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    07 Chapter 1

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    CHAPTER- 1 INTRODUCTION Antenna has been very substantial in utilizing one of greatest natural resources for humans that is the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum has been employed for communication through the use of radio. What is the origin of the antenna? We can rule out devices such as compasses, because although they recerve a magnetic field in some way, but it is not an el tromagnetic field. Ben Franklin's kite performed an experiment that wasn't the quite an antenna, as that captured lightning discharge, which is a direct current path wher eneray is not transferred independent of the medium it travels. ‘The human eye of course receives high frequency electromagnetic waves in form of light. Technically the eye can be classified as an antenna; however it cannot transmit waves, it acts as a sensor. The first experiment was done by Faraday in the carly 1830s, ‘This experiment involved id a coupling of electricity and magnetism that showed a conclusive relationship. He s ‘magnet around the coils of a wire attached to a galvanometer. In moving the magnet, he was in effect creating a time-varying magnetic field, which as a resull from Maxwell's Equations, must have had a time ying electric field. ‘The coil acted as a loop antenna and received the electromagnetic radiation, which was therefore detected by the galvanometer - the work of an antenna. The concept of electromagnetic waves had not even been thought up at this point. Heinrich Hertz, in 1886, performed an experiment in which he forced an electrical spark to occur in between the gap of a dipole antenna, He used a Joop antenna as a receiver, and observed a lar disturbance. ‘This was a wireless communication system which he developed. By 1901, Marconi was sending information across the Atlantic, He used several vertical wires attached to the ground as a transmitting antenna. Across the Atlantic Ocean, the receiving antenna was a 200 meter wire held up by a kite [1]. Columbia University, in the year 1906, had an Experimental Wireless Station where they used a transmitting aerial cage which was made up of wires and suspended in the air [2] Some major antennas and their discovery/fabrication dates are given below: > Yagi-Uda antennas, 1920s > Hom antennas, 1939. > Antenna arrays, 1940s > Parabolic reflectors, late 1940s or early 1950s > Patch antennas, 1970s. > Planar Inverted-F Antenna (PIFA), 1980s. After this more different types of antennas have been designed such as shared aperture antennas. Antenna research nowadays involves materials that have engineered dielectric and magnetic constants, which can be simultaneously negative, allowing for interesting properties, like a negative refractive index. Hurther res earch focuses on making compact antennas, such as mobile particularly in communications for personal wireless communication devi phones. A lot of work is being performed on numerical modeling of antennas, so that their properties can be predicted before they are built and tested. The antenna research is also extend 1g to interdisciplinary field such as nanotechnology, biophysics, ete [3-4] Although there are number of existing definitions of antenna, we define antenna as metallic structures designed for radiating and receiving electromagnetic energy. An antenna acts as a transitional structure, more accurately a transmitting device, between the guiding device (e.g waveguide, transmission line) and the free space. ‘The official IEEE definition of an antenna as given by Stutzman and Thiele [5] follows the concept: “That part of a transmitting or receiving system that S designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves”. ‘Thi definition proves that an antenna can act as a receiver as well as a transmitter. 1.1 Microstrip Antennas: Brief Overview In recent years, there has been a tremendous growth in the telecommunication with (echnologies like wireless networks becon ing commercially available, Wireless networks have been constantly optimized co that maximum capacity can be achieved. The main requirements of such type of networks would be low cost, ease 10 manufacture, low profile and compactness. Microstrip antennas fulfill these all requirements very well which operate in microwave frequency range. During the past few decades the researchers and scientists from all over the world have studied the theoretical and experimental aspects of different types of microstrip antennas. Recently, development and analysis of compact microstrip antennas have become an interesting area in communications systems due to the miniaturization of communication equipment. The significant works in the field of microstrip antennas, especially on dual frequency dual polarization charactetisties, are reviewed with emphasis given to compact microstrip antennas [6-8]. Microstrip antennas started gaining considerable attention in the carly 1970s [9]. ‘The ideu of a microotsip antenna is given in the year 1953 by Deschamps [10] and a patent in the year 1955 by decades ton [11]. In the past few , there was a growing need for the development of efficient and low profile antennas on the ascending new generation of space communications. Drastic change in the circuit miniaturization made the conventional antennas massive and expensive part of the equipment. These two factors evoked the researchers for the design and development of compact and efficient microstrip antennas, Comprehensive research and development of microstrip antennas and antenna arrays, exploiting the numerous advantages such as light weight, low volume, low cost, low scattering cross section, planar configuration and compatibility with MMIC’s have led to manifold applications over a wide frequency range from few MU to about $0 GHz [12-15]. In the early 1970, Byron [16] reported first microstrip antenna in open literature that gave the idea of a conducting strip radiator separated from a ground plane by a dielectric substrate. It consisted of a strip radiator having a length of several wavelengths and width of half wavelength. It was fed at periodic intervals along with the radiating edges separated from a ground plane by a dielectric strip. The strip was fed at periodic space points using coaxial feeds along the radiating edges and was used as an array. Howell [17] in 1972 presented very important data on the rectangular and circular patches. A low profile antenna consisted of planar resonating clement separated from a ground plane by a dielectric substrate whose thickness was small as compared to the wavelength was designed. Feeding to the line was efiected either by coaxial line or by a stripline feed. Munson [18] in 1974 demonstrated a new class of microstrip wraparound antenna suitable for m ssiles using microstrip radiator and microstrip feed networks on the same substrate. This low profile microstrip atray offered nearly 90% efficiency and almost omni-directional coverage. In 1979, Long, S.A. and Walton, D.M. propos antenna, The results show a bandwidth enhancement along with dual frequency ed a dual-frequency stacked circular-dis characteristics [19]. Nowicki [20] presented a detailed study on different dielectric materials available because dielectric material properties play a significant role in the design procedure. Dielectric constant (high or low), loss tangent, homogeneity, coefficients, etc are all important parameters in the selection of a suitable substrate/diclectric material. C. Wood in 1980 used parasitic patches in order to improve the impedance bandwidth of microstrip antennas [21]. With this in the same year, a planar inverted P-antenna (PIFA) is also proposed for mobile communications, These PIFA. antennas provided options to alter its geometry for obtaining good properties such as multiband and omnidirectional [4]. Kaloi, Cyril M proposed a multi-band single-feed microstrip amtenna system in 1982. ‘The muhi- band microstrip antenna comprises wo (or more) separate microstrip radiating elements which operate at differem widely separated frequencies while fed from a s input point. ‘The common input point is fed at both (Iwo and more) frequenc’ ngle common es from a single 5 transmission feed line, and the different elements are connected at their respective feed points to the common input point by respective transmission lines. This invention relates to low physical profile antennas and particularly to a multi-band single-feed microstrip antenna system, For most applications using antennas with very thin substrates, 1s extremely difficult o produce antennas that are wide band enough (o cover two or more widely spaced frequencies [22]. Munson and Demeryd [23-24] first proposed the theoretical analysis through mathematical modeling of microstrip antennas carried out by applying transmission line analogies to simple rectangular patches fed at the centre of a radiating wall. ‘This model is applicable only for patches of rectangular shape and not adaptable for the inclusion of Feed point, G. Kumar, K.C. Gupta (1984) proposed a broadband microstrip antenna, He used additional resonators gap coupled to the radiating edges. In the next year ie. 1985, they studied gap coupled multiple resonator broadband microstrip antennas with non- radiating edges [25-26]. In 1985, J. R, Mosig and F. E, Gardiol thoroughly studied the effect of parasitic elements on microstrip antennas. In this paper he studied that the parasitic elements, results in the enhancement of impedance bandwidth. He also studied different effects of Cock and C. G. parasitic patches on the characteristics of microstrip antennas [27]. R Christodoulou (1987) designed a two layer microstrip patch antenna. This antenna is coupled capacitively and thus operated for various broadband applications [28]. Bailey [29] suggested the wire grid model for the evaluation of icrostrip antenna characteristies, Here, the microstrip radiating structure was modeled as fine grid of wire segments and solved for the current on them using Richmong’s reaction theorem. From these current values, all the antenna characteristics of interest were obtained. This method is useful for the design of different microstrip antenna geometries like circular disc, circular segment and triangular patches. A more accurate athematical technique, known as cavity model, was suggested for the analysis of microstrip antennas by Lo et al. [30]. Here, the upper pach and the section of the ground plane located below it are joined by a magnetic wall under the edge of the patch. The structure now behaves as a dielectric resonator. The antenna characterieti of different patch geometries with arbitrary feed points can be calculated using this approach. The effects of radiation and other loss s are introduced in terms of either an artificially creased substrate loss tangent or by employing the impedance boundary conditions. C.K. ‘Aanandan et al. also studied a broadband gap coupled microstrip antenna in the year 1990. In this @ new antenna design is proposed using gap coupling method for the enhancement of impedance bandwidth [31]. Alexopoulos et al [32] discussed a Dyadic green's function technique for calculating the field radiated by a Hertzian dipole printed on a grounded 6 substrate. Mosig and Gantiol [33] generated a vector potential approach and applied the numerical techniques to evaluate the fields produced by microstrip antennas of any arbitrary shape. 'T. Huynh and K. F, Lee in 1995 gave a new microstrip patch antenna [34]. In this, Paper, they studied the wide band characteristics using single layer single patch antenna. In same year 1995, D. Burrell and K. Siwiak patented a Quarter-wave gap-coupled tunable strip antenna [35], K. L. Wong et al in 1997 proposed a broadband triangular microstrip antenna with U-shaped slot. In the same year, he also studied another broadband microstrip antenna. In this paper, he used chip resister loading for broadening of the bandwidth along with compact shape of the antenna design [36]. Newman et al (37-38] suggested the method of moments for the numerical analysis of microstrip antennas. ‘They used the Richmond's reaction method in connection with method of moments for calculating the unknown surface currents flowing on the walls forming the microstrip patch, ground plane and magnetic walls. This method can be adopted for the calculation of input impedance of microstrip antennas of arbitrary patch shapes. K.P, Ray and G. Kumar in 1997 proposed hybrid-coupled circular microstrip antennas [39]. This type of microstiip antennas resonates in multiple frequencies along with broad bandwidth, L. 2. Chen et al. 1097 studied the resonant frequency of circular disk printed circuit antenna [40]. Mohamed Sanad in 1997 proposed a patented design wideband double C-patch antenna ncluding gap-coupled parasitic elements. A wide bandwidth, shorted, dual C-patch antenna includes a truncated ground plane, a layer of dielectric material having a first surface overlying the ground plane and an opposing second surface, and an electrically conductive layer overlying the second opposing surface of the dielectric layer. The electrically conductive layer is differentiated into a plurality of antenna elements including a driven antenna elen nit and at least one non-driven, parasitic antenna element Each of the antenna elements is in the shape of a parallelogram and has one of a rectangular and a non-rectangular for e.g., parabolic, triangular, pentagonal aperture having a length that extends along a first edge of the electrically conductive layer and @ width that extends towards an oppositely disposed second edge [41]. Hammer et al [42] proposed an aperture model for calculating the radiation fields of microstrip antennas. This model accounts radiation from all the edges of the patch and can give the radiation field and the radiation resistance of any mode in a microstrip resonator antenna, Carver et al [43] suggested a numerical analysis based on the finite element method for deciding the field interior to the microstrip antenna cavity. This is a variational method that gives a solution closest to the true analytical solution. The problem can be solved with the help of the Figen value problem. A pentagonal shaped patch was analyzed using this method, R. B. Waterhouse in 199 designed a microstrip antenna using probe-fed stacked patches. The effect of probe feeding and stacking 18 therefore stucked in this paper. In the same year, R. B. Waterhouse proposed an antenna design using stacked patches. He used high and low dielectric constant material combination for the thorough study of the proposed antenna design. Again in this year R. B. Waterhouse et al. proposed a broadband CPW fed stacked patch antenna [44-46]. The circular microstrip patch has been rigorously treated by Butler 147]. He solved the problem of center fed circular microstrip antenna by considering the patch as a radiating annular slot, in which the radius of the outer ring is very large. Butler and ‘Yung [48] analyzed the rectangular microstrip antenna using this technique. In the year 1999, C.K. Wu and K. L. Wong studied a broadband mictostrip antenna with directly coupled and gap-coupled paras patches. This antenna design shows wide npedance bandwidth due to the gap coupling technique used [49]. The rectangular patch is the most regularly used microstrip antenna, and is distinguished by its length and width, The literature covers well-established studies on its far-field radiation pattorn, lonses, quality factor, input impedance and other electrical parameters, Another design is the circular patch antenna and its geometry is characterized by a single parameter, ly its radius. ‘The expressions for its electrical characteristics ate also studied in erature and suggested by Bahl and Bhai [50]. Long et al [51] measured the driving point impedance of a printed circuit antenna consisting of a circular disc separated by a dielectric from a ground plane. A theoretical RLC model is proposed for calculating the variation of input impedance with frequency and disc parameters. Carver [52] analyzed the circular microstrip antenna and gave an accurate formula for its resonant frequency. He showed that for the radiating patch, the resonant frequency is complex since the wall admittance is complex. He conducted some thorough investigations on the dependence of resonant frequency on the various substrate parameters. Wood [53] suggested a new technique for the production of circular polarization from a compact microstrip antenna based on a radiation from curved microstrip transmission lines supporting a single traveling wave. He gave the theoretical and expe: mental radiation patterns of ci cular sector antenna and a spiral antenna. Using these antennas he achieved an impedance bandwidth of 40 % at 1OGHz, Mink [54] developed a circular ting microstrip antenna, which operates at a substantially low frequency compared to a circular patch antenna at the same size. Chadha [55] reported Green’s functions for triangular segments in microwave planar circuits. This work enabled the 8 analysis of certain triangular shaped antenna using Green's function method. K C Gupta [56- 57] developed Green's functions of circular sector, annular ring and annular sector shaped segments in microwave planar circuits and microstrip antennas. Shen [58] analyzed the elliptical mictostnp antenna and showed that the radiation from this antenna 1s circularly polarized in a narrow band when the eccentricity of the ellipse is small. Here only a single feed is necessary to achieve circular polarization, Newman [59] studied strip antennas in a dielectric slab for the analysis of microstrip patch antennas of different shapes. This method is accurate, but requires precise computation. A comprehensive review of the microstrip antenna technology till 1981 is provided by Carver and Mink [60]. Here, the dielectric constant was varied from 1.7 to 1.14 depending upon the thickness of the dielectric layers Certain numerical and analytical techniques for the analysis of microstrip antennas. are briefed in this study. The substrates available are also discussed. Design procedures for the most popular geometries (rectangular and circular) are given and the necessity for further research is also discussed. In 2001, Manoj Kumar Meshram and Babau R. Vishyakarma proposed a gap coupled microstrip array antenna. He used gap coupling technique in order (o enhance the impedance band hand thus operation over of the antenna over a wide frequency range [61]. In the year 2006, Y. Zehforvosh, C. Ghobadi and J. Nourinia proposed an antenna design for ultra ‘wideband application using a new multilayer structure (62). In the same year, K. P. Ray, S Ghosh and K. Nirmala also gave an analysis of compact broadband gap-coupled microstrip antennas [63]. In 2007, P. Kumar et al. numerically computed the resonant frequency of gap coupled circular microstrip antennas [64]. K. P. Ray et al. in the same year 2007 studied a gap coupled microstrip antenna with rectangular shape for dual and triple frequency operation 165). Recently in the year 2009, J. A. Ansari et al. gave a numerical model for the analysis of ‘multilayer patch antenna, He theoretically analyzed the microstrip patch antenna using two parasitic elements (661. 1.2 Microstrip Patch Antenna Theory In its most fundamental form, a microstrip patch antenna (MPA) consists of a radiating patch on one side of a dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on the other side as shown in Figure 1.1. The patch is generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible shape. The radiating parch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate, In order to simplify analysis and performance prediction, the patch is generally square, rectangular, circular, triangular, and elliptical or some other common shape as shown in Figure 1.2 [67] Edge Feed na t Ground Substrate Figure 1.1: Arbitrary shaped microstrip patch antenna Mami a Square Rectangle Dipole ‘Triangle Circular Elliptical Figure 1.2: Common shapes of microstrip patch elements Microstrip patch antennas rad Primarily hecanse af the fringing fields hetwoen the patch edge and the ground plane. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency, larger bandwidth and better radiation, However, such a configuration leads to a larger antenna size. In order to design a compact microstrip patch antenna, substrates with higher dielectric constants must be used which are less efficient and result in narrower bandwidth. Hence @ trade-off must be realized between the antenna dimer ions and antenna performance. 0 1.3 Feeding Techniques Four fundamental techniques to feed or excite a microstrip patch antenna include edge fed, probe fed, aperture coupled, and proximity coupled. These can be further simplified into direct (edge and probe) and noncontaet (aperture and proximity-coupled) methods. Some new excitation techniques are being developed, such as the L-shape probe; however, this is really a hybrid representation of the probe and proximity-coupled versions [68]. The properties of each feeding metiod ate suunnaized below 1.3.1 Edge Feed One of the original excitation methods for a microstrip patch antenna is the edge-fed, or microstrip-line fed technique, A schematic diagram representing this method is shown in Figure 1.3. Here a microstrip feed line of width wyis in direct contact with a rectangular patch conductor of length Zand width W. Typically the microstrip feed line comes in contact with one of the radiating edges of the patch, as shown in Figure 1.3, although cases where the contact is located along the width of the patch have also been examined. Fdge-fed patches have several advantages over other feed case of fabtivation, uiques. Oue of Key features oF this: teclmulogy is because the feed layout and patches can be etched on one board. For this reason many large planar arrays have been developed using edge-fed patches Its also very easy to control the level of the input impedance of an edge-fed patch. Simply by inserting the feed into the patch conductor the impedance at resonance can be adjusted fom very high 150 w 250 © when the contact point of the Feed Tine and te patch at the radiating edge of the patch, down to a couple of ohms if the contact point is near the center of the patch, Edge-fed patch material is used, s in their simplest form are relatively easy to model, if electrically thin ple transmission fine models can be utilized to give estimations of the Input tmpedance performance of the antenna. For cases when thntcker matertals are used, the modeling of the performance is not too straightforward. This is because of the current distribution of the discontinuities associated with the contact point between the microstrip line and the patch antenna. Also this form of feeding technique suffers from relatively high spurious feed radiation. This is simply because the feed network is not separated from the antenna and thus material suitable for efficient radiation for the antenna also causes the feed network to radiate, too. " Micros feed. Ws \ Substrate Figure 1.3: Schematic of edge-fed microstrip patch antenna 1.3.2 Probe Feed Probe feeding a microstrip patch antenna is another form of the original excitation methods proposed in the mid-1970s. A schematic diagram representing this configuration is shown Figure 1.4, in which a probe of radius ryextends through the ground plane and is connected to the patch conductor, typically suldeied 0 it, The probe ur feeding pin is usually the i conductor of a coaxial line; hence, probe feeding is often referred to as a coaxial feed. The probe position provides the impedance control in a Jar manner to inserting the feed for an edge-fed patch. Because of the direct contact between the feed transmission line and the patch antenna, probe feeding is referred to as a direct contact excitation mechanism. ZL Probe feed Figure 1 The probe-fed patch hi and filters may be located, is isolated from the radiating elements via a ground plane. This Schematic of probe-fed microstrip patch antenna s several key advantages. First, the feed network, where phase shifters feature allows independent optimization of each layer. Second, of all the excitation methods, probe feeding is probably the most efficient because the feed mechanism is in direet contact with the antenna and most of the feed network is isolated from the patch, minimizing spurious radiation. The high efficiency of this printed antenna has seen a renaissance of the 12 probe-fed-styled patch, despite the added complexity of developing a connection. Probe-fed microstrip patches have similar issues to edge-fed patches; namely, their bandwidth is somewhat small and these printed antennas are somewhat difficult to accurately analyze. ‘The probe used to couple power to the patch can generate somewhat high cross-polanized fields if electrically thick substrates are used. Also because this antenna is no longer single-layer geometry, as @ result of the location of the feed network, it is more complicated to manufacture, 1.3.3 Aperture Coupled Feed In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip feed line are separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure 1.5. Coupling between the patch and the feed line is, made through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane. ‘The coupling aperture is usually centered under the patch, leading to lower cross polarization due to symmetry of the configuration, ‘The amount of coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and location of the aperture. Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed line, spurious radiation is mini ized, Generally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom substrate and a thick, low dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch. The major disadvantage of this sd technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness. ‘This feeding scheme also provides narrow bandwidth. Sobers Mcroteip Feet Se ania ‘coool Feed ctatate perture-coupled feed 1.34 Proximity Coupled Feed This type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic coupling scheme. As shown in Figure 1.6, two dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is between the two substrates and the radiating patch 1s on top of the upper substrate. ‘The main advantage of this, feed technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides very high bandwidth, due to overall increase in the thickness of the microstrip patch antenna. This scheme also provides choices between two different dielectric media, one for the patch and one for the feed line to optimize the individual performances. Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed fine and the width-to- line ratio of the patch. ‘The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is that itis difficult to fabricate because of the two dielectric layers which need proper alignment. Also, there is an increase in the overall thickness of the N ee > Cn Figure 1.6: Proximity-coupled feed 1.4 Methods of Analysis and Mechanism of Microstrip Antennas 1.4.1 Transmission Line Model Transmission line Model is simples 0 consume method [69]. This model has the advantages lees time to predict antenna performance charactoristics of rectangular or oquare chaped microstrip patches. According to this model, a patch can be treated as having 1wo parallel radiating slots. Both slots are perpendicular to the feed line and separated by a transmission line having very low impedance. The length of line is chosen to be half of a wavelength 4 approximately to get the benefit of reverse fields. The equivalent network of the rectangular patch antenna, which has two radiating edges, can be represented by radiating edge conductance and susceptance. The admuttance of each of radiating edge or slot can be written as Y,=G+jB a) where, G represents the radiating edge conductance and is given by, tw ¥ “1 90 <2" & 1 we w 1 me %” (12) aun, D sepresenis the sled susceptance. w B= Byzlt— 0.63610 (kh) (3) Phe dimensions of Ue patel a uige alm ity Tengdls aan wid, dae ils at ne eyes of the patch goes to fringing. The fringing is a function of dimensions of patch and the height of substrate, Fringing is a function of the ratio of length of patch represented by L.to the height of substrate represented by h. Therefore. there is need to calculate effective nermittivity. eiris the effective permittivity of the substrate and itis equal to as where, eis the relative perm ivity of substrate, his the height of substrate and W is the width of patch. The tringing length represented by AL Ww (corp + 03) Gp + 0.264) (AL = 0.412h w (

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