7 1

( 7 )

1
 7 2

http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/Lecture/Thermodynamics/ThermodyanmicsQuestions_4th.pdf

7 25 4 1

2
 7 3

1
1.1
1.2 6
1.2.1 6
1.2.2 6
1.2.3 8
1.2
1.2.1 9
1.2.2 9

2 1
2.1 11
2.2 12
2.3 15
2.4 17

3
3.1 18
3.2 18
3.3 19
3.4 19
3.5
3.5.1 21
3.5.2 21
3.5.3 22
3.5.4 23
3.5.5 24
3.6 25
3.7 25

4 2
4.1 27
4.2 28
4.3 28
4.4 2 29
4.5 30
4.6 32

3
 7 4

4.7 33

5
5.1 36
5.2 36
5.3 37
5.4 40

6
6.1 42
6.2 pvT 43
6.3
6.3.1 44
6.3.2 45
6.3.3 45
6.4 45
6.5 46

7
7.1 48
7.2
7.2.1 48
7.2.2 49
7.2.3 3 49
7.2.4 51
7.2.5 52
7.2.6 55
7.2.7 58
7.2.8 59
7.3 59

8
8.1 62
8.2
8.2.1 64
8.2.2 65
8.3 65

4
 7 5

9.1
9.1.1 66
9.1.2 67
9.1.3 68
9.2
9.2.1 71
9.2.2 73
9.3 73
9.4
9.4.1 74
9.4.2 75
9.4.3 76
9.4.4 76
9.4.5 76

10
10.1
10.1.1 77
10.1.2 78
10.1.3 78
10.2
10.2.1 78
10.2.2 80
10.2.3 82
10.3
10.3.1 85
10.3.2 88
10.4
10.4.1 88
10.4.2 89
10.4.3 2 91
10.4.4 92
10.4.5 93
10.5 94

95
102
110

5
 7 1 6

1
1.1

(pressure)

(heat)

1.2
1.2.1

(1)(sensible heat)
(2)(latent heat) 2
(heat of fusion)
(heat of evaporation)

1.2.2

(temperature)
100 1kg 100 1kg 2 2
1kg 2 200100
2

(1)
(Celsius temperature) (Fahrenheit temperature) F

=0 =32
=100* =212
100 180 F
t
* 1000.101325MPa=1013.25hPa

6
 7 1 7

(2) (thermodynamic temperature)

0 =273.15
(absolute temperature) T K
0K 0

T K t 273.15

(3)

2 2
(thermodynamic equilibrium) A
B
B B C A C
0 (the zeroth law
of thermodynamics)B
A C

(4)



2
(Seebeck effect
(Peltier effect)
A

B
t1 t2

t1 t2 V1 V2
V2
V2 V11 t2 t1
Vb1 Vb2

Vb2 Vb1 1 t 2 t1 3 Vb1 1 3 t 2 t1

h1 h2
d V2 Vb2
d 2
V2 h2 h1 Vb2
4
t1 Vb1 V1

7
 7 1 8

d 2
V1 1 t 2 t1 h2 h1 V1 1 3 t 2 t1
4
V1 3 t 2 t1
4
h2 h1
d 2

1.2.3
(heat capacity) J/K
1
(heating value) 2
2

(specific heat) c[J/(kgK)]

1

dQ
c
dT
a, b, c, d
cT a bT cT 2 dT 3

(molar specific heat) J/(kmolK)
J/(kgK) kmol
J/(kmolK)

(specific heat at constant pressure)(specific heat at constant volume)

1 c p
c v
c p cv

cp cv

http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/L_Support/SupportPDF/SpecificHeat.pdf

cp
2 (heat capacity ratio)
cv

cp 2
1
cv
Ar, Ne 3 5 3
2 N2, O2 5 7 5 1.4
3 H2O 6 8 6

8
 7 1 9

1.2
1.2.1
(unit)
[m][kg][s][K]
[mol][A][cd] 7
[m][kg][s][K] 4
N/m2=(kgm/s2)/m2=kg/(ms2)[m][kg][s] 3

(dimension)
3
(dimensionless quantity)

1.2.2
(1)
(base unit)
M,L,S,T
(base quantity)

(2)
(derived unit)
(derived quantity) M,L,S,T
(dimensional formula)

mghkgm/s2mkgm2/s2

ML2/S2

ML2/S2 M 1
L 2

S -2

ML2/S2 1 2-2

(3)
M,L,S,T 4 [F]
[Q]ML2/S2 FL M,L,S,T
4 MLST M,L,S,T,F,Q 6
MLSTFQ

SI
MLST MLSTFQ
M kg M M
L, l m L L
t s S S
, T K, T T
F N=kgm/s2 ML/S2=MLS-2 F

9
 7 1 10

Q J=Nm=kgm2/s2 ML2/S2=ML2S-2 Q
W J=Nm=kgm2/s2 ML2/S2=ML2S-2 FL=Q
E J=Nm=kgm2/s2 ML2/S2=ML2S-2 FL=Q
P W=J/s ML2/S3=ML2S-3 QS=QS-1
u, v, w m/s L/S=LS-1 L/S=LS-1
m/s2 L/S2=LS-2 L/S2=LS-2
g m/s2 L/S2=LS-2 L/S2=LS-2
G kg/s M/S=MS-1 M/S=MS-1
Q m3/s L3/S=L3S-1 L3/S=L3S-1
p Pa=N/m2=kg/(ms2) M/(LS2)=ML-1S-2 F/L2=FL-2
Pa=N/m2=kg/(ms2) M/(LS2)=ML-1S-2 F/L2=FL-2

K N/m2 M/(LS2)=ML-1S-2 F/L2=FL-2

=1/
N/m3=kg/(m2s2) M/(L2S2)=ML-2S-2 F/L3=FL-3
g kg/m3 M/L3=ML-3 FS2/L4=FS2L-4
Pas=Ns/m2 M/(LS)=ML-1S-1 FS/L2=FSL-2
m2/s L2/S=L2S-1 L2/S=L2S-1
h J/kg=Nm/kg=m2/s2 L2/S2=L2S-2 Q/M=QM-1
u J/kg=Nm/kg=m2/s2 L2/S2=L2S-2 Q/M=QM-1
c, cp J/(kgK) L2/(S2T)=L2S-2T-1 Q/(MT)=QM-1 T-1
W/(mK) ML/(S3T)=MLS-3T-1 Q/(LST)=QL-1S-1T-1

a m2/s L2/S=L2S-1 L2/S=L2S-1
cp

h W/(m2K) M/(S3T) =MS-3T-1 Q/(L2ST)=QL-2S-1T-1

(4)
SI J cal kgm

W JQ
1
Q W AW
J
J
A

10
 7 2 1 11

2 1
1 (the first law of thermodynamics)

2.1


Kinetic Energy, KE

Potential Energy, PE

(enthalpy) H [J]

(specific enthalpy) h [J/kg]
[J/mol]



Potential
Energy

T T

H n C p dT
0
[J]
h C p dT
0
[J/kg, J/mol]

[m] [K]

m

z v=0 T

0 0 h=0J
v

(the law of
the conservation of energy)

11
 7 2 1 12

l[m]
F F l[m]

m[kg]
m[kg]

F m[kg]F
mg
F m g
l[m]E
E Fl mgl

F m[kg]F mg

F mg
l[m] E
E Fl mgl

2.2
(1)

p F pA A

x1 x2
x2
W Fdx
x1

(external work)

pb Fb pa A

W 0, Wb 0
x2 x2
Wex Fdx Fb dx W Wb
x1 x1

12
 7 2 1 13

W > 0
W < 0

p
1
Q



2

V
Q
p pb

F Fb
1

F

F

p V
p V
p V
p V
pV p [Pa] V [m3][J] pv p [Pa] 1kg
1mol [J/kg or J/mol]

p
p

(V, p)
p p
p V

n [kg]

V [m3]
p V
0 V

pV
pV

(2)
(internal energy) U [J]
(specific internal energy) u [J/kg]

http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/L_Support/SupportPDF/InternalEnergy.pdf
[J/mol]

13
 7 2 1 14

H U h u

H U pV [J] h u pv [J/kg, J/mol]

T T

U n Cv dT
0
[J]
u Cv dT
0
[J/kg, J/mol]
dQ

dQ dU [J] dq du [J/kg, J/mol]

(3) 1
dQ dW12
dU

dQ dU dW12 [J] dq du dw12 [J/kg, J/mol]

dW12
dW12 pdV [J] dw12 pdv [J/kg, J/mol]

dQ dU pdV [J] dq du pdv [J/kg, J/mol]

1 1

(4) 2
h
h u pv

dh du d pv du vdp pdv du pdv vdp

1 dq du pdv
dh dq vdp

dq dh vdp
2

1 dq du pdv
1
2 dq dh vdp

*) du 0

dU 0, dW dQ [J] du 0, dw dq [J/kg, J/mol]

*) 2
U=f(T) 1 Q=i2Rt

14
 7 2 1 15

dQ 1 dq 1
dU , dW dQ [J] du , dw dq [J/kg, J/mol]

cp

cv


dU dQ, dW 0 [J] du dq, dw 0 [J/kg, J/mol]

(5)

(absolute work) W12

1
p

V
Q

1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
dQ dU dW
1 1 [J]
1
dq du dw
1
1 [J/kg, J/mol]
Q U 2 U1 W12 q u2 u1 w12

W12 pV pv
2 2
W12 pdV1
[J] w12 pdv 1
[J/kg, J/mol]

2.3
(1)

(technical work) Wt pV pv

1 2 1 2

Wt Vdp Vdp
2 1
[J]
wt vdp vdp
2
1
[J/kg, J/mol]

15
 7 2 1 16

p
1
1

2
2

V
Wt

Wt H1 H 2 [J] wt h1 h2 [J/kg, J/mol]

1
H1 U1 p1V1 [J] h1 u1 p1v1 [J/kg, J/mol]
2
H 2 U 2 p2V2 [J] h2 u2 p2 v2 [J/kg, J/mol]

U1 p1V1 U 2 p2V2 Wt u1 p1v1 u 2 p2 v2 wt

[J] [J/kg, J/mol]
Wt p1V1 U1 U 2 p2V2 wt p1v1 u1 u 2 p2 v2
1
dQ 0 dq 0
dQ dU dW 0 [J] dq du dw 0 [J/kg, J/mol]
1 2
2 2 2 2
dU dW 0
1 1 du dw 0
1 1
U 2 U1 W12 0 [J] u 2 u1 w12 0 [J/kg, J/mol]
W12 U1 U 2 w12 u1 u 2

Wt p1V1 W12 p2V2 [J] wt p1v1 w12 p2 v2 [J/kg, J/mol]

p1V1 p1v1 1

W12 w12 1 2
p2V2
p2 v2

1 1 1 1

+ +
2 2 2 2

V V V

(2)

16
 7 2 1 17

m
2

1 1
H1 mw1 mgy1 Q12 Wt12 H 2 mw2 mgy2
2 2

2 2
H1[J/s]H2
[J/s]Q12[J/s]Wt12
[J/s]w[m/s]m[kg/s]


Q12 H 2 H1 m w2 2 w12 Wt12 m g y2 y1
1
2
H1 m h1 , H 2 m h2

Q12 mh2 h1 m w2 2 w12 Wt12 m g y 2 y1
1
2
w 2 w2
m h1 1 gy1 Q12 m h2 2 gy2 Wt12
2 2

h1 u1 p1v1 , h2 u2 p2 v2
w2 w2
m u1 p1v1 1 gy1 Q12 m u 2 p2 v2 2 gy2 Wt12
2 2

2.4
(quantity of state)

(extensive property) (intensive property)

mol



Q W p T v
2

17
 7 3 18

3
3.1
(ideal gas)

(real gas)



2 (N2, O2, )

3 (CO2, H2O, )

3.2

(Boyle's law)
(Charles' law)

(Boyle-Charles' law)

(equation of state of ideal gas)

pV = mRT
pv = RT
pV = nRu T

m [kg]n [mol]R (gas constant)

[J/(kgK)]Ru R M [g/mol=kg/kmol]
(universal gas constant) [J(/mol K)]
Ru = MR = 8314.3 J/(kmol K)

or

18
 7 3 19

pV = mRT
[ ] [ ] [
p Pa = N/m 2 , V m 3 pV N/m 2 m 3 = Nm = J ]
m[kg ] , R[ J/kg/K ] , T [K ] mRT [kg J/kg/K K = J ] [J]

pv = RT
[ ] [ ] [
p Pa = N/m 2 , v m 3 /kg pv N/m 2 m 3 /kg = Nm/kg = J/kg ]
R[J/kg/K ] , T [K ] pv [J/kg/K K = J/kg ]
[J/kg]

pV p [Pa] V [m3][J]
pv p[Pa] 1kg [J/kg]

3.3
(Joules law)

1 2
dq = du + pdv = dh vdp

dq du + pdv du dq dh vdp dh
cv = = = , cp = = =
dT v dT v dT dT p dT p dT

du = cv dT , dh = c p dT
1 2
dq = cv dT + pdv, dq = c p dT vdp

0 = (c p cv )dT vdp pdv = (c p cv )dT d ( pv )

pv = RT d ( pv ) = d (RT )
( ) ( ) ( )
0 = c p cv dT d ( pv ) = c p cv dT d (RT ) = c p cv dT RdT
c p cv = R

3.4
T dq dq T dq / T
dq

dq
ds =
T
s (entropy)

p v pv
Ts Ts

3.5

(change of state)
1 2

19
 7 3 20

pv (pv diagram)Ts (Ts diagram)hs (hs diagram)

pv Ts 2 hs 3

T
P

T2

T1

T1<T2

h
P

T2
T2
T1 T1

dq
dw
v s s

p, P
Tt
vV
P

1
hH
sS

(isothermal change)
2
(isobaric change)
(isochoric change) v
(adiabatic change)
4
(politropic change)

pv p
2
w12 = pdv
1

p
T = const. pv = const.
p = const.

20
 7 3 21

v = const. p / T = const.
pv = const.
pv n = const.
1 2

3.5.1

T

1 2
1

v s
pv Ts

du = 0

dq = du + pdv = pdv
q12 w12
q12 = w12
m[kg]
Q12 = mq12 = mw12

p1v1
pv = RT = const pv = p1v1 p =
v

= p1v1 [ln v ]12 = p1v1 (ln v2 ln v1 ) = p1v1 ln 2

p1v1
2 2 dv
2 v
1
w12 = pdv =
1 v
dv = p1v1
1 v v1

p p
w12 = p1v1 ln 1 = RT1 ln 1
p2 p2

3.5.2

p

2
T

1 2 1

v s
Pv Ts

21
 7 3 22

dp = 0
2
dq = dh vdp = dh

dh = c p dT

q12 = dh = c p dT = c p (T2 T1 )
2 2

1
1

pdv = p(v v1 ) = R(T2 T1 )

2
w12 = 2
1

w12 R c p cv 1 1
= = = w12 = q
q12 c p cp 12

du = cv dT

u 2 u1 = du = cv dT = cv (T2 T1 )
2 2

1
1

u 2 u1 cv 1 q
= = u 2 u1 = 12
q12 cp

3.5.3

dv = 0
1
dq = du + pdv = du

du = cv dT

2
2
T

1
1

v s
Pv Ts

q12 = du = cv dT = cv (T2 T1 )
2 2

1
1

2
w12 = pdv = 0
1

22
 7 3 23

3.5.4

p

1
1

T

2

v s
Pv Ts

dq = 0
1
dq = du + pdv = cv dT + pdv = 0 (3.1)

pv = RT

pdv + vdp = RdT (3.2)

(3.2)
pdv + vdp pdv + vdp
dT = =
R c p cv
(3.1)
cv
( pdv + vdp ) + pdv = 0 ( pdv + vdp ) + ( 1) pdv = 0 pdv + vdp = 0
c p cv
dv dp
+ =0
v p

ln v + ln p = const ln v + ln p = const ln pv = const pv = const

v1
pv = p1v1 p = p1
v

w12 =
1
2
pdv = p1v1
1 v
1
dv
= p
2
v
1 1
1
+1
v [
+1 2
1 ] = (
p1v1 1
1
v2 v1
1
)
1 p v v 1 p v v 1
p1v1 1 v 2
= v1 1 = 1 1 2 1 = 1 1 1 1
1 v1 1 v1 1 v2

1
v p
p1v1 = p 2 v2 1 = 2
v2 p1

23
 7 3 24

1 1 1
+1
p2 v2 p2 p2 p p
= = 2 = 2
p1v1 p1 p1 p1 p1

1
p1v1 p 2
= 1 [ p1v1 p 2 v2 ] = 1 [T1 T2 ]
1 R
w12 = 1
1 p1

3.5.5

pv n = const
n

n = 0
n = 1
n =
n =

n 1
p1v1 v1 p1v1 p 2 n
n 1

w12 = 1 =
1 =
1
( p1v1 p2 v2 ) = R (T1 T2 )
n 1 v2 n 1 n 1 n 1
1
p

1
dq = du + pdv = cv dT + pdv

q12 = cv dT + pdv = cv (T2 T1 ) + w12 = cv (T2 T1 ) +

R
(T1 T2 ) = cv R (T2 T1 )
2 2

1 1 n 1 n 1

c = cv
R
= cv
c p cv cv (n 1) c p cv
= =
(
cv n c p
= cv
)
n
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1

q12 = c(T2 T1 )
n = 1 2
T2 < T1
n < q12 > 0
n = q12 = 0
n > q12 < 0
1 2 T2 > T1
n < q12 < 0
n = q12 = 0
n > q12 > 0

24
 7 3 25

v s
pv Ts

3.6

12 21
(reversible change) 3)
(irreversible change)
p

1
1
3

2 2

V V

1 2
12
23 1 3
(reversible
adiabatic change)
(irreversible adiabatic change)

3)

http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/L_Support/SupportPDF/ReversivleChange.pdf

3.7

(Dalton's law)
mi , pi , Ti ,Vi m, p, T ,V

piVi = mi RiTi , pV = mRT

25
 7 3 26

n
m= m
i =1
i

n
V= V
i =1
i

mi (u u i ) = mi cvi (T Ti )

n n

m (u u ) = m c
i i i vi (T Ti )
i =1 i =1
n n

(m u m u ) = (m c
i i i i vi T mi cvi Ti )
i =1 i =1
n n n n

m u m u = m c
i =1
i
i =1
i i
i =1
i vi T m c
i =1
i vi Ti

n n n
um m u
i =1
i i =T m c m c
i =1
i vi
i =1
i vi Ti

n
mu = m u
i =1
i i

n n n

m c c
piVi piVi
i vi Ti
i 1
n n vi
Ri
0=T m c m c i vi i vi Ti T = i =1
n
= i =1
n
= n
i =1

m c RT T (
i =1 i =1 piVi piVi
cvi
i 1)
i vi
i =1 i =1 i i i =1 i

pi ' V T
piVi pi 'V
mi = =
RiTi RiT

Vi T
pi ' = pi
V Ti
n n
Vi T T n
Vi T n
p=
i =1
pi ' = pi
i =1
=
V Ti V pi
i =1
Ti
=
V
(m R )
i =1
i i

26
 7 4 2 27

4 2
4.1
(heat engine)

(cycle)

1
1
p

p
p

1 1
()
1
Q
Q

2 2 2


V V V

Q>0 Q<0

3 3
1

p

1 1
Q

2 2 2

V V V

Q>0

27
 7 4 2 28

pV pv

W = pdV

4.2

%
(thermal efficiency)
W Q Q2 Q
= = 1 = 1 2
Q1 Q1 Q1

(coefficient of performance)

Q Q2
r = 2 =
W Q1 Q2

Q Q1
h = 1 =
W Q1 Q2
1 1
P
p

2 2

V V
Q2
Q1

4.3
T1 T2 4

28
 7 4 2 29

(Carnot's cycle)
p
1

1 2

T

2

4

3 4 3

v s
pv Ts

Q1 Q2

T1 12
V
Q1 = mRT1 ln 2 > 0
V1
T2 34
V V V
Q2 = mRT2 ln 4 = mRT2 ln 3 = mRT2 ln 2 > 0
V3 V4 V1

V
mRT2 ln 2
Q2 V1 T
= 1 = 1 = 1 2
Q1 V T1
mRT1 ln 2
V1

4.4 2
2 the second law of
thermodynamics

2
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2 W

29
 7 4 2 30

4.5
(1)

Q T
=1 2 =1 2
Q1 T1

Q 2 T2
=
Q1 T1

Q1 Q2
=0
T1 T2

Q1 = Q1 , Q2 = Q2

Q1 Q2
+ =0
T1 T2
n

Q1 Q2
+ =0
T1 T2 p
a
Q3 Q4
+ =0 2
T3 T4
: 1
Q2 n 1 Q2 n
+ =0 b
T2 n 1 T2 n
v
2n

Qi
=0
T
i =1 i

2n

Qi 1
lim
n T
i =1 i
=
T
dQ = 0

1 2 1 1 1
T
dQ =
1a T
dQ +
2b T
dQ = 0

2 1 1 1 2 1
1a T
dQ =
2b T
dQ = 1b T
dQ

1

T
dQ
2 1
S 2 S1 =
1 T
dQ

(entropy)
1
dS = dQ
T

30
 7 4 2 31

1
ds =
dq
T

1
T
dQ < 0

dS > 0

(law of entropy increase)*

2

*

http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/L_Support/SupportPDF/Principle_of_entropy.pdf

(2)
1 2
dq = du + pdv, dq = dh vdp
ds = dq T
dq = Tds

du = cv dT , dh = c p dT
1 2
Tds = cv dT + pdv, Tds = c p dT vdp
T
c p cp v
ds = v dT + dv, ds = dT dp
T T T T

pv = RT

p R v R
= =
T v T p

c R cp R
ds = v dT + dv, ds = dT dp
T v T p

2 2 c R T v

1
s 2 s1 = ds = v dT + dv = cv ln 2 + R ln 2
1 T v T1 v1
(4.1)

2 2 cp R T p

s 2 s1 = ds =
1 T
1
dT dp = c p ln 2 R ln 2
p T1 p1
(4.2)

T2
= 1 (4.1)(4.2)
T1
T v v
s 2 s1 = cv ln 2 + R ln 2 = R ln 2
T1 v1 v1
T p p
s 2 s1 = c p ln 2 R ln 2 = R ln 2
T1 p1 p1

31
 7 4 2 32

v2
= 1 (4.1)
v1
T v T
s 2 s1 = c v ln 2 + R ln 2 = c v ln 2
T1 v1 T1
T p
2 = 2
T1 p1
p
s 2 s1 = c v ln 2
p1

p
2 = 1 (4.2)
p1
T p T
s 2 s1 = c p ln 2 R ln 2 = c p ln 2
T1 p1 T1
T v
2 = 2
T1 v1
v
s 2 s1 = c p ln 2
v1


RT
pv = p1v1 = p 2 v 2 = const v =
p

p 2 v1 RT p pT p T 1 T2 1
= = 1 1 = 2 1 , 2 = 1 =
p1 v 2 RT2 p 2 p1T2 p1 T2 T1
(2)

T p T T 1 T2
s 2 s1 = c p ln 2 R ln 2 = c p ln 2 R ln 2 = c p R ln
T1 p1 T1 T1 1 T1
c p / c v T2
= c p c p c v ( ) ln
c p / c v 1 T1
( T
)
= c p c p ln 2 = 0
T1


RT
pv n = p1v1 n = p 2 v 2 n = const v =
p

n
p 2 T2 n 1
=
p1 T1
(2)
T2
s 2 s1 = c p ln
p
R ln 2 = c p R =
( )
n T2 c p (n 1) c p c v n T2
ln ln
T1 p1 n 1 T1 n 1 T1
c p + c v n T2 n T2
= ln = cv ln
n 1 T1 n 1 T1

4.6

32
 7 4 2 33

Q1 Q2 Qa = Q1 Q2
(available energy)T-s
1234 Qa Q2
(unavailable energy)Ts

1 2
T

T
1 2

3 3
4 4

s s
T-s T-s
Q1 Ts

Q1 2

Qa > Qa

4.7
(1)

pv w
2
w= pdv
1
p0
p 0 (v 2 v1 )
1 2

wm = pdv p 0 (v 2 v1 )
2

dwm = dw p 0 dv

(maximum work)

0
wm = dwm = pdv p 0 (v0 v1 )
0 0

1 1

(exergy)

33
 7 4 2 34

p
1

2
0

v
Q

(2)

T1 Q12 T0 Q0

Q0 T0
=
Q12 T1

T0 T
Wm = Q12 Q0 = Q12 Q12 = Q12 1 0
T1 T1

s s s

p1 , T1 , V1 , U 1 , S1
=0 p0 , T0

T0
1
dQ = dU + dW
2
dQ
dS = , dQ = T0 dS
T0
dW dWm p0 dV
dW = dWm + p 0 dV

T0 dS = dU + dWm + p0 dV , dWm = dU + T0 dS p0 dV

34
 7 4 2 35

Wm = dWm = (U 0 U1 ) + T0 (S0 S1 ) p0 (V0 V1 )

0
1

p
1

Wm
0

V1 V0 V

35
 7 5 36

5.1
X, Y Z
Z = Z (X , Y ) (5.1)
Z dZ
Z Z
dZ = dX + dY (5.2)
X Y Y X

Z Z
dZ = MdX + NdY , M = , N = (5.3)
X Y Y X
dZ Z
Z Z 2 Z 2 Z
= = =
Y X YX XY X Y
(5.4)
M Z 2 Z 2 N
= = =
Y X YX XY X Y
(5.2) dZ = 0
Z Z
0= dX + dY
X Y
dX
Z Z dY
0= +
X Y dX
dY Y

dX X
Z Z Y
0= +
X Y X
Z Y X
0 =1+
Y X Z
Y Z X
= 1
X Y Z

5.2
1
1 dq = du + pdv
2 dq = dh vdp

dq = Tds

1 Tds = du + pdv, du = Tds pdv (5.5)

2 Tds = dh vdp, dh = Tds + vdp (5.6)

(Helmholtz free energy)

f = u sT
(Gibbs free energy)(free enthalpy)
g = h sT

36
 7 5 37

df = du sdT Tds
dg = dh sdT Tds
(5.5)(5.6)
df = Tds pdv sdT Tds = pdv sdT (5.7)
dg = dh sdT Tds = Tds + vdp sdT Tds = vdp sdT (5.8)
(5.5),(5.6),(5.7),(5.8)(5.3)
Z Z
(5.3) dZ = MdX + NdY M = , N =
X Y Y X
u u
(5.5) du = Tds pdv T = , p =
s v v s
h h
(5.6) dh = Tds + vdp T = , v =
s P p s
f f
(5.7) df = pdv sdT p = , s =
v T T v
g g
(5.8) dg = vdp sdT v = , s =

T
P T p

u h
T = =
s v s p
u f
p = =

s
v v T
h g
v = =
p s p T
f g
s = =
T v T p
(5.5),(5.6),(5.7),(5.8)(5.4)
M N
(5.4) dZ = MdX + NdY =
Y X X Y
T p
(5.5) du = Tds pdv =
v s s v
T v
(5.6) dh = Tds + vdp =
p s s p
p s p s
(5.7) df = pdv sdT = = (5.9)
T v T T v v T
v
v s
(5.8) dg = vdp sdT = (5.10)
T p p T
4 (Maxwell relations)

5.3
(1)
p, T, v
dQ
s= Q (5.9)(5.10) p, T,
T

37
 7 5 38

v s

(2)


p, T, v cv , c p
1 dq = du + pdv
dv = 0 dq = du
dq du du
ds = = =T
T T ds

u
=T
s v

q u u s s
cv = = = = T (5.11)
T v T v s v T v T v

2 dq = dh vdp
dp = 0 dq = dh
dq dh dh
ds = = =T
T T ds

h
=T
s p

q h h s s
cp = = = = T (5.12)
T p T p s p T p T p
cv , c p
cv s 2s s p 2 p
= T = T = T = T = T
v v T v T 2
vT v T v v T T v v
c p s 2s s v 2v
= T = T = T

= T = T
T 2
p p T p pT p T p p T T p p
cv , c p

s = s(T , v )
s
s s
ds = dT + dv (5.13)
T v v T
dv
ds s dT s
= + (5.14)
dv T v dv v T
ds

dv

38
 7 5 39

ds s s T
= =
dv v p T p v p
dT

dv
dT T
=
dv v p
(5.14)
s T s T s
= +
T p v p T v v p v T
s s T s
=
T p T v v p v T
s s s v
=
T p T v v T T p
cp cv
s s s s s v
c p cv = T T = T = T (5.15)
T p T v T p T v v T T p

s s p
=
v T p T v T
s v
=
p T T p
s p v
c p cv = T
p T v T T p
p

v p v
= T (5.16)
T p v T T p
2
v p
= T
T p v T
p
(5.16)
v T
pv=const v
pv
pv
p
<0
v T
(5.15)0
c p cv > 0
v

s = s(T , p )
s
s s
ds = dT + dp (5.17)
T p p T

p v
2
c p cv = T
T v p T p
vp

39
 7 5 40

pv=const
v
< 0
p T

c p cv > 0
cp cv

5.4
1

s s
(5.13) ds = dT + dv
T v v T
s c
1 (5.11) = v
T v T
s p
2 (5.9) =
v T T v
(5.5) du = Tds pdv
p p
du = cv dT + T dv pdv = cv dT + T p dv (5.18)
T v T v

s s
(5.17) ds = dT + dp
T p p T
s cp
1 (5.12) =
T p T
s v
2 (5.10) =
p T T p
(5.6) dh = Tds + vdp
v v
dh = c p dT T dp + vdp = c p dT + v T dp (5.19)
T p T p
(5.18)(5.19) dT = 0
u p 2 p
= T p = T
v T T v T T v
h v 2 v
= v T = T

T
p T p T T p
T

p nRT nR p u p
= = = = T p = 0
T v T v v v T v T T v
v nRT nR v h v
= = = = v T = 0
T p T p p p T p T T p

40
 7 5 41

(Joule's law)

James Prescott Joule

A B

A B
p1

(5.18) du = 0
T 1 p T 2 p
= T p =
v u cv T v cv T T v
(Joule effect)

p nRT nR p T 1 p
= = = = T p = 0
T v T v v v T v u cv T

pA A pB
B
B A

A B

F1 F2
p1, T1 p2,

p1>p2

41
 7 5 42

A VA B VB
p0 A B + ( p A p0 )VA B
( pB p0 )VB
B
Ub1 Ub2
U b = U b 2 U b1 = +( p A p0 )VA ( pB p0 )VB
p1V1p2V2
U

U = + p1V1 p2V2
U A B U1 U2
U = U 2 U1

U 2 U1 = + p1V1 p2V2
(5.19) dh = 0
T 1 v T 2 v
= T v = =
p h c p T p c p T T p

v nRT nR v T 1 v
= = = = = T T v = 0
T p T p p p T p h c p

(Joule-Thomson effect)

>0 <0

h

B p

f f g fg
=
g g2
p
T p
p T p p
T T = T
T
p = T 2
v T T v
2
T
v
T v
v T v v

T T = v T = T 2
p T 2
T T T p

42
 7 6 43

6
6.1
(1)
(saturation temperature)

0.5

0.4760MPa 0.45
150

100 0.1013MPa 0.4

0.35


0.3
[MPa]

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05
90 100 110 120 130 140 150
[]

1999

Pressure Temperature Specific Volume Density Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy
kPa MPa m3kg-1 kgm-3 kJkg-1 kJkg-1K-1
p T v'10
8
v" h' h" h"-h' s' s" s"-s'
70 0.07 89.932 103589 2.36490 0.422851 376.68 2659.42 2282.74 1.19186 7.47895 6.28709
80 0.08 93.485 103849 2.08719 0.479113 391.64 2665.18 2273.54 1.23283 7.43389 6.20106
90 0.09 96.687 104090 1.86946 0.534914 405.13 2670.31 2265.18 1.26944 7.39423 6.12479
100 0.10 99.606 104315 1.69402 0.590311 417.44 2674.95 2257.51 1.30256 7.35881 6.05625
101.325 0.101325 99.974 104344 1.67330 0.597623 418.99 2675.53 2256.54 1.30672 7.35439 6.04767
150 0.15 111.35 105272 1.15936 0.862547 467.08 2693.11 2226.03 1.43355 7.22294 5.78939
200 0.20 120.21 106052 0.885735 1.129010 504.68 2706.24 2201.56 1.53010 7.12686 5.59676
300 0.30 133.53 107318 0.605785 1.650750 561.46 2724.89 2163.43 1.67176 6.99157 5.31981
400 0.40 143.61 108356 0.462392 2.162670 604.72 2738.06 2133.34 1.77660 6.89542 5.11882
500 0.50 151.84 109256 0.374804 2.668060 640.19 2748.11 2107.92 1.86060 6.82058 4.95998

p [mmHg]
t 68 100.00 0.0367 p 760 0.000023 p 7602 []
t681968

(2)
( compressed water)
(saturated water)
(wet vapor)
(dry
saturated vapor)
(superheated vapor)

43
 7 6 44

pv Ts
C (critical point)

ps Ts
ab
b
bcd
d
de

p T

C
C e

a b c d e
b c d


a

A B A B

v s
T
p

C
a C

b c d
a b c d e
e


A B A B

v s

AC (saturation liquid line)

CB (saturation vapor line)

6.2 pvT
(1) pvT
pv T pvT 3 pvT
pv pv pT pT
(2)

(fusion)
(evaporation)
(sublimation)

(triple point) Tp

44
 7 6 45

pv
p
C

p F pT
()

C p p
C A B
C
( )

Tp Tp
T

S () T

pT T A B
v

6.3
6.3.1

(1)
0 T p 273.16 K p0 611.659Pa v0 1.00021103 [m3/kg]

h0 0
s0 0
h u pv
u0 h0 p0v0 0 611.659Pa1.00016103 m3/kg 0.612J/kg
u0 0

(2)
0.01
=418.68kJ/kg=100kcal/kg
=4.1868kJ/(kgK)=1.0kcal/(kgK) 1 2


p

(3) Ts
0.01

00.01611.659Pa
du 0 u1 u 0 0 J/kg
1 0.01 p 2 h0 u0 p2 v0 p2 v0
dq dh vdp dh c p dt
2 t s [] p 2
ts Ts
ql
0.01 c dT
c p dt
273.16
p

2 Ts
ql hdt h h h h
2 0 2 0 c p dT
0 273.16

45
 7 6 46

Ts dT
s2 s0 273.16
cp
T

6.3.2

(dryness fraction) 1kg x[kg]

x
(wetness fraction) x 1-x
p T

C C
a

b c d
a b c d e
e
x 1-x x 1-x
A B A B
v vx v v s sx s s

r h"h'
v x xv"1 x v'
hx xh"1 x h'
s x xs"1 x s'

6.3.3
T
h, s
T
C
qs
Ts
c p dT
e
T

d
h h" c p dT b c
Ts
T dT a
s s" Ts
cp
T 0
r
s
s sx s
6.4
(1)

a
p 2 v b RT ab
v

(2)

1999

(3) h-s
h s

46
 7 6 47

h
1atm

100

x=1


x=0.5
x=0

6.5
(1)
N2:O2:Ar:CO2=78.08:20.95:0.93:0.03

(2)


(total pressure) p
partial water vapor pressure p w p a
p p w pa


(saturated vapor pressure) p ws
(saturated moist air)

2
1kg (absolute humidity)
x[kg/kg]
p ws p w (relative
humidity)
p
w 100[%]
p ws
[]
Magnus Teten (1967)1)
7.5
log10 p ws 0.7858
237.3

7.5
p ws
6.1066 10 237.3
[hPa]
1) http://cires.colorado.edu/~voemel/vp.html

(3)
x [kg/kg] [%]

47
 7 6 48

p ws
x 0.622 100

p p ws
100

(4)

2
ASHRAE ASHRAE Fundamental Handbook(1997)

48
 7 7 49

7
7.1
(1) (Heat engine)
2
(heat engine)

(2)

: Internal combustion engine External combustion engine


: Steam engine
Reciprocating engine
: Gas turbine : Steam turbine

(3) (Thermal efficiency)

,W
th =
, Q

,W '
'=
, Q
2
'
= <1
th

T
Q1 1 2
T1
(exergy)
4
T
Q1 2
T1
(anergy)

7.2
7.2.1

49
 7 7 50

p
1

4
2

2 3
V V

4
1

(thermodynamic cycle)
(Otto cycle)
(Diesel cycle)(Dual Combustion Cycle, Sabathe cycle)
3

7.2.2

7.2.3 3
3
P-V T-S

PV 4

1
1

50
 7 7 51

4 4
1 4
1

P
P

P
3o 3s
2 3d 4s




2


2
4o 4d 5

1 1 1
V V V

PV

3o
T

T
T

3d
3s 4s

2 2 2
4o 4d 5

1 1 1
S S S

TS

T-S
3 3
T

2 2
4 4

1 1
S S


T-S

dQ = TdS [J] dq = Tds [J/mol]

a b
b b

Q = TdS
a
[J]
q = Tds
a
[J/mol]

3 3

Q23 = TdS
2
[J] q23 = Tds 2
[J/mol]

51
 7 7 52

1 4 1 4

Q41 = TdS = TdS
4 1
[J]
q 41 = Tds = Tds
4 1
[J/mol]

7.2.4

>0 <0 >0 <0
2 1

12
Q12 = 0
W12 = U 1 U 2 = pdV = pdV < 0
1
2
q12 = 0 2 1

w12 = u1 u 2 = pdv = pdv < 0
1 2
3o

23o
Q23 = U 3o U 2 > 0 W23 = pdV = 0
2
q 23 = u 3o u 2 > 0 3o
w23 = pdv = 0
2
4o

3o4o Q34 = 0
W34 = U 3o U 4o =
3o
pdV > 0
q34 = 0 4o
w34 = u3o u 4o = 3o
pdv > 0
1

4o1
Q41 = U 1 U 4o < 0 W41 = 4o
pdV = 0
q 41 = u1 u 4o < 0 1
w41 =
4o
pdv = 0

>0 <0 >0 <0
2 1

12
Q12 = 0
W12 = U 1 U 2 = pdV = pdV < 0
1
2
q12 = 0 2 1

w12 = u1 u 2 = pdv = pdv < 0
1 2

pdV = p (V V2 )
3d
Q23 = U 3d U 2 + W23 W23 = 2 3d
2
23d
q 23 = u 3d u 2 + w23
= pdv = p (v v2 )
3d
w23 2 3d
2
4d

3d4d Q34 = 0
W34 = U 3d U 4d =
3d
pdV > 0
q34 = 0 4d
w34 = u3d u 4d = 3d
pdv > 0
1

4d1
Q41 = U 1 U 4d < 0 W41 = 4d
pdV = 0
q 41 = u1 u 4d < 0 1
w41 =
4d
pdv = 0

>0 <0 >0 <0
2 1
12 Q12 = 0

W12 = U 1 U 2 = pdV = pdV < 0
1
2

52
 7 7 53

q12 = 0 2 1

w12 = u1 u 2 = pdv = pdv < 0
1
2
3s

23s
Q23 = U 3s U 2 W23 = pdV = 0
2
q 23 = u 3s u 2 3s
w23 = pdv = 0
2

pdV = p3s (V4s V3s )

4s

3s4s Q34 = U 4s U 3s + W34 W34 = 3s

q34 = u 4s u 3s + w34
pdv = p3s (v4s v3s )
4s
w34 = 3s
5

4s5 Q45 = 0
W45 = U 4s U 5 = 4s
pdV > 0
q 45 = 0 5
w45 = u 4s u 5 = 4s
pdv > 0
1

51
Q51 = U 1 U 5 < 0
W51 = pdV = 0
5
q51 = u1 u 5 < 0 1
w51 = pdv = 0
5

7.2.5

Q1 (q1 ) Q2 (q2 )
W Q1 Q2 w q1 q 2
th = = th = =
Q1 Q1 q1 q1

P-V P-v

3o4o 12

W W + W12 U 3o U 4o + U 1 U 2 U U1 nc (T T ) T T
th = = 34 = = 1 4o = 1 v 4o 1 = 1 4o 1
Q23 Q23 U 3o U 2 U 3o U 2 ncv (T3o T2 ) T3o T2

w w + w12 u 3o u 4o + u1 u 2 u u c (T T ) T T
th = = 34 = = 1 4o 1 = 1 v 4o 1 = 1 4o 1
q 23 q 23 u 3o u 2 u 3o u 2 cv (T3o T2 ) T3o T2

TV 1 = const Tv 1 = const

V3o = V2 and V4o = V1 v3o = v 2 and v4o = v1

T1V1 1 = T2V2 1 and T3oV2 1 = T4oV1 1 T1v1 1 = T2 v2 1 and T3o v2 1 = T4o v1 1

(compression ratio)
v
= 1
v2

53
 7 7 54

(T4o T1 )V1 1 = (T3o T2 )V2 1 (T4o T1 )v1 1 = (T3o T2 )v2 1

1 1
T4o T V2 1 T4o T v2 1
= = = =
T3o T2 V1 1
T3o T2 v1 1

1
th = 1 1

th = f/ ( , )

23d4d 12

W W + W34 + W12 W23 + U 3d U 4d + U 1 U 2 U 4d U 1
th = = 23 = = 1
Q23 U 3d U 2 + W23 U 3d U 2 + W23 U 3d U 2 + W23

w w + w34 + w12 w23 + u 3d u 4d + u1 u 2 u 4d u1

th = = 23 = = 1
q 23 u 3d u 2 + w23 u 3d u 2 + w23 u 3d u 2 + w23

p 2 = p3d , P2V2 = nRT2 , p3dV3d = p2V3d = nRT3d p 2 = p3d , p 2 v 2 = RT2 , p3d v3d = p 2 v3d = RT3d

W23 = P2 (V3d V2 ) = nR(T3d T2 ) w23 = P2 (v3d v2 ) = R(T3d T2 )

ncv (T4d T1 ) cv (T4d T1 )

th = 1 th = 1
ncv (T3d T2 ) + nR(T3d T2 ) cv (T3d T2 ) + R(T3d T2 )
cv (T4d T1 ) cv (T4 T1 )
= 1 = 1
(cv + R )(T3d T2 ) (cv + R )(T3d T2 )
c p cv = R
cv (T4d T1 ) T T
th = 1 = 1 4d 1
c p (T3d T2 ) (T3d T2 )
12
T1V1 = T2V2 T1v1 1 = T2 v 2 1
1 1

1 1
T1 V2 1 T1 v 2 1
= = = =
T2 V1 1
T2 v1 1

23d
T2 T3d T2 T3d
= =
V2 V3d v 2 v 3d
cut-off ratio
V T v3d T3d
= 3d = 3d = =
V2 T2 v2 T2

3d4d
T3dV3d 1 = T4dV4d 1 = T4dV1 1 T3d v3d 1 = T4d v4d 1 = T4d v1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1
T4d V3d V V2 1 1 T4d v3d v v2 1
= = 3d = = = 3d = 1
T3d V1 V2 V1 1
T3d v1 v2 v1 1

54
 7 7 55

1
T4d T4d T3d 1 1
= = 1 = 1
T2 T3d T2

T4d T1 1 1
1 1
T2 T2 1 1
th = 1 = 1 = 1 1
T ( 1) ( 1)
3d 1
T2

th = f ( , , )

3s4s5 12

W W34 + W45 + W12 W + U 4s U 5 + U 1 U 2 U 5 U1
th = = = 34 = 1
Q23 + Q34 (U 3s U 2 ) + (U 4s U 3 + W34 ) U 4s U 2 + W34 U 4s U 2 + W34

w w34 + w45 + w12 w + u 4s u 5 + u1 u 2 u 5 u1

th = = = 34 = 1
q 23 + q34 (u 3s u 2 ) + (u 4s u 3s + w34 ) u 4s u 2 + w34 u 4s u 2 + w34

p3s = p 4s , p3sV3s = nRT3s , p 4sV4s = p3sV4s = nRT4s p3s = p 4s , p3s v3s = RT3s , p 4s v4s = p3s v4s = RT4s

w34 = p3s (V4s V3s ) = nR(T4s T3s ) w34 = p3v (v4s v3s ) = R(T4s T3s )
ncv (T5 T1 ) cv (T5 T1 )
th = 1 th = 1
ncv (T4s T2 ) + nR(T4s T3s ) cv (T4s T2 ) + R(T4s T3s )
T5 T1 T5 T1
= 1 = 1
(T4s T2 ) + ( 1)(T4s T3s ) (T4s T2 ) + ( 1)(T4s T3s )

T5 T1 T5 T1
th = 1 = 1
(T4s T2 ) + (T4s T3s ) (T4s T3s ) (T3s T2 ) + (T4s T3s )
T
T1 5 1
= 1 T1
T3s T
T2 1 + T3s 4s 1
T2 T3s
12
T1V1 1 = T2V2 1 T1v1 1 = T2 v 2 1

1 1
V 1 v
T2 = T1 1 = T1 T2 = T1 1 = T1 1
V2 v2
T2 T3s p T
23s = = 3s = 3s
p2 p3s p2 T2
3s4s
T3s T4s T3s T4s
= =
V3s V4s v3s v4s

V T v T
= 4s = 4s = 4s = 4s
V3s T3s v3s T3s

55
 7 7 56

4s5
T4sV4 1 = T5V5 1 = T5V1 1 T4s v4 1 = T5 v5 1 = T5 v1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1
T5 V4s V V3s V V2 1 1
= = 4s = 4s =
T4s V1 V3s V1 V3s V1

1 1 1 1 1 1
T5 v 4s v v3s v v2 1
= = 4s = 4s = 1
T4s v1 v3s v1 v3s v1

1
T5 T5 T4s T3s T2 1
= = 1 1 =
T1 T4s T3s T2 T1
T T
T3s = 3s 2 T1 = 1T1
T2 T1

th = 1
(
T1 1 ) = 1
1 1
T1 1 ( 1) + 1T1 ( 1) 1 ( 1) + ( 1)

th = f ( , , , )

7.2.6
3
= 1
= 1

1
th = 1 1 1 1
1 1
th = 1 th = 1
1 ( 1) 1 ( 1) + ( 1)

1 =1.4=2=2

1
th = 1
0.4
1.171
th = 1 0.4
100

1.126
th = 1 0.4

80

60
2

40

=1.4=2
20

=2 1 20
0
0 5 10 15 20

56
 7 7 57

12
23o4o23d
4d23s4s54o1
4o151 Q2 (q2 )

p p1 p p1
Q2 = U 4o U 1 = ncv (T4o T1 ) = ncv 4o T1 q 2 = u 4o u1 = cv (T4o T1 ) = cv 4o T1
p1 p1

p p1 p p1
Q2 = U 4d U 1 = ncv (T4d T1 ) = ncv 4d T1 q 2 = u 4d u1 = cv (T4d T1 ) = cv 4d T1
p1 p1

p p1 p p1
Q2 = U 5 U 1 = ncv (T5 T1 ) = ncv 5 T1 q 2 = u 5 u1 = cv (T5 T1 ) = cv 5 T1
p1 p1
pV pv p 4o p1
p4d p1 p5 p1

TS Ts 1-4-b-a1-4d- b- a
1 5 b a
q q2
th = 1 Q1 (q1 )
q1

16 21 10

3o

T
p

3o
4s
3d

4s 3s
3s
3d
2
2 4d
4d 5
4o
5
4o

1 1
V 0 6o 6s 6d S

PV Pv TS Ts
pV pv
4o14d1 p 4o p1
p 4 d p1 TS Ts 1-4o-6o-0
1-4d-6d-0

57
 7 7 58

T
p

2d 3d 3o 3o
3d


2d
4o
2o
2o 4o 4d
4d
1 1

V 0 6d 6o S

4 2

4 2

1 2

2 4

58
 7 7 59

4 2

P 3 3

2 2
W 4 W 4



0 1 0 1

V V
4 2

3 3

T

T

2 2
4 4

1
1

S S
4 2

7.2.7
B
1 2 3
C
2
B C T G
3
T
4
1 4

C G

2
(Brayton cycle)(Ericsson cycle)

59
 7 7 60

2 3 2 3

4 1 4
1

V V

PV

3
T

T

3 4


2

4

2 1
1

S S

TS

7.2.8

7.3
(1) (Rankine cycle)

P B S T C

1
P
2 3
B S
2
B
3 T G
B
S
3 2
T 4
4 P C
C 1
1

G

60
 7 7 61

p 2-2-3-3:
T 3 h
3
2 3 2 3
2 3


2
2 4
2
1 1 4 1
4
v s s

W p = v1 ' ( p2 p1 ) = (h2 h1 )

(h h ) (h2 h1 ) = (h3 h4 ) (h2 h1 ) = (h3 h4 ) W p

R = 3 4
(h3 h2 ) (h3 h1 ) (h2 h1 ) (h3 h1 ) W p

(2) (reheating cycle)

1 2
P B S T1T2 R C
3a
T 3a 3c h
S 3c
3a
3
T1 T2 G 2
B 3 3
2
3b 3b
R 3
3c
4 4
2 2 b 2
C 2
P
1 4 1
1

s s

1
P
2
B
2
B
3
S
3a
T1
3b
R
3c
T2
4
C
1

G

61
 7 7 62

(3) (regenerative cycle)

P R1R2 B S T C

4
T 2-2-3-3:
3 S 4
B T G
2
2 3
5
6 8
5 5
C 8
2 5
P 1 6
8 8 2 1

R2 R1 s

1
P
2
R1
8
R2
8
B
2 R2 5
B
3 5
S
4
T
6
C
1
(4) (reheating and regenerative cycle)

P R1R2 B S T1T2 C
3a T 3a 3c
S 3c
3 2
T1 T2 G 3
B
2
R1 5
3
5 8 b
3b 4
2 2
C

P 1
1 4
R2

8 2 s

62
 7 8 63

8.1
w
p

(1) (equation of continuity)

2
1 2

m = 1w1 A1 = 2 w2 A2 [kg/s] (8.1) s

1 , 2 kg/m3
w1 , w2 m/s 1
2
A1 , A2 m

(2) (energy equation)

1 E1 H1
2 Q12 Q12 > 0
L12 L12 < 0
2 1

E2 + H 2 = H1 + E1 + Q12 + L12 (8.2)

Q12 Q12 > 0

L12 L12 < 0
H1 1 H1 > 0
H2 2 H 2 > 0
E1 1 E1 > 0
E2 2 E2 > 0

(8.2)

F < 0

E2 + H 2 = H1 + E1 + Q12 + L12 + F (8.3)

(8.2)
Q12 + L12 = H 2 H1 + E2 E1 (8.4)

Q12 = m q12 , L12 = m l12

w12 w2
H1 = m h1 = m (u1 + p1v1 ) H 2 = m h2 = m (u2 + p2 v2 ), E1 = m , E2 = m 2
2 2

63
 7 8 64

w2 2 w2
m q12 + m l12 = m h2 m h1 + m m 1
2 2
w2 w1
2 2
q12 + l12 = h2 h1 +
2

dq + dl = dh + wdw (8.5)
(8.5)

2
dq = dh vdp (8.6)
(8.5)
dh vdp + dl = dh + wdw, wdw + vdp dl = 0 (8.7)

df
dq + df 2
dq + df = dh vdp (8.8)
(8.8) dq (8.5)
dh vdp df + dl = dh + wdw, wdw + vdp dl + df = 0 (8.8)

q12 = 0, l12 = 0, f12 = 0 dq = 0, dl = 0, df = 0

wdw + vdp = 0
1
v1 = v2 = v = = const

wdw + vdp = 0
2 2
wdw + vdp = 0
1 1

w2 w1 w w1
2 2 2 2
+ v( p2 p1 ) = 2 + ( p2 p1 ) = 0
1
2 2
2 2
w1 w
+ p1 = 2 + p2 = p0
2 2
w12 w2
, 2 p1 , p2 p0
2 2

w2 2 w12
q12 + l12 + f12 = h2 h1 +
2

q12 = 0, l12 = 0, f12 = 0

w2 w1
2 2
0 = h2 h1 +
2

2 2
w1 w
+ h1 = 2 + h2 = h0
2 2

64
 7 8 65

h0

(3) (equation of motion)

dw 1 dp dy
w = g
ds ds ds
s
1

wdw =

dp g dy
1
2w 2 = p gy + C

C w = 0
p + gy = const

pa y = 0 h ph
ph + g ( h ) = pa + g 0
ph = pa + gh

8.2

1 1
2
2

w1 w2 w1 w2

(convergent nozzle) (convergent-divergent nozzle)

8.2.1

w12 w2 p1
+ h1 = 2 + h2
2 2 h 1

p2
w2 = 2(h1 h2 ) + w12
2
2
h = h1 h2
w1 w2
s
w2 = 2(h1 h2 ) = 2h

a.
had
w2 ad = 2(h1 h2 )ad = 2had

1
2R 2 2 p2
w2 ad = 2c p (T1 T2 ) = (T T ) = ( p v p 2 v2 ) = p v 1
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 p1

65
 7 8 66

b.
w2 = 2(h1 h2 ') = 2h
w2 h
= = 0.95
w2 ad had

8.2.2 (critical state)

(1)

2 1
pc = p1
+1

1
p
Tc = T1 c
p1

2 2
wc = p1v1 wc = RT1
+1 +1

(2)

1 2 +1
A2 2 1 1 p1 p1
=
Ac + 1 + 1 p2 p2

8.3 (speed of sound)(Mach number)

a = pv = RT
287.11J/(kgK) 1.4
a = RT = 1.4 287.11 T = 20.05 T [m/s]

w
M =
a

66
 7 9 67

9 (combustion)
9.1
9.1.1

1
2

4 1
1.

Cn H2n +2

Cn H2n
Cn H2n C5H10


Cn H2n -6

CnH2n+2CnH2n
CnH2n-6 C4 C50

CnH2n+2
n-
C H
CnH2n+2
iso-
CnH2n
CnH2n2
CnH2n4
C H CnH2n
CnH2n6
CnH2n12

1.
H H H
C
H C H H
H H C C
H C H C C
H H H H H H H H H H H
C C
H C H H C C C C H H C C C H C C C C H C H
H H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H
n-
() () (iso-) () () ()
2.

67
 7 9 68

2 3 4

2.

CH4 C2H4

C2H6 C3H6
C3H8 1 C4H8
C4H10 LPG 1 C5H10
C5H12 1 C6H12
C6H14 1 C7H14
C7H16 1 C8H16
C8H18 1 C9H18
C9H20
C10H22
C11H24
C12H26
C14H30 C6H6
C15H32 C7H8
C16H34 C8H10
C18H38 C9H12
C20H42 C10H14

n-

3. 4.
2 3
n 25%10% C 7988% 8287%
iso 25%10% H 9.514% 11.714.7%
50%30% S 04% 0.13.0%
() 50% O 03.3% 01.0%
N 01.1% 01.0%
2. 00.1%
3.

9.1.2
(calorific value)
H2O

=
100H2O
3

68
 7 9 69

H2+O2=H2O






()

3.

Ai m3/m3 [Ai] Hu,Ai Hl,Ai

n
H u = [A ]H
i =1
i u , Ai

n
H l = [A ]H
i =1
i l , Ai

0.900 0.090 0.010 m3/m3

H u = 39.72 0.900 + 69.64 0.090 + 99.00 0.010 = 43.0 MJ/ m3

H l = 35.79 0.900 + 63.76 0.090 + 91.15 0.010 = 38.9 MJ/ m3

9.1.3 (heat of reaction)(standard heat of formation)

(1)
stoichiometric
equation
elementary reaction
4

1 2H2+O2=2H2O
2 C+O2=CO2
3 aCmHn+bO2=cCO2+dH2O

A, B C, D

1

2
A, B A, B,C, D, E,
3
:

4.
(2)

69
 7 9 70

2 3
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O 5

1 OH + H2 H2O + H H=63.2J/mol
2 H + O2 OH + O H=70.7J/mol
3 O + H2 OH + H H=8.4J/mol
4 H + O2 + M HO2 + M H=197J/mol
5 H, O, OH H2O2

(3)

(reaction velocity)
A B H2O22OH
2 A + B C + OH + H2 H2O + H
3 A + B + C D +
3 [mol/(m3s)]k
[A] A [mol/m3]
d [B]
= k1 [ A ] k1 [1/s]
dt
d [ C]
2 = k 2 [A][B] k 2 [m3/(mol s)]
dt
d [ D]
3 = k 3 [A][B][C] k3 [m6/(mol2 s)]
dt

(4)

E
k = fT n exp
RT
fER=8.314J/(molK)T[K]
n-2 2
(activation energy)
5

H>0
H<0


5.
3

H
H 2 (g) + (1/2)O 2 (g) = H 2 O() H

70
 7 9 71

(thermochemical
equation) A + B C A + B = C H

H = 286.03 kJ/mol
H < 0 H > 0 5

H 2 (g) + (1/2)O 2 (g) = H 2 O(l ) ( 286.03) = H 2 O(l ) + 286.03

25 1atm 1mol H2(g) 1/2mol O2(g) 1mol H2O(l)
286.03kJ
25 H2 O2 25
H2O(l) 286.03kJ

(5)


CHS

C + O2 = CO2 + 407 kJ/mol

C + O2 = CO + 123 kJ/mol
CO + O2 = CO2 + 284 kJ/mol
H2 + O2 = H2O + 286 kJ/mol
S + O2 = SO2 + 297 kJ/mol

n n
C m H n + m + O 2 mCO 2 + H 2 O
4 2
100 n n 79 n
C m H n + m + Air mCO 2 + H 2 O + m + N 2
21 4 2 21 4
79 21
Air = N2 + O 2
100 100

8 8
C 3 H 8 + 3 + O 2 3CO 2 + H 2 O
4 2

C 3 H 8 + 5O 2 3CO 2 + 4H 2 O

1400(thermal dissociation)

1
CO 2 CO + O 2 282940kJ (67580kcal)
2
1
H 2 O H 2 + O 2 241990kJ (57750kcal)
2

71
 7 9 72

(6)
12 1
dQ = dU + dL

Q = U 2 U1 + L
Q L

L = p0 (V2 V1 )
1 H = U + PV
Q = U 2 U 1 + p0 (V2 V1 ) = U 2 + p0V2 (U 1 + p0V1 ) = H 2 H 1 = H 298
H 298 298.15K (standard heat of reaction)
p0=0.1013MPa298.15K (standard heat of formation)
H f 298
N2O2H2 0

(7)

(Hess's law) p r

H f 298 r = H f 298 p H 298 H 298 = H f 298 p H f 298 r

H2 H2
H f 298 (H 2 )r = 0 H f 298 (H 2 ) p = 0
H f 298 (H 2 )r = H f 298 (H 2 ) p H 298

H 298 = H f 298 (H 2 ) p H f 298 (H 2 )r = 0 0 = 0
1
H2 + O 2 H 2 O(g)
2
H f 298 (H 2 )r = 0, H f 298 (O 2 )r = 0 H f 298 (H 2 O ) p = 241.99 kJ/mol

H f 298 (O 2 )r = H f 298 (H 2 O ) p H 298 kJ/mol
H f 298 (H 2 )r +
1
2


H 298 = H f 298 (H 2 O ) p H f 298 (H 2 )r + H f 298 (O 2 )r = 241.99 kJ/mol
1
2
H 298 < 0

C + O 2 = CO 2
9.2 H + 1 4 O 2 = 1 2 H 2O
9.2.1
(1) Ost S + O 2 = SO 2
(theoretical amount of oxygen) 1kg O 1 2 O2 = 0
C N 1 2 N2 = 0
12.01H1.01S32.06O
6

72
 7 9 73

16.00N14.01 6 1kg
kg/kg chsona C
16.00 2 / 12.01 = 2.664 2.664 10 3 / 32 22.41 10 3 = 1.866

O st ,m = 2.664c + 7.921h + 0.9981s o [kg/kg]

c h s o
Ost ,v = 22.41 + + 3
12 . 01 1 . 01 4 32 . 06 16 2 [m /kg]
= 1.866c + 5.547h + 0.6990s 0.7003o

H2 h = 1, c = s = o = n = a = 0
CmHn c = 12.01m / (12.01m + 1.01n ), h = 1 c, s = o = n = a = 0

C6H6 c = 0.9224, h = 0.0776, s = o = n = a = 0

O st ,m = 2.664 0.9224 + 7.921 0.0776 = 3.072 kg/kg

(2) Ast
(theoretical amount of air) 1kg
0.2320kg/kg 0.2099m3/m3

Ast ,m = O st ,m / 0.2320 = 11.48c + 34.14h + 4.302s 4.310o [kg/kg]

Ast ,v = O st ,v / 0.2099 = 8.890c + 26.43h + 3.330s 3.336o [m3/kg]

C6H6 Ast ,m = 11.48 0.9224 + 34.14 0.0776 = 13.24 kg/kg

(3)


(air fuel ratio)(fuel air ratio)

(theoretical amount of
air) stoichiometric mixture
stoichiometric mixture
theoretical mixture ratio stoichiometric mixture ratio
stoichiometric ratio

H2 h = 1, c = s = o = n = a = 0
Ast ,m = 11.48 0 + 34.14 1 + 4.302 0 4.310 0 = 34.14 kg/kg
( A / F )st = Ast ,m = 34.14
(F / A)st = 1 / ( A / F )st = 1 / 34.14 = 0.02923

(equivalent ratio)
(excess air ratio) < 1 ( > 1)
=1 ( = 1) > 1 ( < 1)

= = =

73
 7 9 74

( A / F ) 1
= = =
( A / F )st
2.00kg 28.0kg
( A / F )st = Ast ,m = 13.24

=
(A / F ) =
28.00 / 2.00
= 1.057
( A / F )st 13.24
= 1 / = 0.9461 < 1 ( > 1)
9.2.2

100 n
Cm H n + m + Air
21 4
100 n 100 n
Cm H n + m + Air + ( 1) m + Air
21 4 21 4
79 n 100 n
mCO 2 + H 2 O + m + N 2 + ( 1)
n
m + Air
2 21 4 21 4
79 n 100 n 79
mCO 2 + H 2 O + m + N 2 + ( 1)
n 21
m + N2 + O2
2 21 4 21 4 100 100
79 n n
mCO 2 + H 2 O + m + N 2 + ( 1) m + O 2
n
2 21 4 4

100 n 79 n n
m + Air mCO 2 + H 2 O + m + N 2 + ( 1) m + O 2
n
CmHn +
21 4 2 21 4 4

m m
CO2 =
79 n n
m + + ( 1) m + m + +
n n n 100
m+ + 1 m +
2 21 4 4 2 21 4
n
H2O 2
n 100 n
m+ + 1 m +
2 21 4
79 n
m +
21 4
N2
n 100 n
m+ + 1 m +
2 21 4

( 1) m + n
O2 4
n 100 n
m+ + 1 m +
2 21 4

9.3

combustion temperature adiabatic flame
temperature theoretical combustion temperature theoretical

74
 7 9 75

flame temperature

n pi

n n
Tb
H 0 p (Tb ) = pi C p dT + pi f H i (T0 )
T0

1 H H (T0 ) JANAF 7) 2
T0 =25 nri
H 0 r (T0 ) = n ri f H i (T0 )
H 0 p (Tb ) = H 0 r (T0 ) Tb
H l
m
n CmHn
Ci ni

Tb
ni C i dT = H l
T0

Tb CmHn
100 n n 79 n
CmH n + m + Air mCO 2 + H 2 O + m + N 2
21 4 2 21 4
Ti [K] Tb [K]

79 n Tb

Tb

n Tb
CO2 m
Ti
cCO 2 dt H2O
2
Ti
c H 2O dt N2 m +
21

4 Ti
c N 2 dt

Tb n Tb 79 n Tb
m
T0 cCO 2 dt +
2 T0
c H 2O dt +
m + c N 2 dt = H l
21 4 T0

CO2 H2O
CO OH

9.4 (air pollutant)

9.4.1
5
COHCNOx 3
NOxSOxPM 3
5.

75
 7 9 76

CO2
H2O
H2
N2 N2


CO



O2


HC


NOx N2


SOx S

PM
SOF
PM Particulate Matter,PM C:H5:2
SPM Suspended Particulate Matter
SOF Soluble Organic Fraction

9.4.2 (nitrogen oxide)

(1) NO k1f
1500 N2 + O
NO + N
k1r
(nitric monoxideNO) k 2f
NO N + O2
NO + O
k 2r Zeldovich
NO(thermal NO)NO k3 f

N + OH NO + H
k3r
NO Zeldovich

A [mol/m3/s][A]NO N [mol/m3/s]
d [NO]
= k1 f [N 2 ][O] + k 2f [N ][O 2 ] + k 3f [N ][OH ] k1r [NO][N ] k 2r [NO][O] k 3r [NO][H ]
dt
= k1 f [N 2 ][O] k 2f [N ][O 2 ] k 3f [N ][OH ] k1r [NO][N ] + k 2r [NO][O] + k 3r [NO][H ]
d [ N]
dt
k f r N d [ N] dt = 0
k1 f [N 2 ][O] + k 2r [NO][O] + k 3r [NO][H ]
[N] =
k 2f [O 2 ] + k 3f [OH ] + k1r [NO]
NO NO

(2) NO
Zeldovich NO
NO ( NO)
CHCH2 HCN HN NO
NO

76
 7 9 77

NO(prompt NO)

(3) NO
N N
O NO NO(fuel NO)
NO

(4) NO2
NO NO
(nitrogen dioxide, NO2)NO2

9.4.2 (carbon monoxide)

1

9.4.3 (sulfur oxide)

SO2 SO3

1
SO 2 + O 2
SO 3
2
SO3

SO3+H2O=H2SO4

9.4.4 (unburned hydrocarbon)

77
 10 10 78

10
10.1
2
3

(1)

2

a. (heat conduction)

2
ex

Q1 Q2 Q3

A1 A2
A3


b. (heat convection, convection heat transfer)

ex

(2) (thermal radiation)

ex

10.1.1

(Fourier's law)

d
dQ dA (10.1)
dx
dQ

dQ
d
0
dx
dQ dA x

d
(10.2)
dx
[s][m ][J](heat flux)
2

78
 10 10 79

dQ
q [W/m2] (10.3)
dA q1
J J/s W
2
2 2
sm m m

dQ 1 d d q1< q2
q dA (10.4)
dA dA dx dx q2

10.1.2

A B

Q h A f w [W] (10.5)
w
f hB
f B
B
A
hW/(m2K) u
hA hB A w
hA
Q

q h f w
A

(10.6)

10 100

Nu

10.1.3
4
(heat radiation)

10.2
10.2.1
(1)
q
(10.4)
d
q
dx x dx

q L
d dx

79
 10 10 80

q

d


dx
x
q

dx
x C C :

q
x C q x C (1)

(B.C. Boundary Condition )

x 0 1 (2)

x L 2 (3)
(2)(1)
1 0 C C 1

q
x 1

(3)(1)
q
2 L 1


q 1 2 [W/m2] (10.7)
L

A [m2] t

Q qAt 1 2 At [J] (10.8)
L
[W/m2][m2][s]=[Ws]=[J]

(2)
(overall heat
transfer)

q1 h1 f 1 w1

80
 10 10 81

q2 w1 w2

q3 h2 w2 f 2
h1 h2
q
f 1 w1 1
h1

w1 w2 q2

q3
w2 f 2
h2

q1 q
f 1 f 2 q2 3
h1 h2

1 1
q1 q2 q3 q f 1 f 2 q
h1 h2
q
1
1

f 2
1 f1


h1 h2

1
k [W/(m2K)] (10.9)
1 1

h1 h2

q k f 1 f 2 (10.10)
k [W/(m2K)]
[W/(mK)].

(3) (thermal resistance)

f 1 f 2
Q kA f 1 f 2 (10.11)
R

1 11 1
R [K/W] (10.12)
Ak A h1 h2
R
R

1 1 1
R [(m2K)/W]
k h1 h2

10.2.2
x
d
q const
dx
Q qA const
q Q
r

81
 10 10 82

Q
q1 q2
Q1 Q2
Q1 Q2 or

(1)
r A
d
Q A
dr r1 r2
A 2rl
d Q dr
Q 2rl d
dr 2l r 1
dr
r
ln r C q2
l
q1 2
Q
ln r C
2l
B.C.
r r1 1 (1)
r dr
r r2 2 (2)
(1)
Q
1 ln r1 C (3)
2l
(2)
Q
2 ln r2 C (4)
2l
(3)-(4)
1 2
Q
ln r1 ln r2 Q r
ln 1
2l 2rl r2
2l
Q 2
r1 1
ln
r2
r1 r
ln ln 2
r2 r1
2l
Q 1 2 [ W] (10.13)
r
ln 2
r1

(2)

Q1 h1d1l f 1 w1 (1)
2l w1 w2
Q2 (2)
d
ln 2
d1

Q3 h2d 2 l w2 f 2 (3)

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q

82
 10 10 83

Q
f 1 w1
h1d1l
d1 d2
d
ln 2
d1
w1 w2 Q f1
2l Q1
Q w1
w2 f 2 Q2
h2d 2 l l
h1
w2

Q 1 1 d 1 1 Q3
f1 f 2 ln 2
f2
h1d1 2 d1 h2 d 2 l h2

f1 f 2 Q1
Q (4)
1 1 1 d 1
ln 2
l h1d1 2 d1 h2 d 2
f1 f 2
Q
R
1 1 1 d 1
R ln 2 [K/W] (5)
l h1d1
2 d1 h2 d 2

f 1 f 2
Q l
1 1 d 1
ln 2
h1d1 2 d1 h2 d 2

Q k l f 1 f 2 (10.14)

1
k [W/(mK)] (10.15)
1 1 d 1
ln 2
h1d1 2 d1 h2 d 2
[W/(mK)][W/(m2K)]

10.2.3 (Fin)
(
)


x dx
(1)
dQ
0

dQ S
dQ
dQ dQ
A S
dQ A

83
 10 10 84

dQ' dQ" dQ
dQ dQ'dQ"

d
dQ' A
dx
d d
dQ" A dx
dx dx

d d d 2
dQ A dx A 2 dx
dx dx dx x dx

dQ h t0 Sdx
dx

= S
d 2
A 2 dx h t 0 Sdx
dx

d 2 hS
t0
dx2 A
t 0
d d d 2 d 2
,
dx dx dx2 dx2
d 2 hS

dx2 A
hS
m 2
A
d 2
2
m 2 (10.16)
dx

C1e mx C2 e mx (10.17)
C1 , C2

d
C1m emx C 2 m emx
dx
d 2
dx2

C1m 2 e mx C 2 m 2 e mx m 2 C1e mx C 2 e mx m 2

B.C. x 0 0 0 t 0
0 t 0 C1e 0 C2 e 0 C1 C2
l l

Qxl hA l t 0 hAl
d d
Qxl A A
dx xl dx xl

84
 10 10 85

d
hAl A
dx x l
d h
l
dx x l

C1m eml C 2 m eml

h
C e 1
ml
C 2 e ml
h h
e ml m C1 e ml m C 2 0

C2 0 t 0 C1

h ml h ml
m e C1 m e 0 t 0 C1 0

h ml h ml h ml
m e m e C1 m e 0 t 0

h ml h ml
m e 1 e
m
C1 0 t 0 0 t 0
h ml
m e m e

h ml

e ml e ml
m
h ml
e e ml

h ml h ml
m e 1 e

C 2 0 t 0 C1 0 t 0 0 t 0
h ml
m e m e

h ml

e ml e ml


h ml
e e ml
m
t0
h ml h ml
1 e 1 e
m m
t 0 0 t 0 e 0 t 0
mx
e mx
e e
ml ml

m
h ml
e e
ml
e e
ml ml
h ml
m
e e ml

h mx ml h mx ml
1 e 1 e

t 0 0 t 0
m m
e ml e ml h ml
m
e e ml
e m x l
e m x l

m

h m x l
e
e m x l
t 0 0 t 0 (10.18)
e e
ml ml

m

h ml
e e ml

85
 10 10 86

d
Q A
dx x 0

A C1 m emx C 2 m e mx x 0
A C1 m e0 C 2 m e0 AmC1 C 2
h ml h ml
1 e 1 e

Am 0 t 0
m m
e ml e ml
h ml
m
e e ml
e e
ml ml

h ml
m
e e ml
Am 0 t 0 (10.19)
e e
ml ml

m
h ml
e e ml
(2)

h x t 0 dA
h 0 t 0 A

1 x dA t dA
0 1 m A t0 A m t0
(10.20)
0 t0 A 0 t0 A 0 t0

x x
0
m
t 0
A

m 0 t0 t0 (10.21)

1 el e l
l l
l e e
(10.22) b
2h
l
b

10.3

10.3.1


4

86
 10 10 87

4 [m][kg][s][K]
N/m2=(kgm/s2)/m2=kg/(ms2)[m][kg]
[s] 3

3

(dimensionless number)
21.0975km
42.195km 1/2
21.0975km= 1/2
21.0975km 1/2

(2) Reynolds numberRe

Re Re

Re =3.0105

Re =3.0105

Re

u L uL
Re (10.23)

m/s m
1
m 2 /s
x [m]
u x
Re

u [m/s]x[m]
[m2/s][Pas][kg/m3]
d [m]
u d
Re

de de d
4S
de
L
S[m2]L[m]

Re

87
 10 10 88

u2
L3
Re

L uL uL
u
L2
L
u2
= L3
L
du 2 u
= L L2
dy L
Re =
Re =
Re

Re Re

3.2105
Re=20000 Re=3.0105
Re=100
Re=0

2300

Re>2300

(3) Nusselt numberNu

h L hL
Nu (10.24)

W/(m2 K) m
1
W/(mK)

q h f w
A B hA hB

f hB
B
B

Q h f w A

u A w
d hA
Q A
dy y 0

88
 10 10 89

d

d dy y 0

h f w A
h

A,

f w
,
W/(m2 K) 1

dy y 0 W/(mK) m

d

hL dy y 0

f w
L
Nu

(4) Prandtl numberPr

Pr (10.25)
a a
C
a Pr p
Cp

Pr<1 Pr=1 Pr>1

(5) Grashof numberGr

L3 g L3 g
Gr (10.26)

10.3.2
Nu
Nu f Re, Pr
c, m, n
Nu cRem Pr n (10.27)
hL
Nu h Nu
L

Nu f Gr, Pr
c, m, n
Nu cGrm Pr n (10.28)

10.4
10.4.1

89
 10 10 90

10.4.2
(1) (reflection)(absorption)
Q

Q QA QR QD (10.29)
Q
Q Q Q Q
1 A R D QA
Q Q Q

QA
a *
Q
QR QD
QR
r
*
Q
QD
p *
Q

a* r * p * 1 (10.30)

a * 1 r p 0 (perfectly black body)

* *

r * 1 a * p 0 (absolute white body)

*

p * 1 a* r * 0

(2)



E f , T [W/m3] (10.31)
T
E E



E E d
0
[W/m2] (10.32) E

c Eb
Eb 5 c /1T
e 2
1
[W/m2]

(10.33)
E
(Planck's law)

m
T K
c1=3.74131016 Wm4/m2=Wm2 m4
c2=1.438810-2 mK

(emissivity)

90
 10 10 91

E
(10.34)
Eb
(gray body)

max T (Wien's
displacement law)
max T 2.8978103 mK (10.35)

Eb

1200K

800K

c1

Eb Eb d
0
0 5 e c2 / T 1
d T 4 (10.36)

(Stefan-Boltzmann's law)
(Stefan-Boltzmann's constant)
5.67 108 W/(m2K4) (10.37)

Eb T 4 5.67 108 T 4
E Eb 5.67 108 T 4

T Tb
T Tb E

E Q

E Q Eb
a
(1-a)Eb
Q aEb

(1-a)Eb
E aEb

91
 10 10 92

E
a
Eb

E

Eb
a a
(Kirchhoff's law)

10.4.3 2
dA1 1 dA2
dQ12
dQ12 I dA1 cos dw (10.38) dA2
aEb
dw dA1 dA2 dA1

I
r=1
I E
1
I E (10.39)

dA1dA2 A1A2 r 2 1 , 2 r

A2

r
r

A1

dA1 dA2
dQ12 I b1dA1 cos1d1 (10.38)

dA2 cos2
r 2 d1 dA2 cos2 d1
r2

l 2r 2rad = 360 =1 dl rd
r2
S r 2 dS d
2
S d 2 4 r 2 dS 2r 2 d

dA2 cos2 cos1 cos2

dQ12 I b1dA1 cos1 2
I b1 dA1dA2
r r2

92
 10 10 93

dA2 dA1
cos1 cos2
dQ21 I b 2 dA1dA2
r2

cos1 cos2
dQ dQ12 dQ21 I b1 I b 2 dA1dA2 (10.41)
r2
1
I E I E 2

dQ Eb1 Eb 2
1

cos1 cos2
r 2
dA1dA2 T1 T2
4

4 cos1 cos 2

r 2

dA1dA2 (10.40)

dA1 A2 Q

Q dQ



T1 T2
A1 A2
4

r

2

4 cos1 cos 2
dA1dA2

A1 A2

T1 4 T2 4
A1 A2
cos 1 cos
r 2
2
dA1dA2 (10.43)

1 cos1 cos2
F1,2
A1 A1 A2 r 2
dA1dA2 (10.44)

Q

Q F1, 2 T14 T2 4 A1 [W] (10.44)
F1, 2
(geometrical factor)2 F1, 2 1

10.4.4
(1)
F1,2 1 2

Q T14 T2 4 [W/m2]
(10.45)

1 2

E1

1 2 E1 , 1 , E2 , 2 2

Q2 2 E1 2 1 1 1 2 E1 2 1 1 1 2 E1
2 2

(10.46)
2 E1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2
1 1 1 1 2

93
 10 10 94

1 x x 1
2

1 x

1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2
1
1 1 1 1 2

2 E1
Q2 (10.46)
1 1 1 1 2

E1 1T14

1 2T14
Q2 [W/m2] (10.47)
1 1 1 1 2
1
1 2T2 4
Q1 [W/m2] (10.48)
1 1 1 1 2
1 2 Q

Q Q2 Q1
1 2

1 1 1 1 2

T1 T2
4 4 1 2
1 1 1 2 1 2

T1 T2
4 4


1 1

T1 T2
4 4
(10.49)
1
1 2

1
fs (10.50)
1 1
1
1 2

Q f s T14 T2 4 [W/m2] (10.51)
f s (emissivity factor)

(2)

f s 1 2 (10.52)

(3)

Q F1, 2 T1 T2 A1 4 4
[W] (10.53)

Q f s T1 T2 A1
4 4
[W] (10.54)

10.4.5
(1)
A1 A2 2
A1 F12 A2 F2
1 (10.55)
(2)

94
 10 10 95

A1

A3
A4
A2

(3)
1 2

1 cos1 cos2
F1,2
A1 A1 A2 r2
dA1dA2 A2
2
A1
1
A1
F1, 2 1, F2,1
A2

b b

1 2 2 2 2 2
A1
F1,2 2 a b h a b h 4a b
2 2 2 2
2b
l
h

y
x a a
A2

http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/Tech_inform/Pdf/ParallelGeometricFactor.pdf

http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/Tech_inform/Pdf/VerticalGeometricFactor.pdf
URL
pdf
http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/Tech_inform/Tech_inform.html

10.5

(x, y, z, t) 3
2 2 2
a 2 2 2
t x y z
[K]t [s]x, y, z [m] a

a [ m 2 / s]
c p
(thermal diffusivity)(thermal diffusivity)

(Fourier series)

95
 10 10 96

Excel Ver.6
http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/Tech_inform/Pdf/HeatTransferByExcel6.pdf

96
 7 97

No.1 1

A U
A B
C D C D

E F F G H
G H
()
T[k] t[]T=I 0K A
J 0
tt+273.15t-273.15
K 0

1 L
1 M c Q
T M c=N M O
dT dQ

dQ dT
1 P
Q R S P R
T T =U T 2
= V
cv cp
cvcp 1.3
cp cv
1.41.5
SI W
NWJ

No.2 2 1

1

T T T T T
A h
273.15
cv dT B h
273.15
c p dT C h cv dT D h c p dT E h cdT
0 0 0

p V
h u
A h u pv B h u pv C h u pv D h u pv E h u pv

97
 7 98

1 2
dq du dw

dq du dw

dq du dw

pv 1 2

Q12

a 1 1
p

m
2
b e
2

c V d

No.3 3

c p cv
dq d dq d
cp , cv , c p cv
dT p dT p dT dT v dT v dT
cp cv
2

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h
p

p
p

p2 2
p1 1
pv const pv k const pv const pv const
p1
1 2 T2 T1 T2 T1 1 T2 T1 1 T2 T1
T2 p2 2 T1 T2 2 T2
w12 T1 w12 T2 w12 0 T1 w12 T1
v v v v
a b c d

98
 7 99

T1 1 T2 2 2
T2 T2
T

T
T2 T1 T1 1 T1 1
2 1 2
T2 T1
s12 0 s12 q12 s12 u12 s12 h12

s s s s
e f g h

pv Ts a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h
n

a
h

T
p

b f

c
d e

v s
pv Ts

w12
n m V p

No.4 4 2

Q1 Q2

T1 T2

100
2
2


1 pv 1 2

99
 7 100

2 Ts

T
1
a 1 2

e
d 2
a 3
b
4 3
b c f
v
1 s
o c d
2

No.5 5

X, Y Z Z Z X , Y Z dZ

c p cv
c p cv 0

No.6 6
p D C

F
1 C AC
CB D E
F E
A B
2 4 pv v
1

p p p
C C C
e
a

b c d a b c d e c
b d
e
a
B
A B A B A
v v v
2 3 4
5 7 Ts

100
 7 101

T T T
C C C
e
a

b c d d
a b c d e b c
e
a
A B A B A B
s s s
5 6 7
1kg 0.1kg
c x c v x hx
s x
vhsvhs
p T
C C
a

b c d
a b c d e
e
x 1-x x 1-x
A B A B
v vx v v s sx s s

p ws p w

No.7 7

A B 2 A B

Q23 W23 Q34W34
P

3s 3o
2 3d 4s
P

q 23

Q23
2 W34
W34 W45

W W
2 W
4d 5 4o
W12 Q41 Q51 Q41
W12
1 1 W12 1

V2 V1 V V2 V1 V V2 V1 V

A B C

101
 7 102

=1.4=2=2 10
3

2
4

No.8 8

ABC
D E F
D G
E H I
F J

had

K L
M

No.9 9

A B

1 2

102
 7 103

CH4 aO2 bCO2 cH2O abc

12 1
Q U 2 U1 L
Q L
0.1013MPa298.15K

1kg
1
2

3

No.10 10

A B 2
CDE 3
C F q
q=G H
D I J J

q=K
L J
M
q=N O
J
P Q
E P R S


Eb

(x, y, z, t) 3

103
 7 104

No.1
A B C D E F

G H I J K L

M N O P Q R

S T U V W

No.2

1 2

Q12

No.3

104
 7 105

dq d
cp
dT p dT p dT

dq d
cv
dT v dT v dT

c p cv

a b c d e f g h

a n
b n
c n
d n

e n
f n
g n
h n

w12

w12

w12

w12

m V p

No.4

105
 7 106

No.5

106
 7 107

No.5

107
 7 108

No.6
C

AC

CB

[%]

No.7

A B

108
 7 109

No.8

A D

B E

C F

109
 7 110

No.9

A B

a= b= c=

No.10

A B C D E

110
 7 111

F G H

I J K L

M N O

P Q R S

Eb

111
 7 112

6
No.1
A B C D E F

G H I J K L

t+273.15
()
M N O P Q R
dQ
cp
dT
S T U V W
cp
cv 1.4 J
cv

No.2


D B

1 dq du pdv 2 dq dh vdp
du 0, dw dq
dq 1
du , dw dq

du dq, dw 0
1-2-d-c-e 1-a-b-e-2

2
2
2

Q12 H 2 H1 m w2 w1 Wt12 mg y2 y1
1

No.3

pV mRT J 8314.3J/(kmolK)

dq dh vdp dh dq du pdv du
cp , cv , c p cv R
dT p dT p dT dT v dT v dT

dq
cp ds
1.4 T
cv

a b c d e f g h

112
 7 113

ab 0c 1def 1g 0

h
v2 p1
w12 p1v1 ln or w12 RT1 ln
v1 p2
w12 RT2 T1
w12 0
1
pv v
w12 1 1 1 1 or w12
1
p1v1 p2v2 R T1 T2
1 v2 1 1

n n n

m R
T
m mi V Vi p i i
i 1 i 1 V i 1

No.4
%
Q2 T2
1 1
Q1 T1
100 0K 0K

1 1
T dQ 0 T dQ 0
1-2-a-d-e-1 1-2-3-a-d-e-1
1-2-3-4 4-3-d-c

No.5
Z Z
dZ dX dY
X Y Y X

T p T v p s v s

v s s v p s s p T v v T T p p T

p v
2
v p
2

c p cv T c p cv T
T p v T T v p T

pv const

p v
0 0
v T p T

113
 7 114

v p v v
2 2

c p cv T 0 c p cv T 0
T p v T T v p T

T T2 p
T T
v u cv v

T T 2 v

p h c p T T p

No.6
C
AC
CB

D
E
F
3 2
7 6
0.1 0.9
v x xv"1 x v'
hx xh"1 x h'
sx xs"1 x s'
pw
100 [%]
p ws

No.7
A B
A
B
C
1
th 1 1

1 1
th 1
1 1
1 1
th 1
1 1 1
0.60189 60.189%

114
 7 115

No.8
A D
B E
C F
1w1 A1 2 w2 A2
G m

2 2
w p w p p
H 1 1 2 2 0
2 2
2 2
w1 w
I h1 2 h2 h0
2 2
1
J 2w2 p gy C

w2 ad 2had

K L M

No.9
A B

a=2b=1c=2
Q

L




0.5

COHCNOx

NOxSOxPM

115
 7 116

No.10
A B C D E
d
F G H
dx

I J
K q h f w L

M
N q k f 1 f 2 O

P Q R S
d 2 hS
t0
dx 2 A
hL
Nu Nu

Eb T 4

5.67 108 W/(m2K4)

2 2 2
a 2 2 2
t x y z

116
 7 117

( 7 )
http://www.sit.ac.jp/user/konishi/JPN/Lecture/Thermodynamics/Thermodyanmics_7thAll.pdf

20 4 1
( 2 ) 21 4 1 2
( 3 ) 21 12 1 3
( 4 ) 22 4 1 4
( 5 ) 23 4 1 5
( 6 ) 24 4 1 6
( 7 ) 25 4 1 7

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