Chng 1

M U

1.1. Tng quan v khoa hc tr tu nhn to

Trong CNTT, Tr Tu Nhn To (Artificial Intelligence) l mt ngnh mi,
nhng pht trin rt mnh m v em li nhiu kt qu to ln. Con ngi thng
t cho mnh l sinh vt thng minh v kh nng tr tu ng vai tr quan trong
trong cuc sng. Trong vn hc cng tng c nhng cu chuyn cao v tr
thng minh ca con ngi.
Tr Tu Nhn To ch mi hnh thnh t nm 1956. Tuy nhin, vic nghin
cu tr tu c t lu. Trn 2000 nm trc, cc nh trit hc tm hiu v cch
thc nhn nhn, hc tp, nh v suy l. Vic ra i ca my tnh in t vo nhng
nm 50 ca th k 20 sinh ra khuynh hng a cc lnh vc nghin cu tr tu
v cc vn l thuyt v thc nghim trn my.
1.1.1. i tng v mc tiu nghin cu ca tr tu nhn to
+ i tng nghin cu: Tr tu nhn to nghin cu v cch hnh x (hay
c ch ca cc hnh vi) thng minh (intelligent behaviour) ngi v my.
+ Mc tiu: Xy dng l thuyt y v thng minh c th gii thch
c hot ng thng minh ca sinh vt v p dng c cc hiu bit vo cc
my mc ni chung, nhm phc v cho con ngi. (Hay ni cch khc to chic
my tnh c kh nng nhn thc, suy lun v phn ng).
* Th no l my thng minh?
L my vt qua c th nghim (trc nghim) Turing.
* Trc nghim Turing (Turing test):
Nm 1950, mt nh ton hc ngi Anh l Alan Turing vit nhng trang
sch u tin tr li mt cch c th cu hi: tr tu my c lin h nh th no vi
my tnh k thut s hin i? Liu c th lm cho mt my tnh thc s c kh
nng suy ngh hay khng?
gii quyt nhng m h trong cu hi ny, ng xut thay th cu
tr li bng kt qu ca mt trc nghim mang tnh thc nghim - trc nghim
Turing (Turing test) hay tr chi bt chc.

1
 Hnh 1.1. Trc nghim Turing
Trong trc nghim ny: mt my tnh v mt ngi tham gia trc nghim
c t vo trong cc cn phng cch bit vi mt ngi th hai (ngi thm
vn). Ngi thm vn khng bit c chnh xc i tng no l ngi hay my
tnh, v cng ch c th giao tip vi hai i tng thng qua cc phng tin
k thut nh mt thit b son tho vn bn, hay thit b u cui.
Ngi thm vn c nhim v phn bit ngi vi my tnh bng cch ch
da trn nhng cu tr li ca h i vi nhng cu hi c truyn qua thit b
lin lc ny.
Trong trng hp nu ngi thm vn khng th phn bit c my tnh
vi ngi (tc khng cn rng buc my lm g, nh th no min l my lm
cho ngi thm vn tng my l ngi) th khi , theo Turing, my tnh ny c
th c xem l thng minh.
* u im ca trc nghim Turing:
N a ra mt khi nim khch quan v tr tu, tc l hnh vi ca mt thc
th thng minh no p ng li mt tp hp cc cu hi c th. Vic ny cho
chng ta mt chun mc xc nh tr thng minh.
N trnh cho chng ta khi b lc ng bi nhng cu hi rc ri v hin
thi cha th tr li c, chng hn nh my tnh c s dng nhng suy lun
thch hp bn trong n hay khng? hay my tnh thc s c thc c nhng
hnh ng ca n hay khng?
N loi tr bt c nh kin thin v no v bt buc ngi thm vn ch tp
trung vo ni dung cc cu tr li.
* Nh vy::
- V mt k thut: To ra cc my thng minh gii quyt vn thc t
dng cc k thut AI.
- Khoa hc: Pht trin cc khi nim v thut ng hiu c cc hnh x
thng minh ca sinh vt.
1.1.2. Vai tr ca tr tu nhn to

2
 Tr tu nhn to bao qut rt nhiu lnh vc nghin cu hp. N nghin cu
t cc lnh vc tng qut nh my nhn bit, suy lun logic, n cc bi ton nh
chi c, chng minh nh l. Thng th cc nh khoa hc cc lnh vc khc tm
n vi tr tu nhn to cc k thut h thng ho v t ng ho cc x l tri
thc cng nh cc phng php thuc lnh vc mang tnh ngi.
Tr tu nhn to nghin cu k thut lm cho my tnh c th suy ngh mt
cch thng minh v m phng qu trnh suy ngh ca con ngi khi a ra nhng
quyt nh, li gii. Trn c s , thit k cc chng trnh cho my tnh gii
quyt bi ton.
S ra i v pht trin ca Tr tu nhn to to ra mt bc nhy vt v
cht trong k thut v k ngh x l thng tin. Tr tu nhn to chnh l c s ca
cng ngh x l thng tin mi, c lp vi cng ngh x l thng tin truyn thng
da trn vn bn giy t. iu ny c th hin qua cc mt sau:
- Nh nhng cng c hnh thc ho (cc m hinh logic ngn ng, logic
m,...), cc tri thc th tc v tri thc m t c th biu din c trong my. Do
vy qu trnh gii bi ton c tin hnh hu hiu hn.
- M hnh logic ngn ng m rng kh nng ng dng ca my tnh
trong lnh vc i hi tri thc chuyn gia trnh cao, rt kh nh: y hc, sinh
hc, a l, t ng ha.
- Mt s phn mm tr tu nhn to th hin tnh thch nghi v tnh mm do
i vi cc lp bi ton thuc nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
- Khi my tnh c trang b cc phn mm tr tu nhn to ghp mng s
cho php gii quyt nhng bi ton c ln v phn tn.
So snh k thut lp trnh truyn thng v k thut x l tri thc
trong TTNT
Truyn thng TTNT
X l d liu X l tri thc
X l theo cc thut ton X l theo cc thut gii Heuristics

X l tun t theo l X l theo ch tng tc cao (ngn ng t

nhin, c giao tip vi bn ngoi)
Khng gii thch trong qu trnhC th gii thch hnh vi h thng trong qu
thc hin trnh thc hin

1.1.3. Cc k thut tr tu nhn to

C nhiu k thut nghin cu, pht trin ngnh khoa hc Tr tu nhn to.
Tuy vy, cc k thut Tr tu nhn to thng kh phc tp khi ci t c th, l do

3
l cc k thut ny thin v x l cc k hiu tng trng v i hi phi s dng
nhng tri thc chuyn mn thuc nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
Do vy, cc k thut Tr tu nhn to hng ti khai thc nhng tri thc v
lnh vc ang quan tm c m ho trong my sao cho t c mc tng
qut; d hiu, d din t thng qua ngn ng chuyn mn gn gi vi ngn ng
t nhin; d sa i, hiu chnh, d s dng, khai thc nhm thu hp cc kh nng
cn xt i ti li gii cui cng.
* Cc k thut Tr tu nhn to c bn bao gm :
- L thuyt gii bi ton v suy din thng minh: L thuyt gii bi ton
cho php vit cc chng trnh gii cu , chi cc tr chi thng qua cc suy
lun mang tnh ngi; cc h thng chng minh nh l. Ngoi ra cc h thng hi
p thng minh cn cho php lu tr v x l khi lng ln cc thng tin.
- L thuyt tm kim may ri: L thuyt ny bao gm cc phng php v
k thut tm kim vi s h tr ca thng tin ph gii bi ton mt cch c hiu
qu.
- Cc ngn ng v Tr tu nhn to: x l cc tri thc ngi ta khng
ch s dng cc ngn ng lp trnh dng cho cc x l d liu s, m cn c ngn
ng khc. Cc ngn ng chuyn dng ny cho php lu tr v x l thng tin k
hiu. Mt s ngn ng c nhiu ngi bit n l IPL.V,LISP, PROLOG.
- L thuyt th hin tri thc v h chuyn gia: Tr tu nhn to l khoa
hc v th hin v s dng tri thc. Mng ng ngha, lc , logic v t, khung l
cc phng php th hin tri thc thng dng. Vic gn lin cch th hin v s
dng tri thc l c s hnh thnh h chuyn gia.
- L thuyt nhn dng v x l ting ni: Giai on pht trin u ca Tr
tu nhn to gn vi l thuyt nhn dng. Cc phng php nhn dng chnh gm:
nhn dng hnh hc, nhn dng dng tm l hc, nhn dng theo phng php
hm th, dng my nhn dng. ng dng ca phng php ny trong vic nhn
dng ch vit, m thanh.
- Ngi my: Cui nhng nm 70, ngi my trong cng nghip t
c nhiu tin b. Ngi my c b phn cm nhn v cc c ch hot ng
c ni ghp theo s iu khin thng minh. Khoa hc v c hc v Tr tu nhn
to c tch hp trong khoa hc ngi my.
- Tm l hc x l thng tin : Cc kt qu nghin cu ca tm l hc gip
Tr tu nhn to xy dng cc c ch tr li theo hnh vi, c thc; n gip cho
vic thc hin cc suy din mang tnh ngi.
- Ngoi ra, x l danh sch, k thut quy, k thut quay lui v x l
c php hnh thc l nhng k thut c bn ca tin hc truyn thng c lin quan
trc tip n Tr tu nhn to.
4
1.2. Lch s pht trin ca tr tu nhn to
Lch s ca Tr tu nhn to cho thy ngnh khoa hc ny c nhiu kt qu
ng ghi nhn. Theo cc mc pht trin, ngi ta thy Tr tu nhn to c sinh
ra t nhng nm 50 vi cc s kin sau:
Turing c coi l ngi khai sinh ngnh Tr tu nhn to bi pht hin ca
ng v my tnh c th lu tr chng trnh v d liu.
Thng 8/1956 J.Mc Carthy, M. Minsky, A. Newell, Shannon. Simon , a
ra khi nim tr tu nhn to.
Vo khong nm 1960 ti i hc MIT (Massachussets Institure of
Technology) ngn ng LISP ra i, ph hp vi cc nhu cu x l c trng
ca tr tu nhn to - l ngn ng lp trnh u tin dng cho tr tu
nhn to.
Thut ng Tr tu nhn to c dng u tin vo nm 1961 cng ti MIT.
Nhng nm 60 l giai on lc quan cao v kh nng lm cho my tnh
bit suy ngh. Trong giai on ny ngi ta c chng kin my chi c
u tin v cc chng trnh chng minh nh l t ng.
C th: 1961: Chng trnh tnh tch phn bt nh
1963: Cc chng trnh Heuristics: Chng trnh chng minh cc
nh l hnh hc khng gian c tn l tng t, chng trnh chi c ca
Samuel.
1964: Chng trnh gii phng trnh i s s cp, chng trnh tr
gip ELIZA (c kh nng lm vic ging nh mt chuyn gia phn tich tm l).
1966: Chng trnh phn tch v tng hp ting ni
1968: Chng trnh iu khin ngi my (Robot) theo n Mt
tay, chng trnh hc ni.
Vo nhng nm 60, do gii hn kh nng ca cc thit b, b nh v c
bit l yu t thi gian thc hin nn c s kh khn trong vic tng qut
ho cc kt qu c th vo trong mt chng trnh mm do thng minh.
Vo nhng nm 70, my tnh vi b nh ln v tc tnh ton nhanh
nhng cc phng php tip cn Tr tu nhn to c vn tht bi (do s
bng n t hp trong qu trnh tm kim li gii cc bi ton t ra).
Vo cui nhng nm 70 mt vi kt qu nh x l ngn ng t nhin, biu
din tri thc v gii quyt vn . Nhng kt qu to iu kin cho
sn phm thng mi u tin ca Tr tu nhn to ra i l H chuyn
gia, c em p dng trong cc lnh vc khc nhau (H chuyn gia l mt
phn mm my tnh cha cc thng tin v tri thc v mt lnh vc c th

5
 no , c kh nng gii quyt nhng yu cu ca ngi s dng trong mt
mc no , mt trnh nh mt chuyn gia con ngi c kinh
nghim kh lu nm).
Mt s kin quan trng vo nhng nm 70 l s ra i ngn ng Prolog,
tng t LISP nhng n c c s d liu i km.
Vo nhng nm 80, th trng cc sn phm dn dng c kh nhiu sn
phm trnh cao nh: my git, my nh,... s dng Tr tu nhn to.
Cc h thng nhn dng v x l nh, ting ni.
Nhng nm 90, cc nghin cu nhm vo ci t thnh phn thng minh
trong cc h thng thng tin, gi chung l ci t tr tu nhn to, lm r
hn cc ngnh ca khoa hc Tr tu nhn to v tin hnh cc nghin cu
mi, c bit l nghin cu v c ch suy l, v Tr tu nhn to phn to,
v cc m hnh tng tc.
* Nhng c trng ca Tr tu nhn to
Tr tu nhn to x l thng tin theo trt t k hiu. Cc thng tin gm: khi
nim, lut, cc i tng ? dng cho suy l. Khi nim c bn trong Tr tu
nhn to l s th hin, suy l, nhn bit, vic hc v h thng c s tri
thc.
Phng php may ri hay c dng trong Tr tu nhn to. Phng php
ny cho php gii hai lp bi ton kh. Th nht l nhng bi ton cha c
thut gii ( bi ton nhn bit, ra quyt nh). Th hai l cc bi ton c
thut gii nhng phc tp ln ( chng hn bi ton chi c).
Tr tu nhn to xt n nhng thng tin khng y , khng chnh xc, c
v mu thun. Tuy vy, cc kt qu ca Tr tu nhn to l c th.
Vic tng tc ngi- my i i vi nhn bit t ng l cn thit trong Tr
tu nhn to. Cc bi ton nhn dng l v d v yu cu ny.
Tr tu nhn to lin quan n nhiu lnh vc, nh cc k thut mi, logic
hc, khoa hc nhn bit, ngn ng hc, khoa hc v t chc, thn kinh hc.
Tr tu nhn to cn nm trong cc lnh vc nghin cu nng cao, cc n
nghin cu quan trng.
1.3. Mt s vn tr tu nhn to quan tm

1.3.1. Nhng vn chung

Khoa hc Tr tu nhn to lin quan n cm gic, tri gic v c qu trnh t
duy thng qua cc hnh vi, giao tip. N c cc nh hng nghin cu, ng dng
sau:

6
 - Tm v nghin cu cc th tc gip con ngi tin hnh cc hot ng
sng to. Cng vic sng to c thc hin trn m hnh theo cu trc, chc nng
v s dng cng ngh thng tin.
- Dng ngn ng t nhin. Trc ht l ngn ng c dng th hin tri
thc, tip thu v chuyn ho sang dng c th x l c.
- Hnh thc ho cc kha cnh, cc hnh vi lin quan n Tr tu nhn to.
Do vy c th xy dng cc bi ton mang tnh ngi v thng minh.
Cc hot ng ln trong Tr tu nhn to bao gm: chng minh nh l, x
l ngn ng t nhin, hiu ting ni, phn tch nh v hnh, ngi my v h
chuyn gia. V ci t h thng, khuynh hng hin ti ca Tr tu nhn to l ci
t cc h Tr tu nhn to trong cc h thng khc, c bit l trong cc h thng
tin hc.
1.3.2. Nhng vn cha c gii quyt trong tr tu nhn to
Nhng thnh tu nghin cu v ng dng cc k thut Tr tu nhn to
khng nh tnh thc tin ca cc d n xy dng my tnh c kh nng suy ngh.
Tuy vy trong mt s phm vi, my tnh cn thua xa so vi hot ng ca h
thn kinh con ngi:
S khc nhau trong hot ng gia my tnh v b no con ngi, iu ny
th hin u th ca my tnh so vi b no ngi v kh nng tnh ton rt ln
(nht l trong cc chng trnh x l d liu ln).
X l song song: mc d cng ngh in t hin i cho php xy dng cc
b a x l, song my tnh khng th hot ng song song nh b no con ngi
c.
Kh nng din gii: con ngi c th xem xt cng mt vn theo nhng
phng php khc nhau, t din gii theo cch d hiu nht. Ngc li, s linh
hot ny khng th m phng c trong cc h thng Tr tu nhn to.
Lgic ri rc v tnh lin tc: mt thch ln vi cc h thng Tr tu
nhn to l kh nng kt hp cc phng php x l thng tin trong mi trng
lin tc vi cc thao tc x l thng tin ri rc.
Kh nng hc: mc d hin nay my tnh c nhiu tnh nng cao nhng
cng khng th m phng c hon ton kh nng hc ging b no con ngi.
Kh nng t t chc: cho ti nay, ngi ta cha th to lp c cc h
thng Tr tu nhn to c kh nng t t chc, t iu khin hot ng ca n
thch nghi vi mi trng.
1.3.3. Nhng vn t ra trong tng lai ca tr tu nhn to

7
 Trong tng lai, nhng nghin cu v ng dng ca Tr tu nhn to tp trung
vo cc vn ln sau:
Nghin cu v th nghim cc mng Neuron, cc h thng Tr tu nhn to m
phng chc nng hot ng ca b no vi cc kh nng hc, t t chc, t thch
nghi, tng qut ho, x l song song, c kh nng din gii, x l thng tin lin tc
v ri rc.
Nghin cu v to lp cc h thng c giao tip thn thin gia ngi v my
trn c s nghin cu nhn thc my, thu thp v x l tri thc, x l thng tin
hnh nh, ting ni.
Nghin cu cc phng php biu din tri thc v cc phng php suy din
thng minh, cc phng php gii quyt vn i vi nhng bi ton ph thuc
khng gian, thi gian.
Ngy nay, th gii ang chuyn mnh trong nhng nghin cu v Tr tu nhn
to. Chc chn rng my tnh vi tr tu nh con ngi s tc ng mnh n cuc
sng x hi.
1.4. Cc khi nim c bn
Tr tu con ngi (Human Intelligence): Cho n nay c hai khi nim v
tr tu con ngi c chp nhn v s dng nhiu nht, l:
* Khi nim tr tu theo quan im ca Turing:
Tr tu l nhng g c th nh gi c thng qua cc trc nghim thng
minh
* Khi nim tr tu a ra trong t in bch khoa ton th:
Tr tu l kh nng:
Phn ng mt cch thch hp nhng tnh hung mi thng qua hiu chnh
hnh vi mt cch thch ng.
Hiu r nhng mi lin h qua li ca cc s kin ca th gii bn ngoi
nhm a ra nhng hnh ng ph hp t ti mt mc ch no .
Nhng nghin cu cc chuyn gia tm l hc nhn thc ch ra rng qu
trnh hot ng tr tu ca con ngi bao gm 4 thao tc c bn:
- Xc nh tp ch (goals).
- Thu thp cc s kin (facts) v cc lut suy din (inference rules) t
c ch t ra.
- Thu gn (pruning) qu trnh suy lun nhm xc nh tp cc suy din c
th s dng c.
- p dng cc c ch suy din c th (inference mechanisms) a cc s
kin ban u i n ch.

8
 Tr tu my: cng khng c mt nh ngha tng quat, nhng cng c th
nu cc c trng chnh:
- Kh nng hc.
- Kh nng m phng hnh vi ca con ngi.
- Kh nng tru tng ho, tng qut ho v suy din .
- Kh nng t gii thch hnh vi.
- Kh nng thch nghi tnh hung mi k c thu np tri thc v d liu.
- Kh nng x l cc biu din hnh thc nh cc k hiu tng trng.
- Kh nng s dng tri thc heuristic.
- Kh nng x l cc thng tin khng y , khng chnh xc.
Tr tu nhn to (AI - Artificial Intelligence): c th c nh ngha nh
mt ngnh ca khoa hc my tnh lin quan n vic t ng ha cc hnh vi
thng minh.
AI l mt b phn ca khoa hc my tnh v do n phi c t trn
nhng nguyn l, l thuyt vng chc, c kh nng ng dng c. Nhng
nguyn l ny bao gm: cc cu trc d liu dng cho biu din tri thc, cc thut
ton cn thit p dng nhng tri thc , cng cc ngn ng v k thut lp
trnh dng cho vic ci t chng.
1.5. Mt s chuyn ngnh (lnh vc ng dng) ca tr tu nhn to
- Cc phng php tm kim li gii
- H chuyn gia
- X l ngn ng t nhin
- L thuyt nhn dng
- Lp k hoch v Ngi my (Robot)
- My hc
- Cc m hnh thn kinh (Mng Neuron v gii thut di truyn)
..

9
 Chng 2
BIU DIN VN TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI

2.1. t vn
Trong cc lnh vc nghin cu ca Tr Tu Nhn To, chng ta thng
xuyn phi i u vi vn (bi ton) tm kim, v th chng ta phi c nhng
k thut tm kim p dng gii quyt cc vn (bi ton) .
Khi gii quyt bi ton bng phng php tm kim, trc ht ta phi xc
nh khng gian tm kim bao gm tt c cc i tng trn thc hin vic tm
kim.
N c th l khng gian lin tc, chng hn khng gian cc vct thc n
chiu, n cng c th l khng gian cc i tng ri rc.
Nh vy, ta s xt vic biu din mt vn trong khng gian trng thi sao
cho vic gii quyt vn c quy v vic tm kim trong khng gian trng thi.
Mt phng php biu din vn ph hp l s dng cc khi nim trng
thi (state) v ton t (operator) [Php bin i trng thi].
Phng php gii quyt vn da trn khi nim trng thi v ton t
c gi l cch tip cn gii quyt vn nh khng gian trng thi.
2.2. M t trng thi
Gii bi ton trong khng gian trng thi, trc ht phi xc nh dng m
t trng thi bi ton sao cho bi ton tr nn n gin hn, ph hp bn cht vt
l ca bi ton (C th s dng cc xu k hiu, vct, mng hai chiu, cy, danh
sch).
Mi trng thi chnh l mi hnh trng ca bi ton, cc tnh trng ban u
v tnh trng cui ca bi ton gi l trng thi u v trng thi cui.
V d 1: Bi ton ong nc
Cho 2 bnh c dung tch ln lt l m v n (lit). Vi ngun nc khng hn
ch, dng 2 bnh trn ong k lit nc. Khng mt tnh tng qut c th gi thit
k <= min(m,n).
Ti mi thi im xc nh, lng nc hin c trong mi bnh phn nh
bn cht hnh trng ca bi ton thi im .
- Gi x l lng nc hin c trong bnh dung tch m v y l lng nc
hin c trong bnh dung tch n. Nh vy b c th t (x,y) c th xem l trng thi
ca bi ton. Vi cch m t nh vy, cc trng thi c bit ca bi ton s l:
- Trng thi u: (0,0)
- Trng thi cui: (x,k) hoc (k,y), 0 x m , 0 y n
V d 2: Bi ton tr chi 8 s
10
 Trong bng vung 3 hng, 3 ct , mi cha mt s nm trong phm vi t
1 n 8 sao cho khng c 2 c cng gi tr, c mt trong bng b trng (khng
cha gi tr no c. Xut pht t mt sp xp no cc s trong bng, hy dch
chuyn trng sang phi-right, sang tri-left, ln trn-up hoc xung di-down
(nu c th c) a bng ban u v bng qui c trc.
Chng hn Hnh 2.1 trn y l bng xut pht v Hnh 2.2 l bng m ta
phi thc hin cc bc di chuyn trng t c.

Hnh 2.1 Hnh 2.2

Gi tr cc phn t trong bng xc nh trng thi bi ton. V vy c th m
t trng thi ca bi ton bng mt ma trn A3*3= (aij), aij{0..8}, aij < > akl, i<>k,
j<> l.
- Trng thi u ca bi ton l ma trn:
2 8 3

1 6 4
7 0 5

- Trng thi cui l ma trn:

1 2 3

8 0 4
7 6 5

C th pht biu dng tng qut ca bi ton ny (Tr chi n2-1 s).
V d 3: Bi ton thp H Ni
Cho ba cc 1, 2, 3. cc 1 ban u c n a sp xp theo th t to dn t
di ln trn. Hy dch chuyn n a sang cc th 3 sao cho:
- Mi ln ch chuyn mt a.
- Trong mi cc khng cho php a to nm trn a nh hn.

A A
B B
C c
1 2 3 1 2 3
Hnh 2.3. Bi ton thp H Ni (n=3)
11
 Bi ton xc nh khi bit c tng a ang nm cc no. Hay ni cch
khc, c hai cch xc nh:
- Cc 1 hin ang cha nhng a no? Cc 2 hin ang cha nhng a
no? V cc 3 ang cha nhng a no.
- a ln th i hin ang nm cc no? ( i = 1 n )
Nh vy cch m t trng thi bi ton khng duy nht, vn l chn cch
m t no t c mc ch d dng nht.
Theo trn, vi cch th nht ta phi dng 3 danh sch ng v s a trn
mi cc l khc nhau trong tng thi im khc nhau.
Cch th hai, nhn qua th kh m t nhng da vo khi nim v b c th
t trong ton hc, cch ny m t bi ton hiu qu hn. Tht vy, nu gi xi l cc
cha a ln th i, trong xi{1, 2, 3}, i{1 ..n}. Khi b c th t (x1,
x2, . . ,xn) c th dng lm dng m t trng thi ang xt ca bi ton. Vi cch
m t ny th:
- Trng thi u l (1,1,. . .,1)
- Trng thi cui l (3,3,. . .,3)
2.3. Ton t chuyn trng thi
Ton t chuyn trng thi thc cht l cc php bin i a t trng thi
ny sang trng thi khc. C hai cch dng biu din cc ton t:
- Biu din nh mt hm xc nh trn tp cc trng thi v nhn gi tr
cng trong tp ny.
- Biu din di dng cc quy tc sn xut S? A c ngha l nu c trng
thi S th c th a n trng thi A.
V d 1: Bi ton ong nc
Cc thao tc s dng chuyn trng thi ny sang trng thi khc gm:
y mt bnh, ht nc trong mt bnh ra ngoi, nc t bnh ny
sang bnh khc. Nh vy, nu trng thi ang xt l (x,y) th cc trng thi k tip
c th chuyn n s l:
(m,y)
(x,n)
(0,y)
(x,0)
(x,y) (0, x+ y) nu x+y < = n
(x+y -n,n) nu x+y > n
(x+ y,0) nu x+y < = m
(m, x+y-m) nu x+y > m
V d 2: Tr chi 8 s
12
 Cc thao tc chuyn trng thi tng ng vi vic chuyn trng sang
phi, sang tri, ln, xung nu c th c.
- Biu din theo quy tc sn xut:
1325487
6
1342587
1342587
6
6

1342568
7

- Biu din theo mt hm:

Gi hm fu l hm biu din cho ton t chuyn trng ln trn; gi B (B=
(bij)) l trng thi sau khi di chuyn trng trng thi A (A= (a ij)) ln trn, ngha
l: B= fu(A), gi s trng ang v tr (i 0, j0) (hay ni cch khc ai0 j0 = 0) th hm
f c xc nh nh sau:
aij (i, j) nu i0 = 1
fu(aij) = aij nu (i, j) (i0-1, j0) v (i, j) (i0, j0) v i0 >1
ai0-1, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0, j0), i0 >1
ai0, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0-1, j0), i0 >1
Tng t, c th xc nh cc php chuyn trng xung di f d, qua tri fl,
qua phi fr nh sau:
aij (i, j) nu i0 = 3
fd(aij) = aij nu (i, j) (i0+1, j0) v (i, j) (i0, j0) v i0 <3
ai0-1, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0, j0), i0 <3
ai0, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0+1, j0), i0 <3

aij (i, j) nu j0 = 1
fl(aij) = aij nu (i, j) (i0, j0-1) v (i, j) (i0, j0) v j0 > 1
ai0-1, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0, j0), j0 > 1
ai0, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0, j0-1), j0 > 1

aij (i, j) nu j0 = 3
fr(aij) = aij nu (i, j) (i0, j0+1) v (i, j) (i0, j0) v j0 < 3
ai0-1, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0, j0), j0 < 3
ai0, j0 nu (i, j) = (i0, j0+1), j0 < 3
V d 3: Bi ton Thp H Ni vi n=3.
Mi trng thi l mt b ba (i, j, k). C cc trng hp nh sau:
13
 - Ba a cng nm trn mt cc: (i, i, i)
- Hai a cng nm trn mt cc: (i, i, j), (i, j, i), (j, i, i)
- Ba a nm trn ba cc phn bit: (i, j, k)
(i, i, i) (i, i, j)
(i, i, k)
(i, i, j) (i, i, k)
(i, k, j)
(i, i, i)
(i, j, i) (i, j, k)
(i, j, j)
(i, k, i)
(j, i, i) (j, i, j)
(j, i, k)
(k, i, i)
(i, j, k) (i, i, k)
(i, j, j)
(i, j, i)
2.4. Khng gian trng thi ca bi ton
Khng gian trng thi l tp tt c cc trng thi c th c v tp cc ton t
ca bi ton.
Khng gian trng thi l mt b bn, K hiu: K= (T, S, G, F). Trong :
T: tp tt c cc trng thi c th c ca bi ton
S: trng thi u
G: tp cc trng thi ch
F: tp cc ton t
V d 1: Khng gian trng thi ca bi ton ong nc l b bn T, S, G, F
xc inh nh sau:
4 T = { (x,y) / 0 <= x <= m; 0 <= y <= n }
5 S = (0,0)
6 G = { (x,k) hoc (k,y) / 0 <= x <= m; 0 <= y <= n}
7 F = Tp cc thao tc ong y, ra hoc sang bnh khc thc hin trn mt
bnh.
V d 2: Khng gian trng thi ca bi ton Thp H ni vi n = 3:
T = { (x1, x2, x3)/ xi {1, 2, 3} }
S = (1, 1, 1)
G = {(3, 3, 3)}
F = Tp cc kh nng c th chuyn a xc nh trong phn trc.
14
 V d 3: Khng gian trng thi ca bi ton tr chi 8 s:
T = { (aij)3x3 / 0<= aij <= 8 v aij <> akl vi i<> j hoc k <> l}
S = Ma trn xut pht ca bi ton
G = Ma trn cui cng ca bi ton (cc s nm theo v tr yu cu)
F = {fl, fr, fu, fd}
Tm kim li gii trong khng gian trng thi l qu trnh tm kim xut
pht t trng thi ban u, da vo ton t chuyn trng thi xc nh cc trng
thi tip theo cho n khi gp c trng thi ch.
Nh vy, mun biu din mt vn trong khng gian trng thi, ta cn xc
nh cc yu t sau:
- Trng thi ban u.
- Mt tp hp cc ton t. Trong mi ton t m t mt hnh ng hoc
mt php bin i c th a mt trng thi ti mt trng thi khc.
Tp hp tt c cc trng thi c th t ti t trng thi ban u bng cch
p dng mt dy ton t, lp thnh khng gian trng thi ca vn .
2.5. Biu din khng gian trng thi di dng th

2.5.1. Cc khi nim

th G = (V,E) trong V:tp nh, E: tp cung (EV*V)
Ch :
- G l th v hng th (i, j) l mt cnh cng nh l (j, i) (tc l:(i, j)E
th (j,i)E).
- Nu G l th c hng th cung (i, j) hon ton khc vi cung (j, i).
V d: Xt th v hng G1 v th c hng G2
1 1

2 4 2 4

G1 3 G2 3
Tp nh k:
nV, T(n)={mV/ (n,m) E} c gi l tp cc nh k ca n.
ng i:
p = (n1,...,nk) c gi l ng i t nh n1 nk nu ni V, i=1,k
(ni, ni+1)E i=1, k -1.
Cy l th c nh gc n0V tho:

15
 Mt th G=(V, E) gi l cy nu tn ti mt nh n 0V c nhng tnh
cht sau:

- nV, nT(n0), trong T(n0): tp cc nh thuc dng di ca n0 (n0 l
t tin ca n).
- nV, mV sao cho nT(m), m c gi l cha ca n.
2.5.2. Biu din khng gian trng thi bng th
Theo ngn ng th, khng gian trng thi tng ng vi mt th nh
hng trong : Cc trng thi tng ng vi cc nh trong th, nu tn ti
ton t chuyn trng thi th c cung (s, t).
thy r mi tng quan, ta c bng sau:
KGTT th
Trng thi nh
Ton t Cung
Dy cc trng thi lin tip ng i

2.5.3. Biu din th

Cho th G = (V,E), gi s V={1, 2,....,n}. C hai cch thng dng
biu din th G lu tr trong my tnh.
* Biu din bng ma trn k
th G c biu din bi ma trn k A=(a ij)nxn vi n l s nh ca th,
trong :
aij = 1 nu (i, j) E
0 trong trng hp ngc li
Nu G l th v hng th ma trn k A l ma trn i xng.
V d: Vi th v hng G1 v th c hng G2 trn ta c cc ma
trn k sau:
G1: G2:
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

* Biu din bng danh sch k

Vi mi nh i ca th, ta c mt danh sch tt c cc nh k vi i, ta k
hiu l List(i). th hin List(i) ta c th dng mng, kiu tp hp hay kiu con
tr. V d vi th G1, ta c List(1)= [2, 3, 4]
16
 V d 1: Bi ton ong nc m=3, n=2, k=1

(0,0)
(3,0) (0,2)
(1,2) (3,2) (2,0)

(1,0) (0,1) (2,2)

(3,1)
V d 2: Thp H Ni vi n = 3
111 (111)
(112) (113)
112 (132) (123)
(133) (131) (121) (122)
(233) (322)
(231) (232) (323) (321)
(221) (212) (313) (331)
(222) (223) (213) (211) (311) (312) (332) (333)

17
 Chng 3
CC PHNG PHP TM KIM LI GII TRONG
KHNG GIAN TRNG THI

3.1. t vn
Qu trnh tm kim li gii ca bi ton c biu din trong khng gian
trng thi c xem nh qu trnh d tm trn th, xut pht t trng thi ban
u, thng qua cc ton t chuyn trng thi, ln lt n cc trng thi tip theo
cho n khi gp c trng thi ch hoc khng cn trng thi no c th tip tc
c na.
Khi p dng cc phng php tm kim trong khng gian trng thi, ngi
ta thng quan tm n cc vn sau:
- K thut tm kim li gii
- Phng php lun ca vic tm kim
- Chin lc tm kim
Tuy nhin, khng phi cc phng php ny c th p dng gii quyt
cho tt c cc bi ton phc tp m ch cho tng lp bi ton.
Vic chn chin lc tm kim cho bi ton c th ph thuc nhiu vo cc
c trng ca bi ton.
* Chng ta ln lt nghin cu cc k thut sau:
- Cc k thut tm kim m: trong chng ta khng c hiu bit g v cc
i tng hng dn tm kim m ch n thun l xem xt theo mt h thng
no tt c cc i tng pht hin ra i tng cn tm.
- Cc k thut tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic): trong chng ta
da vo kinh nghim v s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn cn gii quyt xy
dng nn hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim.
- v.v
* Cc chin lc tm kim c th phn thnh hai loi:
- Cc chin lc tm kim m: Trong cc chin lc tm kim ny, khng c
mt s hng dn no cho s tm kim, m ta ch pht trin cc trng thi ban u
cho ti khi gp mt trng thi ch no . C hai k thut tm kim m c bn,
l tm kim theo b rng (chiu rng) v tm kim theo su (chiu su).
- Tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic): Trong rt nhiu vn , chng
ta c th da vo s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn , da vo kinh nghim, trc
gic, nh gi cc trng thi.
tm kim kinh nghim s dng s nh gi cc trng thi hng dn s
tm kim: trong qu trnh pht trin cc trng thi, ta s chn trong s cc trng
18
thi ch pht trin, trng thi c nh gi l tt nht pht trin. Do tc
tm kim s nhanh hn.
Cc phng php tm kim da vo s nh gi cc trng thi hng dn
s tm kim gi chung l cc phng php tm kim kinh nghim.
Nh vy, chin lc tm kim c xc nh bi chin lc chn trng thi
pht trin mi bc:
Trong tm kim m: ta chn trng thi pht trin theo th t m chng
c sinh ra.
Trong tm kim kinh nghim: ta chn trng thi da vo s nh gi cc
trng thi.
* Cc th tc tm kim in hnh bao gm:
- Tm kim theo chiu rng (Breadth First Search)
- Tm kim theo chiu su (Depth First Search)
- Tm kim su dn (Depthwise Search)
- Tm kim cc tiu ho gi thnh (Cost minimization Search).
- Tm kim vi tri thc b sung (Heuristic Search).
A - TM KIM M
3.2. Phng php tm kim theo chiu rng

3.2.1. K thut tm kim rng

K thut tm kim rng l tm kim trn tt c cc nt ca mt mc trong
khng gian bi ton trc khi chuyn sang cc nt ca mc tip theo.
K thut tm kim rng bt u t mc th nht ca khng gian bi ton,
theo hng dn ca lut trng ti, chng hn i t tri sang phi. Nu khng
thy li gii ti mc ny, n chuyn xung mc sau tip tc n khi nh v
c li gii nu c.
3.2.2. Gii thut
Input:
Cy/ th G = (V,E) vi nh gc l n0 (trng thi u)
Tp ch Goals
Output:
Mt ng i p t n0 n mt nh n* Goals
Method:
S dng hai danh sch hot ng theo nguyn tc FIFO (queue) MO v
DONG
Procedure BrFS; (Breadth First Search)

19
Begin
Append(MO,no)
DONG=null;
While MO <> null do
begin
n:= Take(MO);
if n DICH then exit;
Append(DONG, n);
For m T(n) and mDONG+MO do
Append(MO, m);
end;
Write (Khng c li gii);
End;
Ch : Th tc Append(MO,n0) b sung mt phn t vo queue MO.
Hm Take(MO) ly mt phn t trong queue MO.
3.2.3. nh gi phc tp ca gii thut tm kim rng
Gi s rng, mi trng thi khi c xt s sinh ra k trng thi k tip. Khi
ta gi k l nhn t nhnh. Nu bi ton tm c nghim theo phng php tm
kim rng c di d. Nh vy, nh ch s nm mc d, do s nh cn xt
ln nht l:
1 + k + k2 + . . . + kd.
Nh vy phc tp thi gian ca gii thut l O(k d). phc tp khng
gian cng l O(kd), v tt c cc nh ca cy tm kim mc d u phi lu vo
danh sch.
3.2.4. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim rng
* u im:
K thut tm kim rng l k thut vt cn khng gian trng thi bi ton v
vy s tm c li gii nu c.
ng i tm c i qua t nh nht.
Thun li khi mun tm nhiu li gii.
* Nhc im:
Tm kim li gii theo thut ton nh trc, do vy tm kim mt cch
my mc; khi khng c thng tin h tr cho qu trnh tm kim, khng nhn
ra ngay li gii.
Khng ph hp vi khng gian bi on kch thc ln. i vi loi bi ton
ny, phng php tm rng i mt vi cc nhu cu:
- Cn nhiu b nh theo s nt cn lu tr.

20
 - Cn nhiu cng sc x l cc nt, nht l khi cc nhnh cy di, s nt
tng.
- D thc hin cc thao tc khng thch hp, tha, a n vic tng ng
k s nt phi x l.
Khng hiu qa nu li gii su. Phng php ny khng ph hp cho
trng hp c nhiu ng dn n kt qu nhng u su.
Giao tip vi ngi dng khng thn thin. Do duyt qua tt c cc nt, vic
tm kim khng tp trung vo mt ch .
3.2.5. Cc v d
V d 1: Bi ton ong nc vi m = 5, n= 4, k =3.
Mc 1: Trng thi u (0;0)
Mc 2: Cc trng thi (5;0), (0;4) Mc 3: (5;4), (1;4), (4,0)
Mc 4: (1;0), (4;4) Mc 5: (0;1), (5;3)
mc 5 ta gp trng thi ch l (5;3) v vy c c li gii nh sau:
(0;0) (0;4) (4;0) (4;4) (5;3)
c c li gii ny ta phi lu li vt ca ng i, c th trnh by qu
trnh tm kim di dng bng sau:
i T(i) MO DONG
(0;0)
(0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;0) (0;4) (0;0)
(5;0) (5;4) (0;0) (1;4) (0;4) (5;4) (0;0) (5;0)
(1;4)
(0;4) (5;4) (0;0) (4;0) (5;4) (1;4) (0;0) (5;0) (0;4)
(4;0)
(5;4) (0;4) (5;0) (1;4) (4;0) (0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;4)
(1;4) (5;4) (0;4) (1;0) (4;0) (1;0) (0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;4) (1;4)
(5;0)
(4;0) (5;0) (4;4) (0;0) (1;0) (4;4) (0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;4) (1;4) (4;0)
(0;4)
(1;0) (5;0) (1;4) (0;1) (4;4) (0;1) (0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;4) (1;4) (4;0)
(1;0)
(4;4) (5;4) (0;4) (4;0) (0;1) (5;3) (0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;4) (1;4) (4;0)
(5;3) (1;0) (4;4)
(0;1) (5;1) (0;4) (0;0) (5;3) (5;1) (0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;4) (1;4) (4;0)
(1;0) (1;0) (0;1)
(5;3)

21
 Ta c th biu din di dng th sau:

Mc 1 (0;0)

Mc 2 (5;0) (0;4)

Mc 3 (5;4) (0;0) (1;4) (5;4) (0;0) (4;0)

Mc 4 (0;4) (5;0) (5;4) (0;4)(1;0) (5;0) (5;0) (4;4)(0;0)(0;4)

Mc 5 (5;0) (1;4)(0;1) (5;4) (0;4)(4;0) (5;3)

(5;1) (0;4) (0;0)(1;0)

ch
V d 2: Bi ton tr chi 8 s.
Bng xut pht
2 8 3
1 6 4
7 5
Bng kt thc
1 2 3
8 4
7 6 5
Mc 1: C mt trng thi
2 8 3
1 6 4
7 5

Mc 2: C ba trng thi
2 8 3 2 8 3 2 8 3
1 4 1 6 4 1 6 4
7 6 5 7 5 7 5

Mc 3: C nm trng thi
2 8 3 2 8 3 2 3
1 4 1 4 1 8 4
7 6 5 7 6 5 7 6 5

2 8 3 2 8 3
6 4 1 6
1 7 5 7 5 4
22
Mc 4: C mi trng thi
8 3 2 8 3
2 1 4 7 1 4
7 6 5 6 5

2 8 2 8 3
1 4 3 1 4 5
1 7 5 7 6

2 3 2 3
1 8 4 1 8 4
7 6 5 7 6 5

8 3 2 8 3
2 6 4 6 4
1 7 5 1 7 5

2 8 2 8 3
1 6 3 1 6 4
7 5 4 7 5

Mc 5: C 12 trng thi
1 2 3 2 3 4
8 4 1 8
7 6 5 7 6 5

8 3 2 8 3
2 1 4 7 1 4
7 6 5 6 5

2 8 2 8 3
1 4 3 1 4 5
7 6 5 7 6

8 3 2 3
2 6 4 6 8 4
1 7 5 1 7 5

2 8 3 2 8
6 7 4 1 6 3
1 5 7 5 4

23
 2 3 2 8 3
1 8 3 1 5 6
7 5 4 7 4
Mc 6: C 24 trng thi
1 2 3 1 2 3
8 4 7 8 4
7 6 5 6 5
...
mc ny ta gp c trng thi ch
1 2 3
8 4
7 6 5
3.3. Phng php tm kim theo chiu su

3.3.1. K thut tm kim su

Tm kim su trong khng gian bi ton c bt u t mt nt ri tip tc
cho n khi hoc n ng ct hoc n ch. Ti mi nt c lut trong ti, chng
hn, i theo nt cc tri, hng dn vic tm. Nu khng i tip c, gi l n
ng ct, h thng quay li mt mc trn th v tm theo hng khc, chng hn,
n nt st nt cc tri. Hnh ng ny gi l quay lui.
Thut ton tm kim theo chiu su c hnh dung nh vic kho st mt
cy bt u t gc i theo mi cnh c th c, khi gp cnh ct th quay li xt
cnh cha i qua.
- bc tng qut, gi s ang xt nh i, khi cc nh k vi i c cc
trng hp:
+ Nu tn ti nh j k i cha c xt th xt nh ny (n tr thnh
nh xt) v bt u t tip tc qu trnh tm kim vi nh ny..
+ Nu vi mi nh k vi i u c xt th i coi nh duyt xong
v quay tr li tm kim t nh m t ta i n c i.
3.3.2. Gii thut
Input:
Cy/ th G = (V,E) vi nh gc l n0 (trng thi u)
Tp ch Goals
Output:
Mt ng i p t n0 n mt nh n* Goals
Method:
S dng hai danh sch hot ng theo nguyn tc LIFO (Stack) MO v
DONG

24
Procedure DFS; (Depth First Search)
Begin
Push (MO,no)
DONG=null;
While MO <> null do
begin
n:=pop (MO);
if n DICH then exit;
push (DONG, n);
For m T(n) and mDONG+MO do
Push (MO, m);
end;
Write (Khng c li gii);
End;
Ch : Th tc Push(MO,n0) thc hin vic b sung n0 vo stack MO
Hm Pop(MO) ly phn t u tin trong Stack MO.
3.3.3. nh gi phc tp ca thut ton tm kim su
Gi s nghim ca bi ton l ng i c di d, cy tm kim c nhn t
nhnh l k. C th xy ra nghim l nh cui cng c xt mc d+1 theo lut
trng ti. Khi phc tp thi gian ca thut ton tm kim theo chiu su
trong trng hp xu nht l O(kd).
nh gi phc tp khng gian ca thut ton tm kim su ta c nhn
xt rng: Khi xt nh j, ta ch cn lu cc nh cha c xt m chng l nhng
nh con ca nhng nh nm trn ng i t nh gc n j. V vy ch cn lu
ti a la k*d. Do phc tp khng gian ca thut ton l O(k*d).
3.3.4. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim su
* u im:
Nu bi ton c li gii, phng php tm kim su bo m tm ra li gii.
K thut tm kim su tp trung vo ch, con ngi cm thy hi lng khi cc
cu hi tp trung vo vn chnh.
Do cch tm ca k thut ny, nu li gii rt su, k thut tm su s tit
kim thi gian.
Thun li khi mun tm mt li gii
* Nhc im:
Tm su khai thc khng gian bi ton tm li gii theo thut ton n gin
mt cch cng nhc. Trong qu trnh tm n khng c thng tin no h tr
pht hin li gii. Nu chn nt ban u khng thch hp c th khng dn n
ch ca bi ton.
25
 Khng ph hp vi khng gian bi ton ln, k thut tm kim su c th
khng n li gii trong khong thi gian va phi.
3.3.5. Cc v d
V d 1: Bi ton ong nc vi m = 5, n = 4, k = 3.
Ch : Nu ta chn nhnh u tin y bnh th hai th s tm thy li gii
rt nhanh. Qu trnh tm kim c th trnh by bng bng sau.
i T(i) MO DONG
(0;0)
(0;0) (5;0) (0;4) (5;0) (0;4) (0;0)
(0;4) (5;4) (0;0) (4;0) (5;0) (5;4) (0;0) (0;4)
(4;0)
(4;0) (5;0) (4;4) (0;0) (5;0) (5;4) (0;0) (0;4) (4;0)
(0;4) (4;4)
(4;4) (5;4) (0;4) (4;0) (5;0) (5;4) (0;0) (0;4) (4;0) (4;4)
(5;3) (5;3)
(5;3)
Li gii tm c: (0;0) (0;4) (4;0) (4;4) (5;3)
V d 2: Bi ton Thp H ni vi n = 3.
Nhc li, dng b ba (x1; x2; x3) biu din trng thi bi ton, vi xi l cc
cha a ln th i.
i T(i) MO DONG
(1;1;1)
(1;1;1) (1;1;2) (1;1;3) (1;1;2) (1;1;3) (1;1;1)
(1;1;3) (1;1;1)(1;1;2) (1;1;2)(1;2;3) (1;1;1)(1;1;3)
(1;2;3)
(1;2;3) (1;1;3) (1;2;1) (1;1;2)(1;2;1)(1;2;2) (1;1;1)(1;1;3)(1;2;3)
(1;2;2)
(1;2;2) (1;2;3) (1;2;1) (1;1;2)(1;2;1)(3;2;2) (1;1;1)(1;1;3)(1;2;3)(1;2;2)
(3;2;2)
(3;2;2) (1;2;2) (3;2;3) (1;1;2)(1;2;1)(3;2;1) (1;1;1)(1;1;3)(1;2;3)(1;2;2)
(3;2;1) (3;2;2)
(3;2;1) (3;2;2) (3;2;3) (1;1;2)(1;2;1)(3;3;1) (1;1;1)(1;1;3)(1;2;3)(1;2;2)
(3;3;1) (3;2;2) (3;2;1)
(3;3;1) (3;2;1) (3;3;2) (1;1;2)(1;2;1)(3;3;3) (1;1;1)(1;1;3)(1;2;3)(1;2;2)
(3;3;3) (3;2;2) (3;2;1) (3;3;1)
(3;3;3)
Li gii ca bi ton:
(1;1;1) (1;1;3) (1;2;3) (1;2;2) (3;2;2) (3;2;1) (3;3;1) (3;3;3)

26
 C hai v d trn, chng ta u thy, tm kim theo chiu su u cho li
gii tt v nhanh.
V d 3: Bi ton tm dy hp l vi s hng u a1 = 26
Nhc li: Dy a1, a2, ,an c gi l hp l nu tho hai iu kin:
- an l s nguyn t
- ak+1 = ak+1 hoc 2*ak
Nh vy, khi bit ak th ta xc nh c ak+1. V vy c th m t trng thi
bi ton tng ng vi gi trj ak ti thi im ang xt. Ta c th ch ra mt cch
tm kim theo chiu su nh sau
I T(i) MO DONG
26
26 27 52 27 52 26
52 53 104 27 53 104 26 52
104 105 208 27 53 105 208 26 52 104
208 209 416 27 53 105 209 416 26 52 104 208
...
Vi cch tm kim theo theo thut ton mt cch my mc nh vy th r
rng khng bao gi t c ch. Trong khi chng ta d dng nhn c li gii,
chng hn:
a1 = 26; a2 = 52; a3 = 53. Nh vy n =3.
3.4. Phng php tm kim theo chiu su dn

3.4.1. K thut tm kim su dn

K thut tm kim su dn l thc hin vic tm kim vi su mc
gii hn d no . Nu khng tm ra nghim ta tng su ln d+1 v li tm
kim theo su ti mc d+1. Qu trnh trn c lp li vi d ln lt l 1,
2,...n su max no .
K thut tm kim su dn thng c thc hin khi cy tm kim cha
nhnh v hn, v nu s dng tm kim theo su ta c th mc kt mt nhnh
no (thut ton khng dng) v khng tm ra nghim.
n0

27
 3.4.2. Gii thut
Thut ton tm kim su dn s dng thut ton tm kim su hn ch nh
th tc con. l th tc tm kim theo chiu su nhng ch ti su d no
ri quay ln.
Th tc tm kim su hn ch (depth_limitedsearch)
Procedure Depth_limited_search(d); {d l tham s su}
Begin
Push (MO,no);
Depth(n0)=0; {hm depth ghi li su mi nh}
DONG=null;
While MO <> null do
begin
n:=pop (MO);
if n DICH then exit;
push (DONG, n);
if depth(n)<=d then
For m T(n) and mDONG do
begin
Push (MO, m);
depth(m)=depth(n)+1;
end;
end;
Write (Khng c li gii);
End;
Thut ton tm kim su dn (Depth_deepening_search) s s dng th
tc tm kim su hn ch nh th tc con:
Procedure Depth_deepening_search;
Begin
For d:=0 to max do
Depth_limited_search(d);
If thnh cng then exit;
End;
3.4.3. Nhn xt
- Lun tm ra nghim (nu bi ton c nghim), min l chn max ln
(ging nh tm kim theo chiu rng).
- C phc tp thi gian l O(kd) (ging tm kim rng).
- C phc tp khng gian l O(k*d) (ging tm kim su).
- Gii thut tm kim su dn thng p dng cho cc bi ton c khng
gian trng thi ln v su ca nghim khng bit trc.

28
 B - TM KIM KINH NGHIM V TI U
(Tm kim heuristic)
K thut tm kim m l phng php c bn khai thc khng gian bi
ton. Chng u vt cn khng gian tm ra li gii theo th tc xc nh trc.
Mc d c s dng tri thc v trng thi ca bi ton hng dn tm kim
nhng khng ph bin, km hiu qu v trong nhiu trng hp khng th p
dng c .
Nh vy, chng ta s nghin cu cc phng php tm kim kinh nghim
(tm kim heuristic), l cc phng php s dng hm nh gi hng dn
s tm kim.
* Hm nh gi v tm kim kinh nghim:
Trong nhiu vn , ta c th s dng kinh nghim, tri thc ca chng ta v
vn nh gi cc trng thi ca vn .
Vi mi trng thi u, ta s xc dnh mt gi tr s h(u), s ny nh gi s
gn ch ca trng thi u. Hm h(u) c gi l hm nh gi.
Phng php tm kim kinh nghim l phng php tm kim c s dng
n hm nh gi.
Trong qu trnh tm kim, ti mi bc ta s chn trng thi pht trin l
trng thi c gi tr hm nh gi nh nht, trng thi ny c xem l trng thi
c nhiu ha hn nht hng ti ch.
Qu trnh tm kim trong khng gian trng thi c s dng hm nh gi bao gm
cc bc c bn sau:
- Biu din thch hp cc trng thi v cc ton t chuyn trng thi
- Xy dng hm nh gi
- Thit k chin lc chn trng thi mi bc
Hm nh gi
Trong tm kim kinh nghim, hm nh gi ng vai tr cc k quan trng.
Chng ta c xy dng c hm nh gi cho ta s nh gi ng cc trng thi
th tm kim mi hiu qu.
Nu hm nh gi khng chnh xc, n c th dn ta i chch hng v do
tm kim km hiu qu.
Hm nh gi c xy dng ty thuc vo vn . Sau y l mt s v d
v hm nh gi:
V d 1: Trong bi ton tm kim ng i trn bn giao thng, ta c th
ly di ca ng chim bay t mt thnh ph ti mt thnh ph ch lm gi tr
ca hm nh gi.
V d 2: Bi ton 8 s.

29
 Chng ta c th a ra hai cch xy dng hm nh gi.
- Hm h1: Vi mi trng thi u th h 1(u) l s qun khng nm ng v tr
ca n trong trng thi ch, th h1(u) = 4, v cc qun khng ng v tr l 3, 8, 6
v 1.
- Hm h2: Gi h2(u) l l tng khong cch gia v tr ca cc qun trong
trng thi u v v tr ca n trong trng thi ch (khong cch c hiu l s ln
dch chuyn t nht theo hng hoc ct a mt qun v tr ca hin ti ti
trng thi ch).
Ta c: h2(u)=2+3+1+3= 9 (v qun 3 cn t nht 2 dch chuyn, qun 8 cn
t nht 3 dch chuyn, qun 6 cn t nht 1 dch chuyn v qun 1 cn t nht 3 dch
chuyn).
Tm kim kinh nghim
Hai chin lc tm kim kinh nghim quan trng nht l tm kim tt nht -
u tin (Best-First Search) v tm kim leo i (Hill-Climbing Search). C th
xc nh cc chin lc ny nh sau:
- Tm kim tt nht u tin = Tm kim theo b rng + Hm nh gi
- Tm kim leo i = Tm kim theo su + Hm nh gi
3.5. K thut tm kim tt nht u tin (Best First Search)

3.5.1. K thut tm kim tt nht u tin

S dng hm nh gi hng dn vic tm kim. Hm ny dng cc
thng tin hin ti v mc quan trng ca bi ton ti nt gn gi tr cho
nt ny, gi l trng s ca nt. Gi tr ny c xem xt trong lc tm kim.
Thng thng, nt c trng s nh (ln) nht s c chn trong qu trnh tm
kim.
Tm kim tt nht u tin khc vi tm kim theo chiu rng ch:
- Trong tm kim theo chiu rng ta ln lt pht trin tt c cc nt mc
hin ti sinh ra cc nt mc tip theo.
- Cn trong tm kim tt nht u tin ta chn nt pht trin l nt tt
nht c xc nh bi hm nh gi (tc l nt c c trng s nh (ln) nht s
c chn), nt ny c th mc hin ti hoc cc mc trn.

30
 3.5.2. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim tt nht u tin
* u im:
- Phng php tm kim tt nht u tin t hp cc u im ca phng
php tm kim rng v tm kim su.
- u im ch yu ca phng php tm kim tt nht u tin l dng tri
thc dn dt vic tm kim. Tri thc ny gip ngi ta bt u t u l tt nht
v cch tt nht tin hnh tm li gii.
- Tm kim tt nht u tin tun theo cch suy l ca mt chuyn gia. Do
c th thy r ng i hn tm kim rng v tm kim su.
* Nhc im:
- Qu trnh tm kim c th i xa khi li gii. K thut ny ch xt mt
phn ca khng gian v coi l phn ha hn hn c.
3.5.3. Gii thut
D liu tng t nh gii thut tm kim rng v su, s dng danh sch
MO lu cc nh s xt.
Procedure BFS; {Best First Search}
Begin
Push(MO,n0);
while MO <> null do
begin
i := Pop(MO);
if i Goals then
exit; danh sch MO c sp theo th t
for j T(i) do tng dn ca hm nh gi (hay
Push(MO,j); trng s)
Sort(MO); {theo th t ca hm nh gi}
end;
write(Khong co loi giai);
end;
3.5.4. V d
Xt khng gian trng thi c biu din bi th trong hnh sau, trong
trng thi ban u l A, trng thi kt thc l B. Gi tr ca hm nh gi l cc
trng s ghi cnh mi nt.

31
 * Qu trnh tm kim tt nht u tin din ra nh sau:
- u tin pht trin nt A sinh ra cc nt k l C, D v E. Trong ba nt ny,
nt D c gi tr hm nh gi nh nht, n c chn pht trin v sinh ra F, I.
- Trong s cc nt cha c pht trin C, E, F, I th nt E c gi tr nh
gi nh nht, n c chn pht trin v sinh ra cc nh G, K.
- Trong s cc nt cha c pht trin th G tt nht, pht trin G sinh ra B,
H. n y ta t ti trng thi kt thc.
Kt qu:

3.6. Phng php tm kim leo i (Hill-Climbing Search)

3.6.1. K thut tm kim leo i

Tm kim leo i l tm kim theo su c hng dn bi hm nh
gi.
Song khc vi tm kim theo su, khi pht trin mt nh u th bc tip
theo ta chn trong s cc nh con ca u, nh c ha hn nhiu nht pht trin,
nh ny c xc nh bi hm nh gi.
3.6.2. Nhn xt phng php tm kim leo i
Phng php tm kim leo i ch trng tm hng i d dn n trng thi
ch nht. Vn quan trng l bit khai thc kho lo thng tin phn hi xc
nh hng i tip v y nhanh qu trnh tm kim.
Thng thng ta gn mi trng thi ca bi ton vi mt s o (hm nh
gi) no nhm nh gi mc gn ch ca n. iu c ngha l nu trng
thi hin thi l u th trng thi v s c pht trin tip theo nu v k vi u v
hm nh gi ca v t gi tr max (hoc min).
Tuy nhin phng php ny khng c ci thin so vi cc phng php
khc trong mt s trng hp sau:
32
 - Cc tr a phng: nt ang xt tt hn cc nt ln cn, nhng khng
phi l phng n tt nht trong ton th, v vy c th phi quay lui v nt trc
i theo hng khc. Gii php ny i hi ghi nh li nhiu ng i.
- Cao nguyn bng phng: Cc gi tr ca cc phng n nh nhau, khng
xc nh c ngay hng no l tt hn trong vng ln cn.
3.6.3. Gii thut
Input:
th G = (V,E), nh xut pht n0.
Hm nh gi h(n) i vi mi nh n.
Tp nh ch DICH.
Output:
ng i t nh n0 n DICH.
Procedure HLC; {Hill Climbing Search}
begin
Push(MO,n0);
while MO <> null do
begin
i = Pop(MO);
if T(i) DICH <> null then
begin
L:= null;
for j T(i) do
if j cha xt then
a j vo danh sch L
sp xp L theo th t hm nh gi;
chuyn danh sch L vo u danh sch MO;
end;
write(Khong co loi giai);
end;
D liu tng t nh gii thut tm kim su, s dng danh sch MO lu
cc nh s xt.
3.6.4. Cc v d
V d 1: Xt khng gian trng thi c biu din bi th trong hnh sau,
trong trng thi ban u l A, trng thi kt thc l B. Gi tr ca hm nh gi
l cc trng s ghi cnh mi nt.

33
 * Qu trnh tm kim leo i din ra nh sau:
u tin pht trin nh A sinh ra cc nh con C, D, E. Trong cc nh ny
chn D pht trin, v n sinh ra cc nh con B, G. Qu trnh tm kim kt thc.
Cy tm kim leo i c cho trong hnh di y:

V d 2: Bi ton tr chi 8 s
Trng thi c chn i tip hng mi tn.
mc 3 chng ta thy c hai trng thi cng gi tr hm nh gi (h = 3).
y l trng hp cao nguyn bng phng nh nhn xt trn, nu ta chn
phng n kia th chc chn qu trnh tm kim s khc i nhiu.
Minh ho cy tm kim cho tr chi ny theo gii thut leo i vi hng
chn nh sau:

34
 2 8 3
1 6 4
7 5

h(u) = 4

2 8 3 2 8 3 2 8 3
1 6 4 1 4 1 6 4
7 5 7 6 5 7 5
h(u) = 5 h(u) = 3 h(u) = 5

2 8 3 2 3 2 8 3
1 4 1 8 4 1 4
7 6 5 7 6 5 7 6 5
h(u) = 3 h(u) = 3 h(u) = 4

2 3 2 3
1 8 4 1 8 4
7 6 5 7 6 5
h(u) = 2 h(u) = 4

1 2 3
8 4
7 6 5
h(u) = 1

1 2 3
8 4
7 6 5

3.7. Tm kim ng i c gi thnh cc tiu - Thut gii AT

3.7.1. t vn
Cho th G= (V, E) biu din bi ton vi nh xut pht n 0 v tp ch
DICH xc nh.
Vi mi php chuyn trng thi nini+1 tn chi ph c(ni, ni+1 ) k hiu c(u)
vi u= (ni, ni+1)E

35
 c(u)
ni ni+1
* Vn :
c( p) c(u ) min
Tm ng i p: n0 n* DICH sao cho up

(Gi ca ng i l tng gi cc cung tham gia vo ng i v vn l

tm ng i c gi min).
Chng hn trong bi ton tm ng i trong bn giao thng, gi ca
cung (i,j) chnh l di ca ng ni thnh ph i vi thnh ph j. di ng
i c xc nh l tng di cc cung trn ng i. Vn t ra l tm ng
i ngn nht t trng thi ban u n trng thi ch.
* Phng php gii
- Nu c(u ) k (const ) u E th c( p) min # p min Dng phng php tm
kim theo chiu rng.
- Gi g(n) l gi ca ng i cc tiu t nh n0 n n, khi bi ton c
th pht biu nh sau:
* Tm ng i t nh n0 nk DICH sao cho: g (nk ) min g (n) / n DICH
Lc , ta c: g (n0 ) 0
g (m) min g (n) c (n, m)
( n , m )E

Dng 2 danh sch MO, DONG nh trn. Ti mi thi im chn nh n

trong MO ra xt l nh tho.
3.7.2. Thut gii AT
Input:
th G = (V,E), nh xut pht n0
Hm chi ph c: E R+
c(i,j): xc nh chi ph chuyn t nh i sang nh j vi (i,j) E
Tp cc nh ch DICH
Output:
ng i t nh n0 n nh n* DICH sao cho g(n*) = c(p) = min{g(n)|
nDICH}.
Procedure AT;
{ Dng g0(n) l chi ph cc tiu ca ng i t nh xut pht n nh n ti thi
im ang xt v xem nh hm g}
Begin
g(n0):= 0;
push(MO, n0);

36
 While MO<>null do
begin
g ( n) : min g (m)
mMO

if nDICH then
exit {xay dung duong di cuc tieu}
push(DONG, n);
if T(n) <>null then
for mT(n) do
if mMO+DONG then
begin
push(MO,m);
g(m):=g(n)+c(n,m);
cha(m):=n;
end
else
if g(m) >g(n)+c(n,m) then
begin
g(m):=g(n)+c(n,m);
cha(m):=n;
end;
end;
writeln(Khong co duong di);
End;
3.7.3. Cc v d
V d 1:
8 A 5
n0=A
4
DICH={F,K} 2 B C 9 D
3 1 1
E F G H I
2
K
C th trnh by qu trnh tm kim bng bng di y. K hiu gi tr g(n)
l ch s di tng ng nh n: ng(n)

i T(i) MO DONG
37
 A0
A BCD B8 C4 D5 A
C G B8 D5 G5 AC
D HI B8 G5 H14 I6 ACD
G B8 H14 I6 ACDG
I K B8 H14 K8 ACDGI
B EF H14 K8 E10 F11 ACDGIB
K
Li gii ca bi ton l A D I K v chi ph ca ng i tm c
l 8
V d 2:
n0 = A; DICH = {G}

A
5 6
3
B 1
C
4
7 4 D 9
8 3
E G
2 5
F

i T(i) MO DONG
A0
A BCD B5 C3 D6 A
C ABE F D B4 D6 E7 F11 AC
B ACE D6 E7 F11 ACB
D ACF G E7 F9 G15 ACBD
E BCF F9 G15 ACBDE
F CDEG G14 ACBDEF
G

ng i tm c p: A D F G. Chi ph ca ng i l 14.
V d 3: Bi ton Thp H Ni - vi chi ph chuyn a nh sau:
Chi ph chuyn a nh gia 2 cc gn 1
Chi ph chuyn a nh gia 2 cc xa 3
Chi ph chuyn a va gia 2 cc gn 2
Chi ph chuyn a va gia 2 cc xa 5
Chi ph chuyn a ln gia 2 cc gn 4
Chi ph chuyn a ln gia 2 cc xa 8

38
 Xut pht t nh (1,1,1), ta c g(1,1,1) = 0.
Khi xt nh (1,1,1) ta c cc nh k v chi ph tng ng :
g(1,1,2) = 1; g(1,1,3) = 3; nh vy nh (1,1,2) c chn
Cc nh k ca (1,1,2) c gi tr hm g:
g(1,1,3) = 2 ( y gi ca nh (1,1,3) c tnh li); g(1,3,2) = 5; chn
nh (1,1,3), ta li tnh tip gi tr hm g ca cc nh k vi nh ny:
g(1,2,3) = 2; li chn nh (1,2,3); chi ph ca cc nh k vi n:
g(1,2,1) = 2 + 3 = 5; g(1,2,2) = 2 + 1 = 3; chn nh (1,2,2)
g(1,2,1) = 3 +1 = 4 (c tnh li); g(3,2,2) = 3 + 8 = 11, chn nh (1,2,1)
C tip tc nh vy cho n khi xt nh (3,3,3).
3.8. Tm kim ng i cc tiu - Thut gii A*

3.8.1. t vn
i vi nhiu bi ton, vic tm kim ng i cc tiu s c nh hng
tp trung xung quanh ng i tt nht, nu s dng cc thng tin c t v bi
ton gi l cc heuristic.
i vi vic tm kim ng i vi chi ph cc tiu, ngi ta s dng hm
nh gi heuristic nh sau:
- Gi g(n): gi cc tiu ng i t n0n. Ti nh n, g(n) xc nh c.
- Gi h(n): gi cc tiu ng i t nDICH, h(n) khng xc nh c
ngi ta tm cch c lng gi tr ny.
lm gim khng gian tm kim ta da vo heuristic c lng gi tr
cc nt.
t f0(n)=g0(n)+h0(n): d on chi ph cc tiu ca ng i t
n0DICH c i qua nh n.
Trong :
+ g0(n) l chi ph ca ng i t nh xut pht n nh n ti thi im
ang xt (hay l gi tr c lng da trn s khai thc thng tin kinh nghim qu
kh).
+ h0(n) l c lng (d on) chi ph ng i t nh n n ch (hay l
gi tr c lng da trn s khai thc thng tin ca nt hng ti tng lai). Vic
chn gi tr xp x h0(n) ca h(n) khng c mt phng php tng qut v c
xem nh mt ngh thut, gi tr ny s do cc chuyn gia a ra.
Ch s 0 m ch y l gi tr c lng ch khng phi gi tr chnh xc.
Gi tr chnh xc ch bit c khi ta n ch tc gii xong bi ton.

39
 Ta ch h0(n) cng ln th cng tt, tc l khai thc nhiu thng tin v
trng thi hin ti hng ti tng lai.
Tuy nhin ngi ta CM c rng thut ton A* chc chn dng khi h0(n)
<= h(n) (h0=h: phng n tt nht, h0=0: phng n ti nht).
Lc ny gii thut tm kim cc tiu s thay vic xt hm g (nh bit
mc trc) bi hm f.
3.8.2. Thut gii A*
Input:
th G = (V,E), nh xut pht n0
Hm chi ph c: E R+
c(i,j): xc nh chi ph chuyn t nh i sang nh j vi (i,j) E
h: V R+; h(n) xc nh d on chi ph ti u ca ng i t nh n n
ch. (k hiu h thay cho h0, (tng t g))
Tp cc nh ch DICH
Output:
ng i t nh n0 n nh n* DICH
Procedure A* ;
Begin
g(n0):= 0;
push(MO, n0);
While MO<>null do
begin
f (n) : min f (m)
mMO

if nDICH then
exit {xay dung duong di cuc tieu}
push(DONG, n);
if T(n) <>null then
for mT(n) do
if mMO+DONG then
begin
push(MO,m);
tnh f(m);
cha(m):=n;
end
else
if fmi(m) > fc(n) then
begin
f(m):= fmi(m);

40
 cha(m):=n;
end;
end;
writeln(Khong co duong di);
End;
3.8.3. Cc v d
V d 1:
Trng thi ban u l trng thi A, trng thi ch l B, cc s ghi cnh cc
cung l di ng i, cc s cnh cc nh l gi tr ca hm h

u tin, pht trin nh A sinh ra cc nh con C, D, E v F. Tnh gi tr ca

hm f ti cc nh ny ta c:
g(C) = 9, f(C) = 9 + 15 = 24, g(D) = 7, f(D) = 7 + 6 = 13
g(E) = 13, f(E) = 13 + 8 = 21, g(F) = 20, f(F) = 20 +7 = 27
Nh vy nh tt nht l D (v f(D) = 13 l nh nht). Pht trin D, ta nhn
c cc nh con H v E. Ta nh gi H v E (mi):
g(H) = g(D) + di cung (D, H) = 7 + 8 = 15, f(H) = 15 + 10 = 25.
ng i ti E qua D c di:
g(E) = g(D) + di cung (D, E) = 7 + 4 = 11.
Vy nh E mi c nh gi l f(E) = g(E) + h(E) = 11 + 8 = 19.
Trong s cc nh cho pht trin, th nh E vi nh gi f(E) = 19 l nh
tt nht. Pht trin nh ny, ta nhn c cc nh con ca n l K v I.
Chng ta tip tc qu trnh trn cho ti khi nh c chn pht trin l
nh kt thc B, di ng i ngn nht ti B l g(B) = 19. Qu trnh tm kim
trn c m t bi cy tm kim sau, trong cc s cnh cc nh l cc gi tr
ca hm nh gi f.

41
 KL: A D E I B

V d 2: Cho th biu din bi ton v gi tr d on h0 nh sau:

n A B C D E F G H

h0(n) 14 10 10 5 5 4 4 0
5 A 7
B 3 2 D
C
4
7 6
3
E
5
12 F
2
G
H 3

Tm ng i t nh A n nh H.
Trc tin nh A c a vo danh sch MO
g(A) = 0; h(A) = 14; f(A) = 14
Xt nh A, (a A vo danh sch DONG) ta c cc nh k B, C, D:
g(B) = 5; f(B) = 15; g(C) = 3; f(C) = 13; g(D) = 7; f(D) = 12 chn nh
D.
Xt nh D (a D vo danh sch DONG) c cc nh k A, C, E. nh A
trong danh sch DONG, ta tnh li f(C) v tnh f(E):
f(C) khng thay i; f(E) = g(D) +c(D,E) + H(E) = 7 + 6 + 5 = 18; f(E) =
18, chn nh C, c cc nh k A, D, E.
Tnh li f(E) = 12, chn E. Cc nh k ca E l C, D, F, G.

42
 Tnh f(F) = 14; f(G) = 16, chn F. Cc nh k ca F l E, G, B v f(B),
f(G) khng i, chn B. Cc nh k ca B l F, H. f(H) = 17, chn G. Tnh li
f(H) = 15 v dng.
ng i tm c l p: A C E G H vi chi ph ng i l 15.
V d 3: Cho 1 bnh dung tch 4 lt, 1 bnh dung tch 3 lt. Lm th no bnh 4
c 2 lt.
Bi ton tr thnh (4,3) (2,y)
Cho h: lch ca mc nc hin c trong bnh 4lt so vi ch (2lt).
g: l di mc ng i t nt gc ti n
Ta c th biu din di dng th sau:
h=2
g=0 (4;3)
h=2 h=2
g=1 (0;3) (4;0)

h=2 h=1 h=1

g=2 (4;3) (0;0) (3;0) (0;0) (4;3) (1;3)

h=1 h=1
g=3 (4;0) (0;0)(3;3) (0;3) (4;3)(0;3) (1;0)(4;0)
h=2 h=2
g=4 (4;3)(0;3)(3;0) (4;2) (4;0)(0;0) (1;3) (0;1)
h=2 h=2
g=5 (0;2)(4;3) (4;0)(3;3) (4;1) (0;3)(0;0)(1;0)

h=0 h=0
g=6 (4;2)(0;3)(0;0) (2;0) (0;1)(4;3)(4;0)(2;3)
ch
ch
3.9. Phng php sinh v th
Chin lc ny n gin, gm ba bc:
- Trc ht to ra mt gii php. Trong vi bi ton c th l vic chn
mt li gii trong khng gian cc li gii hay to ra mt ng i.
- Th hai, th xem li gii c thch hp khng bng cch so snh
phng n khc hay so sanh vi im cui cn suy din.
- Tip theo, nu li gii t c th dng, ngc li, lp li t bc u
vi nt khc.
Vi phng php ny nu bi ton c li gii th s a n ch. Tuy nhin
kch thc bi ton ln s tng khi lng tnh ton. Vic to li gii ban u c
th thc hin ngu nhin, v cng hy vng ngu nhin m t c li gii, bi

43
vy, khng th khng tnh n ch mt vi hng i c cm nhn l tt, v loi
tr trc cc hng khng dn n li gii.
V d 1: Tm s c 6 ch s m tng bnh phng cc ch s chia ht cho3.
Giai on sinh: to ra s c 6 ch s v ta gi cc ch s t tri qua phi ln
lt l a, b, c, d, e, f th 0 < a <= 9 , 0 <= b, c, d, e, f <= 9.
Giai on th: nu a*a + b*b + c*c + d*d + e*e + f*f chia ht cho 3 th
chon, ngc li, to ra s khc.
V d 2: Mt bnh nhn c mt vi triu chng, chng hn: st cao v bui
chiu, ho v mt mi ,. Bc s c chn on nghi b lao phi, ngi ta s cho
lm ngay xt nghim, nu ng l dng tnh th kt lun v iu tr bnh lao phi,
ngc lai, bt buc bc s phi chuyn hng suy ngh sang mt bnh khc, v.v
3.10. Phng php tho mn rng buc
Phng php tho mn rng buc h tr cho phng php sinh v th, khi
ch ti mt s rng buc p t ln cc nt trong khng gian bi ton. Mc ch
t ra l xc nh ng i trong th khng gian bi ton, ng i t trng thi
u n trng thi cui p ng mt vi rng buc no . Do vy qu trnh tm
kim li gii bao gm hai phn lin quan cht ch vi nhau:
- Tm kim trong khng gian cc rng buc.
- Tm kim trong khng gian cc bi ton ban u.
Ni dung ca phng php nh sau: Thc hin cc bc t a) n e) di
y cho n khi tm c li gii y ca bi ton hoc tt c cc ng u
duyt qua nhng khng cho kt qu.
a) Chn mt nh cha c xt trong th tm kim.
b) p dng cc lut suy din trn cc rng buc i vi nh chn to
ra tp cc rng buc mi.
c) Nu tp cc rng buc mi c mu thun th a ra thng bo ng i
hn thi ti nt ang xt dn ti b tc.
d) Nu tp rng buc m t li gii y ca bi ton th dng v a ra
thng bo thnh cng. Ngc lai, sang bc sau.
e) p dng cc lut bin i khng gian trng thi tng ng to ra li
gii b phn, tng hp vi tp cc rng buc hin thi. Thm cc li
gii b phn ny vo th tm kim.
* V d: Xt bi ton in cc ch s phn bit thay cho cc ch ci S, E,
N, D, M, O, R, Y sao cho php cng sau l ng:
SEND
MORE
MONEY
44
 Cc rng buc ban u:
- Cc ch ci khc nhau khng nhn cng mt gi tr.
- Cc rng buc s hc (cng c nh hoc khng c nh.
Gii
Gi C1, C2, C3, C4 ln lt l s nh ca cc ct t phi sang tri. Khi
ta xy dng cc rng buc c th nh sau:
E, N, D,O, R, Y thuc tp {0 ..9} (1)
S, M thuc tp {1..9} (2)
C1, C2, C3, C4 thuc tp {0,1} (3)
D + E = Y + 10*C1 (4)
N + R + C1 = E + 10*C2 (5)
E + O + C2 = N + 10*C3 (6)
S + M + C3 = O + 10*C4 (7)
M = C4 (8)
T rng buc (2) (3) v (8) suy ra M = 1 v C4=1 (9)
T rng buc (7) v (9) suy ra S +C3 = O + 9, lc ny c hai phng n
la chn:
Phng n 1:
C3 = 0, khi ta c S = O + 9, nh vy S = 9 v O = 0 (10-1)
T rng buc (6) ta c E + C2 = N, suy ra C2 = 1 v
E+1=N (11-1)
T rng buc (5), ta c R + C1 = 9, nh vy R = 8 v C1 = 1 (12-1)
(do kt hp vi cc rng buc (2) (3) v (10-1)).
T rng buc (4) ta c D + E = Y +10. n bc ny ta c th khng nh
cc gi tr ca D, E, Y ch c th nhn trong tp {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Ngoi ra D + E
>= 12. V vy ch c cc kh nng sau c th xy ra:
- D = 5 v E = 7
- D = 7 v E = 5 (hai trung hp ny Y = 2)
- D = 6 v E = 7
- D = 7 v E = 6 (hai trng hp sau Y = 3)
Xt kh nng th nht. T rng buc (11-1) ta suy ra N = 8 mu thun vi
(12-1) nn b loi.
Xt kh nng th hai. T rng buc (11-1) ta suy ra N= 6. Kim tra iu
kin bi ton u tho mn. Vy ta c nghim l:
S = 9, E = 5, N= 6, D = 7, M= 1, O = 0, R = 8, Y = 2.
Xt kh nng th ba. T rng buc (11-1) suy ra N = 8 mu thun vi (12-1).
Xt kh nng th t. T rng buc (11-1) suy ra N=7 = D mu thun.
Phng n 2:
45
 C3 = 1. T rng buc (7) ta c S = O + 8, suy ra S = 8 v O = 0 (10-2)
(v M=1 v S <= 9).
T rng buc (6) ta c E + C2 = N +10
C2=1 th E= N+9 mu thun vi rng buc (1) v (10-2).
C2=0 th E=N+10 mu thun vi rng buc (1).
Vy phng n 2 khng c li gii.

46
 Chng 4
TM KIM LI GII TRN TH V/HOC

4.1. t vn
Trong chng 2, chng ta nghin cu vic biu din bi ton thng qua
cc trng thi v cc ton t. Khi vic tm li gii ca bi ton c quy v vic
tm ng i trong khng gian trng thi. Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin
cu mt phng php lun khc gii quyt vn , da trn vic quy vn v
cc vn con.
tng ch yu l xut pht t bi ton ban u, tch ra cc bi ton con,
qu trnh ny tip tc i vi cc bi ton con cho n khi gp cc bi ton s cp
(bi ton c li gii ngay).
V d 1: Xt bi ton tnh tch phn x(ln x x 2 )dx .
Thng thng tnh tch phn bt nh, chng ta thng s dng cc quy
tc tnh tch phn: tch phn ca tng, quy tc tch phn tng phn hay cc php
bin i v.v a tch phn cn tnh v tch phn ca cc hm s s cp m
chng ta bit cch tnh. i vi tch phn trn, p dng quy tc tch phn ca
tng ta a v hai tch phn xlnxdx v tch phn x3dx. p dng quy tc tch phn
tng phn ta a tch phn xlnx v tch phn xdx. Qu trnh trn c th biu din
bi th trong Hnh 4.1.
x(lnx+x2)d
x

xlnxdx x3dx

xdx

Hnh 4.1
Trong bi ton tch phn, cc tch phn c bn l cc trng thi kt thc.
V d 2: Bi ton tm ng i trn bn giao thng.

47
 Bi ton ny c pht biu nh bi ton tm ng i trong khng gian
trng thi, trong mi trng thi ng vi mt thnh ph, mi ton t ng vi mt
con ng, ni thnh ph ny vi thnh ph khc. By gi ta a ra mt cch biu
din khc da trn vic quy vn v cc vn con..
Gi s ta cn tm ng i t thnh ph A ti thnh ph B. C con sng
chy qua hai thnh ph E v G v c cu qua sng mi thnh ph . Mi ng
i t A n B ch c th qua E hoc G.
Nh vy bi ton tm ng i t A n B c quy v:
1) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua E (hoc)
2) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua G.
Mi mt trong hai bi ton trn li c th phn nh nh sau:
1) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua E c quy v:
1.1 Tm ng i t A n E (v)
1.2 Tm ng i t E n B.
2) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua G c quy v:
2.1 Tm ng i t A n G (v)
2.2 Tm ng i t G n B.
Qu trnh rt gn vn nh trn c th biu din di dng th ( th
v/hoc) trong hnh sau.
y mi bi ton tm ng i t mt thnh ph ti mt thnh ph khc
ng vi mt trng thi. Cc trng thi kt thc l cc trng thi ng vi cc bi
ton tm ng i, chng hn t A n C, hoc t D n E, bi v c ng ni
A vi C, ni D vi E.

48
4.2. th V/Hoc
Khng gian trng thi m t vic quy vn v cc vn con c th biu
din di dng th nh hng c bit gi l th v/hoc. th ny c
xy dng nh sau:
Mi bi ton ng vi mt nh ca th. Nu c mt ton t quy bi ton
v cc bi ton tng ng th s c cc cung i t bi ton xut pht n cc bi
ton tng ng . Nu mt ton t quy bi ton v cc bi ton con th cng c
cc cung ni t bi ton xut pht n cc bi ton con, ngoi ra gia cc cung ny
cng c ng ni vi nhau.. Chng hn, gi s bi ton A c a v hai bi
ton tng ng A1 v A2. Bi ton A1 li c quy v hai bi ton con B1 v
B2, ta c biu din nh hnh 4.2.
A

A1 A2

B1 B2
Hnh 4.2
Mt cch hnh thc ta c th nh ngha th v/hoc nh sau:
th G = (V, E) c gi l th V/HOC nu n V , T(n) hoc cc
bi ton con ca n (n gi l cc nh V) hoc l tp cc bi ton tng ng vi
n (n gi l nh HOC).
Cch biu din nh sau:
n
n1 n2 ...... nk
n c gi l nh HOC (n n1 ... nk)
n

n1 n2 ...... nk
n c gi l nh V (n n1... nk )

49
 Khi gii bi ton n ta phi tm th con ca G l mt cy c gc l
nh xut pht n sao cho mi nh trn th con ny a v c cc bi ton s
cp (nh kt thc).
Nhn xt: Gi VA: tp cc nh V
VO: tp cc nh HOC
Nu VA= tm li gii trn th biu din bng khng gian trng thi
Khi :
- Bi ton n c gi l gii c nu:
+ hoc n l nh kt thc
+ hoc T(n)={n1, n2,..., nk} v nu n l nh HOC i (1...k ) sao cho ni
gii c, ngc li ni gii c i 1...k .
- Bi ton n c gi l khng gii c nu:
+ hoc n l nh l v n khng phi l nh kt thc.
+ hoc T(n)={n1, n2,..., nk}v nu n l nh HOC i (1...k ) sao cho nj
khng gii c, ngc li ni khng gii c i 1...k .
tm li gii ca bi ton khi c phn r v th V/HOC khng phi
tm ng i m phi i tm th con gi l th con li gii (hay cy li
gii)
Cy li gii l th con G ca G tho:
- nh gc (xut pht) n0 V '

- n V ' , n gii c.
Ta c s tng quan:
Phn r bi ton th V/Hoc
Bi ton nh
Chuyn bi ton thnh cc bi ton con Cung
Bi ton s cp nh cui
Cc bi ton con ph nh V
Cc bi ton con c lp nh HOC
Gii bi ton Tm th con li gii bi ton

4.3. Cc phng php tm kim li gii trn th V/Hoc

50
 Sau khi la chn m t bi ton v cc ton t quy bi ton v bi ton con,
ta c th xy dng th V/hoc gii quyt bi ton ban u hoc chng t
tnh khng gii c ca n. Cng nh th trong khng gian trng thi, th
v/hoc c th cho di dng tng minh hoc khng tng minh trn c s ton
t xy dng.
Cc phng php tm kim trn th v/hoc khc nhau ch yu phng
php la chn v sp xp nh trc khi tho chng. Tng t nh trong khng
gian trng thi, ta cung c cc phng php sau:
- Tm kim theo chiu rng.
- Tm kim theo chiu su.
- Tm kim cy li gii c gi nh nht.
Cc qu trnh ny khc hn vi cc qu trnh la chn trong khng gian
trng thi. S khc bit ch yu l do vic kim tra tnh kt thc ca qu trnh tm
kim v cc phng php sp xp v la chn nh xt phc tp hn nhiu..
Thay cho vic tm kim nh tho mn iu kn ch, chng ta phi tin
hnh tm kim th li gii. Do , nhng thi im nht nh, ta phi kim tra
xem nh u c gii c hay khng, nu nh u gii c th kt thc cng
vic, trong trng hp ngc li th tip tc xt cc nt. Nu nh ang xt khng
phi l nh kt thc v n l nh l, tc l nh khng gii c. Lc ny phi
kim tra nh u c phi khng gii c hay khng, nu ng th dng, ngc
li, tip tc tm kim.
Trc khi tm kim li gii trong th V/HOC, chng ta xy dng cc
hm kim tra mt nh n no ti thi im ang xt c gii c hay khng gii
c khng?
Function giaiduoc(n):boolean;
Begin
If <n so cap> then
giaiduoc:=true
else
if T(n)<>null then
if T(n)VA then
giaiduoc and ( giaiduoc (m))
mT ( n )

else
giaiduoc or ( giaiduoc (m))
mT ( n )

else
giaiduoc:=false;
End;
Function khonggd(n):boolean;
Begin
51
 If T(n)<>null then
if T(n)VA then
khonggd or (khonggd ( m))
mT ( n )

else
khonggd and (khonggd ( m))
mT ( n )

else
if <T(n) khong so cap> then
khonggd:=true
else
khonggd:=false;
End;

* V d: Phng php tm kim chiu rng

Procedure TKR;
Begin
Push(n0, MO);
While MO<>null do
begin
n:=pop(MO);
push(DONG, n);
if T(n)<>null then
for m T (n) do
begin
push(m, MO);
if T(m)=null then
if giaiduoc(m) then
if giaiduoc(n0) then
exit
else
for kMO do
if giaiduoc(k) then
MO:=MO-[k]
Else
If khonggd(m) then
If khonggd(n0) then
Exit
Else
For kMO do
if khonggd(k) then
MO:=MO-[k]
end;
end;
write(Khong ket luan);
52
End;
* Nhn xt:
Nu tn ti cy li gii th th tc tm kim rng s dng v cho kt qu l
cy li gii c cao nh nht.
V d. Xt th Hnh 4.3.
A

B C D

E* F G H* I

J K L*

M* N
O* Hnh 4.3
Cc nh kt thc l cc nh nh du *. Qu trnh tm kim li gii ca
th trn bng phng php tm kim rng c th trnh by bng sau
n T(n) MO DONG
A
A B, C, D BCD A
B E*, F CDF AB
C G DFG ABC
D H*, I FGI ABCD
F J GIJ ABCDF
G K0 IJ ABCDFG
I L* Dng
Cy li gii hnh sau:
A

D
H* I

L*
(Xem thm cc v d khc trong ti liu tham kho)

53
 Chng 5
BIU DIN BI TON NH LOGIC HNH THC
Trong chng ny s trnh by phng php biu din vn nh logic hnh
thc v cc phng php gii quyt vn trn cch biu din ny.
Logic hnh thc thng dng thu gn qu trnh tm kim li gii trc
khi gii quyt vn , nh phn tch logic, c th chng t rng mt bi ton no
c th gii c hay khng?...
Ngoi ra, cc kt lun logic rt cn ngay c trong cch tip cn da trn
khng gian trng thi v quy bi ton v bi ton con. Chng hn, trong cc
phng php da trn khng gian trng thi, cc kt lun logic dng kim tra
mt trng thi no c phi l trng thi ch hay khng?...
Logic hnh thc c th c s dng gii quyt nhng bi ton chng
minh logic, chng hn nh chng minh mt khng nh no l ng khi bit
nhng tin ban u v cc lut suy din. y l mt dng quen thuc nht v
c cc chuyn gia TTNT quan tm ngay t u.
5.1. Logic mnh

5.1.1. Mnh
- Mnh l mt pht biu c th khng nh tnh ng hoc sai (hay gi tr
ca n ch c th hoc l ng hoc l sai).
- Cc k hiu (symbol) ca php tnh mnh l cc k hiu mnh bi
ch ci latinh (bin mnh ) : a, b, c, p, q, P, Q, R ; cc k hiu chn l - chn
tr (truth symbol) : true -1, false -0 hay cc php ton kt ni (php ton logic) nh
: (php tuyn (), php hi ( ), ph nh ( , ~, ), php ko theo (, ), php
tng ng (, ,=)).
Cc k hiu mnh biu th cc mnh (proposition) hay cc pht biu
v th gii thc m gi tr ca chng c th l ng hoc sai.
V d:
Pht biu: Chic xe hi kia mu .
Pht biu: "1+1=2" (c gi tr ng).
Pht biu: Nc th t.
5.1.2. Cu
Cu trong php tnh mnh c cu to t nhng k hiu s cp theo cc
lut sau y :
- Tt c cc k hiu mnh v k hiu chn l u l cu (sentences): true,
a, b v c l cc cu.
54
 - Ph nh ca mt cu l mt cu : P v false l cc cu
- Hi hay v ca hai cu l mt cu : P P l mt cu
- Tuyn hay hoc ca hai cu l mt cu : P P l mt cu
- Ko theo ca mt cu c mt cu khc l mt cu : P Q l mt cu
- Tng ng ca hai cu l mt cu : P Q R l mt cu
Cc cu hp l c gi l cc cng thc dng chun (well-formed
formula) hay WFF.
Trong cc cu php tnh mnh , cc k hiu ( ) v [ ] dng nhm cc k
hiu vo cc biu thc con v nh kim sot c th t ca chng trong vic
nh gi biu thc v din t.
V d: (P Q) R hon ton khc vi P (Q R).
5.1.3. Biu thc
Mt biu thc l mt cu hay cng thc dng chun, ca php tnh mnh
khi v ch khi n c th c to t nhng k hiu hp l thng qua mt dy
nhng lut ny.
V d: (( P Q) R P Q R l mt cu dng chun trong php
tnh mnh v : P, Q, R l cc mnh v do l cc cu.
P Q, hi ca hai cu l mt cu.
(P Q) R, ko theo ca mt cu l mt cu.
P v Q, ph nh ca cc cu l cu.
P Q, tuyn ca hai cu l cu.
P Q R, tuyn ca hai cu l cu.
(( P Q) R P Q R , tng ng ca hai cu l cu.
y l cu xut pht, n c xy dng thng qua mt lot cc lut hp
l v do n c dng chun.
Biu thc logic dng chun: l biu thc c xy dng t cc bin mnh
v cc php ton , , .
V d: p ( q r)
Th t u tin ca cc php ton logic: , , , ,
5.1.4. Ng ngha ca php tnh mnh
Php gn gi tr chn l cho cc mnh phc tp thng c m t thng
qua bng chn tr nh sau :

55
 P Q P PQ PQ PQ PQ
T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T F T T F
F F T F F T T

V d : Chn tr ca mnh ( P Q) (P Q) c cho nh trong

bng sau :
P Q P PQ PQ ( P Q) (P Q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T

- Mi biu thc logic u c th chuyn v cc biu thc logic dng chun.

- Hai biu thc trong php tnh mnh l tng ng nhau nu chng c
cng gi tr trong mi php gn chn tr.
* Mt s cng thc bin i tng ng ca cc mnh nh sau:

(P) P
(PQ) (P Q)
Lut tng phn: (P Q) (Q P)
Lut De Morgan: (P Q) (P Q)
(P Q) (P Q)
Lut giao hon: (P Q) (Q P)
(PQ) (QP)
Lut kt hp: ((P Q) R) (P (Q R))
((P Q) R) (P (Q R))
Lut phn phi: P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
5.2. Logic v t
P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
5.2.1. Khi nim
Biu din tri thc bng mnh gp phi mt tr ngi c bn l ta khng
th can thip vo cu trc ca mt mnh . Hay ni mt cch khc l mnh
khng c cu trc . iu ny lm hn ch rt nhiu thao tc suy lun .
Do , ngi ta a vo khi nim v t v lng t (: vi mi, :
tn ti) tng cng tnh cu trc ca mt mnh .

56
 - Trong logic v t, mt mnh c cu to bi hai thnh phn l cc i
tng tri thc v mi lin h gia chng (gi l v t). Cc mnh s c biu
din di dng:
V t (<i tng 1>, <i tng 2>, , <i tng n>)
V d: biu din v ca cc tri cy, cc mnh s c vit li thnh :
Cam c v Ngt V (Cam, Ngt)
Cam c mu Xanh Mu (Cam, Xanh)
Kiu biu din ny c hnh thc tng t nh hm trong cc ngn ng lp
trnh, cc i tng tri thc chnh l cc tham s ca hm, gi tr mnh chnh l
kt qu ca hm (thuc kiu BOOLEAN).
- Vi v t, ta c th biu din cc tri thc di dng cc mnh tng qut,
l nhng mnh m gi tr ca n c xc nh thng qua cc i tng tri thc
cu to nn n.
V d:
Chng hn tri thc : "A l b ca B nu B l anh hoc em ca mt ngi
con ca A" c th c biu din di dng v t nh sau :
B (A, B) = Tn ti Z sao cho : B (A, Z) v (Anh(Z, B) hoc Anh(B,Z))
Trong trng hp ny, mnh B(A,B) l mt mnh tng qut
Nh vy nu ta c cc mnh c s l :
a) B ("An", "Bnh") c gi tr ng (Anh l b ca Bnh)
b) Anh("T", "Bnh") c gi tr ng (T l anh ca Bnh)
th mnh c) B ("An", "T") s c gi tr l ng. (An l b ca T).
5.2.2. C php v t
+ K hiu v t: l tp hp gm cc ch ci, ch s, k hiu _, v c
bt u bng ch ci. K hiu v t c th l:
- Hng: ch mt i tng, thuc tnh c biu din bng chui k t bt
u bng ch ci thng hoc cc ch s hoc chui k t t trong bao nhy. V
d: a,b, c, blue, rain, An, Ba,...
- Bin: ch mt lp tng qut cc i tng, thuc tnh, tn bin lun bt
u bng ch ci vit hoa. V d: X, Y, Z, U, V, Students, People...
- V t: c biu din bng chui k t bt u bng ch ci thng. V
d: p, q, r, s, like,...
Mi v t l v t ca n bin (n0). Cc k hiu v t khng c bin l cc
k hiu mnh .
V d: like(X,Y) l v t ca hai bin
u(X) l v t mt bin
r l v t khng bin
57
 - Hm: f, g, cos, sin, mother,...
Mi hm l hm ca n bin (n1). V d: cos, sin l hm mt bin.
+ Biu thc hm: l mt k hiu hm theo sau bi n i s.
V d: father(david), price(bananas), like(tom, football).
+ Mc hay hng thc (term): l mt hng, mt bin hay mt biu thc
hm.

+ Cu s cp: l mt hng v t vi n ngi theo sau bi n thnh phn nm

trong cp du ( ), cch nhau bi du ,, v kt thc vi du .
- Tr chn l true, false l cc cu s cp.
- Cu s cp cn c gi l: biu thc nguyn t, nguyn t hay mnh
V d : friends(helen, marry). likes(hellen, mary).
likes(helen, sister(mary)). likes(X, ice-cream).
K hiu v t trong cc cu ny l friends, likes.
+ Cu (hay cng thc): c to ra bng cch kt hp cc cu s cp s
dng:
- Cc php kt ni logic: : (hi), (tuyn), (ph nh), (ko theo),
hay (ko theo nhau, tng ng).
- Cc lng t bin:
o Lng t ph bin: (vi mi): dng ch mt cu l ng vi mi
gi tr ca bin lng gi
V d: X, p(X) ngha l vi mi gi tr ca bin X u lm cho biu
thc p ng.
X likes(X, ice-cream)
o Lng t tn ti: (tn ti): dng ch mt cu l ng vi mt s
gi tr no ca bin lng gi.
V d: Y, p(Y) ngha l c t nht mt gi tr ca bin Y lm cho biu
thc p ng.
Y friends(Y,tom).
V d v cu:
likes(helen, chocolat) likes(bart, chocolat).
X foo(X,two,plus(two,three)) equal(plus(three,two),five).
(foo(two, two,plus(two,three))) (equal(plus(three,two),five)= true.
+ Cc k hiu ngn cch: du phy, du m ngoc v du ng ngoc.
5.2.3. Ng ngha php tnh v t

58
 Tng t nh php tnh mnh , ng ngha ca php tnh v t cung cp
mt c s xc nh chn tr ca cc biu thc dng chun. Chn tr ca cc biu
thc ph thuc vo nh x t cc hng, cc bin, cc v t v cc hm vo cc i
tng v quan h trong lnh vc c cp.
S thng dch (cch din gii) ca mt tp hp cc cu php tnh v t: l
mt s gn cc thc th trong min ca vn ang cp cho mi k hiu hng,
bin, v t v hm.
Gi tr chn l ca mt cu s cp c xc nh qua s thng dch. i vi
cc cu khng nguyn t, s dng bng chn l cho cho cc php ni kt, v:
- Gi tr ca cu X <cu> l true nu <cu> l T cho tt c cc php gn
c th c cho X.
- Gi tr ca cu X <cu> l true nu tn ti mt php gn cho X lm cho
<cu> c gi tr T.
V d 1: Cu student(Lan) student(An) nhn gi tr true nu c hai
cu student(Lan) v student(An) u c gi tr true, tc l c Lan v An u
l sinh vin.
V d 2:
Ng ngha ca cc cu x (G), trong G l mt cng thc no c
xc nh l ng ngha ca cng thc l hi ca tt c cc cng thc nhn c t
cng thc G bng cch thay X bi mt i tng trong min i tng. Chng
hn, nu min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan, An, Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu x,
student(x) c xc nh l ng ngha ca cu student(Lan) student(An)
student(Hoa). Cu ny ng khi v ch khi c ba cu thnh phn u ng, tc l
c Lan, Hoa, An u l sinh vin. Nh vy, cng thc x (G) l ng nu v ch
nu mi cng thc nhn c t G bng cch thay X bi mt i tng bt k
trong min i tng u ng, tc l G ng cho tt c i tng X trong min
i tng.
Ng ngha ca cng thc x (G) c xc nh nh l ng ngha ca cng
thc l tuyn ca tt c cc cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng cch thay X
bi mt i tng trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu ng ngha ca cu
younger(X, 20) l X tr hn 20 tui v min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan, Hoa,
An} th ng ngha ca cu X younger(x, 20) l ng ngha ca cu
younger(Lan, 20) younger(Hoa, 20) younger(An, 20). Cu ny nhn gi
tr True nu v ch nu t nht mt trong ba ngi Lan, Hoa, An tr hn 20 tui.
Nh vy, cng thc x(G) l ng nu v ch nu mt trong cc cng thc nhn
c t G bng cch thay X bi mt i tng trong min i tng l ng.

59
 V d 3: Cho trc mt tp hp cc quan h gia nh nh sau:
mother (eve,abel) mother(eve,cain)
father(adam,abel) father(adam,cain)
X Y father(X,Y) mother(X,Y) parent(X,Y)
X Y Z parent(Z,X) parent(Z,Y) sibling(X,Y)
Ta c th suy lun:
parent(eve,abel) parent(eve,cain)
parent(adam,abel) parent(adam,cain)
sibling(abel,cain) sibling(cain,abel)
sibling(abel,abel) sibling(cain,cain) ! Khng c ngha
Chng ta c cc tng ng sau y:
x (G(x)) y (G(y))
x (G(x)) y (G(y))
(x (G(x))) x (G(x))
x (G(x)) x (G(x))
x (G(x) H(x)) x (G(x)) x (H(x))
x (G(x) H(x)) x (G(x)) x (H(x))
5.2.4. Php tnh v t bc nht
Php tnh v t bc nht cho php cc bin lng gi tham chiu n cc i
tng trong min ca vn ang cp nhng khng c tham chiu n cc v
t v hm.
V d 2.8 :
- V d khng hp l:
(Likes) Likes(helen, ice-cream)
- V d hp l:
Nu ngy mai tri khng ma, Tom s i bin.
weather(rain, tomorrow) go(tom, sea)
Tt c cc cu th bng r u cao.
X ( basketball_player(X) tall(X) )
C ngi thch coca-cola.
X person(X) likes(X, coca-cola)
Khng ai thch thu.
X likes(X, taxes)
Hu ht bt k cu ng ng php no cng c th biu din trong php tnh
v t bc nht bng cch s dng cc k hiu, cc php kt ni v k hiu bin.

60
5.3. Cc lut suy din
Ng ngha ca php tnh v t cung cp mt c s cho l thuyt hnh thc
v suy din logic. Kh nng suy ra nhng biu thc ng mi t mt tp hp cc
khng nh ng l mt c trng quan trng ca php tnh v t. Logic v t dng
cc lut suy din sau :
Lut Modus Ponens (MP): P
P Q
Q

V d: Nu ta c quan st sau y nu tri ma th sn t (P Q) v

tri ang ma (P) th ta d dng suy ra c sn t (Q).
Lut Modus Tollens (MT): PQ
Q
P
Lut trin khai ph bin (Universal Instantiation -UI):
X P(X)
a thuc min xc nh ca X
P(a)
V d: Tt c mi ngi u cht v Socrates l ngi do Socrates s cht
Cho trc:
(1) X (man(X) mortal(X))
(2) man(socrates)
=>
(3) man(socrates) mortal(socrates) t (1),(2) bng lut UI.
(4) mortal(socrates) t (3) v (2) bng lut MP.
5.4. i snh mu v php hp nht

5.4.1. Gii thut i snh mu

(1) Hng / hng i snh : ch khi chng ging ht nhau
VD: tom khng i snh vi jerry
(2) Hng a / bin X i snh:
a. Bin cha kt buc: bin tr thnh kt buc vi hng => Khi ta c
php th {a/X}
b. Bin kt buc : xem (1)
(3) Bin X/ bin Y i snh:

61
 a. Hai bin cha kt buc: lun lun i snh => Khi ta c php th
{X/Y}
b. Mt bin kt buc v mt bin cha kt buc: xem (2)
c. Hai bin kt buc: xem (1)
(4) Biu thc / biu thc i snh: ch khi cc tn hm hoc v t, s ngi
ging nhau th p dng i snh tng i s mt.
VD: goo(X) - khng i snh vi foo(X) hay goo(X,Y)
- i snh vi goo(foo(Y)) vi php th {foo(Y) / X}
Lu : Phm vi ca mt bin l mt cu. Mt khi bin b kt buc, cc
php hp nht theo sau v cc suy lun k tip phi gi s kt buc ny.
VD: man(X) => mortal(X)
Nu ta th X bi socrates th ta c:
man(socrates) => mortal(socrates)
5.4.2. Php hp nht
Php hp nht (unification) l mt thut ton dng xc nh nhng php
th cn thit lm cho hai biu thc v t i snh (match) nhau.
p dng cc lut nh MP, mt h suy din phi c kh nng xc nh khi
no th hai biu thc l mt hay cn gi l i snh (match).
Hp nht v cc lut suy din khc nh Modus ponens cho php chng ta
to ra cc suy din da trn mt tp hp cc khng nh logic. Php hp nht phc
tp do c th thay th mt bin vi bt k mc no gm c nhng bin v nhng
biu thc hm khc vi phc tp ty . Nhng biu thc ny t thn chng li
c th cha cc bin.
Mt bin c th thay th bi mt mc bt k:

Thay th bi Hng Bin kt buc

(bound)
Bin Bin khc Bin cha kt buc
(unbound)

Biu thc hm c th
cha cc bin khc

V d: i snh foo(X,a,goo(Y)) vi:

foo(X,b,foo(Y)) khng i snh
foo(X,Y) khng i snh
moo(X,a,goo(Y)) khng i snh
foo(fred,a, goo(Z)) {fred/X, Z/Y}
foo(W,a,goo(jack)){W/X,jack/Y}
62
 foo(Z,a,goo(moo(Z))) {Z/X,moo(Z)/Y}
Ni chung mt qu trnh gii quyt vn s i hi nhiu suy din v do
cn nhiu php hp nht ni tip nhau. Cc chng trnh gii quyt vn
logic phi duy tr tnh nht qun ca cc php th bin. iu ny c pht biu
trong gii thut i snh mu.
(Xem thm trong ti liu tham kho)
5.5. Mt s gii thut chng minh
Mt trong nhng vn kh quan trng ca logic mnh l chng minh
tnh ng n ca php suy din (ab). y cng chnh l bi ton chng minh
thng gp trong ton hc.
R rng rng vi hai php suy lun c bn ca logic mnh (Modus
Ponens, Modus Tollens) cng vi cc php bin i hnh thc, ta cng c th
chng minh c php suy din. Tuy nhin, thao tc bin i hnh thc l rt kh
ci t c trn my tnh. Thm ch iu ny cn kh khn vi c con ngi!
Vi cng c my tnh, bn c th cho rng ta s d dng chng minh c
mi bi ton bng mt phng php "th bo" l lp bng chn tr . Tuy v l
thuyt, phng php lp bng chn tr lun cho c kt qu cui cng nhng
phc tp ca phng php ny l qu ln, O(2n) vi n l s bin mnh .
Sau y chng ta s nghin cu cc phng php chng minh mnh
(hoc v t) vi phc tp ch c O(n ):
5.5.1. Bi ton
Cho tp cc gi thit di dng cc biu thc logic mnh (hoc v t)
GT={GT1, GT2, ...GTn}. Hy chng minh tp kt lun KL={KL1, KL2,..., KLm}.
5.5.2. Th tc Wong. H (Vng Ho)
Vo: Cho cc biu thc mnh gi thit GT1, GT2, ...,GTn
Cc biu thc mnh kt lun KL1, KL2,...,KLm
Ra: Chng minh GT1, GT2,...,GTn KL1, KL2,...,KLm: True
(Thng bo thnh cng nu GT1 GT2 ...GTn KL1 KL2...KLm)
* Phng php:
{ for i=1 to n do
{ Trans (GTi); //a tng GT v dng chun
VT {GTi} VT; } //a vo v tri
for i=1 to m do
{ Trans (KLi); //a tng GT v dng chun
VP {KLi} VP; } //a vo v phi

63
 P {(VT, VP)}; //P: tp cha cc bi ton (VT, VP)
While P do
{ (VT, VP) get (P); //Ly bi ton trong P
if VT VP = then
{ chuyen (VT, VP);
if VT VP = then
if not tach (VT, VP) then
Exit (ko thnh cng);
}
} P : cc bi ton con qua php tach (VT, VP) m c
write (thnh cng);
}
* Ch :
- Trans (BT:) l th tc a biu thc BT v biu thc ch cha cc php ton ,
, di dng chun (v nh chun hi: hi cc tuyn, chun tuyn: tuyn cc
hi).
Ch : a b = a b; (a b) = a b
V d: Biu thc (a b) (c d) c th a v thnh:
1. (a b) (c d)
2. (a c) (a d) (b c) (b d)
- chuyen (VT, VP): th tc chuyn cc GTi , KLj dng ph nh.
V d:
p q, (rs), g, p r s, p
pq, p r, p (r s), g, s
V nu GTi c php th thay th php bng du "," . Nu KLj c php
th thay th php bng du ",".
V d:
p q, r (p s) q, s
p, q, r, p s q, s
- tach (VT, VP): th tc tch (VT, VP) thnh 2 danh sch con nu GTi c
phphoc KLj c php . Nu tch c th th tc tach (VT,VP) nhn gi tr
True.
V d :
p, p q q tch thnh 2 dng:
p, p q p, q q

64
 - Mt dng c chng minh nu tn ti chung mt mnh c hai
pha.
V d :
p, q q c chng minh
p, p q p p, q
- Nu mt dng khng cn php ni hoc c hai v v 2 v khng
c chung mt bin mnh th dng khng c chng minh.
- Mt vn c chng minh nu tt c dng dn xut t dng chun ban
u u c chng minh.
* Cc v d:
VD1: Cn chng minh rng t a b c v b c d v a v b, suy ra d
Gii:
Vit li di dng chun:
(a b c) (b c d) a b d
a b c , b c d, a , b d
VT VP
- p dng th tc tch (VT,VP) ta c 2 dng:
VT1 = a, b c d, a , b, VP = d
VT2 = b c , b c d, a , b, VP = d
- Nh vy: P = {(VT1, VP), (VT2, VP)}
p dng th tc chuyn (VT1 ,VP) a v dng
VT1 = b c d, a , b, VP = d, a
Lc ny VT1 VP tc l VT1 VP
- C tip tc nh vy x l (VT2, VP) ta c kt qu bi ton c chng
minh (Xem hnh sau).

65
 a b c , b c d, a , b d

a , b c d, a , b d b c, b c d, a , b d

b c d, a , b d, a : CM b, b c d, a , b d

b c d, a , b d, b : CM

c, b c d, a , b d

c, b, a , b d c, c d, a , b d

c, a , b d , b : CM

c, c, a , b d c, d, a , b d: CM

c, a , b d, c : CM
VD2: Xt cc cu ng sau:
Nu tri ma th Lan mang theo d
Nu Lan mang theo d th Lan khng b t
Nu tri khng ma th Lan khng b t
a. Xy dng cc cu trn bng cc biu thc logic mnh
b. Hy chng minh rng Lan khng b t bng phng php Vng Ho
Gii
a. r: Tri ma
u: Lan mang theo d
w: Lan b t
Lc , ta c cc biu thc logic ng sau:
ru
u w
r w
b.Ta phi chng minh (r u) (u w) (r w) w: True

66
 5.5.3. Th tc Robinson 1 (dng cho logic mnh )
Thut gii ny do Robinson xut v hot ng da trn phng php
chng minh phn chng.
chng minh rng t cc GT={GT1, GT2, ...GTn} suy ra mt trong cc kt
lun KL={KL1, KL2,..., KLm}, ta ch cn ly ph nh ca KL 1, KL2,..., KLm hp
cng gi thit. Nu suy ra c mu thun th qu trnh chng minh xong.
Vo: Cho cc biu thc mnh gi thit GT1, GT2, ...,GTn
Cc biu thc mnh kt lun KL1, KL2,...,KLm
Ra: (Thng bo thnh cng nu GT1GT2 ...GTn KL1KL2...KLm)
* Phng php:
{ for i=1 to n do
{ Trans (GTi);
P {GTi}; }
for i=1 to m do
{ Trans (KLi);
P {KLi}; }
if mt(P) then Exit (thnh cng); //nu mu thun P
P1: = ;
While P P1 and mt(P) do
{P1: = P;
hopgiai(P); }
if mt(P) then Exit (thnh cng);
else Exit (ko thnh cng);
}
* Ch :
- Mu thun: Nu trong P m c 2 mnh :
p1 = p2
hoc
p1 = p2 ( vi p1 p1)
th trong P c mu thun.
- Hp gii: Nu trong P m c 2 mnh :
p1 = a b
p2 = a c
th ta b sung vo P thm mnh mi: p3 = b c
* V d:
67
 Cn chng minh rng t a b c v b c d v a v b, suy ra d
tc {a b c, b c d, a, b} {d}
Gii:
P = {a b c , b c d, a , b, d}
n gin ta vit nh sau:
1. a b c
2. b c d
3. a
4. b
5. d
Qu trnh hp gii nh sau:
6. b c (l kt qu hp gii dng 1 v dng 3, k hiu l Res(1A,3), ch A
ch ra rng ly thnh phn u tin trong trong 1).
7. a c Res(1B,4)
8. c d Res(2A,4)
9. b c Res(2C,5)
10. c Res(3,7A)
11. c Res(4,9A)
12. Mu thun gia 10 v 11
Chng minh xong.
(Xem hnh sau)
a b c a b b c d d

b c a c c d b c

c c

Mu thun
5.5.4. Th tc Robinson 2 (dng cho logic v t)
(Xem thm trong ti liu tham kho)

68
 Chng 6
BIU DIN TRI THC V CC PHNG PHP SUY DIN
Nh ta bit con ngi sng trong mi trng c th nhn c th gii
nh cc gic quan v s dng tri thc tch lu c v nh kh nng lp lun, suy
din, con ngi c th a ra cc hnh ng hp l cho cng vic m con ngi
ang lm.
Trong khi mc tiu ca tr tu nhn to ng dng l thit k cc tc nhn
thng minh (intelligent agent) cng c kh nng nh con ngi. Tc nhn
thng minh l bt c ci g c th nhn thc c mi trng thng qua cc b
cm nhn (sensors) v a ra hnh ng hp l p ng li mi trng thng qua
b phn hnh ng (effectors). V d: robots, softrobot (software robot), cc h
chuyn gia,...l cc tc nhn thng minh.
Chnh v vy, mun xy dng mt tr thng minh nhn to, ta cn phi c
cc phng php a tri thc vo my tnh c gi l biu din tri thc.
Tri thc v suy din l hai thnh phn trong bt k mt h da trn tri thc
no. Phng php biu din tri thc s quyt nh phng php suy din tng
ng, nhng ngc li phng php suy din ch c th ph hp cho mt phng
php biu din tri thc nht nh.
6.1. Tri thc v d liu
- Tri thc: l s hiu bit v mt min ch (lnh vc) no .
V d: Hiu bit v y hc, vn hc,.... l tri thc
- Ngi ta thng phn loi tri thc ra lm cc dng nh sau :
+ Tri thc s kin : l cc khng nh v mt s kin, khi nim no
(trong mt phm vi xc nh). Cc nh lut vt l, ton hc, ... thng c xp
vo loi ny. (Chng hn : mt tri mc ng ng, tam gic u c 3 gc
600, ...)
+ Tri thc th tc : thng dng din t phng php, cc bc cn tin
hnh, trnh t hay ngn gn l cch gii quyt mt vn . Thut ton, thut gii l
mt dng ca tri thc th tc.
+ Tri thc m t : cho bit mt i tng, s kin, vn , khi nim, ...
c thy, cm nhn, cu to nh th no (mt ci bn thng c 4 chn, con
ngi c 2 tay, 2 mt,...)

69
 + Tri thc Heuristic : l mt dng tri thc cm tnh. Cc tri thc thuc loi
ny thng c dng c lng, phng on, v thng c hnh thnh thng qua
kinh nghim.
- Thu thp thng tin ta c d liu v cn c vo tri thc ta c c nhng
quyt nh phn on.
V d: i vi qu cam ta xt cc d liu nh v, cung, mu sc,...ca n
nh th no? v da vo hiu bit ca ta m xc nh xem qu cam l ngon hay
khng ngon, ngon va,...
Nh vy, tri thc l dng d liu bc cao. Kh phn bit gia tri thc v d
liu (khng c ranh gii r rng gia chng). Tuy nhin ta c th phn bit theo
bng sau:

D liu Tri thc

- nh lng - nh tnh
- C cu trc n gin - Khng c cu trc hoc
c cu trc phc hp
- dng n gin - dng phc hp

- So vi chng trnh truyn thng (c cu to t hai "cht liu" c bn l

d liu v thut ton), chng trnh tr tu nhn to c cu to t hai thnh
phn l c s tri thc (knowledge base) v ng c suy din (inference engine).
+ C s tri thc : l tp hp cc tri thc lin quan n vn m chng
trnh quan tm gii quyt.
+ ng c suy din : l phng php vn dng tri thc trong c s tri thc
gii quyt vn .

Nu xt theo quan nim biu din tri thc th c s tri thc ch l mt dng
d liu c bit v ng c suy din cng ch l mt dng ca thut ton c bit
m thi. Tuy vy, c th ni rng, c s tri thc v ng c suy din l mt bc
tin ha mi ca d liu v thut ton ca chng trnh! Bn c th hnh dung
ng c suy din ging nh mt loi ng c tng qut, c chun ha c th

70
dng vn hnh nhiu loi xe my khc nhau v c s tri thc chnh l loi
nhin liu c bit vn hnh loi ng c ny !

Cu trc chung nht ca mt chng trnh tr tu nhn to

6.2. Cc phng php biu din tri thc (m t tri thc)

my tnh c th s dng c tri thc, c th x l c tri thc, chng
ta cn phi biu din tri thc di dng thun tin cho my tnh. l mc tiu
ca biu din tri thc. Sau nhiu c gng, cc nh TTNT pht trin mt s cch
biu din (th hin) tri thc c hiu qu trong my.
6.2.1. Biu din tri thc nh logic
Nh ta nghin cu chng 5, ta c th biu din bi ton bng cc
biu thc logic (logic mnh , logic v t).
6.2.2. Biu din tri thc nh mng ng ngha
Dng mt th G = (V, E) gm tp nh V v tp cung E. Trong , nh
(nt mng) l cc i tng, cc s kin c th, cung l mi lin h gia cc i
tng, s kin vi nhau.
C mt cung ni gia hai i tng a v i tng b, k hiu a b nu
c mt quan h no gia hai i tng a, b.
C 2 loi quan h c bit:
- "a l b" ngha l i tng a thuc vo tp i tng c biu din bi
khi nim b hoc tp cc i tng biu din bi khi nim a l tp con ca tp i
tng biu din khi nim b (quan h is-a).
V d: Yn chim
71
 - Ngc li vi quan h "l" l quan h "bao gm". Khi c <a l b> (hoc "b
bao gm a"), cc thng tin c bn v cc i tng c cho bi b s truyn li
cho a (ngha l a c tha hng nhng g b c).
V d:

cnh Khng kh

is-a c th
is-a
Chp chp Yn Chim Con vt
is-a
is-a hot ng
Cnh ct bay
hot ng
i

u im:
- Cho php biu din mt cch trc quan cc s kin v cc mi lin h gia
chng.
- Tnh m un cao theo ngha cc tri thc mi c thm vo hon ton c
lp vi cc tri thc c.
- L ngn ng biu din dng m t.
- C th p dng mt s c ch suy din trn mng: c ch truyn v tha
hng thng tin gia cc i tng (tnh k tha), c ch "chy" trn mng.
Nhc im:
- Khng c mt phng php suy din chung no cho mi loi mng ng
ngha.
- Kh kim sot qu trnh cp nht tri thc dn n mu thun trong c
s tri thc.
6.2.3. Biu din tri thc bng khung (Frame)
Khung thc cht l s tng qut ho ca cu trc bn ghi trong Pascal v
tng t nh cu trc i tng trong C++
Mt khung c m t bi cu trc:
72
 - Tn khung: nh danh i tng m t.
- Cc khe (slot): trn mi khe lu tr cc thng tin, min gi tr, thuc tnh
v chiu mi tn ch n cc khung khc.
V d: Xt khung (frame) m t tp hc sinh HOCSINH
Frame HOCSINH
IS-A:
PART-OF: NGUOI-DI-HOC
A KIND OF: (HOCSINHCOSO, HOCSINHTRUNGHOC)
Cn nng: 10-60kg
Chiu cao: 80-170cm
Cu trc frame ny cho ta mt "khung d liu" khoanh vng cc i
tng l hc sinh. Trng hp gp mt ngi cao 175cm, nng 45kg th ta c th
khng nh rng khng phi l hc sinh v khng tho mn cc rng buc c.
Ngoi ra, mt trong nhng c trng quan trng ca frame l kh nng tha
k cc thng tin ca cc khe c cng tn i tng bc trn.
V d: Trong frame HOCSINHCOSO, HOCSINHTRUNGHOC c khe
chiu cao vi gi tr m t min, th sau khi tha k thng tin mc trn Frame
HOCSINH, khe ny cn phi ly cc gi tr trong khong 80-170cm.
6.2.4. Biu din tri thc nh cc lut sn xut
Phng php biu din tri thc nh logic (logic mnh v logic v t) kh
trc quan song ch ph hp khi khng c qu nhiu lut suy din.
Mt tri thc c th hin bng mt cu Horn dng chun:
p1 p2 .... pn q
Cc cu Horn dng ny cn c gi l lut if- then (lut nu - th) v c
biu din nh sau:
if P1 and....and Pn then Q
Cc Pi (i = 1, ..., n) c gi l cc iu kin, Q c gi l kt lun ca
lut.
Mt cu Horn dng tng qut:
p1 p2 .... pn q1 q2 .... qm
Lu :
Nu c lut dng: p1 p2 .... pn q1 q2 .... qm th tng ng vi m
lut sau:
p1 p2 .... pn q2 .... qm q1
p1 p2 .... pn q1 q3... qm q2
p1 p2 .... pn q1.... qm-1 qm

73
 Tuy nhin ta ch xt cu Horn dng chun (m=1)
- Nu n=0, m=1: cu Horn c dng q: gi l s kin (fact) q.
- Nu n>0, m=1: cu Horn c dng: p1 p2 .... pn q: gi l lut (rule).
Trong cc h chuyn gia, c s tri thc gm 2 phn: tp cc s kin (facts) v
tp lut (rules).
V d:
- Ta c cc lut v kinh nghim d bo thi tit:
"Chun chun bay thp th ma, bay cao th nng, bay va th rm"
a: chun chun bay thp, b: chun chun bay cao, c: chun chun bay va
d: tri ma, e: tri nng, f: tri rm
lc ta c cc lut sau:
ad
be
cf
- Nhiu nh l trong ton hc c th biu din bi cc lut, v d:
Nu tam gic c mt gc bng 600 v tam gic c hai cnh bng nhau th
tam gic l tam gic u.
6.3. Suy din trn lut sn xut

6.3.1. Khi nim

Suy din l qu trnh suy lun da vo cc quy lut cho, thit lp cc
thng tin mi t cc thng tin bit. Suy din s s dng tp s kin lm tin .
Cc phng php suy din dn dn chuyn t cc gi thit v cc kt lun
bng cch thm vo gi thit nhng s kin c khng nh ng, da trn 2
phng thc:
- Modus ponens: A, AB
B
ngha l nu A ng v AB ng th B cng ng
- Modus tollens B, AB
A
ngha l nu B sai v bit rng AB ng th A cng sai.
Trong qu trnh suy din, ta cn quan tm n cc vn sau:
- Xy dng tp lut, cu hi no c chn ngi s dng tr li?
- Chn qu trnh tm kim nh th no?
- Thng tin nhn c c nh hng n qu trnh tm kim khng?
6.3.2. Bi ton
74
 Cho tp s kin F= {f1, f2,...,fn} v tp lut R= {r1, r2,...,rm}. Chng minh tp
kt lun G ng.
6.3.3. Cc phng php suy din
6.3.3.1. Suy din tin (lp lun tin - forward chaining hoc forward
reasoning)
(T tng c bn ca suy din tin l p dng lut suy din Modus Ponens tng
qut)
L qu trnh suy din bt u t tp s kin bit, rt ra nhng s kin
mi v c nh vy cho n khi c c s kin cn chng minh hoc khng c
lut no sinh ra cc s kin mi (tp s kin ng l cc i).
* Phng php:
Gi T l tp cc s kin (mnh ) ti thi im ang xt (khi to tp T=F:
tp s kin ng ban u ).
Xt cc lut ri c dng: p1 p2 .... pn q v pjT 1, n ngha l
j

left (ri) T
th T= T+ right (ri)
qu trnh lp li cho n khi G T hoc khng c lut no sinh ra thm s
kin mi.
* Gii thut:
Procedure suydientien;
Begin
T:= F;
S:= loc(R, T);{ S: l tp lut c dng p1 p2 .... pn q sao cho pjT
1, n }
j

While G T and S<> do

Begin
r := get(S);
T:= T + right(r);
R:=R \ {r};
S:= loc(R,T);
End;
If G T then write (thnh cng)
Else write (khng thnh cng);
End;
* V d:
Cho trc tp s kin F={a,b}. S dng cc lut:
r1: a c
r2: b d

75
 r3: c e
r4: a d e
r5: b c f
r6: e f g
cn suy ra g
Gii: Ta th hin trn bng sau:
r T S R
a, b r1, r2, r3 r1, r2, r3, r4, r5, r6
r1 a, b, c r2, r3, r5 r2,, r3, r4, r5, r6
r2 a, b, c, d r3, r4, r5 r3, r4, r5, r6
r3 a, b, c, d, e r4, r5 r4, r5, r6
r4 a, b, c, d, e r5 r5, r6
r5 a, b, c, d, e, f r6 r6
r6 a. b, c, d, e, f, g
Vy gT nn bi ton c chng minh (g: true).
* Nhn xt:
Qu trnh suy din tin l qu trnh xem xt cc lut, vi mi lut ta xt
phn iu kin ( v tri) ti phn kt lun ( v phi) v khi m tt c cc iu
kin ca lut u tho mn th ta suy ra s kin trong phn kt lun. Chnh v l
m c tn l suy din tin.
Trong mi bc ca th tc, ngi ta xt mt lut trong tp lut. So snh
mi iu kin ( v tri) ca tp lut vi cc s kin trong c s s kin, nu tt c
cc iu kin ca lut c tho mn th s kin trong phn kt lun c xem l
s kin c suy ra. Nu s kin ny l s kin mi (khng c trong b nh lm
vic) th n c a vo b nh lm vic. Qu trnh trn c lp li cho n khi
no khng c lut no sinh ra s kin mi.
Qu trnh suy din tin khng nh hng ti gii quyt mt vn no c,
khng hng ti tm ra cu tr li cho mt cu hi no c. Suy din tin ch l qu
trnh suy ra cc s kin mi t cc s kin c trong b nh lm vic.
6.3.3.2. Suy din li (lp lun li - backward chaining hoc backward
reason)
L qu trnh xut pht t s kin cn chng minh v thay vo l nhng
s kin v tri ca 1 lut c v phi l s kin cn chng minh. Qu trnh ny
c thc hin cho n khi a v cc s kin l tp s kin con ca tp s kin
gi thit. (Ngha l: a ra kt lun b, ta th tm tt c cc lut c dng: a 1
.... an b, c b, phi a ra cc kt lun a 1,...,an. Qu trnh xc nh ai cng
tng t nh i vi b, nu n mt lc no pht hin c rng c mt a i no
76
 khng dn xut c t cc gi thit th quay lui sang cc lut sn xut khc
sinh ra b c dng b1....bm b. Ngc li, nu mi ai u dn xut c gi thit
th qu trnh dn xut ra b l ng)
* Gii thut:
Gi T l tp cc s kin cn chng minh ti thi im ang xt (khi to T=
G, G l tp kt lun).
S(p) ={riR / right(ri) = p} ( l tp cc lut trong R sao cho v phi cha p)
Procedure suydienlui (g);
Begin
T:= {g};
If T F then write (g c chng minh )
Else
Begin
p:=get(T);
If S(p) = {} then write (g khng chng minh c )
Else
For ri S(p) do
Begin
T:= T \ right(ri);
T:= T + left(ri);
For lT \ F do suydienlui(l);
End;
End;
End;
* V d:
Cho tp s kin F={p, r}, v tp lut R:
r1: p q
r2: q r s
Chng minh s
p r T S(p)
s
s r2 q, r r2
q r1 r, p r

6.3.4. Nhn xt
- Suy din tin
u im:
+ Lm vic tt khi bi ton c bn cht l i thu thp thng tin ri thy iu
cn suy din.

77
 + Cho ra khi lng ln cc thng tin t mt s thng tin ban u. N sinh
ra nhiu thng tin mi.
+ Suy din tin l tip cn l tng i vi cc loi bi ton cn gii quyt
cc nhim v nh lp k hoch, iu hnh, iu khin v din dch.
Nhc im:
+ Khng cm nhn c rng ch cn mt vi thng tin quan trng. h thng
hi cc cu hi c th hi m khng bit rng ch mt t cu i n kt lun
c.
+ H thng c th hi c cu hi khng lin quan. C th cc cu tr li
cng quan trng nhng lm ngi dng lng tng khi phi tr li cc cu chng
dnh n ch .
- Suy din li:
u im:
+ Ph hp vi bi ton a ra gi thuyt v liu gi thuyt c ng hay
khng?
+ Tp trung vo ch cho. N to ra mt lot cu hi ch lin quan n
vn ang xt, thun tin i vi ngi dng.
+ Khi suy din mt iu g t thng tin bit , n ch tm trn mt phn
ca c s tri thc thch ng i vi bi ton ang xt.
+ Suy din li c nh gi cao trong cc bi ton nh l chn on, d
on v tm li.
Nhc im:
+ Nhc im c bn ca loi suy din ny l n thng tip theo dng suy
din thay v ng ra phi dng m sang nhnh khc.
Nh vy, da vo cc u v nhc im ca tng loi suy din m ta nn
chn k thut suy din no p dng vo bi ton. Trc tin, ta xem xt cc
chuyn gia gii n nh th no?. Nu cn thu thp d liu ri mi quyt nh suy
din ci g th ta chn suy din tin. cn nu c gi thuyt v cn chng minh
ci ch ny th ta dng suy din li.
V d: Mt bc s c th hiu hng trm vn c th xy ra vi mt c
nhn, nhng vn phi tm hiu hin trng ca bnh nhn, lc cn suy din tin.
Nguc li bc s hu nh thy c bnh (v d nh vim hng) th ng ta dng suy
din li.

78
 MC LC
Chng 1..................................................................................................................1
M U..................................................................................................................1
1.1. Tng quan v khoa hc tr tu nhn to.........................................................1
1.1.1. i tng v mc tiu nghin cu ca tr tu nhn to...........................1
1.1.2. Vai tr ca tr tu nhn to.......................................................................2
1.1.3. Cc k thut tr tu nhn to....................................................................3
1.2. Lch s pht trin ca tr tu nhn to............................................................5
1.3. Mt s vn tr tu nhn to quan tm........................................................6
1.3.1. Nhng vn chung................................................................................6
1.3.2. Nhng vn cha c gii quyt trong tr tu nhn to......................7
1.3.3. Nhng vn t ra trong tng lai ca tr tu nhn to........................7
1.4. Cc khi nim c bn.....................................................................................8
1.5. Mt s chuyn ngnh (lnh vc ng dng) ca tr tu nhn to.....................9
Chng 2................................................................................................................10
BIU DIN VN TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI..........................10
2.1. t vn .....................................................................................................10
2.2. M t trng thi............................................................................................10
2.3. Ton t chuyn trng thi.............................................................................12
2.4. Khng gian trng thi ca bi ton...............................................................14
2.5. Biu din khng gian trng thi di dng th........................................15
2.5.1. Cc khi nim........................................................................................15
2.5.2. Biu din khng gian trng thi bng th..........................................16
2.5.3. Biu din th......................................................................................16
Chng 3................................................................................................................18
CC PHNG PHP TM KIM LI GII TRONG........................................18
KHNG GIAN TRNG THI..............................................................................18
3.1. t vn .....................................................................................................18
3.2. Phng php tm kim theo chiu rng........................................................19
3.2.1. K thut tm kim rng..........................................................................19
3.2.2. Gii thut................................................................................................19
3.2.3. nh gi phc tp ca gii thut tm kim rng...............................20
3.2.4. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim rng.............................20
3.2.5. Cc v d................................................................................................21
3.3. Phng php tm kim theo chiu su..........................................................24
3.3.1. K thut tm kim su............................................................................24
3.3.2. Gii thut................................................................................................24
3.3.3. nh gi phc tp ca thut ton tm kim su................................25
3.3.4. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim su...............................25
3.3.5. Cc v d................................................................................................26
3.4. Phng php tm kim theo chiu su dn...................................................27
3.4.1. K thut tm kim su dn.....................................................................27
3.4.2. Gii thut................................................................................................28
3.4.3. Nhn xt.................................................................................................28

79
 3.5. K thut tm kim tt nht u tin (Best First Search)...............................30
3.5.1. K thut tm kim tt nht u tin.......................................................30
3.5.2. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim tt nht u tin...........31
3.5.3. Gii thut................................................................................................31
3.5.4. V d.......................................................................................................31
3.6. Phng php tm kim leo i (Hill-Climbing Search)...............................32
3.6.1. K thut tm kim leo i......................................................................32
3.6.2. Nhn xt phng php tm kim leo i................................................32
3.6.3. Gii thut................................................................................................33
3.6.4. Cc v d................................................................................................33
3.7. Tm kim ng i c gi thnh cc tiu - Thut gii AT...........................35
3.7.1. t vn ..............................................................................................35
3.7.2. Thut gii AT..........................................................................................36
3.7.3. Cc v d................................................................................................37
3.8. Tm kim ng i cc tiu - Thut gii A*................................................39
3.8.1. t vn ..............................................................................................39
3.8.2. Thut gii A*..........................................................................................40
3.8.3. Cc v d................................................................................................41
3.9. Phng php sinh v th..............................................................................43
3.10. Phng php tho mn rng buc..............................................................44
Chng 4................................................................................................................47
TM KIM LI GII TRN TH V/HOC................................................47
4.1. t vn .....................................................................................................47
4.2. th V/Hoc.............................................................................................49
4.3. Cc phng php tm kim li gii trn th V/Hoc.............................51
Chng 5................................................................................................................54
BIU DIN BI TON NH LOGIC HNH THC...........................................54
5.1. Logic mnh ..............................................................................................54
5.1.1. Mnh .................................................................................................54
5.1.2. Cu.........................................................................................................54
5.1.3. Biu thc................................................................................................55
5.1.4. Ng ngha ca php tnh mnh .........................................................55
5.2. Logic v t....................................................................................................56
5.2.1. Khi nim...............................................................................................56
5.2.2. C php v t..........................................................................................57
5.2.3. Ng ngha php tnh v t......................................................................59
5.2.4. Php tnh v t bc nht..........................................................................60
5.3. Cc lut suy din..........................................................................................61
5.4. i snh mu v php hp nht...................................................................61
5.4.1. Gii thut i snh mu.........................................................................61
5.4.2. Php hp nht.........................................................................................62
5.5. Mt s gii thut chng minh.......................................................................63
5.5.1. Bi ton..................................................................................................63
5.5.2. Th tc Wong. H (Vng Ho)..............................................................63
5.5.3. Th tc Robinson 1 (dng cho logic mnh )......................................67
80
 5.5.4. Th tc Robinson 2 (dng cho logic v t)............................................68
Chng 6................................................................................................................69
BIU DIN TRI THC V CC PHNG PHP SUY DIN.........................69
6.1. Tri thc v d liu........................................................................................69
6.2. Cc phng php biu din tri thc (m t tri thc)....................................71
6.2.1. Biu din tri thc nh logic...................................................................71
6.2.2. Biu din tri thc nh mng ng ngha.................................................71
6.2.3. Biu din tri thc bng khung (Frame)..................................................72
6.2.4. Biu din tri thc nh cc lut sn xut.................................................73
6.3. Suy din trn lut sn xut...........................................................................74
6.3.1. Khi nim...............................................................................................74
6.3.2. Bi ton..................................................................................................74
6.3.3. Cc phng php suy din.....................................................................74
6.3.4. Nhn xt.................................................................................................77

81