4 : 1 CD = 0.15 8 : 1 CD = 0.1

3.7.6
L D
L/D

1 induced drag

2 parasite drag

prole dragfrictional drag
pressure drag

(wing section; airfoil) 12%

NACA0012 ( 30% )
Re = 6 106 = 12 CL = 1.0 CD CL = 0
CD = 0.01CL = 0.8 ( 8 )CD = 0.018 CL
CD CL CD
CD

3.7. 83

Cl max
1.0
(stall)

Cl

12 (deg)

3.30: (NACA0012 Re = 6 106 )

(L/D) L/D 7 25

: L/D = 7.5

B747: L/D = 17

B52 L/D = 22

L/D = 30 50

range down
range R (Breguet range
equation)

V L W0
R= ln (3.125)
C D W1

W0 () W1 (W1 = W0
Wf )
R
550 Cl W0
R= ln (3.126)
C CD W1

c SFC: Specic Fuel Consumption 1

1 W0 W1 Wf
W1 = W0 Wf
L/D
L/D
(cross range)

L/D
L/D = 1L/D = 4.5
84 3

(Lift drag ratio) 106 107

FX FX63-167 Re = 106 = 10
CL = 1.6566, CD = 0.0238, CM = 0.1449
CL CD

CD 104

(stall)
3

NACA633 018 ( 18%)

NACA631 012 ( 12%)

NACA64 006 ( 6%)

()

3.7.7
5 4
( 42% 8% )
40% 37% 18%
2
5 3 2
B747 0.8 6107 CD = 0.031
B787 CD = 0.024
CD0 (zero-lift drag coecient)
(biplane) CD0 = 0.0378
B52 CD0 = 0.012

()

P
Vmax 3 (3.127)
CD0 S

P power S

3.7.8

3.7. 85

(ballistic coecient)

M
CBC = (3.128)
SCD

M S CD
(blu body)
(bullet)
CBC = 0.12 1.0
 87

4.1

xEw
T
x
U

4.1:

internal enery
(ei

( conduction of heat)

convection of heat
(uT /x + vT /y)

heat through friction

radiation
( 800 C hypersonic ow

heat transfer (condensation) evapolation

4.2
t heatQ
V = xyz (the First Law of Thermodynamics

dQ dE dW
Q = E + W = + (4.1)
dt dt dt
1 E

(total energy = internal energy + kinetic energy) 2

88 4

Fourier

1 dQ T
= q = k (4.2)
A dt n

A
n

4.2:

A: area

k: thermal conductivity15 C k = 0.0242J/m sec deg

n:

Q:

q: (heat ux

dz

dy

M x oM
dx
z
control volume

4.3:
4.2. 89

x
( ) [ ( ) ] ( )
T T T T
k yz + k + k x yz = k xyz (4.3)
x x x x x x

, y z t
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
T T T
Q = t |{z}
V k + k + k (4.4)
x x y y z z
xyz

dEi
dEt
{ }
dEt dei 1 d ( 2 )
= V + u + v 2 + w2 (4.5)
dt dt 2 dt

{ ( )( )}
u xx
dWx = dydzt uxx + u + x xx + x
x x

= V t (uxx ) (4.6)
x
4.4

dz
xx xx xx
+ x
x
dy
dx

4.4:

{ }

dW = V t (uxx + vxy + wxz ) + (uyx + vyy + wyz ) + (uzx + vzy + wzz )
x y z
(4.7)
(normal stress)

2 u
xx = p div v + 2 (4.8)
3 x
2 v
yy = p div v + 2 (4.9)
3 y
2 w
zz = p div v + 2 (4.10)
3 z
90 4

shearing stress
( )
v u
xy = yx = + (4.11)
x y
( )
w v
yz = zy = + (4.12)
y z
( )
u w
zx = xz = + (4.13)
z x

4.4 4.5 4.74.1

( ) ( ) ( )
Dei T T T
+ p div v = k + k + k + (4.14)
Dt x x y y z z
D/Dt
dissipation function
{( ) ( )2 ( )2 } ( )2
2
u v w 2 u v w
= 2 + + + +
x y z 3 x y z
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
v u w v u w
+ + + + + + (4.15)
x y y z z x
2 2 u2 /l2

u v w u v w u v w
xx + xy + xz + yx + yy + yz + zx + zy + zz (4.16)
x x x y y y z z z
xx , yy , zz xx , yy , zz p

4.3
Thermodynamic Properties
ei h

dei = Cv dT (4.17)
( )
p
dh = Cp dT = Cv dT + d = Cv dT + d (pv) (4.18)

p
h = ei + = ei + pv (4.19)

v
1
v= (4.20)

calorically perfect gas

Cv = const Cp = const (4.21)

Cp : Specic heat at constant pressure (4.22)

Cv : Specic heat at constant volume (4.23)
4.3. 91

Cp 1.0 kJ/kg K Cv 0.72 kJ/kg K

R = Cp Cv = Cp /Cv R

Cp = Cv = C (4.24)

Cp Cv

dei = C dT (4.25)
dp
dh = C dT + = C dT + vdp (4.26)

h
p
h ei + = ei + pv (4.27)

( ) ( ) ( )
Dei D p Dh D p DT D p
= h = = Cp (4.28)
Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt

4.284.14
( )
Dei DT D p
+ p div v = Cp + p div v
Dt Dt Dt
( )
DT 1 Dp p D
= Cp 2 + p div v
Dt Dt Dt
( )
DT Dp 1 D
= Cp +p + divv
Dt Dt Dt
| {z }
0
DT Dp
= Cp (4.29)
Dt Dt

4.14
( ) ( ) ( )
DT Dp T T T
Cp = k + k + k + (4.30)
Dt Dt x x y y z z

k k
DT Dp
Cp = + k2 T + (4.31)
Dt Dt
divv = 0
divv = 0
92 4

1 D
v = (4.32)
Dt

( )
D DT
(4.33)
Dt T p Dt

(the coecient of volume expansion)

(/T )p (v/T )p
= = (4.34)
v

v (v = 1/)

DT
v = (4.35)
Dt

p
= RT (4.36)

1
= (4.37)
T

1 DT
v = (4.38)
T Dt
p

DT
p v = R (4.39)
Dt

Cp Cv = R (4.40)

DT
p v = (Cp Cv ) (4.41)
Dt

4.14

DT
= k2 T +
Cp (4.42)
Dt
k Cp Cv
Cp = Cv
thermal diusivitya

k
a (4.43)
Cp
4.3. 93

DT
Cp = k2 T (4.44)
Dt
DT
= a2 T (4.45)
Dt

(4.45)
(forced convection)

4.3.1

T T 2T
u +v =a 2 (4.46)
x y y

x x y

y =0 T = Tw (4.47)
T
y = T T = T =0 (4.48)
y

Tw T
u

u u 2u
u +v = 2 (4.49)
x y y

T
T Tw
= (4.50)
T Tw

4.48

y=0 =0 (4.51)
y = T =1 (4.52)

Pohlhausen Blasius (3.42) (3.43)

U
=y , = xU f () (4.53)
x
94 4

4.46
d2 P r d
2
+ f =0 (4.54)
d 2 d

( )
Pr
0
exp 2 0
f ()d d
() = ( ) (4.55)

0
exp P2r 0 f ()d d

4.4
(natural convection)

106

V
x

d Y = -V g

4.5:

x, y, z
( )
u u u p
u +v +w = + X + 2 u (4.56)
x y z x
( )
v v v p
u +v +w = + Y + 2 v (4.57)
x y z y
( )
w w w p
u +v +w = + Z + 2 w (4.58)
x y z z

(body force)
(X, Y, Z)

(X, Y, Z) = (gx , gy , gz ) (4.59)

g = (gx , gy , gz ) (4.60)

g (gx , gy , gz ) (x, y, z)
4.4. 95

4.564.58
( )
u u u p
u +v +w = + gx + 2 u (4.61)
x y z x
( )
v v v p
u +v +w = + gy + 2 v (4.62)
x y z y
( )
w w w p
u +v +w = + gz + 2 w (4.63)
x y z z

p T
, p , T

Boussinesq

= (p, T )
( ) ( )

= + (T T ) + (p p )
T p

= (T T ) + (p p )
c2
| {z }

(4.64)

coecient of thermal expansion

( )
1
= (4.65)
T

p = RT (4.66)

1
=
(4.67)
T

= 0.18 103 (1/K)

( )
1
= = = 2 (4.68)
p T RT RT c

( )
/
2
2
= 2 (4.69)
p/ U U c

( )
U2
= 2
= M (4.70)
p c2

M (M = 0.01)p,

96 4

( )
1
= = (4.71)
T T

( ) ( )
/
= = 1 (4.72)
T /T T T T

u v w
+ + =0 (4.73)
x y z

x, y, z
( )
u u u p
u +v +w = gx + 2 u (4.74)
x y z x
( )
v v v p
u +v +w = gy + 2 v (4.75)
x y z y
( )
w w w p
u +v +w = gz + 2 w (4.76)
x y z z

= T T (4.77)

( ) ( 2 )
T T T T 2T 2T
Cp u +v +w =k + + + (4.78)
x y z x2 y 2 z 2

4.74 4.76 p p
x

p p
+ gx = (p gx x) = (4.79)
x x x
p
p gx = p (4.80)

y 2

p = p (gx x + gy y) (4.81)

p = p (gx x + gy y + gz z) (4.82)

( )
2
U u u u U 2 p U 2
u +v +w = gT g x + u (4.83)
L x y z L x L2
4.4. 97

T T
= (4.84)
T

u u u p gT L 2
u +v +w = 2
gx + u (4.85)
x y z x U LU

2
( )2
gT L gT L3 1
2
= = Gr (4.86)
U 2 U L Re2

Gr

gT L3
Gr = (4.87)
2
Re
U L
Re = (4.88)

4.851/Re

u u u p Gr 1 2
u +v +w = g + u (4.89)
x y z x Re2 x Re
v v v p Gr 1 2
u +v +w = 2
gy + v (4.90)
x y z y Re Re
w w w p Gr 1 2
u +v +w = g + w (4.91)
x y z z Re2 z Re

4.78
()
( )
Cp U T T T 2 U2
u + =k 2
T+ (4.92)
L x
L L2

Cp U T
4.92
L
( )
T kLT U
u + = 2
2 T + (4.93)
x Cp U T L Cp T L

U U2
1 ( 1)U
2
M2
= = = ( 1) (4.94)
Cp T L LU Cp T Re RT Re

M 0
98 4

2 T
kLT k k
= =
Cp U T L2 Cp U L Cp U L
( )
1 1 1
= = (4.95)
Pr Re Pe

P e

P e = P r Re (4.96)

Re = U L/ Reynolds number
Gr = gT L3 / 2 Grashof number
Pr = Cp /k Prandtl number
Ra = Gr Pr Rayleigh number)
Pe = Pr R e (Peclet number)

Ra = Gr P r < 109 (), Ra = Gr P r 109 () (4.97)

(heat transfer) (
N u

N u = 0.59Ra1/4 104 < Ra < 109 () (4.98)

1/3 9 12
N u = 0.13Ra 10 < Ra < 10 () (4.99)

()
(N u) x

x
N ux =
(4.100)
k

qw
= (4.101)
Tw T
qw
(St: Stanton number)

St = (4.102)
Cp U

Nu
St = (4.103)
Re P r
4.4. 99

()

Pr
0.714 20 C
7.03 20 C
10100 20 C

P r

Pr > 1 >
Pr
=1
=
Pr < 1 <

u T
T

Pr>1

u
T
T

Pr=1

u T
T

Pr<1

4.6:
 101

(laminar ow) (turbulent ow)

Re(= U L/)
(turbulent ow)

M v
v(x)

t()

5.1:

() x u

u = u + u (5.1)

u u

v = v + v



w = w + w
(5.2)
p = p + p



T = T + T

compressible ow T
}
= +
(5.3)
T = T + T

t0 +t
1
u= u dt (5.4)
t t0

t t

102 5

u
-
u

t0 t t 0 +t

5.2:

5.15.4)

u = u + u (5.5)

u = 0 (5.6)

v = 0, p = 0, = 0, T = 0 (5.7)

u , v , w , p , , T

(5.4)

f g = f g





f = f



f +g = f +g
(5.8)
f g = f g =f g





f /s = f /s



f ds = f ds

s 5.8

[]

(mass-weighted average density-weighted average

) Favre

A
A = (5.9)

A A
A

A = A + A (5.10)

A = 0 (5.11)
5.1. 103

5.1
(x

Sx
x

z
dA :

5.3:

Sx ) ( ( 5.3 )
x, y, z

x : dMx = u u dA

y : dMy = u v dA (5.12)


z : dMz = u w dA

5.8
x

dMx = dA u2
2
= dA (u + u ) (5.13)
= dA (u + 2
u 2 )

2uu = 0

uu = 2
2 u u = 0 (5.14)
y z

dMy = dA (u v + u v ) (5.15)
dMz = dA (u w + u w ) (5.16)

5.1.1
law of action and reaction
momentum)
dA
dA

x xx = (u u + u u )
y xy = (u v + u v ) (5.17)


z xz = (u w + u w )
104 5

xxf
f

5.4:

xx = u u

xy = u v (5.18)



xz = u w

(apparent stress), (Reynolds stress)

Osborne Reynolds 1885 (1895 ?) 2 Sy , Sz

5.1.2
u v u v 2 (correlation)
u v
u v > 0

y
u(y)

u2
y2

y1 v
u1

5.5:

y d
u/dy > 0

v > 0 x u1 (eddy)
( 5.5 )u1 < u2 y = y2 x u2
5.1. 105

u1 u1 u2 < 0 u < 0
u v
u v < 0 (5.19)

u v < 0 or u v > 0 (5.20)

y
u(y)
u2
y2 v

y1

u1

5.6:

v < 0 x u2 eddy
( 5.6 ) (y = y1 ) u2 u1 > 0

u > 0

u v < 0 (5.21)

u v < 0 or u v > 0 (5.22)

xy = u v > 0 (5.23)

u
yx = >0 (5.24)
y

106 5

5.2

u v w
+ + =0 (5.25)
x y z

( )
u p
+ uu + uv + uw = + 2 u (x ) (5.26)
t x y z x
( )
v p
+ vu + vv + vw = + 2 v (y ) (5.27)
t x y z y
( )
w p
+ wu + wv + ww = + 2 w (z ) (5.28)
t x y z z
5.255.2,

(u + u ) + (v + v ) + (w + w ) = 0 (5.29)
x y z
5.8

u+ v+ w=0 (5.30)
x y z
5.8

u = u =0 (5.31)
x x

(5.30) (divergence) 0

5.295.30

u + v + w =0 (5.32)
x y z
0
5.265.28
x, y, z
( ) [ ]
u u u u p u u u v u w
+u +v +w = + 2 u + + + (5.33)
t x y z x x y z
( ) [ ]
v v v v p u v v v v w
+u +v +w = 2
+ v + + + (5.34)
t x y z y x y z
( ) [ ]
w w w w p u w v w w w
+u +v +w = 2
+ w + + + (5.35)
t x y z z x y z

( )
Du p
= + 2 u + xx + yx + zx (5.36)
Dt x x y z
( )
Dv p
= + 2 v + xy + yy + zy (5.37)
Dt y x y z
( )
Dw p
= + 2 w + xz + yz + zz (5.38)
Dt z x y z
5.2. 107

D

v = grad p + 2 v + T R (5.39)
Dt


v = (u, v, w)t t
T R


xx xy xz u u u v u w

T R = yx yy yz = v u v v v w (5.40)

zx zy zz w u w v w w

u

xx = p + 2 u u (5.41)
( x )
u v
xy = + u v (5.42)
y x
( )
u w
xz = + u w (5.43)
z x
v

yy = p + 2 v v (5.44)
y
( )
v w
yz = + v w (5.45)
z y
w

zz = p + 2 w w (5.46)
z
xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy
(eddy viscosity)
(molecular viscosity) u v

+ (
v) = 0 (5.47)
t


v v + pI T T ) = 0
v + ( (5.48)
t
T

T = v v (5.49)

v, v
108 5

5.3
5.30
5.33 x

u v
+ = 0 (5.50)
x y
{ }
u u 1 p u
u +v = + u v (5.51)
x y x y y
y y
??3.21)

u, v, p u, v, p (5.52)

( ) ( )
u u
uv (5.53)
y y y y
l t
( )
l t
+ (5.54)
y

u
l = , t = u v (5.55)
y
5.505.51
closure problem (
)

Tollmien-Schlichting instability
2 (TS ) Re = Ue / < 420 (Ue
) Ue
TS TS

5.4

(J.Boussinesq, 1897)

du
t = u v = t (5.56)
dy
5.4. 109

t (apparent viscosity, virtual viscosity, eddy viscosity)

t

2
ij = 2t Sij kij (5.57)
3
Sij k (turbulent kinetic energy)
( )
1 u
i u
j 1
Sij = + , k = (u2 + v 2 + w2 ) (5.58)
2 xj xi 2

5.57

5.4.1
(5.50),
(5.51)
[ ]
u u 1 p u
u +v = + ( + t ) (5.59)
x y x y y
u v
+ = 0 (5.60)
x y

5.4.2
t (Prandtls mixing-length
theory) L.Prandtl 1925
Prandtl (kinetic theory of gases)

u = u(y), v = 0, w = 0 (5.61)

y = y1 l (eddy) y1
y1 ( )
du
u1 = u(y1 ) u(y1 l) l (5.62)
dy y1
y1 + l y1 y1
( )
du
u2 = u(y1 + l) u(y1 ) l (5.63)
dy y1

110 5

(5.62) (5.63) y1
( )

1 du
|u | = (|u1 | + |u2 |) = l (5.64)
2 dy y1

control volumey

u () .
( )
du
|v | = const|u | = const l (5.65)
dy y1

(5.20) (5.22) u v

u v < 0 (5.66)

u v = c|u | |v | (5.67)

c 0 < c < 1 (correlation coecient)

u v
(5.68)
|u ||v |
1
(5.64) (5.65) (5.67)
( )2
du
u v = c const l2 (5.69)
dy
l l
( )2

du
u v = l 2
(5.70)
dy

t
(
)2
du
t = u v = l 2
dy
  1
 du  du
= l2   (5.71)
dy dy
(shear stress)
du/dy < 0
(Boussinesq) (5.56) (5.71)
 
 du 
t = l2   (5.72)
dy
t (5.72) l
.

() (gas kinetic theory)

= cm (5.73)
5.4. 111

m (mean free path) c = 1/3

c c T 1/2 T 1/2 m 1/
2

1 1
m = = (5.74)
2d2 (/m) 2d2 n

d (eective diameter) 0 , 1atm

d = 3.7 1010 m m 1 n
n = 2.68699 1025 m3 (5.74)
m = 6.12 108 m
m (Kolmogorov) (length scale)

m M
1/4
(5.75)
ReL

ReL = uL/ , M = u/a L

(eddy) integral
scale)
Kolmogorov

M
Kolmogorov
( )1/4
3
= (5.76)

2Sij Sij (5.77)

Sij ( )
1 ui uj
Sij = + (5.78)
2 xj xi

(Taylor microscale)

( )2
u u2
= 15 15 (5.79)
x 2
Taylor(1935)

k 3/2
, k u2 (5.80)
L

1/2
ReL (L)1/3 (5.81)
L
ReL

k 1/2 L
ReL = (5.82)

112 5

(eddy) L
4/3
ReL (5.83)
L

(ReL )

L (5.84)

Re

u k 1/2
Re = = (5.85)

eddy)

1 integral length scale)

2 inertial subrange eddies;

3 (Kolmogorov microscale)

()

(5.72) du/dy = 0 t = 0
. du/dy = 0
0 . (wake) (free turbulent)
5.7

5.7:

t = 1 b(umax umin ) (5.86)

b (half-value width) b (umax umin )/2

umin

u du
t = t = 1 b(umax umin ) (5.87)
y dy

5.5. 113

5.5
multi-layer model

the law of the wall

u u y
u+ = f (y + ), u+ = , y+ = (5.88)
u
u
u

30

u / u
20

(C)

10

(A) (B)

2 3 4
0 1 10 10 10 10

u y
y+ =
5 30

5.8:

5.5.1 (viscous sublayer)

u v

u y
y+ = 5 (5.89)

u

w
u = (5.90)

u u y
u+ = = y+ (5.91)
u
u y

u y
1 (5.92)


114 5

() 0 < y + < 10 (streak)

(burst)
()

5.5.2 (buer layer)

y + = 12

u y
5 < y+ = < 30 40 (5.93)

u

total = uv
= w (5.94)
y

l
( [ u y ])

l = y 1 exp (5.95)
A
van Driest (damping function)
A
A = 26 (5.96)

y +

u (u y )

=f = f (y + ) (5.97)
u

u+ = u/u = C1 + C2 ln y + + C3 (ln y + )2 + C4 (ln y + )3 (5.98)

C1 = 4.19, C2 = 5.75, C3 = 5.11, C4 = 0.767 (5.99)

(tting formula)
[ ]
(u+ )2 (u+ )3
y + = u+ + exp(C) exp(u+ ) 1 u+ (5.100)
2 6

= 0.41, C = 5.0 von Karman Theodore von Karman

5.6. 115

5.5.3 (logarithmic law region)

0

(30 40) < y + < O(103 ) or y < (0.1 0.2) (5.101)

total u v (5.102)

u (u v )1/2
(5.103)
y y

u 1
= ln(u y/) + C (5.104)
u
C

0.41, C = 5.2 or 5.0 (5.105)

(, C) Nikuradse(1930) (0.40,5.5) Coles(1955) (0.41,5.0)

1) 2) 3)
(inner region)

5.6
Cebecci-Smith Baldwin-Lomax k

5.6.1 Cebecci-Smith
Cebecci-Smith (CS 1974)

l
l = yD (5.106)
D van Driest
[ ( yu )]

D = 1 exp (5.107)
A


u = w / (5.108)
t,in
t { [ ( yu )]}2 du

t,in = = y 1 exp (5.109)
A dy
116 5

= 0.4, A = 26 (5.110)

t,out

t,out = 2 Ue 1 (5.111)

2 2 = 0.017Ue
0.4 < y < 1.2
Klebano

= [1 + 5.5(y/)6 ]1 (5.112)

= 1 = 0
y/ = 1.4
t,in t,out yk

t,in = t,out at y = yk (5.113)

yk

t = t,in 0 < y < yk (5.114)

t = t,in yk < y (5.115)

history eects
history eects

5.6.2 Baldwin-Lomax
Cebeci-Smith Cebeci-Smith
Baldwin-Lomax (1978) BL

()
CS
BL
BL CS
F

F (y) = y||D (5.116)

v /x u
= /y D van Driest
(5.107))
5.6. 117

BL ymax to
ymax 5.116 F y

ti = l2 ||, l = yD for y yc (5.117)

to = KCcp ymax Fwake for y > yc (5.118)

y yc to = ti
Prandtl-van Driest Ccp Baldwin Lomax
Ccp = 1.6 Karman 0.42K Clauser 0.0168
Klebano

( y )6 ]
y ) = 1/[1 + 5.5( (5.119)

5.118y = Ckleb y/ymax Ckleb 0.3

CS BL BL

to Fwake

Fwake = min(Fmax , Cwk u2dif f /Fmax ) (5.120)

Fmax 5.116 Cwk 0.25 udif f

(udif = umax umin ) l(= yD)
ymax
CS BL

5.6.3 k
k k
(turbulent kinetic energy)
u2 + v 2 + w2
k= (5.121)
2
u , v , w x, y, z
(dissipation rate) k/ (eddy) life time
k
k2
t = C (5.122)

C = 0.09
k
( ) ( )
Dk 1 t k t Ui Uj Ui
= + + (5.123)
Dt xj k xj xj xi xj

( ) ( )
D 1 t C1 t Ui Uj Ui 2
= + + C2 (5.124)
Dt xj xj k xj xi xj k
118 5

C = 0.09, C1 = 1.45, C2 = 1.9, k = 1.0, = 1.3 (5.125)

() k

ui ij
uj = (5.126)
xj xj

ui
ui ij
uj ui = ui
xj xj
ui ij ui
= ij (5.127)
xj xj

u
i
ij

uj = (5.128)
xj xj

u
i
u
i ij

uj u
i = u
i
xj xj
u
i
ij u
i
=
ij (5.129)
xj xj

pij + 2Sij ui ui
ij = (5.130)

(5.127)
(5.129) k = ui ui /2

5.7
(wake), (jet), (mixing layer)
(similarity) x
x

Us b(half-value width) x
x (power)

Us xm , b xn , Rb xl (5.131)
5.7. 119

l = m + n Rb Rt

Us b Us b
Rb = , RT = (5.132)
T
T

Us

b x

5.9:

5.10:

(m, n, l) 5.1

m n l RT
2 -1/2 1/2 0 12.5
-2/3 1/3 -1/3 14.1
0 1 1 17.3
2 -1/2 1 1/2 25.7
-1 1 0 32

5.1:

() q
(eddy) L x
1
q , L x1n/2 (5.133)
xn
120 5

5.11:

n 1 ()

5.8
(transition)

(Orr-Sommerfeld equation)

i ( )
(U C)( 2 ) U =
22 + 4 (5.134)
Re
() y C = /
(parallel ow)

U = U (y), V = 0, W =0 (5.135)

exp[i(x + z t)]
u=u (5.136)

k x z

exp[i(k x t)]
u=u (5.137)