‘METROLOGY ~ without change in the method of measurement, and the measurements are carried out in short intervals of time. Tt may be expressed quantitively in terms of dispersion of the results, Reproducability Reproducibility is the consistency of pattern of variation in measure- ment i.., closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity, when individual measurements are carried out : ~ by different observers, ~ by different method: using different instruments, = under different conditions, locations, times ete. 11 may also be expressed quantitatively in terms of the dispersion of the results. pe Errors in Measurement It is never possible to measure the true value of a dimension, there is always some error. The error in measurement is the difference between the ‘measured value and the true value of the measured dimension. Error in measurement ~= Measured value - True value, ‘The error in measurement may be expressed or evaluated either as an absolute error or as a relative error. Absolute Error ‘True absolute error. It is the algebraic difference between the result of ‘measurement and the conventional true value of the quantity measured. Apparent absolute error. If the series of measurement are made then the algebraic difference between one of the results of measurement and the arithmetical mean is known as apparent absolute error. Relative Error It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of comparison used for calculation of that absolute error. This value of comparison may be the true value, the conventional true value cr the arithmetic mean forgeries of measurement ‘The accuracy of measurement ence 1 80 ans Be aocurey of t, and hence the error depends upor ~ calitzation standard ~ Workpiece ~ Instrument ~ Person ~ Environment etc. as already described. No matter, how modern is the measuring instrument, how akillful is the operator, how accurate'the measurement process, there would always ‘be some error. It is therefore attempted to minimize the error. To minimize METROLOGY 13 the error, usually a number of observations are made and their average is taken as the value of that measurement. observer, same time, then, itis called as ‘Single Sample Test’. ; ‘if however, repeated measurements of a given property using alter- nate test conditions, such as different observer and/or different instrument is made, the procedure ia called as ‘Multi-Sample Test’. The multi-sample test avoids many controllable errors e.g., personal error, instrument zero error ete. The multi-sample test is costlier than the single sample test and hence the later is in wide use. snder singe samp Tn practice good number of observations are made under single sample test and satistical techniques are applied to get results which could be approximate to those obtainable from multi-sample test. ‘Types of Error During measurement several types of error may arise, these are 1, Statie errors which includ (a) Reading errors (®) Characteristic errors (©) Environmental errors. 2, Instrument loading errors.’ 3, Dynamic errors. The static error divided by the measurement range (difference between the upper and lower limits of measurement) gives the measurement precision. (a) Reading errors. Reading errors apply exclusively to the read-out dovico. These do not hava any direct relationship with other types of errors within the measuring system. ‘Reading errors includ = parallax error ~ interpolation error. ; ‘Attempts have been made to reduce or eliminate reading errors by relatively simple techniques. For example, the use of mirror behind the readout pointer or indicator virtually eliminates occurrence of parallax error, ‘Interpolation error. It is the reading error resulting from the jnexact ‘evaluation of the position of index with regards to two adjacent graduation Jnarks between which the index is located. How accurately can a scale be4 METROLOGY the reading. Interpolation error can be tackled by i b Y y increasing ; using mag- nifier over the scale in the viscinity of pointer or adigit i ty of pointer or by using a digital read out Characteristic Errore It is defined as the deviation of the output of the measuring system from th theoreial predicted performance or from nominal perermance Linearity errors, repeatability, hysteresis and resolution errors are part of characteristic errors if the ‘theoretical output is a straight line. Calibration error is also included in characteristic error, Loading Errors _ Loading errors results from the change in measurand itself when it is being measured, (ie., nftar the measuring system or instrument is cou nected for measurement). Instrument loading error is the difference be- tween the value of the measurand before and after the measuring system is connected/eontacted for measurement. For example, a soft or delicate component is subjected to deformation during measurement due to the ‘contact pressure c* the instrument and cause a loading error. The effect of instrument loading errors are unavoidable. Therefore, measuring system or instrament should be selected such that this eensing element will minimize instrument loading error in a particular measurement involved. Environmental Errors . ‘These errors result from the effect of surrounding such as tempera- ture, pressure, humidity ete. on meavuring system. usr 6# fempere External influences like magnetic or electric fields, nuclear radiations, vibrations or shocks ete. also leads to environmental errors. tens Environmental errors of each component of the measuris of the measuring system make a separate contribution to the static erro. It can be Fesuced by controlling the atmosphere according to the specific requirements, Dynamic Errors Dynamic error is the error caused by time variati ime variations in the ‘measurand, It results from the inability ofthe aystom to respond faithfully a time varyiog measurement. It is caused by inertia, damping, friction or other physical constraints in the sensing or readout or display system For statistical study and the study of accumulation of errors, these errors can be broadly classified into two categories : " (a) Systematic or controllable errors, and () Random errors. Systematic Errors. Systematic errors are regularly repetitive i nature. They are of constant and similar form. They result from improper conditions or procedures that are consistent in action. Out of the systematic errors all except the personal error varies from individual to METROLOGY i individual depending on the personality of observer. Other systematic errors can be controlled in magnitude as well ks in sense. If properly analysed they can be determined and reduced. Hence, these are also called as controllable errors. ‘Systematic errors includes 1. Calibration Errors. These are caused due to the variation in the calibrated scale from its normal value. The actual length of standards such slip gauge and engraved scales will vary from the nominal value by a small amount. This will cause an error in measurement of constant mag- nitude, Some times the instrument inertia and hysteresis effect do not allow the instrument to transit the measurement accurately. Drop in voltage along the wires of an electric meter may include en error (called single transmission error) in measurement. 2. Ambient or Atmospheric conditions (Bnuironmental Errors). Varia- tion in atmospheric condition (ie., temperature, pressure, and moisture content) at the place of measurement from that of internativnally agreed standard values (20° temp. and 760 mm of Hg pressure) can give rise to error in the measured size of the component. Instruments are calibrated at these standard conditions, therefore error may creep into the given result ifthe atmosphere conditions are different at the place of measurement. Out of these temperature is the most significant factor which causes error ir. measurement due to expansion or contraction of component being measured or of the instrument used for measurement. 3, Stylus Pressure. Another common source of error is the pressure with which the workpiece is pressed while measuring. Though the pressure involved is generally small but this is sufficient enough to cause appreciable deformation of both the stylu, and the workpiece. In ideal case, the stylus should have simply touched the workpiece. Besides the deformation effect the stylus pressure can bring deflection in the workpiece also. ‘Variations in foree applied by the anvils of micrometer on the work to bbe measured results in the difference in its readings. In this case error is caused by the distortion of both micrometer frame and work-piece. 4. Avoidable Errors. These errors may occur due to parallax, non- alignment of workpiece centres, improper location of measuring instru- ments such as placing a thermometer in sunlight while measuring temperature. The error due to mis-alignment is caused when the centre line of workpiece is not normal to the centre line of the measuring instrument. 5, Random Errors. Random errors are non-consistent. They occur randomly and are accidental in nature, Such errors are inherent in the measuring system. It is difficult to eliminate such errors. Their specific cause, magnitudes and source can not be determined from the knowledge of measuring system or conditions of measurement. ‘The possible source of such errors are : (@) Small variations in the position of setting standard and work- piece.(ii) Slight displacement of lever j (ii) Operator error in scale reading. (iv) Fluctuations in the friction of measuring instrument ete. Comparison between Systematic Errors and Random Errors. ‘Systematic Errors. ‘Random Brrors 1. These errors are repetitive in|These are non-consistent. ‘The nature and are of constant and | sources giving rise to such errors similar form. \ farerandom. 2. ‘These errors result from improper |Such errors are inherent in the ‘conditions or procedures that are| measuring system or measuring consistent in action. instruments. ‘8, Except personal errors, all other | Specific causes, magnitudes and systematic errors can be controlled |sense of these errors cannot be in magnitude and sense. determined from the knowledge of ‘measuring system or condition. 4. If properly analyzed these can be | These errors cannot be eliminated, determined and reduced or|but the results obtained can be eliminated. corrected. 5. ‘These inélude calibration errors, | These include errors caused due to variation in contact pressure, | variation in position of setting variation in atmospheric standard and work-piece, errors ‘conditions, parallax errors, mis-| due to displacement of lever joints ‘alignment errors ete. of instruments, errors resulting from backlash, friction ete. Errors likely to Creep in Precision Measurements ‘The standard temperature for measurement is 20°C and all instru- ments are calibrated at this temperature. If the measurements are carried ont at temperature othar than the standard temperature, an error will be introduced due to expansion or contraction of instrument or part to be measured. But if the instrument and the workpiece to be measured are of same material, accuracy of measurement will not be affected even if the standard temperature is not maintained. Since both will expand or contract by the same amount. ‘The difference between the temperature of instrument and the ‘workpiece will also introduce an error in the measurement, especially when the material of the workpiece or instrument has higher coefficient of expansion. ‘Tb avoid such errors, instrument and the workpiece to be ‘measured should be allowed to attain the same temperature before use and should be handled as little as possible. For example, after wringing together several slip gauges to form a stock for checking a gauge, they should be left with the gauge for an hour, if possible preferably on the table of the comparator which is to be used for performing the comparison. METROLOGY 7 ‘To attain accurate results, high grade reference gauges should be used only in rooms where the.temperature is maintained very close to the standard temperature. ‘Handling of gauges changes its temperature, so they should be allowed to stabilize. ‘There are two situations to be considered in connection with the effect of temperature, these are (@) Direct measurement. Let us consider a gauge block being measured irectiy by interferometry. Here, the effect of using a non-standard temperature produces a proportional error, E =! = (t~ ts) ‘where, = nominal length ‘= = coefficient of expansion (¢~ ts) = deviation from standard temperature temperature during measurement ts =standard temperature. () Comparative measurement. If we consider two gauges whose ex- pansion coefficients are respectively cy and a, then the error due to non- standard temperature will be, Error, E =1 (0 ~ 02) (¢~ #8). ‘As the expansion coefficients are small numbers, the error will be very small as long as both parts are at the same temperature. Thus, in compars- five measurement it is important that all components in the measuring system are at the same temperature rather than necessarily at the stand- ard temperature. Other ambient conditions may affect the result of measurement. For ‘example, ifa gauge block is being measured by interferometry, then relative humidity, atmospheric presture and CO; of the air affects the refractive index of the atmosphere. These conditions should all be recorded during the measurement and the necessary correction mad ‘Internationally accepted temperature for measurement is 20°C and all instruments are calibrated at this temperature, Te maintain such control- led temperature, the laboratory should be air-conditioned. Effect of supports + ‘When long measuring bars, straight edges are supported as beam, they are defected or deformed. This elastic deformation occurs because long bars, supported at to ends sags under their own weight. This problem was considered by Sir G.B. Airy, who showed that the position of the supports can be arranged to give minimum error. The amount of delflecti ‘upon the positions of the supports. —— Fig. 1.3. Effect of support8 ‘METROLOGY ‘Two conditions are considered, as shown in Fig. 1.4, (@ Abar of lerigth L supported, equidistant from thie centre. In this ease the slope at the ends of the bar is zero. For minimum deflection, the distance between the supports should be 0.554 times the length of the bar $= 0.5441 or S/L = 0.544 L () Line standard and End bare (lope at nde 20re) | ) atraight edges (deflection at ends equals deflection). Fig. 1.4, Support positions for different conditions of measurement Gi) Astraight edge of length L supported, equidistant from the centre. |The straight edges are used to check the straightness and flatness of the parts, They are make of H section. ‘In this case the deflection at the ends is equal to the deflection at the centre. For minimum deflection the distance between the supports should be 0.577 times the length ie. For any points s S=0577 Lory =0577. Effect of alignment ‘Abbe’s alignment principle. It states that “the axis or line of measure- ment should coincide with the axis of measuring instrument or line of the measuring scale.” If while measuring the length of a workpiece the measuring scale is, inclined to the true line of the dimension being measured there will be an error in the measurement. ° ‘The length recorded will be more than the true length. This error is, called “Cosine error”. Ii many cases the angle 0 is very small and the error will be negligible ‘The cosine error may also, occur while using dial gauge, if the axis of the pointer is not along the direction of measurement of work. Also, when an indicator is fitted with a ball-end stylus form, the arm should be so set ‘METROLOGY : 9 that the direction of movement of the work is tangential to the are along which the ball moves, otherwise co-sine error will be introduced. L= Measured length L cose= True length L(1- cos @)= error . Stb) Fig. 1.5. (a) and (6) fect of misalignment, ‘The combined cosine and sine error will occur if the micrometer axis is not truly perpendicular to the axis of the workpiece (Refer Fig. 1.6). The same error ‘occurs while measuring the length of the end gauge in a horizontal comparator if the gauge is not supported so that its axis is parallel to the axis of the measuring or anvils or if its ends, though parallel to ‘each other are not square with ends. Referring Fig. 1.6, If, D=true diameter L = apparent length ~d micromoter anvil diameter then D=(L cos )-dsine Fig. 1.6, Combinad sine and cotine20 METROLOGY| =L cos 0—d sin ® and Error, = L - D=L - (L cos 0 ~d sin 8) = L (1 - cos 0) +d sin 6. ‘The errors of above nature are avoided by using gauges with spherical| ends. Contact Pressure ‘The variations in the contact pressure between the anvils of the instrument and the work being measured produce considerable difference in reading. Though the pressure involved is generally small, but it is sufficient enough to cause appreciable deformation of both the anvil (or stylus) and the workpiece. The deformation of the workpiece and the anvils of instrument depends upon the contact pressure and the shapo of the contact surfaces. When there is a surface contact between the instrument anvils and workpiece, there is very little deformation, but when there is a Point contact the deformation is appreciable. Workpiece : formation Combined eee deformation. Stylus deformation Fig. 1.7. Bffect of contact pressure on measurement Fig. 1.7 shows the error caused by combined deformation of the stylus ‘and the workpiece. To minimize this error the development of correct feel is one of the skill to be acquired by the inspector. To avoid this effect of contact pressure the micrometer is fitted with a ratchet mechanism to apply the correct pressure during measurement. The ratchet slips when the applied pressure exceeds the minimum required operating pressure. Parallax Error A very common error that may occur in an instrument while taking the readings is parallax error. Parallax error occurs when : (@ The line of vision is not directly in line with the measuring scale or (Gi) The scale and the pointer are separated from each other (not in the same plane). Refer Fig. 1.8. Let d = separation of scale and pointer D= distance between the pointer and eye of the observer angle which the line of sight makes with the normal to scale. METROLOGY a SCALE s E N Observers eye Fig.18.Poralacerror PAL_d_ 5 Then, NE (d+D) ad anderror PAs yay NE a ai +d) tame error tan. as ee aa ee ee For least error d should be minimum possible, value of @ can be mani Sesh sr sould be pinta pone ane of @ can be eae a a fraction of micron. Where accuracy of the order of micror is desired such sfc ef icon, Wee acuracy often fee ta ee eee Seater ee or by a soft brush. (ii) Gauges should never be touched with moist fingers. (iv) The contact surfaces should be sprayed with suitable filtered oe Errors due to vibratiovie . See ee ana HNP any aes the scsray of manna. Th arament | For eliminating or reducing effect of vibration on measurement, the following precautions should be taken :2 ‘METROLOGY fas laboratory should be located away from the sources of vibra- 2. Sling nts ft rubber pads should be ond under the guage. also reduce the effst of vibrations Nn wnona henry pate 4. Pracsion meanuroment should be carried out away frm shop Errors due to location The part to be measured is located on a table or a surface i cated on a table or a surface plate which forms the datum for comparison with the standard. The reading taken by the comparator is thus the indication of the displacement of the upper surface of the measured part from the datum. If the datum surface is not EG the foreign matter suchas dirt, chips et. are present hetweon tho 1¢ workpiece surface then error will be introduc e aeclendls error.will be introduced in th DIRT ETC, T-“2 Fig. 1.9. Surface displacement Error due to poor contact. Fig. 1.10 shews how the poor contact between the working gauge or instrument and the workpiece causes aa error. Although, everything feels all right, yet the error is bound to occur, To avoid this type of error the gauge with wide area of contact should not be usta while measuring irregular or curved su rect, ‘should be applied while making the contact. face and ay anv Fig. 1.10, Error due to poor contact Error due to wear in gauges. The: suri . The ineasiring surfaces of inst uch asthe anvils ofthe micrometer are subjected fo wear dus to rovented METROLOGY a ‘use, The internal instrument error such as threads of the micrometer spindle can also lead to error in measurement. Wear can be minimized by keeping gauge, masters and workpieces clean and away from dust. Gauge, anvils and such other parts of the instrument which are subjected to wear should be properly hardened. Chrome plated parts are more resistant to wear. ” The lack of parallelism due to wear of anvils can be checked by optical flats ; and the wear on spherical contacts of the instrument by means of microscope. ‘The effect of averaging results. The statistical parameters of arith- metic mean and standard deviation may be used to asses random errors by taking repeated measurements. Thus, if we repeat the complete measure- ment a great-many times we could obtain a frequenry distribution. by plotting a tally chart of these values. Further ‘Arithmetic mean =z =21122+#3* ~*4 and It is known that 99.27% of the observations will lie within + 3 6 of the mean of the observations, so that we can say that, for all practical purposes the estimated accuracy of determination is equal to + 36. If now we take the observations and divide them into random sub- groups ofn and for each sub-group calculate its mean sizéz. A little thought will show that this distribution will be more closely grauped about the true mean size than that of the individual sizes. It can be shown that om = mn where, 6, = standard deviation of the means It follows that the accuracy of determination of the mean size of a sample of n observations is £86 = 32 ewe apply this to the mean size ofn observaitns, we se that 00.27% condonceinita =e 32 e5%econfidoncolimite =2-2 95% confidencelimits =+32 By estimating the accuracy of determination (true value of std. deviation). We can calculate the approximate degree of confidence which we can assign to that value.u METROLOGY Method of Least Squares ‘The least. square principle has wide applications in metrology when assessing the deviation of errors relative to some particular daturm, ‘The Least Square Principle states that the most probable value of observed quantities is that which renders the sum of the squares of residual errors to minimum : Method of Least Square for series of observed values of two dependent variables ‘This method is applicable for two dependent measured variables, for example in the measurement of straight edge when the variations (y) from a truly straight line are determined at a number of positions (x) along the straight line. Let the obgerved values be given by (x,, y;) where’ varies from 1 ton. ‘The equation of the straight line is given by y = ax +b, wheré a is the slope or gradient of the line and & is the intereept ony axis. ‘The slope a may be expressed as the average increase in y for a given increment of x, sad it can be expressed as t = ZG: - 9 1-9) Zqj~2)? e In practice this expression for ‘a’ necessitates a laborious calculation. A.general expression which simplifies calculations by enabling the original data to be used without first calculating the mean Ex @: 1) After calculating the best value for a, the best value for b can be found by subeeang valu ors end i eee staves 0 wore 5-22 and ‘Consider the experimental valués of x and y as beiow : a ee x | 17) 18) 24) 31] 33} 37] 93] 36] 41] 44] 57] 57] 54] 481 2} 3] 4! 9} 16) 25) 36) 49] 64) a1] 100) 121) 144/169) 8319) [=oi| 27] 36] 72] 124]-165) 222] 231} 288] s69| 440| 627|688| 702] soce| ‘From (1), substituting the values are get, 4g1x91 —— 13 _ 3966 - 3367 e10-51x91,~ 811-637 ~"s METROLOGY | 2s ‘Thus, e=3.29. ‘Substituting for and y in expression (2) 89= (8.29% 7) 48 ‘Therefore, b = 13.97 ‘The law of this particular straight line is then, y=3.292+13.97 Tfnow are substitute the values of in the above expression, we obtain the theoretical values ofy which we maj denote ¥. “The error in the observed values are then (,-Y)- (@) Series of observed values for three dependent var'ables : Such a problem arises in the measurement of flatness of a surface plate when the variations (z) from a truly flat plane are determined at a number of position. (z, 9) the surface plate. Let, the observed values be given by (x, y;, z;) where i varies from 1 to. xn. The-equation of the flat plane is given by * Znar+ixve In this case it can be shown that, an IE Sn im ~ En Yn Em im Lan LI — Ekim Im pe 2*h 2p tm ~ Ean In Ein in - = Lyn - Ein Im” where x», = reading on x axis relative tox ie, (=; -2) Im = O1-P) and2,,=(@-2) _ivaries from 1 ton Jf the origin of the mean plane is taken through the mean point SOLVED PROBLEMS Problem 1. A dial indicator has @ scale from zero to 1 ram and 100 divisions on scale. During a. calibration tests the following results were obtained. Calibration ‘Seale value Calibration ‘Scale value Jength (mm) (am) length (mm) (mm) 0.00 0.00 0.70 0.69 0.10 ‘0.09 0.80 0.79 0.20 0.20 0.90 091 0.30 0.29 1.00 1.00 0.40 0.41 050 + |’ 061 0.60. 0.61.26 ‘METROLOGY Determine : (a) the sensitivity (©) maximum error (as a percentage of scale value (i) as a percentage of full sale valise (©) whether the dial indicator confirms to the makers specification of accuracy of within 1.0% of full scale deflection. Range 1mm Sol.) Sensitivity = Range _ 1 mn (©) The maximum error as a percentage of scale value ard fall scale value can be calculated by tabulating the results as follows, and using the relations: (@ Brvor a8 % of sale val "Calibration length ~ Seale value =" Calibration Tength 100 Error as % of fll scale value ~ Calibration length ~ Seale value 99 ‘Maximum scale value 01 mm. Calibration length| Scale value | Error aX of | Error as % of full’ scale value scale value Lemmy L, (mm) Le-Lke 0.00 0.00 10 0.08 020 0.20 0.30 0.29 040 41 050 051 60 061 070 0.69 0.80 0:78 090 091 1.00 2.00 - ' EXERCISE Define the term ‘Metrology’ as applied to engineering industry. State its significance in modern industries. 2, Define ‘Inspection’, explain its need in industries. 8. Lord Kelvin said that, “When you can measure what you are speaking “about and express it in numbers, you know something about it, but METROLOGY 2 when you cannot measure it, and express it in numbers your knowledge is meagre and unsatisfactory.” Justify the statemént. 4. State and describe the important elements of mea urement. 5. Name the various methods of measurement and explain any three of them with suitable examples. 6. State and explain the five basic elements of measuring system (factors affecting accuracy of measurement. 7. Differentiate between “Precision” and “Accuracy” with suitable examples. 8, Explain the following terms: @ Calibration (ii) Readability Gii) Sensitivity (iv) Magnification. 9. Differentiate between : @ Absolute error and Relative error. Gi) Repeatability and Reproducability of measurement. 10, Differentiate between (i) Systematic error and (ii) Random error. 11. Differentiate between : Direct and Indirect method of measurement. 12. Describe : (i) Loading errors, (ii) Environment errors, (iii) Dynamic 18, Define “Systematic Errors” describe the causes of these errors. 14, Describe the effect of temperature variation on the measurement. ‘What is the standard temperature for measurement ? 18. Explain the effect of the following on precision mnéasurement : @ support (i) alignment (ii) contact pressure. 16. Describe the effect of (i) parallax error (ii) poor contact (ii) tempera: ture on precision measurement, 17. Explain the term “Cosine error” with suitable'sketch. 18. Explain the term “Parallax error” with a suitable sketch. 19, Describe the following types of errors, and state how they can be taken care of? (@ Environmental error Gi) Parallax error ii) Errors due to vibrations. OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (A) Fill in the blanks with suitable word: 1. Metrology is define as 2. Inspection is an act of ____ 4 The three important elements of measurement are : @ measured (ii)__and (tii)“ METROLOGY ‘The cali‘wated metre bar is wruing to the surface plate and the two 500 mm bars are wrung together to form a basic length of one metre. This combination of two 500 mm bars is then wrung to the surface plate along side the calibrated metre bar. The difference in height x;, is obtained with. the help of a microscope as illustrated in Fig. 2.10. Calibrated metre bar , Let Lq= Length of one of the 500 mm bars. Ly = Length of the other 500 mm bar. +1 = the difference between the calibrated metre bar and the combined length of barA and B. ‘Then from the first measurement LieynLytly (depending upon whether L +Lg is longer or shorter thas: L) From the second measurement ~ 4 +; =Lp (depending upon whether A is longer or shorter than B) Then, Lx =L4+Ly But Ly =L4 #29, therefore a Ltxy=Lyt Ly ta= 2p tay is Bly =L ix, tap Liz te, or Le Lp=Lyte ‘Same procedure can be used for calibrating three, four or any number of length bars of the same basic size. Since the length of metals changes STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS 4s with varying temperature, it is necessary to maintain room temperature at 20°C to obtain accurate results. SOLVED PROBLEMS Problem 1. A calibrated metre and bar has an actual length 06 100.0006 mm. It is to be used in the calibration of two bars A and B each having a length of 500 mm. ‘When compared with the metre bar L, + Lg was found to be shorter by 0.0003 mm. In comparing A with B it was bound that A was 0.0005 mm longer than B, Find the actual length of A.and B. Sol. X14 =0-0003mm € 3 € € Fig.2.1. From Fig: 911 LeZqt Ly +x) But La=Lp +m ‘Therefore LaLg+xg+lgrxy, fa Lm Qhy tay +%y and, ‘Thus, x and Ly= Ly +0.0005METROLOGY . 00.0004 mm. Problem 2. Three 100 mm gauges are measured on a level comparator ty first wringing them together and then comparing with 300 mm gauge and ‘an interecmparing them. The 300 mm gauge actually measures 300.0025 mm, and the three gauges together have a combination length of 300.0035 mm. Gauge A is 0.0020 mm longer than gauge B but shorter than gauge C by 0.0010 mm Determine the corrected length of each gauge. Sol. Let the length of gauges A, B, and C are Ly, Ly and Le ar Cy) |i LA Fig. 2.12. Now, combination of La LyandLicis greater than L by 1 = 300.0035 ~ 300.0025 = 10.001 mm ‘Thus x; = 0.001 mm xq = 0.02 and x, =0.01 mm. From Fig. 2.12, L=Ly+Lg+Le-%1 also La=Lp +x, and = Le=Latxg je, Le=Lgtxgtxg ‘Therefore we have, ie, Le 8Lg+2xq+x3-1 BLp=L-2x-25+% L-2xq-x3+x1 =Lptxg+Lp+Lp tae +e3— 2 [STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS a 300.0025 ~ 2 x 0.0020 ~ 0.001 + 0.001 3 La=Lp +2 = 100.0015 + 0.0010 = 100.0025 mm. Problem 3. Four end baos A, B, C and D are to be calibrated using a calibrated length bar of 400 mm whose actual length is 399.9998 mm. The bar B is longer than bar A by 0.0004 mm, bar C is tanger than bar A by 0.0009 mm, while bar D is shorter than bar A by ~0.0001 mm. The four gauges together have a combination length of 400.0002 mm. Determine the corrected (actual) length of each end bar. [-| em 1L=399.9998mm. Fig213. Sol. Let the length of four bars L4, Lp, Lc and Lp. respectively and the length of calibrated bar be L. From the Fig. 2.13 we have L=L,+Lp+Lc+Lp-*1 a) where 2; is the difference between the length of calibrated bar and length of combination of end bars A, B, C and D. 1 = 400 . 0002 ~ 399.9991 .0004 mm.4s ‘METROLOGY Let, the differences between the length of bars B, C and D as compared to are'xs, x3 and x4 respectively. ‘Then, Lg=La+z, (2) Lo=Lates 3) and Lp=La-x4 Aa) ‘Substituting values of Lg, Le and Lp in (1), we have, LaLg+Lg ten +Lg x5 +Lytxq-21 La txy tag —x4-m1 i.e, L—xq~ xg 424421 = 404 -L = 99.9999 — 0.0003 = 100,0002 mm Lp = 99,9999 — 0.0001 = 99,9998 mm. Problem 4. Calculate the distance between the two supports ofan end bar of 1000 mm length considering () minimum central deflection (i) Airy points. Also calculate the position of the supports from the end of the end bar in both eases. Sol. (i) For minimum central deflection, the distance between the two supports = 0.554 L = 0.554 x 1000 = 654 mm Distance of each support frum the contre ofthe bar =}x564=277 mm ‘Therefore, distance of each support from the ond of the bar = 500-277 mm = 228 mam For Airy points; for minimum deflection the distance between the two supports = 0.577 L = 0.677 x 1000 =577 mm Distance of each support from the centre ofthe bar Ly alee 3o=3x577=2885mm ‘Therefore, distance of each support from the end of the bar 500 288.5 = 211.6 mm. _ Problem 5. A level type comparator has a vital radius of 300 m, divisions 2.5 mm apart, and contact feet 25 mm centre distance. Calculate STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS o the difference in length of two gauges under comparison if the total bubble displacement is 6 divisions. Sol. In a level comparator, one half of the difference bétween the readings (or the displacement) is equal to the difference in. the length between the guages. Here, d =6 divisions a R Ifh is the difference between the gauge lengths, then h 25 ~ 300,000 .000625 mm. EXERCISE 1. Explain ithe need of standards of measurements in the moderif in- dustrial system. 2. Describe with sketch, (i) Imperial standard yard (ii) International protetype metre. 3, State the disadvantages of material standard. 4. Define the term ‘Airy point, state the condition to achieve it. 5. Describe wavelength standard with its advantages 6. Distinguish between Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Working standards of length. 7. Explain the term traceability in connection with standards. 8. Distinguish between ‘Line standard’ and ‘End standard’. Give their examples. _ 9.. Describe : the procedure for deriving End standards from Line stand- ards, 10. Describe : subdivision of the end standard by Brookes Level com- parator. i . 11, Deséribe the. procedure for comparison of an end gauge with’a line standard by the displacement method. 12, Twolength bars, B are tobe calibrated using a calibréted base whose length is nearly equal to sum of the two length bars, explain the procedure, 5 18, (a) Describe S.1. unit of length. () State the need of having light wave as standard of measurement. 14. State the present definition of metre. Whats the repeatability of this standard ? . 15. Three 100 mm end bars are meainired on a level comparator by first wringing them together and comparing with 4 300 mm ber and then3 LiIneEAR MEASUREMENT ‘Linear measurement. Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths, diameters, heights and thicknesses including external and. internal measurements. The line measuring instruments have series of accurately spaced lines marked on them, eg. scale. The dimension to be measured is aligned with the graduations of the scale. Linear measuring instruments are designed either for line measurements or end measure~ @ Direct measuring intruments (i Indirect measuring instruments ‘The direct measuring instruments are of two types :, @ graduated "i non-gradunted, ‘The graduated instruments include rules, vernier calipers, vornior hoiyht gauges, vernier dopth gauges, micrometers, dil indicators ete, The no7-graduated instruments includg callipers, trammels, telescopic gauges, surface gauges, straight edges, wire gauges, screw pitch gauges, radi ‘gauges, thickness gauges, slip gauges ote. They can also be classified as : ) Non-precision instruments such as steel rule, calliper etc. ) Precision measuring instruments, such as vernier instruments, micrometers, dial gauges etc. Steel Rule (Scale) Stel rule is a line meanaring device. 1h i part replica of the international prototype meter. It compares an unknown lei e Teasured with the provously calibrated lang, Iti made of herdened steel or stainless steel having series of equally spaced lines engraved on it. Steel rule is most commonly used in workshop for measuring com- ponents of limited accuracy, The marks on a good class rule vary from 0.12 mm to 0.18 mm wide, so that we cannot expect to obtain a degree of accuracy much closer than within 0.012 mm. The quickness and ease with which it can be used and its low cost, makes it a popular and widely used measuring device. The steel rules are manufactured in different sizes and styles. These are available in 160, 200, 600, or 1000 mm lengths. The scale need nat be graduated uniformly throughout its length. It may be graduated in > zillimeters in some portion and 1 millimeters on the other. (92) LINEAR MEASUREMENT 5 ‘The desirable qualities of the steel rule a1 1. It should be made of good quality spring steel 2, It should be machine ground on its faces and have clearly engraved lines. 3, It should have graduations on both edges. 4, It should have minimum thickness. 5. It should be chrome plated to prevent corrosion and protection against staining. . Precautions while using a Steel Rule ‘The following precautions should be taken while using a steel rule 1. The ehds of the rule are worn out due to continuous or improper use. It should be preserved from wear, as it gener illy forms the basis for one end of dimension, 2, The rule should never be used for cleaning between parts or as a substitute for screw driver, for scraping Tee slots and Machine tables, otherwise its edges and ends will be damaged. 8, Rusting of the rule should be avoided by oiling it during weekends and when it is not in use. 4, To maintain sharpness of the graduations for easy and accurate reading, scale should be cleaned with grease dissolving fluids. 5. To have correct reading of the dimension to be, measured scale should never be laid flat on the part to be measured. 6. When taking measurements with a rule, it should be so held that the graduation lines are as close as possible (preferably touching) to the faces being measured. 7. To avoid parallax error, while making measurements, eye should be directly opposite and 90° ta the mark on the part to be ‘measured, Callipers ‘To measure the diameter of a circular part it is essential that the measurement is made along the largest distance or true diameter. The steel rule alone is not a convenient method of measuring directly the size of the circular part. A calliper is used to transfer the distance between the faces of a component to a scale or micrometer. It thus converts an end measure ‘ment situation to the line system of the rule, ‘The caliper consists of two legs hinged at top and the ends of legs span the part to be measured. The legs ofthe calliper are made from carbon and alloy stools. They are exactly identical in shape, with the contact points equidistant from the fulcrum. The working ends are suitably hardened and tempered to a hardness of 400 to 500 HV, and the measuring faces to a hardness of 650 #.50 HV.sa METROLOGY The accnrate use of calliper depends upon the sense of feel that can only be acauired by practice. While using callipers the following rules should be followed : ( hold the calliper gently and near the joint Gi) hold it square to the work Gi) apply only light gauging pressure (iv) handle it gently to avoid disturbing the setting for accurate measurement. Callipers can be classified ) Firm joint (Fixed joint) callipers (i Spring type callipers. Firm joint callipers. Firm joint callipers work on the frietion created at the junction of legs. The legs may become loose after certain use, but can be adjusted easily. These callipers are particularly suitable for large work. They can be designed for outside as well as inside measurements. The distance between the joint roller centre and the extreme working end of one of the leg is known as nominal size. The firm joint callipers are available in the nominal sizes of 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 mm. The legs of these callipers are made with rectangular cross-section. Spring callipers. Spring callipers are improved varieties of ordinary friction joint callipers. The legs of spring callipers are made from suitable alley steel, the measuring faces properly heat treated to a hardness of - 650 £ 50 HV. The two legs carry a curved spring at the top, fitted in the notches. A flanged pin is inserted between the two legs in the circular grooves provided a little below the notches. The curved spring is made from carbon spring steel. It is properly hardened and tempered to a hardness of 470 to 520 HV. A screw is fixed in one leg and made to pass through the other. It is provided with a knurled nut for making adjustments. The tendency of the spring is to force the legs apart and the distance between them can be adjusted by applying the pressure against the spring pressure by sightening the nut. Thus, in spring callipers the legs are held firmly against the adjusting nut by spring tension. Spring callipers are more accurate and permit accurate sense of touch in measuring. The inside and outside spring callipers are available in sizes of 75, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300mm. Callipers can also be classified according to their use as under : ( Outside callipers (i) Inside callipers iit) Transfer eallipers (iv) Oda leg callipers, (@) Outside calipers. An outside calliper has two legs which are bent inwards as shown in fig. 3.1. It can be used for measuring or comparing diameters, thicknesses-and other outside dimensions by transfering the readings to the steel rule, vernier calliper or micrometer. LINEAR MEASUREMENT 3s Fixed sont Soring Adjusting | ves Screw Fig. 9.1 (a) Pim joint outaide caliper () Spring type outeide caliper ‘When measuring with outside callipers they should be adjusted by tapping one leg, or by adjusting screw, untill when the work is straddled by legs, it is just possible to feel the contact between calliper and work. The contact should not be too heavy, otherwise the legs may be slightly sprung and false reading obtained. When a nice feel has been obtained on the job, the size should be read on rule by resting the end of one leg on.the end o! the rule and taking the readings at the other. To set outside.callipers to a fairly particular size they should be set from a block or gauge of the given dimension. (ii) Inside calliper. The inside calliper is made with straight legs which are bend outwards at the ends. Inside callipers are used for measur ing hole diameters, distance between shoulders etc. While using they should be adjusted untill they are at the littgest size at which their legs can just be felt contacting the extremities of a diameter of the hole, and to find this, the joint should be held by the thumb and first finger, one leg held stationary in contact with the inside of the hole and the other leg rocked about in a small circle. The opening of inside callipers can be checked by a rule or micrometer. The inside spring calliper has the advantage that the calliper can be withdrawn from the hole by closing the legs, when the legs are released after withdrawal it stops at the measured position of legs. Fixed ont Fig. 3.2. (a) Firm joint type (6) Inside éallipers56 METROLOGY Git) Transfer calipers, Transfer callipers are used for measuring recessed areas from which the legs of the callipers cannot be removed directly, but must be collapsed after the dimension has been measured, In these callipers, an auxiliary arm is provided to preserve the original setti after the logs are collapsed. Pres me “e Fined jlat Fig. 8. Transfer Caliper Fig. 84, Odd leg caller “ (iv) Odd leg catlipers. Odd leg callipers are also called as Her- mophrodite callipers. These are scribing tools having one leg bent and the other leg equipped with a scriber. Distances from the edge of a workpiece ray be selbed or measured with these callipers. They may have either friction joint or a spring arrangement. Odd leg eallipers aré specifically used for finding centres of circular jobs, marking a line parallel to a true edge and many other types of marking operations. Surface Plate ca artnet Plate forms the basis of measurement. They are extensively used in workshops and metrological laboratories where inspection is car. ried out. They are used as: ” poston is (@ A reference or datum surface for testing flatness of surfaces Fig. 8.5. Surface plate, LINEAR MEASUREMENT 7 (ii) Reference surfaces for all other measuring instruments having flat bases eg., for mounting V-blocks, angle plates, sine bars, height gauges, dial gauges, comparators etc. ‘Surface plates are massive and highly rigid in design. They have truly, flat level planes. They are generally made up of Cl. free frem blow holes, inclusions and other surface defects and are heat treated to relieve internal stresses. All the surface plates are of deep sections and properly ribbed at the bottom, so that they are rigid enough to carry their own weights as well ‘as the weights of heavy objects placed on them, without appreciable deflec- tion. The top surface is scrapped to true flatness within close limits of accuracy-either by hand scrapping ot by lapping. The four edges of the plate are finished smooth, straight, parallel and reasonably square to each other and to the top surface. Big surface plates are provided with four levelling screws to adjust their top surfaces truly horizontal. Material of surface plate ‘The surface plates should be manufactured from a material : ~ which will provide high degree of rigidity ~ freedom from warping = capable of taking high finish and ~ resistant to wear and corrosion. ‘CAL The most commonly used material for making surface plates is plain or alloyed, close grained C.l. of good quality, the plate should be allowed to age either naturally or by proper heat treatment in order to relieve internal stresses. The heat treatment is carried out by keeping the surface plates in an annealing furnace and heating up to 450 to 500°C and keeping at this temperature for about 3 hrs or more depending on its size. The CLI plates have the advantage of allowing a certain amount of wringing and surface or edges are not readily chipped out if something is dropped on it. Granite. Granite surface plates are rustless and unaffected by damp- ness and temperature variation, heat etc. There are no burns and therefore these maintain correct flatness at all times. It is harder than C.I. ‘These surface plates are non-wringing. Due to non-magnetic proper- ties the magnetic base stand cannot be used. Glass. Surface plates are also made of glass. These are available in six izes ranging from 150 x 150 mm to 660 x 900 mm. Glass surface plates have the following advantages : 1, These are light in weight. 2, These plates are frce from corrosion and burrs, 8. These plates maintain their accuracy fo. longer period. 4, These plates can be manufactured with high accuracy. However, glass surface plates are breakable and needs careful han- dling. Due to non-magnetic properties magnetic base cannot be used. Ceramic surface plates are also used nowadays.a METROLOGY Care of surface plates (precautions while using surface plates) : 1. The surface plates are used as a reference or datum surface and needs, to be protected from damage. The measuring instruments should not be allowed to drop on its surface. 2, When not in use, they should always be kept covered with a felt lined wooden cover. 3. They should be firmly supported on the stands and properly levelled. 4, The variations in local flatness of the surface should be checked occasionally. 5. During use its top surface should be wiped clean from dust and other particles. 6. After use, the surface should be coated with a corrosion resistance liquid such as petroleum jelly or a thin film of oil, grease ete. 7. The full available working area of the surface plate should be used instead of using limited area. This will ensure equal wear, as far as possible over the whole surface. ‘Testing flatness of surface plates Flatness is defined as the minimum distance between two parallel planes that contain the surface. Flatness testing is similar to straightness testing except that measurements are to be done over a surface instead of a plane. Thus, the measurements of straightness are made along a number of lines such that the whole surface is covered and then flatness error is calculated. In testing the flatness of surface plate, it is the general practice to measure the actual deviation from the true plane at various points, ‘Tae various methods of testing of surface plate are : |. Using two footed/three footed twist gauge . Spirit level method . Auto collimator |. Beam comparator Laser beam =~ By comparison with the liquid surface . Interference method ete. 1. Using two footed twist gauge. Two-footed twist gauge is an electronic indicator. Tt has a sensitivity of one-tenth micron. It is used for overall twist in surface plate. The instrument is adjusted on the surface plate in such a manner that its base rests on the plate and the end feet rests on the diagonal corners of the plate. The instrument is set such that its measuring probe registers zero on a central gauging lapped pad. The twist gauge is then swung 90° to the opposite diagonal corners. ‘The Felative difference in heights or “twist” is registered as plus or minus reading on a gauging lapped pad. Ragas LINEAR MEASUREMENT 9 2. Comparison with the liquid surface. In this method the surface of a liquid is used as a reference. It is the most rapid method. It can be conveniently used for testing large surface with an accuracy ofthe order of 0.006 mn. In this test two cylinders connected by rubber tubing at their bases as shown in Fig. 3.6 are used. They contain mercury or dilute soda solution. Both the tubes have micrometer head having a conical point to the spindle. For testing the flatness of a surface one of the cylinder is placed in the centre and the other cylinder is moved at different positions on the surface tobe tested. Fig. 3.6, ‘At each of the position the micrometer spindles are moved till contact is made with the liquid surface and readings are taken (for each position). ‘The difference in two readings when the other cylinder is moved from one position to another indicates the errors in flatness at that particular position tested. . While using this method it should be ensured that the inter connecting tubing must be free from air bubbles. A stop cock is provided in the tube which is closed while moving the second cylinder from one position to another ; this prevents the flow of liquid from one cylinder to another while moving one of the cylinder at different positions. 3. Beam Comparator: The principle of this method is based on ‘comparing the straightness of a succession of generators in the surface = gi Ti TR supporting fot ‘suspontng ‘ora ohinget phaser Fig. 3.7. Beam comp