eta J FIND MORE AT Theory with Worked out Examples, PA Ree une SC FW KerD Engineering Academy (India’s leading Institute for IES/GATE PSUs) www.aceenggacademy.com oD a aCACE ==, Engineering Academy ics Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai WWW.CIVILENGGFORALL.COM Irrigation (Theory with workedout Examples, Self and Classroom Practice Questions) /rigation Book GATE - Civil Engineering ACE is the leading institute for coaching in IES, GATE & PSU's HO: 204, II Floor, Rahman Plaza, Opp. Methodist School, Abids, Hyderabad-500001, Ph; 040-24750242, 24750263, 24750437, 24752469. CONSISTENTLY TOP RANKS IN IES All INDIA 15° RANK 26 TIMES IN GATECopyright © ACE Engineering Academy 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, digital, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Published at : ACE Engineering Academy 2nd Floor, Rahman Plaza, Opp. Methodist School, Near Taj Mahal Hotel, Abids, Hyderabad - 500 001 Phones : 040-24750242 / 24750263 ‘www aceenggacademy.com email : ace.gateguru@gmail.com Authors : Subject experts of ACE Engineering Academy, Hyderabad 2The Study material for Irrigation is thoroughly revised this year to meet the requirements of all categories of students. It consists of The students are advised to go through the theory duly understanding the worked out examples to the extent possible and bring the booklet to the class. By doing so, the students will get familiarized with some of the concepts and can really enjoy the lecture in the class. Also, the students can interact with the faculty in a better way, Thanks to all Professors who extended their valuable services in the preparation of this, Booklet. It is believed that this volume is also a valuable aid to the students appearing for competitive exams like IES, DRDO, ISRO and other PSUs. Foreword Irrigation for GATE Brief synopsis covering the entire syllabus Worked out examples, concept-wise Level 1 Problem: : For self practice by the students after attending the Lectures. However, the faculty concemed will clear the doubts, if any. Level 2 Problems : The concemed faculty will analyze and solve these questions in the class. With best wishes to all the Students Y.V. Gopala Krishna Murthy, M Tech. MIE, Managing Director, ACE Engineering Academy ACE Bxginecring Academy - Hydra Delo, Baga, Bhubaneswar, iam, Vathpatam, Tapa Pane & Chem (Capih Reseed)Duty, delta, estimation of evapo-transpiration. Crop water requirements. | Design of: lined and unlined canals, waterways, head works, gravity dams and spillways. Design of weirs on permeable foundation. Types of irrigation system, irrigation methods. Water logging and drainage, sodic soils. WWW.CIVILENGGFORALL.COM Water Resources Engineering: Water resources of the globe: Multipurpose uses of Water: Soil-Plant-Water relationships, irrigation systems, water demand assessment; Storages and their yields, ground water yield and well hydraulics; Waterlogging, drainage | design; Irrigation revenue; Design of rigid boundary canals, Lacey’s and Tractive force concepts in canal design, lining of canals; Sediment transport in canals; Non-Overflow and overflow sections of gravity dams and their design, Energy dissipators and tailwater rating; Design of headworks, distribution works, falls, cross-drainage works, outlets; River training.Name of the Chapter Water Requirements of Crops Methods of Irrigation Gravity Dams Spill Ways Diversion Head Works Design of Unlined Alluvial Canals by silt Theories Water Logging and Drainage _ Quality of Irrigation Water and Sodic Soils@ Water Requirements of Crops SYNOPSIS ‘The loams are ideal soils for irrigation, which posses good water holding capacity, good drainage and aeration characteristics. Saturation capacity: It is the total water content of a soil when all the pores of the soil are filled with water. Field capacity (FC): It is the maximum amount of water content which can be held by soil against gravity. It is the upper limit of capillary water or the water content available to the plant roots. Permanent wilting Point(PWP): It is the water content in a soil when plants become permanently wilted. This value is 2% for sand soil, and 30% for clayey soils. Ultimate wilting Point(UWP): It_ occurs when plants are completely wilted ie., die away. Itis similar to hygroscopic coefficient. ,. Available moisture: It is the difference in water content of the soil between the field capacity and the permanent wilting point. Readily available moisture: It is that portion of the available moisture, which is most easily extracted by plant roots. About 75% of the available moisture is usually readily available * > Saturation capacity Gravitational Water} v —> Field capacity Available Water | — om [| —> pwr Unavailable Water) |] —> uwp Me J | 8 13, 10. Equivalent Depth of water held by soil at field capacity = $ x d x FC Equivalent Depth of water held by soil at PWP =Sxdx PWP Available water or moisture depth, y = Sxd(FC-PWP) Itis also called as storage capacity of the soil Readily available moisture depth, (dy) dy = S x d (Field capacity —Water content at lower limit of readily available moisture) (or) dy = S d (Field capacity-Optimum moisture) Where S= Specific gravity = Yaltw lepth of root zone If Cy is. evapotranspiration loss or ‘consumptive use (depth/time) Then frequency of irrigation, f= dy/C, Crop Period : Total time elapses between the sowing of the crop and its harvesting. Base period : Total time between the first ‘watering done for the preparation of the land for sowing of a crop and the last watering done before its harvesting. Thus crop period is. slightly more than the base period for any crop. Duty (D : It is defined as the area of land in hectares which can be inrigated for gr any crop if one cumec of water is supplied continuously to the land for the entire base period of crop. Tipicad | New Dei | Renelans | Bhobanesar | Vinyavada | Viapatam | Tirupati | Pune | Chea WWW.CIVILENGGFORALL.COMIrrigation 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19, 20. 21 (GRR) [New ats eas | Bhan | Vara | Veaktapamn | pal [Pane [Ge] Delta (A): It is the total depth of water over the irrigated land required by a crop grown on. it during the entire base period of the crop. Crop___| Average deita(em) [Rice | 120 Wheat 37.5 {Cotton coat [Tobacco _| 60 __| ‘Sugarcane | 90 Relation between Duty and Delta: D=8.64 B/A Where, D = Duty in Hectares /cumec, B = Base period in days , A= Delta in ‘m” Duty of water increases as one moves from the head of the canal system to the field and hence the place at which duty of water is measured must be specified. In order to state the duty of water ina precise way it is essential to state (i) The base of duty of water and (Gi) Place of measurement of duty of water Base of duty of water: It is the period to which duty of water has reference Paleo irrigation (Paleo): It is watering done prior to the sowing of a crop. Kor watering: The first watering after the plants have grown a few cm high. Outlet factor: Duty of water at the canal outlet One cumec day: 8.64 hectare meters, it is a volumetric unit. It is the total volume of water supplied @ 1 cumec in a day. Consumptive use or Evapotranspiration (Ca): It is the total loss of water due to plants transpiration and evaporation from the land. Lysimeter is used to measure ¢, 22. 23. Irrigation efficien a) Water conveyance efficiency (no) :It is the ratio of quantity of water delivered to the field to the quantity of water diverted into the canal system from reservoir. b) Water application efficiency (n,): It is the ratio of quantity of water stored in the root zone of the plants to the quantity of water delivered to the field. ©) Water use efficiency(nj,): It is ratio of the quantity of water used beneficially including the water required for leaching to the quantity of water delivered @) Water storage efficiency(n,): Ratio of quantity of water stored in the root zone during irrigation to the quantity of wot needed to bring water content of the soil to field capacity ©) Consumptive use efficiency: Ratio of normal consumptive use of water to the net amount of water depleted from the root zone. Irrigation Requirements of crops: a) Consumptive irrigation requirement (CIR): It is the amount of water required to meet the evapotranspiration needs of a crop. CIR = Cy-Re Where, Re= Effective Rainfall b) Net irrigation requirement (NIR): ‘Amount of irrigation water required to be delivered at the field to meet ‘evapotranspiration and other needs such as leaching NIR= Cy-Re+Le Where, Le= Leaching ©) Field irrigation requirement (FIR) = NIR/ ns 4d) Gross irrigation requirement (GIR) = FIR /ne@..28 Mi Example:1.1 In an irrigated plot the net irrigation requirement of erop is found to be 14.9 cm, the application efficiency is 80% and the water conveyance efficiency is 70 %. What is the gross irrigation requirement ? 8, n= 0.7 Net irrigation requirement, NI NIR _ 149 Fi 3 Tm 08 149 = 18.625 em FIR » GIR= 24. Gross Command Area(GCA) : Total area which can be irrigated by a canal system if unlimited quantity of water is available. Culturable Command Area(CCA): That portion of the GCA which is culturable or cultivable. CCA = GCA — Uncultivable area Culturable cultivated Area : That portion of CCA which is actually cultivated during a ‘crop season. 25. Intensity of irrigation: The percentage of the CCA proposed to be irrigated annually. 26. Capacity factor: Ratio of mean supply discharge of canal for a certain duration to its maximum discharge capacity. 27. Time factor: Ratio of number of days the canal has actually run during a watering period to the total number of days of the watering period. 28. Crop Seasons: (i) Kharif season (ii) Rabi season Kharif erops (also known as monsoon crops): Sown in the month of April and harvested in ‘September. Examples: Rice, Maize. Rabi crop (also called winter crops): Sown in ‘October and harvested in March. Example: Wheat, Tobacco Water Requirements of Crops 29. Perennial crop: Sugar cane (water is to be supplied throughout the year) 30. Hot weather crops: February to June (Crops grown between Kharif season and Rabi season) 31. Summer crops: Hot weather crops and Kharif crops are combinedly called summer crops. 32. Dry crops: Crops grown without irrigation. Depend on the rainfall, for survival Iapiotas veil 33. Wet erops: Crops which require irrigation. Example:1.2 ‘The GCA of an irrigation canal is 50000 ha out of which 80 % is CCA. The intensity of irrigation for Rabi season is 60 % and for Kharif is 20 %. What is the crop ratio ? Sol: GCA = 5000 ha; CCA = 80% Aresunigt Rabl_ ‘Areaunder Kharif Rage kK 20 Crop Rati Example:1.3 Wheat is to be grown in a field having a field capacity of 27% and the permanent wilting point is 13%. Find storage capacity per m depth of soil if the unit weight of soil is 1.5 gmicc. Readily available moisture may be taken as 80% of the available moisture. Find the water depth required to be supplied to the field if the field application efficiency is 80%, What is the amount of water needed at the outlet if water lost in water course is 15% of outlet discharge. Sol: FC =27% ya= L.Sglee ‘Apparent Sp. Gravity, $=14= 1.5 PWP = 13% [GRE 9 sa No Dens | Bes taneea | sve [Vink | Thal | Pe | Chews]Z Available depth of water; y= S.d(FC - PWP) =1,5x1x(0.27-0.13)= 0.21 m d-Im dy = 80% of y = 0.168 m Water to be supplied on the field _ Watertobestoredin root zone i = 0168 o.21m 0.80 Distributory ‘ Water course Field water to be released at outlet _ Watertobedeliveredto the field wet m1 = 9219247 m 085 Example:1.4 What is the discharge capacity required at the outlet to irrigate 2600 ha of sugar cane having a kor depth of 17 em and a kor period of 30 days ? Sol: A=2600 ha D=8.64.2 a = 8.64.22 = 152478 7 Example:1.5 The gross commanded area for a distributary is 6000 hectares, 80% of which is culturable inigable. The intensity of irrigation for Kharif season is 25% and that for Rabi season is 50%. If the average duty at the head of distributary is 700 heetares/cumec for Kharif season and 1700 heetares/cumec for Rabi season, find the discharge required for design at the head of distributary. Sol: GCA = 6000 Ha CCA = 6000%0.8 4800 ha ‘Area under Khari, A= 25% of CCA = 28 ,<4800= 1200 ha 100 Area under Rabi = 50% of CCA = 52. ,.4800 = 2400 ha 100 Discharge required for kharif. Q= = 1200 _ 1.714 m/sec Discharge required for Rabi, Q -2 2400. 1 41 lm’/sec 1700 Design discharg. required. 1.714 m/sec Example:1.6 ‘The gross command area for an irrigation canal is, 20,000 hectares out of which 75% is culturable command area. The intensity of irrigation is 40% for Rabi and 10% for rice. If kor period is 4 weeks for Rabi and 2.5 weeks for rice, determine the outlet discharge. Outlet factors for Rabi and rice may be assumed as 1800 hec/cumec and 775 heet/cumec. Also calculate delta for each case. FACE Engncering Reade oo eeOe ‘Water Requirements of Crops Sol: GCA = 20,000 hectares CCA = 0.752000 = 15,000 ha z. Area of Rabi = 15000x0.40 = 6000 ha Area of rice = 15000x0.10 = 1500 ha Discharge Required for Rabi 500 Discharge Required for Rice 1500 775 93m’ /sec For Rabi, A =8648 D For Rice, A= = 0.195 m O1. Ina well — drained soil, the useful moisture for plant growth essentially comes from (a) gravity water —_(b) capillary water (c) hydroscopic water (4) water of adhesion. 02. Irrigation frequency is a function of (a) crop only (b) soil, crop and climate (©) soil, crop, climate and fertilizer (@) soil and climate 03. The outlet discharge factor is (a) the ratio of the actual discharge of an outlet to its designed value (b) the ratio of the discharge out of an outlet to the discharge in the parent channel (©) the duty based on the discharge passing through the outlet. (@ The flow loss at the outlet. 04. An irrigation channel is carrying 2.0 m’/s to a culturable command of 1500 ha with an intensity of irrigation of 50%. If the base 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 10. period of crop is 140 days, the duty of channel ‘water is ha/m'/, (a) 605 (6)375 — (@) 1500 (@) 1210 If Duty (D) is 1428 hectares/cumec and base period (B) is 120 days for an irrigated crop, then delta (A) in meters is given by (a) 102.8 (b) 0.73 (©) 1.38 (d) 0.01 ‘The field capacity of a soil depends upon (a) capillary tension in soil (b) porosity of soil (c) both a and b (d) neither anor b For a standing crop, the consumptive use of water is equal to the depth of water (@) transpired by the crop (b) evaporated by the crop (©) transpired and evaporated by the crop (@) Used by the crop in transpiration, evaporation and also the quantity of water evaporated from the adjacent soil Effective precipitation for a crop may be defined as (@) total precipitation minus the loss due to evaporation (b) total precipitation minus the loss due to infiltration (©) total precipitation during the crop period (@) available water stored in the soil with in root zone of the crop The field capacity of a soil is 25%, its permanent wilting point is 15% and specific dry unity weight 1.5. If the depth of root zone of a crop, is 80 cm, the storage capacity of the soil, is (a) 8m (b) 10cm (©) 12cm (@) 14cm The intensity of irrigation means (a) percentage of culturable commanded area to be irrigated annually (b) percentage of the gross commanded area to be irrigated annually (ECR) a Benen | Dine | Viera | Vintapsman | Tia [Pine Ghee]Irrigation (©) percentage of the mean of culturable commanded area and the gross commanded area to be irrigated annually (d) total depth of water supplied by the number of waterings 11. If the optimum depth of kor watering for crop is 15.12 em the outlet factor for the crop for four week period in hectares per cumee, is (@) 1000 (b) 1200 (©) 1400 (@) 1600 12, The outlet discharged factor is the duty at the head of (a) main canal (b) branch canal (©) water course (d) distributory 13. The ratio of quantity of water stored in the root zone of the crops to the quantity of water actually delivered in the field is known as (a) Water conveyance efficiency (b) water application efficiency (0) water use efficiency (@ none 14. With the increase in the quantity of water supplied the yield of most crops (a) increase continuously (b) decrease continuously (©) increase upto a certain limit and then becomes constant (@) increase upto a certain limit and then decrease LEVEL ~2 Questions 01. A loamy soil has field capacity of 25% and permanent wilting percentage 10%. The dry unit weight of soil is 1.Sgm/ce. If the depth of Toot zone is 0.75m, determine the storage capacity of the soil. Inigation water is applied when moisture content drops to 14%, If the water application efficiency is 75%, determine the water depth required to be applied in the field. 02. After how many days will you order irrigation in order to ensure healthy growth of crops, if (@ Field capacity = 29% Gi) Permanent wilting percentage = 11% (ii) Density of soil = 1.3 gmice (iv) Effective depth of root zone = 70cm (v) Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop = 12mm For healthy growth, moisture content must not fall below 25% of the water holding capacity between the field capacity and permanent witling point (IES 92) 03. In a farm land irrigated by system of pumps from wells, the area irrigated is 50 Hectares. Water pumped from wells is conveyed through a canal to the farms. Efficiency of water conveyance is 85% and pumps work at 12 hours/day. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20cm per meter depth and average root zone depth is Im. water application efficiency is 80%. Irrigation is started when moisture extraction level of 30% of available moisture is reached. Peak rate of moisture use by plants is Smm. Calculate irrigation period in days and total pumping capacity required in litres/minute (GATE-97) 04. A certain crop is grown in an area of S000Ha, The field capacity = 25%, Permanent wilting Point = 5%. The apparent specific gravity is 1.4. the effective depth of root zone = 0.8m, Cu = 1.68 cm/day. For healthy growth, moisture content should not fall below 25% of the water storage capacity. Find 1, Frequency of irrigation 2. Water discharge in m? / sec required to irrigate the crop if the irrigation efficiency is 20%, 05. For supplying water to Rabi crop, Kharif crop and sugar cane, the channel is designed for a capacity equal to the greater of the water requirement of (a) Rabi or Kharif (b) Rabi and Kharif or sugarcane (Rabi & sugarcane or Kharif & sugarcane (@ Rabi or Kharif or sugarcane (RR NG ene | Hinton Vina | Viskbapatais | Tiupal| Pune | Channa@ 06. The duty for a crop at the field is 800 ha/cumec. If the conveyance loss is 20 % then the duty at the head of the canal is (a)900ha/cumec ——_(b) 666.66 ha / cumec (©) 640 ha/cumee (4) 960 ha / cumee 07. A canal was designed to supply irrigation needs of 1200 ha of land growing rice of 140 days base period and having a delta of 134 em. If the canal waters are used to irrigate wheat of base period 120 days and having a delta of 52 cem the area that can be irrigated is (GATE) (@) 2651 ha (b) $43 ha (©) 3608 ha (6) 2592 ha 08. A tank has a available storage of 10 Mm”. If the overall losses are 10 % this storage can irrigate a wheat crop of base period 120 days and delta 40 cm, planted area of (a) 2600 ha (b) 2500 ha (6) 2250 ha (@) 2592 ha 09. Certain area the transplantation of rice crop takes 15 days and the total depth of Irrigation water required by the crop is 60 cm on the field. During this transplantation period, the useful rain falling om the field is 8 cm. Find the duty of Irrigation water for this crop on the field during transplantation period. Assuming 25% losses of water in the water course, find the duty at the head of water course. 10. The base period, intensity of irrigation and duty of water for various crops under a canal system are given in the table below. Determine the reservoir capacity if the C.C.A is 40,000 hha, canal losses are 20% and reservoir losses are 10%. (IES 94 & GATE 92model ) Base | Duty of | Intensity Crop | period(days) | water of | (ha/eumec) | atthe | Irrigation | field (%) [_ Wheat 120 1800 20 ‘Sugar Cane. 360, 1700 20 Cotton 180 1400 10 | ~ Rice 0 | 800 15 [Vegetables 120 | _700 15 Water Requirements of Crops 11. A pump is installed on a well to lift water and apply it on 2.5 hectares under rice crop. Duty for rice is 860 ha/cumec on the filed and pump efficiently is 50%. If the lowest water level in the well is at RL 100 and the level of the highest portion of the field is at R. L 107.5, find the minimum input H.P of the pump. ‘Neglect loss in field channel. 12, Determine the head discharge of a canal from the following data, The value of time factor may be assumed as 0.75. Conveyance loss in the entire canal system is 20%. Bae | Are Daty in Crop period hectare | hectares/cumec ingay | a Rice [120] 4000 1500 [Whiear | “120—[3500 2000} Sugarcane | 310 {3000 1200] O1.(6) 02.(b) 03. (c) 04.(b) 05. (b) 06.(c) 07.(d) 08. (d) 09.(c) 10.) 1L@12.@) 13.6) 14.(d) FACE Enoncering Nexon SS oeMethods of Irrigation 1, Broadly, classified into 3 groups (surface irrigation methods (Gi) Sub-surface irrigation methods (ii) sprinkler irigation methods 2. Surface irrigation metas + water is supplied by spreading on the land Surface irrigation methods 4 Flooding method Furrow method Contour fanning Uncontrolled flooding _ Controlled flooding or rH From field channels Border strips Checks or leaves Basin method 3. Flooding method: ‘+ Uncontrolled or wild flooding : Water is applied over the land without any prior preparation of the land and with out enforcing any control over the water by levees suitable for smooth and flat land; - more wastage of water Controlled flooding : Also known as free flooding. Water is applied on the land with control over the quantity as well as direction of flow , prior preparation of land is done. 4. Flooding from field channels : * land is divided into strips by series of field channels or laterals and the strips are supplied water form these field channels. The supply channel is located at higher edge of field. Irrigation is possible on one side of field channel. Suitable for flat as well as relatively steep slopes Ig exit FIELD CHANNEL PARALLEL TO CONTOURS < Border strip method Supply Channel Hyderabad | New Dei Bengals | Bhubaneswar | invade | Viaimpatna | Tip | Pane | Choma@rnehS AC Featemy Border strip method: land to be irrigated is divided in to a series of long narrow strips about 10 to 20 m wide and 100 to 300 m long separated from each other by low levels or bunds and each strip is supplied water by the field channel. The strips will have slope along the direction of flow. Water flows in the form of a sheet to the lower end of the field. Time required for water to cover a area, 2 q t= 2 tog, —t_ 7a | werage depth of sheet oft@pwing water ; 4 = discharge of irrigation stream A = area of the strip or land covered at any time; I= rate of infiltration Max area that can be irrigated with a stream of discharge (q) can be found as follows q a-4 I 6. Checks or levees method: ‘* most common method * also called method of irrigation by plots © land is divided into small plots surrounded by cheeks or levees. Each plot has nearly * level surface. Area of each plot is between 400 to 500 m?. => Supply channel_> Checks or Leaves field channel Methods of Irrigation 7. Basin method: - Suitable for fruit trees a basin is created surrounding cach tree and field channel supplies water to the basin, Used for irtigation of orchards. Ly Oy O74 RING BASIN METHOD 8. Furrow method: ‘* water is applied to the land to be irrigated by a series of long, narrow field channel called furrows. It reduces evaporation losses. * suitable for row crops such as maize etc. R * Water is not spread over the land, Water flowing in the furrows infiltrates into the soil and spreads laterally to the roots of plants. Has high water application efficiency 9. Contour farming: + Practiced in hilly regions where the land will be having steep slopes * Also controls erosion due to rain GEERT) New Dati | Beng | tance | Vind | Venta | Tapa ReContour Farming 10. Sprinkler irrigation method: ‘« water is applied in the form of spray by pipes and nozzle system erosion of soil is eliminated uniform application of water is possible no land preparation is required wind may distort the application of water power requirement is more for constant pumping of water 11, Sub surface irrigation method: ‘s water is applied below the ground surface directly to the root zone of the plants, by pipe network. The evaporation losses are reduced eg : Drip or trickle irrigation 12. Drip or Trickle irrigation : ‘e latest method of irrigation, getting popular ‘¢ water is applied to the land surface near the base of the plants by a network of plastic pipes (PVC pipes) and drip nozzles called emitters or drippers «require a pumping unit, pipe lines and emitters. «has highest water application efficiency (as high as 90% ) © suitable for areas where there is water scarcity and salt problems (saline lands) « -evaporation loss is reduced and deep percolation is avoided. © Quite suitable for small trees and widely spaced plants, for fruit plants. © Can be used for any topography. Land need not be level. reibdien (aren | OL. The system of irrigation practiced on hill slopes is (a) contour farming (b) checks irrigation (c) border method of irrigation (@) sprinkler irrigation 02. In an irrigation system, the land was divided into large number of smaller size unit areas ‘having fairly level surface, by bunds and cross ridges. The basins thus created were filled witheuater to the desired depth and the water wi ined for some time, this method of irrigation is known as, (a) border method (b) checks method (©) sub irrigation (@ contour irrigation 03. For growing irrigated paddy, the ideal water application method is (a) furrow irrigation (b) checks method (©) border method of irrigation (@) sprinkler irrigation 04. For irrigation of orchards the best method is (@) free flowing method (b) basin method (c) furrow method (@)sprinkling method 05. For cereal crops the most commonly adopted ‘method of irrigation, is (a) free flowing method (b) checks method (c) furrow method (@)sprinkling method 06. For standing crops in undulating sandy fields, the best method of irrigation, is (@) sprinkler irrigation (b) free flooding (c) check method «Not suitable for closely planted crops such ‘NewDetit | Bena | Bhubaneswar (@) furrow method 7 Winyawada | VisKiapaam | Tipal | Pane [ Chenig is defined as (a) tow or more crops grown during any year (©) two or more comps grown during the same crop, season in different fields (©) two or more crop seasons of the year (d) growing of two or more crops together in the same field during the same crop season 08. A border strip is to be irrigated by a stream with a discharge of 0.04 cumecs. If the average infiltration rate is 4 cavhr, then the ‘max area of the strip that can be irrigated is (@) 0.15 ha (0) 0.23 ha (©) 0.52 ha (d) 0.36 ha O1. Determine the time required to irrigate a strip of area of the size 100 m x 10 m by a stream of discharge of 0.03 m’ / sec. Assume average depth water of 7.5 cm and average rate of infiltration of S em / hr. Also find max area of ‘the strip that can be irrigated by that stream? O1.@\_ 02. (b) 03. (b) 04. (b) 05. (b) 06, a (@) 08. (d) Ey. [RerDeii] Bangs Bi Bhuberar | Viveads | VinMapaoas Tia Tira | Pine | Cherm2. 3, Forces Acting On & Gravity Dams Gravity dam: A dam, which resists. the Cremnal forces acting on it by its self weight. Generally made of masonry ‘or concrete Line of dam :In plan, itis ‘Axis of dam or Bast ream edge of the the horizontal trace of ups top of the dam. on of the dam, the vertical ¢ Inthe cross secti stream edge of fine passing through the uP the top of the dam Gravity Dam : Water wplift pressure, pressure, weight of am, sure, Parthquake forces, ice pressure, wave Pres silt pressure ete 4. Modes of failure of gravity dam : (a) Over turning: Stabilizing moment Overturning moment ‘At any horizontal section of the (b) Sliding: factor of safety ( FS) against dam, the sliding, FS= LPs ‘Where j= coefficient of friction Spy = Algebraic sum of vertical forees= (Total weight-Uplift Force) pp, = Sum of horizontal forces causing sliding P, Sliding factor, tan6 = oe Factor of safety against sliding FS = wytea DP ‘Shear friction factor where Be width of joint or section ~ area B x | = shear strength of joint (generally taken 14 kg/ em? for rock foundation) (© overstreaging in the dam material + The Ghesses 41 the dam material should be ‘within the allow limits. (a) Compression (or) Crushing at base: The ‘caninum pressure on the foundation soil due to the dam construction shall be less than the safe bearing capacity of foundation soil. ‘The pressure at base on the soil is found as follows e= eccentricity ie pn [+65] Poa Be li-6§) (e) Tension: No tension shall be permitted at any point of the dam «For no tension to develop, the eccentricity pbuld be less than (B/6).In other words the resultant should always lie within middle third of the base re: It is assumed that mixture of silt 7. Silt pressut siiPyater behaves as a liquid with the following unit weight© component, the specific Weight of silt liquid is taken as 1360 kg/m’, For vertical component it is taken as. 1925 ko/m* 8. Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam: he k<—z—3} Uplift pressure A right angled triangle For no tension condition, H VG-9, * Wupliftis not considered, B=(Ht/ JG) the min.base width B * For no sliding condition, the min.base width B= H(G-e) + Iupliftis not considered, B =H. eas iting height of elementary profile (H,) : * Principal stress at the toe will be, 1 = wH(G-e+1) iff material allowable crushing stress of dam unit weight of water 10. 1. Gravity Dams Ket He be the maximum height which may be Provided for a dam having elementary profile without exceeding allowable stress for the dam material * To be on safer side, the lower value of He is obtained when c= 0 in the above equation * Limiting height or critical height of a dam having elementary profile t esp © If height of a dam is less than or equal to the Heggthe dam is called Low gravity ae * Ifheight of a dam is more than the He, it is known asthe ‘high pov a Drainage Gallery: © An opening left in the dm * To provide draina- drain off w~ pst grou conc, operat. x gates er® wos Ficatonr 4: as 12. Stability calculations for a Gravity Dam _z— i Pr wd I— x | eel cea Toe w ® ew. a le 2 Pe 7 Consider 1 m length of dam Water pressure Px = (7s#/2) ‘= unit weight of water = J ton/ m ‘W =Total weight of dam_ coefficient ( varies from 0 to 1) w $ Total uplift pressure = Yew HB 6 unlit Poe TUG distance of W fromhesl 2 Distance of resultant from heel de distance of resultant from toe L. To find resultant distance from Heel (i¢. #0 +. Fecentricity, e = (B/2)-4 condition, thee S$ (B/6) find 2) zu Pllt/a)+ Wx Pua For no tension w SP, , 6 ‘ Pr Lie _ Algebraic sum of momentsabout hes! BB net weight of dam DP (,_& «. Eccentricity, ¢€ = 2-(B/2) Poin BB 2, To find resultant distance from toe (i.e. to find =P (W-P.) 4) = Putt 3) + w(B-x) 43, For safety against foundation failure, the Pnss Ww-P,) < safe bearing capacity of soil _ Algebraiesum of momentsabout 98 wip-x aa ee rat weightof dam 4. FS against overtuming 57/3) P a Grabow | Viegas | Veaapatam |5, ACE Principal stresses in the dam material neat th toe Max. principal stress ( Compressive) in the ddam material at the te as shown (01 ) Gr = pe sec? B-p- tan? B 6. Shear stress (£) at the toe , T= (Pa P ) fanB on 02. 03, fax. stress on the soil at the toe p— Water pressure at the toe = yw B= slope of D/s face of dam with vertical Forno tail water, p= Oand a1 =Pa-sec’B For safety ,c; shall be less than allowable ‘compressive stress in concrete. For no tension at any point in a gravity dam the criterion to be satisfied is (a) The resultant of all the forces must always pass through the middle third of the base (b) The resultant force for all forces must always pass through the midpoint of the base of the dam (©) The resultant of all forces must always pass through the upstream extremity of the middle third of the base The resultant of all the forces must always pass through the down stream extremity of the middle third of the base @ For a triangular dam section of height Hi for just no tension under the action of water pressure self weight and uplift pressure the Fninimum base width required with usual notation is H H Ms © Gay H OG (@) If the uplift pressure is neglected, the base width of an elementary profile of a gravity ‘dam of height H, having relative density of the dam material = G, and coefficient of friction = pis 05. Gravity Dams (a) HIG (HIG ) (c) larger of H/ VG and H iG (@) smaller of H/uNG and HG In gravity dam design, the horizontal sift and water pressure is assumed as equivalent to {hat ofa fluid with a mass density, in ke/m’, of (a) 1925 (@) 360 (c) 1000 (d) 1360 ‘The axis of a dam is the (@ line joining the mid ~ point of the base (b) centre line of the top width of the dam (@)line of the crown of the dam on the downstream side (@)line of the crown of the dam on the upstream side For no tensiongg develop in the gravity dam the re semen e* of the resultant force should be (a) less than b /3 (o) less than b/ 4 (b) less than b / 6 (d) less than b / 12 01. @) 06. (b) 02. (a) 03.(¢) 04. (4) 05. (a) ==__— Nex Bai] Bean Biobneo iseadh | Vantage | i Tina Fane | ChenaO1.A Gravity dam is shown below. The unit Weight of the dam material is 2.4 vm’, the Coefficient of friction at the base (1) is 0.75 and shear strength at the base is 140 tm? Calculate the following considering full uplift condition. Ga > 12 mG] Fem 98 m !<——80 m——> (2) Factor of safety against overturning (b) Factor of safety against sliding (©) Shear friction factor (@) Pressures on the foundation soil (©) The maximum compressive stress induced in the dam material near the toe 02. Following data were obtained from the Stability analysis of a concrete gravity dam Total overturning moment about toe = 3 3 10° ton—m Total resisting moment about toe=4x10°ton~ m Total downward weight of the dam= 6000 tons Total uplift force = 1000 ton Base width of dam = 50 m Caleulate maximus the soil. um and minimum pressure on 03.In a gravity dam, the friction coefficient 0.75 SPy = 6000 t (2) what is factor of safety against sliding ? (b) what is shear friction factor at base ? 04. Find the factor of safety against overtu for dam section shown thes ¥ W=128 tons is (a) 1.05 (b) 0.95 (0) 4.78 (3.73 06. The maximum height of a low gravity dam of clementary profile, to be built to concrete of relative density = 2.4, on a foundation material of safe allowable stress = 7.5 MPa, by ignoring the uplift force is (2) 319 m () 484 m (©) 125m (d) 225 m bad [ New Delhi | Benguns | Bhabancowar Vi ‘ieaweda | Viana | Tapa] Pine [CheaSpill Ways For an ideal profile of a ogee spillway. if discharge is occurring at the design head, the pressure on the spillway will be Necessity of Spill Ways: The spill ways are atmospheric only. (ie., no hydrostatic openings provided at the body of the dam to pressure on the spillway) discharge safely the excess water or flood water ‘when the water level rises above the normal pool © For discharges at a head less than the Jevel. A spillway is provided to discharge the design head, positive hydrostatic pressure excess flow entered a reservoir. will be exerted on the spillway by the flowing water ‘Types of Spill Ways: + For discharges at gqpead greater than the design head, there Svill be separation of flowing water from the spillway and thus negative pressure (suction) will be created. The negative pressure will increase the effective head and there by the discharge will be increased. () Free overfall or straight drop spill w: «A low height narrow crested weit having its down stream face vertical or nearly vertical «Commonly used for low earth dams ‘© DiS apron will be subjected to large impact Laer ‘The downstream curve of the ogee shape has ‘Nappe the following equation: x's 2H .y Where, x and y are the co-ordinates of the crest profile measured from the apex of the crest, and H is the design head. Straight drop Spill way hharge equation for Spillways: (ii) Ogee Spill way or overflow spill way: (i). Ogee shaped spillway is given by © Widely used with gravity, arch dams QecL Ht? «The over flowing water is guided smoothly Wher, . over the spillway and is made to glide over O = discharse the down stream face ofthe spill Way C = a variable coefficient of discharge, its © The nappe shaped profile for the crest of 2 ue varies from 2.1 102.5 ogee spillway is an ideal profile. Le= elective length of crest. He total head on the crest, including velocity of approach head. =H+hy b= 2g Where, ha= head due to velocity of approach Ogee spillway v,= velocity of approach ee ct New Bais Rein | anv | Wises | Wav [Tuma | Pe | ChenGi) Siphon Spitlway:The spill way which acts of spill way. = QCA. /2eHt Where, A= Area of the cross ~ section at crown = Lxd, where L is the length and d is the height of throat. H = Operating head. ~ Reservoir level — Centre of outlet, if outlet is discharging freely. = Reservoir level ~ Downstream tail water level if the outlet is submerged, C = Coefficient of discharge, the average value of which may be taken as 0.65. Yolute Siphon Spill Way: It consists of a vertical shaft having a funnel at the top end and the bottom end is connected to a bend pipe. When the water ses above the full reservoir level, it spills over the circumference of the funnel and flows with spiral motion through it, Chute or Trough Spill Way: This spill way is Gably @ rectangular open channel or trough (known as chute) provided on the dam sq discharge the surplus water from the reservoir te the same river on the downstream side. ‘The spill way may be provided along the abutment of the Channel Spillway: It is completely separated from the main body of the dam. The spillway is Constructed at right angles to the dam and at any side. ‘Wave Height: Molitor’s formula: Height of wave, hy = 0.0322 VEV .., for F > 32 kin hy... in meters ‘ind velocity in knvhr. the fetch of + in km, the principle of siphon is known as siphon n | Fetch: It is the straight length of water ‘measured normal to the axis of dam, Wave Force, Py = 2. ya. hy? dam. Pw acts at a height of 0.375 hy above the still water level Per metre length LEVEL ~ 1 Questions O1. The freeboard in a dam depends on the hei of the wave which in turn depends on (@) wind velocity (b) fetet © Se ace in the reservoir (A) both wind velocity and fetch 02. According to Creager for a gravity dam test width is most economical if itis about (2) 14 % of the height of the dam (b) 20 % of the height of the dam (©) 28 % of the height of the dam (A) 30% of the height of the dam 03. Which one of (%, y) ate the coordinates of the point on the downstream profile with origin at the crest of the spillway and Hq is the design head (GATE-2005)01. Compute the discharge over an ogee weir with coefficient of discharge equal to 2.4 at a head of 2m. The length of the spillway is 100 m. The weir crest is 8 m above the bottom of the approach channel having the same width as that of the spillway. 02. A dam has spillway whose cross — section is 1 m high and 4 m wide. The tail water elevation at design flow is 6 m blow the summit of the siphon and the head water elevation is 1.5 m above the summit. Assuming a coefficient of discharge of 0.6, what is the capacity of the siphon? (Rea New at Bens “Biafancnvar | Viewed | Wooing | Tropa | Poe | GhentDiversion Head Works PSIS (rors 1) Diversion Head Works : Works constructed across the river to raise water level and to divert into the canal and also for other purposes Gide bund el Flove in river t 4 ‘marginal Weir 2, Weir: Structure constructed across’ river to raise its water level and divert into the canal Usually shutters are provided to increase the storage Barrage : The raising up of water level ( or ponding) is accomplished mainly by means of ‘gates. A barrage provides better control on the water level. Under Stuices : Openings provided in the weir wall, located on the same side of the off taking canal. The discharge capacity of the under sluices is greater of 4) 2 times maximum discharge of off taking canal ii) Maximum winter discharge iii) 10 to 15 % of maximum flood discharge. If no special device to control slit entering into the canal is provided, the crest of the under sluices should be at least 1.20 m lower than the crest of the head regulator. If the excluder Fish ladder > = ead regular Under sluices QO } Divide wall 5. 6 is provided to reduce entry of slit into the canal, the crest of under sluices should be about 1.80 to 2.0 m below the crest of the head regulator. Divide Wall : Constructed at right angles to the axis of the weir to separate under sluices from the rest of the weir, to provide clear ‘water to the canal. Silt Excluder ; It excludes (prevents) silt from entering the canal. It is provided on the river bed in front of head regulator Silt Extractors or Silt Ejectors : They remove the silt which has already entered the canal from the head. It is provided in the canal. Fish Ladder : To allow migration of fish from Uisto Dis side Guide bund and Marginal bund are river protection works WWW.CIVILENGGFORALL.COM09, Causes of failures of Weirs (©) Rupture’ of Floor due to suet hydraulic jump: Remedies: Providing additic floor (@Piping or under mining: Progressive erosion in the backward direction (i.e, towards w/s ) ‘Measures to prevent piping : Providing sufficient length of impervious floor so that path of percolation is increased and exit gradient reduced. Also by providing sheet piles at U/s and Ds ends of impervious floor (@ Scour on U/s and D/s of weir due to a velocity of river flow Remedies: Providing sheet piles on U/s and ‘Dis sides much below the calculatzd seo evel. By providing launching aprons and D/s sides so that stones of aprons may seitle into the scour holes. | | | | | thickness of | (b) Uplift pressure :Uplift pressure is resisted by: 1. Providing sufficient thickness of floor 2. Providing sheet pile at U/s end 10. Cross section of W a }¢— Crest gate ~\ Impervious _Tnverted Block protection weir \ floor filter Launching = ¥ + + + TEE a PBQO3TES pee eag8 VS A 1 ae Launching ~N le— Dis cus ‘Apron (or talus) Tie cat off Dis eon 11. Impervious Floor : To provide required creep | 14, Launching apron or pervious Apron : It is length and to resist uplift pressure on D/s loosely ‘packed stones, to protect the side impervious floor and sheet piles from s ‘© Small thickness and more length on U/s holes (piping) progressing towards the side impervious floor and piles. Provided on U/s © More thickness on Dis side and Dis side. 15. Block Protection : Provided on Uis sid 12. Cutoff : To increase creep fength and there by immediately at the upstream end reducing the hydraulic gradient impervious floor, to protect impervious { from the effect of scouring. This is made 13. Inverted filter : Consists of layers of conerete blocks or stone blocks over a materials of increasing permeability from loose stone packing. The joints are finish bottom to top. It is provided on ds, after the with cement mostar impervious floor to relieve uplift pressure i.e., it allows seepage water to escape without dislocating the soil particles. (1s aas[e [ miata | Vo ‘Visitapaiam [Tope | Pine | Chenmal_|16. Design of weirs on Permeable Foundation :Bligh’s Creep Theory 17. © Bligh assumed that the percolating water creeps along the base profile of the structure which is in contact with the soil © Creep length (L): The length of path traversed by percolating water ‘* Total creep length, L= b+ 2d; + 2d2 + 2ds © Bligh assumed that head loss per unit length of creep (i.e., hydraulic gradient ) is constant throngh out the percolating passage. ‘* Hydraulic gradient, i = (H/L) Bligh’s creep coefficient (C): it is the reciprocal of hydraulic gradient 1 £ Ca-=— L=CH i oH Safety against Piping : As per Bligh, to avoid piping the minimum length of creep, L=CH orthe hydraulic gradient, isQ/O © H= seepage Head ( the difference between water levels on U/s and Dis ) © Worst condition is that when the water level on U/s side is maximum and no water on Dis side. © The value of C varies from 5 to 18 depending upon the type of soil. For fine sand and mud, 20. Lanes We 18, for Coarse Sand C = 12 for gravel 109 18. Safety against uplift Pressure : As per Bligh’s theory, thickness to be provided by taking a factor of safety of 4/ 3 is, 4h 3(G.-1) h = ordinate of Hydraulic Gradient line from top of floor G.= Specific gravity of floor material (concrete) It would be more economical to provide more creep length on U/s side instead of Dis side. According to Bligh a vertical cut off at U's end of the floor is more useful than the one at Djs end of the floor. 19. Limitations of Bligh’s Creep Theory : © No distinction between vertical and horizontal creep ‘* No distinction between effectiveness of outer and inner faces of sheet pile © Significance of exit gradient is not considered yed Creep Theory : Lane proposed that horizontal creep is less effective in reducing uplift or causing loss of head, than the vertical creep. A weightage factor of 1/3 is proposed for horizontal creep and 1.0 for vertical creep. (Rd Date [Benen ee | Vina | Venta | Tipe [Pine |]ACE Engineering Weighted creep length , L=13B+V B = sum of horizontal contacts and sloping contacts less than 45° to the horizontal V = sum of vertical contacts and sloping contacts greater than 45°to the horizontal For safety against piping, x 2 Ci) = Lanes coefficient of creep 21. Khosla’s Theory : a) Outer faces of sheet effective than inner ones b) Intermediate sheet piles if smaller in length than outer ones, are ineffective ©) Undermining of floors starts from D/s and if hydraulic gradient at D’s point is more than the critical hydraulic gradient 4) A vertical cutoff at the D/s end of floor is essential to prevent undermining piles are more ‘The floor length is fixed such that at the Dis end the exit gradient is less than the permissible gradient. ‘ exit gradient, Ge D Where, 2 =1¢ a= (b/d) The allowable exit gradient should be 1/5 t0 V6 Hydrated | New Del | Bengaura | Bhubanssvar | Viayavada | VeaRhapatnam | Tinpall | Pane | Chennal Head Works 22. Uplift pressure heads at points D, E and C are as follows for Sheet pile at D/s end: 23. Uplift pressure heads at points D’, E? and C’ for Sheet pile at U/s end as shown belo Example:5.1 Uplift pressure at points E and D (Figure A) of a straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at downstream end are 28 % and | 20 % respectively. If the sheet pile is at upstream end of the floor (Figure B), the uplift pressure at | point D; and C; are (GATE 2000)Figure B (a) 68 % and 60% respectively (b) 80 % and 72% respectively (c) 88 % and 70 % respectively (d) 100 % and zero respectively } Sol: At point Dy :hp:=100-20 = 80% At point C) she =100-28-72% Example:5.2 A horizontal impervious floor of length 20 m is provided with a cutoff of a 4 m depth at its D/s end (Fig. 2). Find the exit gradient if the head causing flow is 2m and the factor of safety against piping if for the soil Gs = 2.7 and void ratio is 0.70. Also calculate the uplift pressure head at point E. aaya 5 levi qa lilt b _ 20 (EZ G-1 eee 7 FOS against piping hy = cos 422) x= a 180 5° 305-1), 977m 3.05 180 Details of weir foundation: ‘Normal sour depth, R, = of Q discharge per unit width of river f= Lacey's silt factor Max scour depth, Rase = 1.51 U/s side from HEL =2Ri— dis side from HFL X= 1101.5 of ds O1.If R is the normal depth of scour by Lacey equation, the depths below HFL up to the which the upstream and downstream sheet piles in a weir are usually provided to protect again the effect of scour are, respectively (@15Rand2.0R —(b)2.0Rand 1.5K (©) 2.5 Rand 1.25R (d) 1.0 Rand 1.258Diversion Head Works 02, As a result of the construction of a diversion structure across a river, there will be a rise in the flood level on the upstream side of the structure and itis called as (a) free board (©) uplift () aggradation (@) affiux 03. For a specified weir foundation geometry and applied head, the pressure distribution on the base of the impervious floor of a weir is (a) dependant on the soil particle size (b) dependent on the porosity of the soil (c) independent of the soil properties (qd) depends on the coefficient of permeability of the soil, 04. The term piping, used in connection with ‘weirs on alluvial rivers, means (a) the system of pipes provided for drainage of the seepage flow (b) vertical pressure exerted by the seepage flow at various points on the impervious floor (©) the progressive consolidation of the foundation due to the removal of pore water pressure (@) the progressive undermining of the foundation due to dislodging of the soil particles by the seepage water at its point of emergence. 05. A graded inverted filter, used in a diversion structure, consists of (a) graded sand with coarse part in contact with the foundation and finest part on the top (b) graded sand with fine part in contact with the foundation material and coarsest part on the top (©) a blanket of uniform size sand set inclined to the direction of seepage and loaded by masonry blocks (@) a sand blanket covered by graded heavy stones on top. [SRNR stad Nev Dati Bens | iatncwar| Viewed Vinianaiam Titan | Pine Chea] 06. A weir has a horizontal floor of length 36 m with two sheet piles of depth 6 m and 10m at its upstream and downstream —_ en respectively. Under an impounded depth of 4m above the floor and with no tail water, the uplift pressure head at the mid-point of the floor by Lane's weighted creep theory is (a) 2.00 m (b) 2.36 m, (©) 1.88 m (@ 164m 07. A weir on permeable foundations has the following elements: 1. Impervious floor 2. Block protection 3. Block protection over inverted filter 4, Launching apron Starting from the upstream end the correct sequence of these elements are: (@2-1-3-4 — (b)4-3-1-2-4 ()4-2-1-3-4 @)3-1-2-4 08. According to Khosla’s theory for a hydraulic structure built on previous foundation a cutoff is quite essential at (@) the upstream end (b) the mid-section (c) some intermediate section (@) the downstream end 09. The undersluices in a diversion head works are provided with a crest level (a) same as the crest of the weir (b) lower than the crest of the weir (©) higher than the rest of the water (d) same as the crest of the head regulator 10. According to Khosla’s theory exit gradient is given by (with usual notation) (b) G, = awk (@)Gp= Savi H 11. The capacity of under sluices is usually equal to (a) two times the maximum discharge of the offtaking canal (b) maximum winter discharge in a river barragea (©) 10 to 15% of the maximum flood discharge (@) maximum of (a), (b) and (c) . Silt excluder is provided (a) in the canal on the downstream of the head regulator (b) in the river on the downstream of the weir (©) in the river adjacent to the head regulator (@) in the river far off form the weir on the upstream side The intermediate sheet pile is ineffective if it (a) is larger in length than the outer ones (b) is smaller in length than the outer ones (©) is equal in length to the outer ones (@) is far off from the outer ones O1.(@) 02.(d) 03.() 04d) 05.(b) 06.(b) 07.(©) 08.(d) 09.46) 10.¢a) 1L@) 12.) 13.) The fig.1 shows section of a hydraulic structure on a permeable foundation. Assuming G= 2.4, Determine (a) Average hydraulic gradient according to Bligh’s creep theory (b) Bligh’s creep coefficient (©) Residual seepage head at A (d)_ Uplift pressure at A (e) Floor thickness required at point A (GATE 1994) 02. Assertion (A): As a mean of prot against piping, block protection is provided the downstream of a hydraulic structure Reason (R): Any means by which the e gradient is brought below the critical val will e satisfactory protection against piping. (a) Both A and R are true and R is c explanation of A (b) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A (©) Ais true but R is false (d) Ais false but R is true 03. While designing a hydraulic structure, the piezometric head at bottom of the floor is computed as 10m. The datum is 3m below floor bottom. The assured standing water depth above the floor is 2m. The specific gravity of the floor material is 2.5. The floor thickness. should be (GATE-2003) (a) 2.00m (b) 3.33m (©) 440m () 6.00m 04.A launching apron is to be designed at downstream of a weir for discharge intensity of 6.5m’/sim. For the design of launching aprons the scour depths is taken two times of Lacey scour depth. The silt factor of the bed material is unity. If the tail water depth is 4.4m, the length of launching apron in the launched position is (GATE-2005) (@) 5m 47 (© Sm (a) SvSmDesign of Unlined Alluvial Canals by silt Theories Kennedy's Theory: 1. Silt is kept in suspension by the eddies formed over the width of the channel, 2. Critical velocity (Vo): Velocity which will keep the channel free from silting or scouring. Vo = 0.55 D°* applicable for Punjab region (now in Pakistan) Vo = critical velocity in m/sec D = depth of flow, in m * bed width has no effect on the Critical Velocity 3. Critical Velocity Ratio, m= Vx/V, For other regions, velocity of flow to avoid silting and scouring is, Vx = 0.55 m D°* 4. For determining mean velocity of flow, Kennedy recommended to use Kutter’s Equation, which is as follows: 2341 4 0.00155 N Ss irs To VRS [ons REN VR V = Mean velocity of flow in m/sec, R= Hydraulic radius, m S= bed slope, N= Rugosity coefficient 5. Design of Channel by Kennedy: * Equations required @ Q=Av (ii) Kutter’s Equation, for V (ii) Vk =0.55m D° Data required: Q,N, m and $ or BID ratio 6. a Procedure (1) Given Q, N, mand § Steps: (® Assume a trial value of D in meters Calculate velocity V equation, Vx =0.55m D', \Calculate cross sectional area, A= Q/V (iv) Assuming side slope of channel as ( % Horizontal) to (1 Vertical)and find the bed width, (¥) Calculate the actual mean velocity (V) of flow from Kutter,s Equation (Vi)IE the velocity (V) calculated by Kutter’s equation is nearly equal to velocity calculated in step no. 2, the assumed depth is correct. If not, assume another trial value D and repeat the above procedure. The above design procedure can be carried out with the help of Garret’s diagram. from Drawbacks in Kennedy’s Theory: * Limitations of Kutter’s Equation are incorporated in Kennedy's theory. * No equation for bed slope ($) by Kennedy * Complex phenomenon of _— silt transportation is incorporated in a single factor called ‘m’ © Involves trial and error. Lacey’s Theory: Lacey developed the regime theory (But the regime theory concept was initially put forwarded by Lindley) Regime Channel : A stable channel whose width, depth and bed slope have undergone modification by silting and scouring and are so adjusted that they have attained equilibrium. Silt is kept in suspension by eddies generated from wetted perimeter. EEE oon every | Bhaianowar | Vand | Ving rat | Pane | Chena10, For a channel to be in regime, conditions to be establisned are: Rexime conditions (true regime conditions) i) Channe} should be flowing uniformly in unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same ‘character as that transported by channel. ii) Sit grade and silt charge should be constant. iii) Discharge should be constant. To measure silt grade, Lacey introduced silt factor (f} 12, Incoherent Alluvium: A loose granular raterial which can be scoured as easily as it can be deposited. 13. An artificial channel will undergo two stages of regime. (1) initial (2) final regime ‘sInitial Regime : Longitudinal slope and depth attain equilibrium Longitudinal slope, depth ‘ofthe channel reach + Final Regime and width equilibrium. 14, Lacey's equations are applicable for a ehannel which has attained final or true regime. 45. Cross section of a regime channel: Semi — elliptical section. 16. Lacey’s regime equations: (i sit factor, f= 1.764 d= mean soil particle size in mm’ (dso) ory" 140 i) velocity, V (iiiywetted perimeter, P= 4.75 JQ P— inm, Q—inm’/ sec, iv) Longitudinal slope, S = 334516 (iv) Longitudinal slope, 8 = 35499" (w) Velocity, V=V@/3)FR Fipdeaied | New Deli 28, captors | Bhobanesvar | ina | Vispaam | (vi)Scour depth, R=139, = discharge per m width = Q) B R= is in‘m’ measured from H.F.L (vii) Assuming side slopes as (1/2) horizontal: 1 vertical 17. Drawbacks in Lacey’s Theory = Regime conditions are only theoretical, ‘may not be achieved in practice. «Equations are derived based on single factor‘ f” Sitt charge and silt grade have not been properly defined Lacey's equations are empirical. Example:6.1 Design an irrigation channel in alluvial soit according to Lacey's silt theory with the following data, discharge is 50 m* / sec. Lacey's silt factor = 1, side slope 0.5 H: 1 V (GATE-94) Sol:Q = 50 m/sec; f= x= 0.5 v-(QZ) (3222) = 0.842 ms 140 140 Pa47s\Q= 4.75xV50 = 33.58 m peB+2DV1+0.5* =33.58 B+2.23 D = 33.58 =33,58-2.23D _.... Ean.(2) substituting “B® into eqn — (1)» (33.58-2.23D+0.5D) D = 59.38 1.115D2-33.58D+59.38 = 0 Solving, D = 1.88 m, “Fira | Pe | Chena2B = 33,58-2.23x1.88 = 29.38 m The B and D should be taken such that the shape of channel is semi elliptical Pay 33400 1 3340x50"* 1 ~eai0, 01. Lacey's equations can be used for the design of, (2) unlined channels only (b) lined channels only (©) both lined & unlined channels (@) neither lined nor unlined channels 02. For 1 m depth of flow in a canal with CVR equal t0 0.90, according to Kennedy's theory the velocity of flow will be (a) 0.395 m/sec (b) 0.495 m/sec (c) 0.595 m/sec (@) 0.695 m/sec 02. (b) LEVEL~2 Questions} 01. @) 91. An irrigation channel is to carry a discharge of 5 cuinecs. Assume Rugosity coeff. N = 0.0225, critical velocity ratio m = 1, B /D = 3.24, design the width and depth for the channel using Kennedy’s silt theory. 129: Design of Unlined Alluvial Canals 02. Calculate the bed width for an irrigation channel to carry a discharge of 5 cumes side slopes of the channel are (1/2) H: IV. The C.VR. is 0.8 an depth of flow is 0.71 m. The channel has a bed slope of 0.2 m per one kilometer, 03. The slope of a channel in alluvium is 1 / 4000, Lacey’s silt factor is 0.9 and side slopes are (12) H:IV. Find the channel section and maximum discharge which can be allowed to flow in it. 04. In connection with the design of a barrage, identify the correct matching of the criteria of design (A), (B), (C), (D) for the items of design (i), Gi), (ii) (iv). Items of Design (® Width of waterway (ii) Level and length of down steam floor ii) Depth of downstream sheet piles and total length of floor (iv) Barrage floor locations thickness at different Criteria of Design (A) Hydrautic jump consideration (B) Lacey's wetted perimeter and discharge capacity of the barrage as determined by appropriate weir formulae (© Uplift pressure distribution as determined by Khosla’s theory (D) Lacey's scour depth and exit hydraulic gradient as given by Khosla’s theory (@) A.B,C,D (©) B.AD,C (b) A,B,D.C (@BACD (SRT) ated Nev Dats | Benssir | Bhubsnewar | Vievwada | Viakiapsoam | Tuna Pine | Choma]‘m2 L ‘Water logging: Water logging is a condition in which there is excessive moisture in the soil ‘making the land less productive. The water logging affects the fertility of the and and thus leads to a reduction in the crop yield. Water logging is usually caused by a rise of sub soil water table The depth of water table at which it tends to ‘make the land water logged, depends on the (i) height of capillary fringe and Gi) type of erop. The crop yield is adversely affected when the capillary meniscus surface rises to within 0.6m of ground surface. Or, the land is generally water logged when the water table is within 1.50m to 2.1m below the ground Causes of Water Logging: Main causes of water logging are: © Excessive rainfall in the area «Flat ground profile © Seepage of water from canals and the adjoining lands. ‘Improper drainage of surface runoff ‘© Excessive irrigation Effects of Water Logging: Water logging has the following effects: © It causes anaerobic conditions near the roots of plants. Excess water prevents circulation of air and hence destroys bacteria which require aerobic conditions and other chemicals to live and produce nitrates required by plants. This reduces the yield of crops. ‘© It makes cultivation difficult as the water logged areas cannot be easily cultivated. © Itcauses growth of wild aquatic plants © It causes salinity of soil # It lowers soil temperature which affects the activities of the bacteria. 4, Water Logging Control: By providing adequate surface drainage with open drains through which rain water could be quickly disposed off. «By providing efficient under drainage. By controlling seepage of water from canals. (By Lining the canals, Lowering FS.L and using irrigation water economically) ‘By preventing seepage from reservoirs. © Pumping surplus ground water from wells ‘* By introducing crop rotation ‘By improving the natural drainage of the area Be introducing lif irrigation Drainage: ‘A. properly designed drainage system is an effective means to prevent land from getting water logged as well as to relieve the land already water logged. Open drains or closed drains can be used. [SSRN oda | Nov Det | Bonaire | Bhatancsvar | Vinyovada | Viekhapainam | Tiropa | Pune | Cheol)Quality of Irrigation Water and Sodic soils The quality of imtigation water is determined by the concentration of salts in water. Salt is a natural element of soils and water, The main ions responsible for salination are: Na’, K*, Ca”, Mg”. As the Na’ (sodium) predominates, soils can become sodic. If sodium ions predominate in irrigation water, they will tend to replace calcium & magnesium ions from the clay. As a result, the soil clods crumble and fine silica grains are released which clog the soil resulting in the reduction of its permeability and destruction of the structure of soil 1, Exchangeable Sodium ratio (ESR): It is defined as the concentration of exchangeable sodium ions divided by the sum of concentrations of exchangeable calcium, ‘magnesium, sodium and potassium ions. Exchangeable Sodium Ratio. = a Ca +Mg™ + Na +K™ ‘The ESR is often expressed in'% which is then termed as Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP). The concentration of all the elements are expressed in milliequivalents per litre (meq/l) hich is equal to the concentrations in ppm divided by the equivalent weight of the element, 2. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR): The concentration of exchangeable sodium ions in water may also be determined by a rational parameter termed as SAR. ‘dium Adsorption Ratio = ———*— : ” ic. +M, 2 SAR Type of water 0-10 low-sodium water (S;) 10-18 medium-sodium water (S:) 18-26 high-sodium water (Ss) >26 very high-sodium water (Ss) 3. Salt efflorescence : When the ground W.T is close to the GL, the water from the W.T rises up by capillary action and brings with it the alkali salts in solution. Water evaporates from the surface of land, leaving behind an accumulation of these salts, in patches, on the surface of land. This phenomenon of the salts coming in solution and forming a thin crust (5 to 7.5 cm) on the surface after evaperating of water is called “Salt efflorescence” ‘The salts present in saline soil usually appear in the form of a white efflorescent crust on the surface of soil and hence the saline soils are also commonly termed as “white alkali” soils. 4. Saline Soil: The excess concentration of salts, when present in the root zone of any plant, has corroding effect on the roots and the growth of the plant gets checked and the plant ultimately dies. Such salt affected soil is known as “Saline soil” and is unproductive. The electrical conductivity of saline soils is greater than 4 millimhos/cm (at 25°c) and the ESP is less than 15. The pH value is < 8.5, The saline soils can be reclaimed by leaching process, 6. Sodie soil: These are characterized by the presence of high concentration of sodium (Na). ‘They contain an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than 15%, These soils tend to occur within (RRR ersind | New Dati | Bena | Dhaaneswar | Viswata | Vaakhapatam | Tropad | Pune | Chemregions. Because of n, the soil becomes impermeable, ill- bly unproductive. Sodie soil is also called ‘sodinmized soil” is ‘Alkaline soil’. ikaline soil is more diificult than & seline soil, These soils can be reclaimed by adding gypsum and sulphur before leaching process For Alkali soil clecttical conductivity is less than 4 millimos‘eui and pH value > 8.5 and ESP. > 15%, These soils are also termed as “black alkali” sols because a black crust forms on the surface of these soils Saline soil: 1 «soil with excessive NaCl Alkstine soit: It is a soil with excessive NasCOs. Itis more hanmfuil { 1 Questions ] 01. A land is known as water-logged when (a) the pH of the soil reaches a value of 8.5 (b) the soil in ihe root zone has high salinity. (©) the soil pores in the root zone are saturated with water (d) where is water flowing on the surface of the land. 02. The following is mot a factor causing water- ‘ogging of a land. (@) seepage from unlined canals (b) excessive pumping from irrigation tube wells (©) inadequate drainage (@) frequent flooding 03. which of the following is not a remedial measure for water-logging? () Lining of canals, (b) Conjunctive use of water (c) Good drainage (6) Contour bunding, 04. Alkali soils are reclaimed by (a) leaching only (b) addition of gypsum and leaching (©) addition of gypsum only (@ provision of drainage. 05. Identity the incorrect statement. The soil salinity, or alkalinity, or both, have the following adverse effects: (a) cauging low yields of crops (b) limiting of the type of erops (©) rendering the quality of fodder poor () causing high infiltration, resulting in damage to crops. 6. Pick out the measure that is adopted for preventing water loggings (a) Contour bunding (b) Application of super phosphate (©) Planting trees (d) Providing efficient under drainage 07. Pick out the effect that is likely to develop if the soilis water logged (a) increases the maturity period of crop (b) Reduces the crop yield (©) Increases the soil iomperature (d) Makes it easy to cultivate the land 98. The common chemical used for reclaiming saline soil is (a) Calcium Carbonate (b) Sodium Chloride (©) Gypsum (d) Potassium Nitrate O1.(c) 02. (b) 03. (d) 04. (6) 05. (d) 06.(d) 07. (b) 08. (¢)