4.04 Maxwell's Equations The ‘above discussion ma: i bove d y be applied to a very: small, single: loop of wire with area da. If the loop of wire is Sonnet toavole meter, the voltage measured is fE-ds according to Faraday’s law. Suppose eae the Orientation of the loop is changed until the voltmeter reading Indicates @ Maximum. Under these conditions the magnitude off VX E is given by the voltmeter reading divided by the loop area and the direction of V x E is given by the direction of the loop axis, Faraday’s law indicates that this measurement of Vx E is alo a measurement of —2B/ét, the rate of decrease of the magnetic flux density. Ina region in whic h there is no time-changing magnetic flux, the voltage around the loop would be zero and thus V x E=!0; such an electric field occurs in electrostatics and is said to be irrotational. Another equation worthy of notice is V-B=0 This states that there aré no isolated magnetic poles or “magnetic charges” on which the lines of magnetic flux can terminate. To put it another way, the number of lines of flux entering any region must be equal to the number of lines leaving the region or, as is often said, the lines of magnetic flux are continuous. 4.04 Conditions at « Boundary Surfac the differential form express. the the four field vectors E, D, H,.a 105 ed to a volt- Maxwell's equations in relationship that must exist_between continuous medium. In this form, t eI e space derivatives,they cénmot_be expected to yield information at points of discontinuity-in.the medium. However, the integr: can always ed what happens at the bound urface between different g The following statements can be made regarding the electric and magnetic fields at any surface of discontinuity: let (a) The tangential component of E is continuous at the suiface. That is, it is the same Just outside the surface as it is just inside the surfaces (b) The tangential component of H_is continuous across a surface except at the surface of a perfect conductor. At the surface of a perfect conductor the tangential component of His discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface current per_unit width. (c) The normal component of Bis tinuous ‘at. the surfacé of discontinuity. . ~“(@ The normal component of D is continuous if there is charge density. Otherwise D is discontinuous by an amount the surface charge density., The proof of these boundar _Th 'y conditions is obtained by a di plication of Maxwell’s equations at the boundary tain the medal $106 Maxwell's Equations * tos ” Suppose the surface of discontinuity to be the plane x =0 as in Fig. 4-2. Consider the small rectangle of width Ax and length a, enclosing a small-portion of each of media (1) and (2). w Figure 42. A boundary surface between two media. The integral form of the second Maxwell equation (II) is § E-ds= — J Beda For the elemental rectangle of Fig. 4-2 this becomes Ey Ay — Ee, SE — £,, 42 — Ey Ay +E SE + By, 4% = —B, Ax Ay 2 2 z ae the average magneti hr fer conditions as the area of the rectangle to approach zero by reducing the width Ax of the rectangle, always keeping the surface of discontinuity between the sides of the rectangle. é4.04 Maxwell's Equations 107 If it is assumed that B is always finite, then the right-hand side of eq. (13) will approach zero. If E is also assumed to be everywhere finite, then the Ax/2 terms of the left-hand side will reduce to zero, leaving E,, Ay — E, Ay =0 for Ax 0. Therefore Ey = Ey That is, the tangential component of E is continuous. Similarly the integral statement of eq. (1) is §H-ds = f,© + J)-da which becomes Ax Hy Oy — HSE — HSE — Hy by + Ha + Has =(p:t+ J)Ax dy (4-14) ic displacement Band current density J s, then as before (14) reduces to —H,dy=0 Hy, = Hy or The tangential component.of H_is co! Shab fo it ot A perfect conductor i-one hich. bas ona. Pers the electric field stren inte conductivity, 18 dogg, Mort ctrl candor Rave « pm Anynductivity.* However, the actual conductivity may be finite value for cer many practical applications it is useful to assume very large and Teguch an assumption will lead to difficulties (because it to be infinite ein formulating the boundary conditions unless care of indeterminacy) Mthem up. As will be shown later, the depth of is taken in stip a conductor of an alternating electric field and of the Ponte produced by the field decreases as the conductivity increases. curren Pigood conductor a high-frequency current will flow in a thin Tans inser the surface, the depth of this sheet approaching zero as the conductivity a infinity. This gives rise to the useful concept a current sheet. In a current sheet a finite current per unit width, ofa curren = fs unit, width, ‘J,amperes per meter, fl a ter, pws vanishingly smaii depth Ax, ‘put with the required infinitely large current density J such that” *Suj pnd 5 i = ; ey perconductors and the phenomenon of Superconductivity are treated in sec. jus (for finite current densities;$4.04 Consider again the above example of the magnetomotive force around the small rectangle. If the current density J. becomes infinite as Ax approaches zero, the right-hand side of eq. (14) will not Eeconie 2er0 Let_J, amperes per meter be.the actual current per unit width flow; g Hy, Ay — Hy Ay = Jus Ay Hence Hy, = Hy, — Ju (4-15) (Note that D =F remains finite and therefore D, Ax is 7er0 for. Ax Now, if the electric field is zero withi -perfect..conductor, the ll_equation (II) shows. Then in eq. (1 must be zero and_ (4-16) Equation (16) states that the curre unit.width along the surface ofa ‘peWlect conductor is equal to the-mesnerie field. strength _H_ just outside the surface. The magnetic field and surface current will be Parallel to the surface, Qut perpendicular to each other, In vector nota- tion this is written a ~ Taagnetic field must also be zero (for alternating fields) as_the second Maxwell equation (I) show A, so and D. The integral form of the third field equation is §, Deda = pay a When applied to the elementary “pill-box” volume of Fig. 4-3, eq. (III) Dada ~ Dnyda + Voss = p Ax da (4-17 In this expression da is the area of each oF the flat surfaces of the pillbox, Ax is their separation, and p is the average charge density within the volume Ax da. V..,,"is the Outward electric flux through the curved-edge surface of the pillbox. 0, that is, ae tee ane surfaces of the box are squeezed together, alsa s keeping 7 7 surface between them, Wa... 0, Tor nite values of displacement density. A é Values of average charge densi ight- hand, side of (17) approaches zero, andr] mee the —_4.04 Maxwell's Equations 109 Figure 4-3. A “pill-box” volume enclosing a portion of a boundary surface. (for Ax = 0). Then for the.case of no surface charge the condition on the normal components of D is ae Dn = Dm (4-18) That is, if there is no surfacé charge the normal component of D)is That _is, if continuous across 7 Jn the case of a metallic surface, the charge is considered to reside “on-the surface.” If this layer of surface charge h: e charge surface coulomb/eu m where Ax_is_thickness of the surface layer. ‘As Ax approaches zero, the here Ax is_thickness Of oe ees Aste charge density approachés_infinity-in-such a manner, th snes en lim p Ax = p> ‘Then in Fig. 43, if the surface charge is always kept between the two se turfaces as the separation between them is decreased, the right-hand sate of ea, (17) approaches _p.da as Ax approaches zero, Equation (17) then reduces to Dn, — Dn = Po (4-19) ‘When there is a surface charg Pye normal component of displacement density is discontinuous across the surface by the amount ‘of the surface charge densi tt For_any metallic conductor l nt density D the conductor will be a very small quantity (it will be zero ii electrostati i dium @) is a metallic conductor Dy, 0 and en, (19) een dium @) is a metallic conductor Dy = 0 and eq.Maxwell’s Equations Dm = Pr (4-20) The normal component of dispiacement density in ‘the dielectric is equal to the surface charge density on the conductor. oA ee ea rr there are No isolated 110 magnetic flux density a “magnetic charges,” a similar analysis leads at once to Buy = Bry omponent of magnetic flux density is always continuous dai non The_norma! ny across a boundary surface, ae PROBLEMS 1. Show that the displacement current through the capacitor is equal to the conduction current J (Fig. 4-4), Ve Ym sinlut) Figure 44, 2. Within a perfect conductor E is always zero. Using Maxwell's equations, show that H{ must also be zero for time varying fields. Can a steady (unchang- ing) magnetic field exist within a perfect conductor? Show that the normal component of B (and therefore H) must be zero at the surface of a perfect conductor. 3. A “transmission line” consists of two parallel perfectly conducting planes of large extent, separated by a distance d meters, and guiding between them a uniform plane wave (Fig. 4-5). The conducting planes carry an alternating linear current density J, A/m in the y direction, that is, Je = Joos o(r— 2) Applying Maxwell's first equation in the region between the conductors find the electric field strength, and hence the voltage between the planes, when @=0.1 meter and the effective linear current density is Jsee= 1 A/m. 4. A square loop of wire, 20cm by 20cm, has a voltmeter (of infinite im- Pedance) connected in series with one side. Determine the voltage indicated by the meter when the loop is placed in an alternating magnetic field, the maximum intensity of which is 1 ampere per meter. The plane of the loop is Perpendicular to the magnetic field; the frequency is 10 MHz.