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Review

Thermodynamics applied to reverse cycle machines, a review

Michel Feidt*
Henri Poincare University, ENSEM e LEMTA 2, avenue de la Foret de Haye 54516 Vandoeuvre-Les-Nancy, France

Dedicated to Professor Dr.-Ing. Dr.h.c.mult. Karl Stephan on the occasion of his 80th birthday.

article info abstract

Article history: A review of reverse cycle machines thermodynamics is proposed. It is shown how starting
Received 19 April 2010 from equilibrium thermodynamics at the beginning, a new appraisal was proposed since
Received in revised form 1980, and developed until now. Particular emphasis is put on vapour compression reverse
14 July 2010 machines (mainly refrigerating machines and heat pumps), but also on three or quad-
Accepted 15 July 2010 rithermal configurations, that appear as the most promising alternative to vapour
Available online 29 July 2010 compression machines today. However other machines alternatives are considered
shortly. The main features of this review are: the usefulness of thermodynamics to develop
Keywords: more significant upperbounds for various optimization criterions concerning reverse cycle
Modelling machines and their possible interrelation. The importance of irreversibilities in charac-
Optimisation terization of reverse cycle machines is enlighten too. Complementary studies are proposed
Thermodynamics in the field of exergoeconomy and environmental concern.
Reverse cycle 2010 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
Review

La thermodynamique appliquee aux syste`mes a` cycle inverse:

synthe`se
Mots cles : Modelisation ; Optimisation ; Thermodynamique ; Cycle inverse ; Synthe`se

1. Introduction Carnot developments relative to engine. However the energy

efficiency introduced by Carnot is slightly different from the
The Thermodynamics is traditionally a useful tool for engine one. It is named Coefficient of Performance (COP), and
modelling reverse cycle machines. The first attempt is related in many cases, it is greater than 1: if the Carnot reverse cycle is
to equilibrium thermodynamics, and corresponds to the considered, it comes in the equilibrium conditions, where the

* Tel.: 33 03 83 59 57 34; fax: 33 03 83 59 55 70.

E-mail address: michel.feidt@ensem.inpl-nancy.fr.
0140-7007/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2010.07.016
1328 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2

Nomenclature PAT process average temperature (K)

RF refrigerator
3 heat exchanger effectiveness
S (s) source, sink, entropy (reduced)
q reduced temperature gradient
t time
D increment
T (t) temperature (reduced) (K)
b intermediate variable
TEWI total equivalent global warming potential
a intermediate variable
_ Cp) (W K1) Ue useful effect
c_ heat rate (M
w0 auxiliary reduced power
Q_ (q) heat flux (reduced) (W)
X (x) temperature gradient (reduced)
w _ (w) mechanical power (reduced) (W)
z intermediate variable
A (a) area (reduced) (m2)
COP coefficient of performance Index
E efficiency 0 constant or imposed
EC energy consumption C cold
ECOP ecological criterion H hot
F, G mathematical function i irreversible, or dummy index (Eqs. (30, 31))
GWP greenhouse warming potential L loss
h heat transfer coefficient ratio min minimum
K (k) heat transfer conductance (reduced) (W K1) opt optimum
HP heat pump s superheating
I, 4 irreversibility ratio, index T total
LCA life cycle analysis U useful
m constant MAX maximum
n constant, isentropic efficiency lim limit
NTU number heat transfer unit ex exergy
ODP ozone depletion potential th thermodynamics
OF objective function rev reversible

cycled fluid is in contact with two infinite heat source (TSH) with Dt gDtH DtC , DtH DtC heat transfer duration at hot
and sink (TSC): source (cold sink)
For the refrigerating machine, RF: The second paper (Goth and Feidt, 1986) too was devoted to
optimal conditions relative to a heat pump or a refrigerating
TSC machine associated to an endoreversible Carnot reverse
lim COPRF (1)
TSH  TSC machine: the useful hot heat flux q_ H being fixed for steady
state conditions, the minimum electrical power to furnish is
for the heat pump, HP:
seeked for from a thermal point of view (jXH j TH  TSH ;
TSH XC TSC  TC , corresponding to optimum pinches in the two
lim COPHP (2)
TSH  TSC heat exchangers). It was also seeked for optimal area alloca-
During the year 1975, Curzon and Ahlborn have proposed tion in the same conditions, knowing that dimension of the
a new appraisal of Carnot engine, taking into account of the machine is finite (AT AH AC).
necessary finite duration of each thermodynamics trans- At the optimum conditions, we get:
formation in a cycle, inducing a non-equilibrium situation, as
AH 1
expected in the real engines; this gives the signal for a renewal aH p (3)
AT 1 h
of thermodynamic modelling, even if it was discovered
previously by Chambadal (1957) and Novikov (1957). The main
TSH  TH p
result of the funding paper (Curzon and Ahlborn, 1975) was to
xH qH h (4)
give the way to obtain maximum power of an engine, and the TSH
corresponding energy efficiency.
p p
The same demarch for reverse cycle machine was initiated TSC  TC qH h 1 h
shortly after by Blanchard (1980). He considers an heat pump, xC  p2 (5)
TSC
and gives the conditions to fulfill for the minimum of w, _ at 1 qh 1 h
given useful heat flux
with
q_ H qH =Dt Dt; cycle duration q_ H
h hH =hC ; qH
hH AT TSC
It results at the optimum:
Details of the model and results are available in (Feidt, 1996,
1 TSC
1 " r# 1st edition).
COP KH gq_
TSH 1  H To these endoreversible case studies have been added
KC KH
(Bejan, 1989), internal heat transfer irreversibility for
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2
refrigeration plants represented by q_ i Ki TSH  TSC , with Ki
heat leak conductance between ambiance and the refrigerated
volume (essentially thermal insulation). It results, with the
three heat transfer irreversibilities, an equipartition of external
conductance inventory at the optimum seeked: KH KC KT/2.
This study is completed by a simple thermoeconomics
approach.
The previous calculation has been pursued (Bejan, 1993) for
minimizing heat exchanger inventory in a power or refriger-
ation plants.
Agrawal and Menon (1990, 1993) have given an extended
finite time thermodynamics analysis, altering the cycle
duration to consider the two isentropic arms in the cycle,
again at maximum cooling power. Consequently, it appears
that during the first years of research in this new appraisal,
the focus was on two reservoirs reverse machines, and that
the optimization situations are numerous.
We intent to consider and summarize the following works
on the same subject, and to extent it to other reverse cycle
machine configurations, namely three and four reservoir
machines (Section 3). The same will be proposed for less
developed configurations (Ranque Hilsch tube; Joule reverse
cycle; Stirling machines and also Thermoelectric and Ther-
momagnetic capabilities), Section 4.
It will be showed that, two main modelling directions exist
in the literature: the first related to time and cycle duration;
the second one relative to steady state analysis. A discussion
of similarities and differences between these approaches is
given (Section 2). A tentative synthesis of the various possible
optimizations is proposed on a practical basis.
Section 5 is devoted to remaining researches, with some
preliminary results relative to cascade, or multiobjective
machines. The incidence of refrigerant fluid properties is
a main task, and it appears that it influences on the questions
to solve with the model (environment considerations mainly):
this problem is considered.
2. Vapour compression reverse machine
2.1. Historical evolution of works (period 1990e2000)
After the pioneering period described in Section 1 (between
1980 and 1990), was developed a second research period, with
more dedicated works; the present section reports works
relative to two heat reservoirs machines. We note that during
the first period the main focus of all studies was on endor-
eversible machines (Wu, 1993), with sometimes new objective
function such as specific heat load, q_ 00 q_ H =AH AC , or an
unified description of endoreversible cycles (Chen, 1989; Feidt,
1988; Philippi, 1991; Feidt and Philippi, 1992). For this new
research period Chen et al. have proposed studies on heat
pump (Chen et al., 1997) or refrigerator (Chen et al., 1998a)
taking into account of internal heat leak between the hot (TSH)
and cold (TSC) isothermal reservoirs: it appears that the
evolution of the maximum COP for the two cases in function
of the useful effect (respectively q_ H ; q_ C ) differs completely
from the endoreversible case (Fig. 1).
Afterwards, the same team of authors extends the model
to finite capacity reservoirs (Wu, 1998) and compare a Carnot
1329
Fig. 1 e Comparison of endoreversible case without and
with heat losses evolution of COP with useful heat rate.
and a Brayton endoreversible reverse cycle machine: consid-
ering four cases (combining with or without heat loss; with or
without finite capacity reservoirs), they conclude that finite
capacity and heat loss have a strong influence on COP.
This was previously approached by Klein (1992) through
heat exchanger effectiveness and costs.
The group of Chinese authors publishes numerous papers
with slightly different refrigerator models (Wu et al., 1996;
Chen et al., 1996a, b) and also to heat pump models (Sun et al.,
1997; Chen et al., 1997c). The remark is that the message
seems extremely diluted, due to strong formal similarity
between refrigerator and heat pump. The main conclusion is
that these authors pursue the analysis of heat transfer law
effect on the performance of a two heat sources cycle as was
first proposed by Chen and Yan (1989a, b), but for various
cases and objective functions.
A first tentative of unified description of endoreversible
cycles was proposed by Chen and Yan (1989a), and completed
precisely for Carnot refrigeration cycles, with general heat
transfer law by Yan and Chen (1990). We note here that the most
commonly used heat transfer law is the linear one according to:
q_ KTS  T KDT (6)
K, heat transfer conductance; TS source or sink temperature; T
refrigerant fluid temperature; this corresponds to Onsager
approximation, and relates the heat flux, to the thermal force
DT. Obviously, heat transfer is not necessarily linear, and two
other different heat transfer laws are of importance, the
convective heat transfer law
q_ KDT n (7)
and the radiative heat transfer law
 
q_ K TSn  T n (8)
A particular case named the phenomenological law is
deduced from Eq. (8), when n 1. Recently the Chinese group
has proposed a generalized form for the heat transfer law as:
 m
q_ K TSn  T n (9)
From a more general point of view, we suggest to develop
the model according to a heat transfer function depending on
1330 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2
the two variables TS and T, and eventually some parameters
as:
q_ Kf TS ; T
Among the papers of this second period, we note that one of
them is related, to transient temperature condition and finite
source size (heat capacity) (Chen et al., 1998a).
One of the most important results from the Chinese group
papers is the existence of a relation between the optimal COP
corresponding to a given area allocation, circulating fluid
temperatures, and the cooling capacity (or heating capacity)
(Chen et al., 1997c), f q_ C or q_ H ; COP:
h   i h 
COP q_ C TSC  q_ L B  Bq_ 2C = fTSH  TSC q_ L B q_ L
  i
fTSH  TSC  2q_ L B R Bq_ 2C (11)
where q_ C , cooling load; q_ L , heat loss flux
(  1=2 )2
KH
B 1 =KH AT
fKC
This relation has been given for the various cited heat transfer
laws. From these results, it is deduced, the maximum e
maximorum COP, with respect to q_ C q_ H . For example for the
case of a Carnot refrigerator, with irreversibility ratio 4, linear
heat transfer laws, refer to Chen et al. (1997a).
A different way to model irreversible refrigerators with
isothermal heat exchanges has been used by Grazzini (1993);
this model considers for the cycle, C, a heat exchange over
a temperature difference (that is not a measurable quantity),
and the entropy DS produced over the cycle, in the circulated
fluid. This model was reconsidered from a steady state point
of view (Grazzini and Rinaldi, 2001), and a numerical optimi-
zation of refrigerator COP is given for a Rankine cycle relative
to R134a refrigerant: the announced results are disappointing
(KC > KH at the optimum; COP decreasing with increasing heat
exchanger efficiency, 3).
Some kind of steady state model has been developed for
refrigerating machine and heat pump (Grosu et al., 2002a). The
study has been proposed for three refrigerants (R22; R134a;
R717); a detailed exergy analysis has been reported. It appears
that for the three refrigerants the exergetic efficiency is around
0.5, with the upper value for R717. The thermodynamic opti-
mization has been compared to economic optimization:
operating cost is determinant. Accordingly exergoeconomic
performance could be checked (Chen et al., 2001a, b).
The same authors (Grosu et al., 2002b) propose a comple-
mentary study based on the fact that the two main irrevers-
ibilities are located in the expansion valve, and the compressor
(Grosu et al., 2002a); the performed optimization remains the
_ but the considered variables are now representative
min of jwj,
of pressure losses at the entrance and exit of the compressor.
During the same period, an original study has been
proposed by Petrescu et al. (1993). The originality is mainly due
to considering finite speed of the machine, seeking for the
optimum frequency corresponding to maximum useful effect;
however this Carnot machine is based on a perfect gas
hypothesis for the refrigerating fluid.
During the same decade appears some work intending to use
and relate thermodynamic modelling to lumped experimental
(10)
Fig. 2 e Experimental confirmation of COP with cold heat
rate for a refrigerating machine.
results obtained for reciprocating chillers (Gordon and Ng,
1993). This work was followed by complementary ones
(Gordon and Ng, 1995a, b) in direction of predictive and diag-
nosis aspects of chillers: the main feature is the observed rela-
tion between 1/COP versus 1=q_ C . Authors interpret the
minimum of the curve as a compromise between losses that
disfavour high cooling rates (finite rate heat transfer), and losses
that disfavour low cooling rates (fluid friction, throttling) (Fig. 2).
The authors examplify the universal aspects of chillers not
only for reciprocating and centrifugal chillers, but also
absorption chillers, and evenly for less conventional cooling
devices, such as thermoacoustic and thermoelectric chillers.
Following papers (Chua et al., 1996; Gordon et al., 1997a,b)
confirm that the endoreversible models are not consistent
with the experimental results due to dissipation (mainly fluid
friction in the compressor, and finite rate heat transfer at the
heat exchangers); the constraint of heat exchanger size (and
cost) is essential for optimal design of chillers. The interest of
such modelling has been confirmed showing how varying
condenser coolant flow rate affects chiller performance
(Gordon et al., 2000).
The work of the Gordon team has been confirmed by Khan
and Zubair (1999) but for a variable speed refrigeration system:
the evaporator capacity is varied by changing the mass flow
rate of refrigerant. The effect of subcooling and superheating
is also investigated, and in accordance to total heat exchanger
area the optimum area allocation is seeked for. Khan and
Zubair (2001) extend the optimization of the COP to various
compression refrigeration systems: Two Stage vapour
compression System (TSS), a Dedicated Mechanical Subcool-
ing vapour compression System (DMSS), and an Integrated
Mechanical Subcooling vapour compression System (IMSS).
2.2. Tentative synthesis and evolution over the period
(2000e2010)
At the beginning of the century, it appears that the subject of
thermodynamics appraisal for reverse cycle machines was
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2 1331

mature. The publication of books (Gordon and Ng, 2000) and of

dedicated review (Feidt, 1999a, b) attests this opinion.
In the first review a general formulation of the optimiza-
tion is given relevant of the general heat transfer law (10)
according to:

q_ FTS ; T (12)

For generality too, the heat leak between source and sink
q_ L > 0 is represented by a lumped heat leak between the
source and the sink:

q_ L GTSH ; TSC (13)

The model proposed for two heat thermostats (TSH, TSC)

machines is valid for Carnot, Stirling or Ericsson reverse
cycles. We consider the cycled fluid according to Fig. 3.
The first law of thermodynamics is expressed as:

q_ H q_ C w
_ 0 (14)
Fig. 4 e Variation of optimal reduced cold heat transfer
The second law of thermodynamics applied to the cycled conductance k0 with useful reduced heat rate q0.
fluid (or the machine) is preferred as:

q_ H q_ C _ hot sink (TSH 298 K), constant temperature heat source

Si 0
TH TC
We precise here that in ref. (Feidt, 1999a), two particular
cases of objective function have been proposed for refrigerator
and heat pump. To examplify, the objective function for
a refrigerating machine can be (1) the minimum of the
consumed energy w _ (case R1) or (2) the maximum of the useful
heat coming out of the cold source, q_ CU > 0 (case R2) with:
q_ C q_ CU q_ L
Corresponding results are given in (Feidt, 1999a), as well as
optimal allocation of heat transfer conductances, or time
durations, or areas, for the two heat transfer main laws
(conductive, and radiative ones);
Figs. 4e6, illustrate the practical results (Metrot, 1996) for
a vapour compression machine with constant temperature
(15)
(TSC 273 K), a vapour superheating of 5 K and an isentropic
compression efficiency of 0,80 (t 298/273; tS 5/273;
nC 0.80). The corresponding non-dimensional useful refrig-
erant effect q0 Q CU =KT TSC , and reduced temperature pinch
in evaporator q0 TSC  TC =TSC ; qH TH  TSH =TSH .
We see on these figures the evolutions of optimum
k0 Ko =KT ; kH ; q0 ; qH , the state variables at the optimum, when
q0 is varied for three refrigerants (R22, R134a, R717).
(16) The linear heat transfer law, appears here as a limit case
that will be used in the practical case reported hereafter.
A remark remains to do here, relative to the fact that very
few studies consider the case of mixed heat transfer laws
(non-similarity between the heat transfer laws at the hot and
cold sides: see Zhu et al., 2002).
We prefer to focus hereafter on steady state modelling,
rather than on cycle modelling with durations as variables.
Equivalence exists between the two approaches, if we note
that:

Fig. 3 e T.S. diagram of an irreversible refrigerating

machine in contact with two thermostats (TH, hot side; TC, Fig. 5 e Variation of optimal reduced cold pinch q0, with
cold side). useful reduced heat rate q0.
1332 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2

A T AH AC (19)

Let us now precise the definition of the most common effi-

ciency criterion for a refrigerating machine, the COP coeffi-
cient of performance of a real machine:

q_ C
COPRF (20)
w_
Similar definition
exists for heat pump
q_ H

COPHP (21)
w_

Optimization of a refrigerating machine is based on six

Fig. 6 e Variation of optimal reduced hot pinch qH, with
useful reduced heat rate q0.
Dq Dt
q_ KDT K0 DT
Dtcycle Dtcycle
This consideration has never been precised in the past, but is
fundamental, because the K conductance is accessible
through K kA, with k global heat transfer coefficient
obtainable through available heat transfer correlations and
classical heat exchanger calculation. On the other hand K0
appears as a heat transfer conductance related to a specific
heat exchange during the considered cycle; the heat transfer
duration is Dt (generally not given). So the only way to calcu-
late K0 comes from Eq. (17) as:
Dtcycle
K0 K
Dt
Another important preconisation is the use of S_ i , created
entropy flux in (Eq. (15)), instead of the irreversibility ratio
concept mainly used; created entropy flux is a function
directly related to entropy analysis, and we dispose today of
a very good basis since the pioneering work of Bejan (1994).
This point will be developed in following sections.
Coming back to the heat transfer conductance previously
given K kA, we see that in fact the reverse machine appears
as a finite size system (Finite Size Heat Exchangers): the total
area AT to be allocated to the two heat exchangers is limited
due to size and cost, and we have to distribute it optimally,
according to various criterions to be given hereafter, and to
the constraint:
equations (the two symmetrical heat transfer laws; energy
balance, Eq. (14); entropy balance, Eq. (15); finite size
constraint, for example, Eq. (19); COP definition, Eq. (20))
containing nine eventual variables: q_ H ; q_ C ; w; _ COP; TH ; TC ;
AH ; AC ; AT and six parameters kH ; kC ; n; s_ i ; TSH ; TSC . If we
consider two constraints (general case), we get two parame-
ters more and only one independent variable (one degree of
freedom); so we can seek for an eventual corresponding
optimum.
Table 1 extends the design and functioning options, with
(17)
the corresponding Objective Function OF and the associated
constraint (or constraints, if they are two). For simplicity
purpose, it is to be noted that the finite size constraint has
been moved from area, to heat transfer conductance; the
other constraints (or objective functions) relate to efficiency of
the machine through COP, or EC Energy Consumption through
w, or UE Useful Effect through q_ C for a refrigerating machine
(q_ H , for a heat pump).
To these three main possibilities for the physicist or engi-
neer, corresponds a fourth one in which the three possible
constraints are respectively efficiency; energy consumption;
useful effect, and the objective function represents a size (or
(18)
investment cost) minimization: design optimization.
Two other cases merit consideration, the first one is related
to the total entropy flux created in the system s_ T : the system is
the machine related to its environment, via source and sink.
Writing the corresponding entropy balance for the system it
comes easily:
q_ H q_
C s_ T 0 (22)
TSH TSC
Combining Eq. (15) and Eq. (22), we get:
1 1 1 1
s_ T s_ I q_ H  q_ C  (23)
TH TSH TC TSC

Table 1 e Synthesis of various objective functions and constraints encountered in optimization of reverse cycle machines.
Constraint OF Without _0
w q_ 0 COP0 < COPlim s_ T s_ 0 KT K0 Others: economy environ.

w _ min min min min min min

q_ C and jq_ H j MAX MAX MAX MAX MAX MAX
COPC and COPH MAX MAX MAX MAX MAX MAX
s_ T min min min min min min
KT min min min min min min
Others: economy environ. min min min min min min
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2 1333

On can notice that the total entropy generation of the with

system is a sum of three positive terms, first the internal b z20 IH KC =KH n1 .
irreversibility, and the last two related to external irrevers- For the radiative heat transfer law:
ibilities due to finite temperature heat transfer processes   
between the heat reservoirs and working fluid. Generally, it is AT b z0 IH n 1 z0
MAX q_ C  n = (26)
difficult to establish a variation law for the internal entropy TSC z0 IH zlim KC KH
n

generation. We propose to follow the few existing approaches p

with b zn1 IH KC =KH .
(Gordon and Ng, 2000; Wijeysundera, 1997).
The approach with the entropy function s_ i , is slightly more
Some simple variation law have been proposed and tested
complicated and must be solved numerically in the case of
(Feidt et al., 2006):
non linear heat transfer laws (Bellorini, 2007). However orig-
inal analytical results have been deduced from the model for
(a) s_ i cte (to be identified through experiments)
the case of linear heat transfer law; they are summarized in
(b) s_ i si TH  TC (linear case)
Table 2 for the refrigerating machine (RF) or heat pump (HP)
(c) s_ i ci lnTTH (logarithmic case)
L
where there is only one constraint (two degrees of freedom).
All physical quantities have been non dimensionalised with
Validations of these proposal have been engaged and
respect to ambient temperature T0, and KT (when KT is the
promising results have been obtained recently.
objective function a unitary heat transfer conductance is
It appears in Table 1 a new important category of OF or
chosen as reference).
constraint, related to environment (see Feidt, 2002a, b).
When a second physical constraint is added, as explained
To illustrate the results we compare hereafter the optimum
previously, it remains only, one independent variable; the
condition for a refrigerating machine subject to imposed COP,
constraint is repaired according to Tables 3 and 4. These two
COP0 and convective or radiative heat transfer law.
tables give the analytical formula for a refrigerating machine,
The irreversibility ratio method with IH  1 gives:
the added constraint corresponding to the one indicated in
TH z0 IH TC (24) Table 1.
The same formally symmetrical results relative to heat
with z0 (1 COP0)/COP0; COP0 < lim COPRF implies z0  zlim. pump are available near of the author. To conclude about this
For the convective heat transfer law: systematic study we summarize the main results hereafter.
"
1
MAX q_ C AT =  n (a) When only finite size constraint is imposed, some optimum
KC 1bzb0 TH z0 IH TSC  TSH n
exists but only for irreversible machine namely COP and UE
#
1 of heat pump for a given reduced pinch parameter.
KH (25)
z I T  TSH n (b) When a supplementary constraint is added some theo-
1bz0 IH n 0 H SC
rems appear:

Table 2 e Optimization results for an RF (HP) machine with linear heat transfer law, and without supplementary constraint.
OF Optimum
characteristics
 p 
COPRF tsH tsC tsH 1 si 2
tH p; t p; COPRF 1= p  1
1  si C 1  si tsC 1  si
p p p
1p 1  si p 1 si 1  si
qC s tsC p; w w0  12 si tsH p  tsC p
2 i 1 si 1  si 1 si
p kT p kT p
Remark: q si ; kH 1 si ; kC 1  si
2 2
p p
1p 1 si tsC 1  si 2
qH  si tsH p; COPHP 1=1  p 
2 1  si tsH 1 si
w w0 No optimum for RF and HP
qC No optimum for RF e one optimum for HP
tsc q0 tsc
for q0 imposed: xC tsc  tc , tc , parameter
1 q0 1 q0
p p p
qH q0 tsH  q0 si q0  s i tsH q0 si tsH q0 kT si tsC q0 kT q0  si
xH  p; k p; k p; q  ; w w0   p ;
1  q 0 H q0 q0 C q0 q0 H 1  q0 1  q0 1 q0 1 q0
p p p p
1 q0  si q0 1  q0 tsC q0  si ptC
1 1 q0
COPHP q0 si 1 q0 tsH q0 s i tH
ST q2 si
ST, monotonous with q, sT
1  q2
(exoreversibility), sT si ; Si 0 (endoreversibility)
KT tsH  tH tC tC
kT kH 1   si
tH tsC  tC tsC  tC
tH
Remark : tC ; tH ; si ; kH with kH  si parameters
tH  tsH
1334 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2

Table 3 e Optimization with linear heat transfer law and supplementary constraint.
OF COPRF COP0 imposed
p
qC 1 si z0  zH  D
q ; D z0  zH 2 1 si 2  4z0 zH 2 si
W W0 2z0 zH
ST 1 q  s i  1 s 1 s
qC tsC ; k 1  i ; kH 1 i
2 1 q C 2 q 2 q
Remark: c case; kC and kH are given by the preceding formula
qC q qC 
H
w w0  and sT 
COP0 tsH tsC
Remark: D gives the condition to satisfy by COP0 relatively to COPlim and si; z 1 1=COP
z0  zH  1  zH 
-endoreversible case (si 0), q ; q tsC 1  if z0 /zH ; q /0 (equilibrium thermodynamics)
z0 zH C 4 z0

(w w0 ) w0 imposed (w0 > 0)

p
qC ; 1 si tsH  tsC D
q ; D 1 si 2 tsH  tsC 2 4tsH tsC 2w0 2w0  si tsH tsC ;
COP 2tsH tsC 2w0
ST tsC q  si q tsC q  si
qC ; COP C
2 q 1 w0 2w0 q 1
Remark : endoreversible limit (si 0)
lim  tsC
If w0 /0; q y
w0 /0 C;endo tsH  tsC

qC qC0 imposed

0
WW si 2qC0 =tsC qC0 tsH  tsC 1  si  si tH tC  4q2Co
q ; w w0  
COP 1  2qf0 =tsC tsC 1  si  4qCo
ST  qC0 tsC 1  si  4qC0
COP 
w w0  s tsH tsf
tsH  tsC 1  si i 4qC0
qC0
qCo tsH  tsC 4q2Co tsf  4qfo
Endoreversible limit: w w0 endo  ; COPendo
tsC  4qCo tsc  tsf 4qfo

Table 4 e Optimization with linear heat transfer law and supplementary constraint.
OF ST ST0 imposed
p
qC and KT p tsC ST0  Si  Si
q ST0  Si with ST0 > Si donc qC p
(W W0 ) 2 ST0  Si 1
COPRF 1 p
0 
w w  tsH  tsC ST0  Si 1 Si tsH tsC ST0 
21  ST0 Si
p p
tsC ST0  Si  Si 1  ST0  Si
COP p
tsH  tsC 1 Si ST0  Si tsH tsC ST0
Remark : endoreversible limit
 p
1 tsf 1  ST0
w w0 endo  tsc  tsf tsc tsf ST0 ; COPendo p
21  ST0 tsc  tsf tsc tsf ST0

COPRF COP0 imposed

p p
p p2
z0  zH z0 zH
q p p and kT Si p p
z0 zH z0  zH
p p p p
p z0 zH p z0 zH
kC si zH p p 2 and kH si z0 p p 2
z0  zH z0  zH
p p p
si tsC zC z0 zH 0 

qC p p p  w w z0  1qC gfunctions of z0
2 z0 z0  zH

(W W0 ) W0 imposed


tsH tsC
2w0  si
1q 1q
tH, tC or q parameters : kT

tsH tsC
q 
1q 1q
Remark : kTendo, decreasing of q
qC qC0 imposed  
1 2qCO 1 q
Decreasing function of tH or q (parameter) kT si
q tsC
ST ST0 imposed
 
1 2
Decreasing function of tH or q and si (parameter) kT sT0 1 q  si
q2
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2
- for a refrigerating machine (or an heat pump) with
imposed COP, the optimum of useful effect corresponds
to an optimum of energy consumption and an optimum
of total energy dissipation (s_ T ).
- for a refrigerating machine (or an heat pump) with
imposed energy consumption, the optimum of useful
effect corresponds to the maximum of COP, and the
minimum of total energy dissipation.
- for a refrigerating machine (or an heat pump) with
imposed useful effect, the minimum of energy
consumption corresponds to the maximum of COP and
the minimum of the total energy dissipation. This was
reported for endoreversible situations (Ionita and Grosu,
2001).
(c) Extension of these results from the constant temperature
source and sink, to finite source and sink has been recog-
nized as a challenge many years before the present paper
(Feidt et al., 1996), and confirmed experimentally more
recently (Gordon, 2000).
The main modification of the model is concerned with the
heat transfer model that moves from Eq. (6) to:
q_ 3c_ min TS  T
with 3, effectiveness of the considered heat exchanger (see
Fig. 7).
In case of isothermal heat transfer process from the cycled
fluid point of view (pure boiling and condensation), we note
that the limiting fluid is the external one (c_ min c_ H external
hot fluid at the condenser, and c_ min c_ C external cold fluid at
the evaporator); even in the real operating machine, this
condition holds, according to Fig. 7 (with TSH TSHi, TSC TSCi).
To illustrate the results, we report here the case where we
impose 3T 3H 3C , total HEX effectiveness to be allocated,
when the COP is imposed through z0. Using the entropy ratio
method IH, it comes after some algebra, the following
analytical results (Sublon, 2005) for the effectiveness optimal
allocation corresponding to optimal useful effect MAX q_ C :
p
IH
3C opt =3T p p (28)
c_ C =c_ H IH
p framework has been improved for understanding time
c_ C =c_ H
3H opt =3T p p (29)
c_ C =c_ H IH
Fig. 7 e Finite heat reservoirs Carnot machine.
1335
Consequently the finite source and sink dimensions
(through external heat rates c_ C ; c_ H ) affect, the optimal effi-
ciency allocation in a coupled way with internal irreversibil-
ities (IH ratio). Even if we simplify to the endoreversible case
(IH 1); the equipartition of efficiency does not hold, due to the
fact that generally the two heat rates c_ C ; c_ H differ.
This confirms that equipartition theorem does not hold, for
reverse cycle real machines, as was seen for the heat transfer
conductance modelling, and presently confirmed for the effi-
ciency e NTU modelling.
More sophisticated models are under developments taking
into account that the heat exchanger effectiveness is related
to the NTU according to:
3i 1  expNTUi (30)
This relation is valid using isothermal boiling and condensing
hypothesis.
From a methodological point of view, we see that heat
exchanger effectiveness is related to NTU, through a know
function (Brown and Bansal, 2001); NTU being defined as:
Ki
NTUi (31)
c_ min i
(27)
c_ min i , limiting heat rate at the i reservoir heat transfer.
The constraint of finite effectiveness 3T could be moved to
finite NTU constraint NTUT, or finite heat transfer conduc-
tance KT. Remembering that heat transfer conductance Ki is
related to area Ai through Ki ki  Ai, the finite NTU constraint
could be moved to finite area AT, as explained previously.
But it appears a new challenge, that corresponds to the best
allocation of heat rates between the hot and cold side if c_ H ; c_ C
are considered variables but suffering too to finite dimension
constraint: c_ T c_ H c_ C . This challenge appears as a new one,
that we propose to develop (research are in progress in this
direction).
2.3. What else concerning two reservoirs machines
From the preceding sections, it comes that irreversibilities
analysis is not a new tool applied to mechanical compression
machines (Liang and Kuehn, 1991), but the thermodynamic
invariant description of thermodynamic reverse cycles,
through the privileged temperatureeentropy diagram, and
also pursued in direction of controlling the refrigeration or
heat pump system: here we move from steady state to tran-
sient conditions (Koury et al., 2001). Generally numerical
simulation are used, and variable speed seems the most
important parameter to control.
The irreversibility analysis could be performed using
entropy analysis method, but also exergy analysis method; the
second one considers the studied system in its environment,
the surrounding mainly represented by the ambient temper-
ature, T0 (the reference): this reference temperature consti-
tutes the connection between the two proposed methods. The
only care is to clearly identify the concerned extensive quantity
representing the studied irreversibility through entropy (for
example the entropy flux s, _ for steady state conditions).
With the recent interest of environmental concern, it
appears, that exergy becomes an important tool, even if it is
1336 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2
not a new tool (Auracher, 1984; Soulas and Hladik, 1984).
These studies are continued during the following decade:
Benelmir and Grosu (2001) compare exergy versus entropy
analysis. The basement of exergy analysis using finite time
thermodynamics has been examined in Radcenco et al. (2001).
Relation of component efficiencies to exergy losses (and
entropy increase) is reported in (Szargut, 2002), as well as
exergy analysis of vapour compression refrigeration systems
(Yumrutas, 2002; Karkri et al, 2007), or heat pump more
recently (Canhoto et al., 2006). During the last decade,
coupling of exergy and efficiency concepts appears too (Su and
Chen, 2006, 2007). But also new thermo ecological criterion
has been proposed (Ust and Sahin, 2007) named the ECOP. It is
defined as:
q_ C
ECOP
T0 s_ T
In practice, today ecological criterions used for refrigerators
and heat pump are ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential), GWP
(Greenhouse Warming Potential) and more recently TEWI
(Total Equivalent Global Warming) due to the fact that it
combines direct and indirect emission of CO2.
In parallel to the environmental aspect, is developed the
economical concern. The classical thermoeconomical study is
well known, and constitutes an important tool for the engi-
neer. L. Grosu in his PhD thesis (Grosu, 2000) reports exten-
sively on the classical thermoeconomical method applied to
two or three heat reservoirs reverse machines. But this
attempt has been pursued too in a more novel and promising
Fig. 8 e Geothermal absorption refrigeration cycle, or waste heat refrigeration cycle.
method named exergoeconomic approach (Wu et al, 1998;
Dentice dAccadia et al., 2002). This approach relates the
exergy analysis to economy; the main difficulty of this method
has been pointed out in the thesis of L. Grosu and is due to the
lack of available exergoeconomic correlations for the reverse
cycle machines components (some have been proposed in the
cited thesis). Efforts to continue to develop exergoeconomic
method applied to reverse cycle machines must be encour-
aged as well as efforts to have a better appraisal of environ-
mental concern; a possible response to these two aspects
could be in (LCA) Life Cycle Analysis, combining Life Cycle
Cost, to environmental concern.
3. Three and quadrithermal reverse
(32)
machines
As was seen in the preceding section, some papers refer also
to configurations of reverse machines that are different from
two reservoirs one (namely vapour compression one). Among
them the most important and promising are the sorption
machines; the corresponding modelling is associated to three
or four heat reservoirs (Fig. 8).
One of the first paper was published by Yan and Chen
(1989) describing an optimal endoreversible three heat sour-
ces refrigerator as a combined cycle of a two heat sources
engine driving a two heat sources refrigerator; a second paper
(Chen and Yan, 1989a) extends the description of
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2
endoreversible cycles, adding the effect of finite heat source
capacity on the performance of the considered cycles. A third
one (Chen and Yan, 1989b) discusses the equivalent system of
three heat sources heat pump: it results three main ways,
according to COP value that could be more or less than 1. This
was again considered by Jernqvist (1992), Abrahamson and
Jernqvist (1993): the concern was with the general criterions
representing efficiencies of absorption heat transformers
(COP, or Eth thermodynamic efficiency as COP/COPrev, or Eex
exergetic efficiency, or exergy index Iex).
Authors mention that the absorption heat cycles must be
considered under the same conditions when they are
compared. A new definition of exergy efficiency for two types of
sorption heat pumps (type I, conventional heat pump, and type
II, heat transformer) was proposed just after, using the concept
of transiting exergy (Sorin et al., 1994). Wu presents in two
subsequent papers two refrigeration cycles (see Fig. 8) corre-
sponding to cooling capacity optimization (Wu, 1992, 1993a) of
absorption refrigeration cycle. The two approach are finite time
endoreversible thermodynamical models corresponding in fact
to three reservoirs machine, only the hot source differs
(geothermal for the first one, waste heat for the second one).
The paper of Krakow (1994), completes the two preceding ones,
because, taking into account of finite heat capacity rates of the
reservoirs, and indicating that maximum system capacity may
not correspond to maximum system efficiency or COP.
The optimal allocation of heat transfer area has been
proposed for the endoreversible type II absorption heat pump
and maximum rate of heat pumping (Chen and Andresen,
1995). This was confirmed through reference (Martinez and
Pinazo, 2002).
This was first explored by Boussehain and Feidt (1984) in
a form relative to durations allocation for three reservoirs
machines; it is to note that the corresponding solution is
formally identical to the one with area allocation (Feidt, 1987).
The relation between optimal performance coefficient and
cooling load for a three heat reservoirs refrigerator was
developed by Chen et al. (1997) in the endoreversible case, and
the irreversible case (Chen et al., 2002) but with the
Fig. 9 e The q_ C -COP characteristic of an irreversible two reservoirs refrigerator.
1337
phenomenological heat transfer law. More recently Qin et al.
(2007) give the corresponding results with a radiative heat
transfer law. In any case the same form of non dimensional
curve was obtained (Fig. 9).
Finite time analysis are numerous relative to absorption
systems: Agnew et al. paper (2002) is relative to refrigeration
system; Bhardway et al. (2003, 2005) papers are relative to heat
pump and refrigeration system too, but these authors intro-
duce two irreversibility ratios. Snoussi and Bellagi (2007)
confirm recently the form of curves obtained Fig. 9.
In the present period, the last studies developed extend the
model from three to four heat reservoirs. Hellmann (2002)
analyzes the influence of a complementary constraint, or of
an additional operating parameter needed.
As for two heat reservoirs Gordon and Ng (1995a, b) use
thermodynamic model to check from a lumped analysis point
of view available performance data. The same group of
research (Chua et al., 1993) applies entropy production anal-
ysis with a reduced analytic irreversible thermodynamic
model to capture the essential of the physical problem: the
representative curve is again inverse of COP versus inverse of
cooling load; the modelling is reported in Ng, Chua and Han
(1997). In a following paper (Ng et al., 1998) use thermody-
namic analysis applied to absorption chillers; they show that
taking account of internal dissipation is mandatory, and
introduce the concept of refrigerant Process Average
Temperature (PAT). This concept was extended further, and is
closed to the one of equivalent Carnot cycles introduced by
Meunier et al. (1998) for sorption refrigeration.
Feidt and Vasilescu (2006a) have optimized the COP, for
various cases (q_ H or q_ C imposed namely) and using the (3, NTU)
method. Zheng et al. (2004) have done similar study but with
phenomenological heat transfer law, Qin et al. (2008) with radi-
ative heat transfer law; they propose also the optimal heat
transfer area distribution. A last paper (Hwang et al., 2008) treats
the same irreversible temperature level absorption heat pump,
but with minimum total heat transfer area as objective function.
As a partial conclusion it appears that the three reservoirs
is relatively well covered, but it probably remains to do the
1338 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2
same synthesis as was done for two reservoirs machines.
However, the works devoted to four reservoirs machines are
not complete today : development of complementary works
are necessary, before a tentative synthesis could be done.
4. Survey of other related researches
4.1. Other machines
In Sections 2 and 3 focus has been put on reverse machine that
are the most common, but thermodynamics, and more
particularly finite time thermodynamics is not limited to these
machines. Some insight could be put to Joule reverse cycle
machine, Ericsson and Stirling reverse cycle machines too,
that are permanent gas machines (Feidt, 2003a, b). Some
works have been published that are relevant of thermo-
electrical, thermomagnetic, or thermoacoustic configurations
of reverse machines. This could be the subject of another
review in the future (work is in progress), the most recent ones
being the ones cited just before.
4.2. Particular configurations of 2T to 4T machines
We remain here with the examined basis of Sections 2 and 3,
but the reverse machine could be developed with a great
variety of more sophisticated configurations. It appears today,
that some of them have been envisaged.
The most developed study is relative to combined refriger-
ation cycles (Chen, 1995, Chen et al., 1997). This study first
devoted to two endoreversible combined cycles, has been
generalized to a n-stages combined heat pump (Chen and Wu,
1995; Chen et al., 1999). The optimization criterions are always
numerous, from specific rate, to rate of exergy output (Chen
et al., 2001).
Peculiar case of two reservoirs reverse machines could be
related to the engine moving the machine. This was consid-
ered by Wu (1993), who seeks for maximum cooling load for
a heat engine driven refrigerator. This system configuration is
also possible coupling an engine with absorption cycle ; this
was the case considered in the paper of Mostafain and Agnew
(1996) with a diesel engine. The review paper of Tozer and
James (1998) extends the preceding cited paper, and
considers more complex and integrated systems as CHP
systems (Combined Heat and Power).
Interest of various renewable heat sources appears in the
literature since the 1990 period; Wu (1993a) proposes a solar
engine driven-air conditioning system model; Davis and Wu
(1994) report on optimal performance of a geothermal heat
engine driven heat pump. It remains certainly to explore more
in details, all possible alternatives of systems configurations,
but also other possible driving forces.
Integration of system is not well developed, and generally
hot CHP systems are mainly considered ; it seems important
to study more deeply cold CHP systems and trigeneration
systems: hot and cold.
For these studies the performance criterions take again
a great place. First the maximum overall coefficient of
performance of a solar driven heat pump system was studied
(Yan and Chen, 1994). Wu et al. complete the preceding work
seeking for the optimum operative temperature at the
collector for system maximum possible COP or the system
maximum possible cooling load (Wu et al., 1996b, 1997).
More recently, this methodology was again reconsidered
for endoreversible solar absorption refrigeration cycle by
Fellah et al. (2006). Accordingly, a solar powered cogeneration
system for air conditioning and refrigeration thermodynam-
ical modelling has been reported (Gotkun, 1999): this approach
relative to a cold CHP system seems a very promising use of
renewable solar energy, to assess in the future.
Due to lack of place we limit here our purpose, noting only
that it exists other ways to explore for refrigeration and heat
pump applications ; for example we cite two main forms of
actually studied hybrid systems, consisting of ejector-
absorption configuration, or compression-absorption system
(Minea and Chiriac, 2006) ; this last category of hybrid systems
seems to be more investigated. A recent thesis (Haj Taleb,
2004) reports on thermodynamical and thermoeconomic
optimization of hybrid compressioneabsorption refrigeration
systems. To conclude this section, the thermodynamical
modelling must consider the reverse machine in the related
system and environment in order to optimize it accordingly to
well chosen criterions.
5. Conclusions
All along this review, the focus has been put on thermody-
namics applied to modelling and characterization of reverse
cycle machines, mainly refrigerators and heat pumps.
It has been shown that if the main concepts (COP, coeffi-
cient of performance, and cycles) are present since the
beginning, all the works done remain in the field of equilib-
rium thermodynamics until recently. It is only in the eighties,
with the pioneering work of Blanchard (1980), that the
modelling takes into account the necessary relation between
fluxes and forces, as was proposed earlier by Onsager.
Since that time a great variety of papers has been pre-
sented ; this review proposes a list of approximately 160
papers analyzed. The author apologizes for papers not
included (the authors that detect some missing one are
encouraged to transmit information to him, in order to correct
this omission in the future).
Nevertheless the main features of this review are :
(a) The usefulness of thermodynamics tool starting from
concepts and criterions to go to lumped models that could
give through quasi analytical results upperbounds or
optima existence. The sensitivity of these optima to main
parameters and constraints has been reported, and
a tentative synthesis done.
(b) Entropy and exergy analysis have shown that irrevers-
ibility play a major role in understanding the functioning
of reverse cycle machine, and cannot be ignored: endor-
eversible model are not representative of real machines.
(c) Starting from lumped analytical model is a good guide, to go
to more sophisticated numerical models (1D or more), and
after to complete simulation e optimization procedures. By
the way lumped analytical models furnish robust and
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f r e f r i g e r a t i o n 3 3 ( 2 0 1 0 ) 1 3 2 7 e1 3 4 2
physical model that are necessary for control e command
purposes (this way seems insufficiently explored)
(d) The present state of the art has to be completed in some
particular directions, to say:
e more sophisticated configurations of reverse machines
including secondary loop, isothermal vapour
compression (new cycle) as proposed recently, and also
hybrid machines (compression e absorption or ejec-
tion e absorption mainly).
e Including system approach (systemic study)
(e) Other reverse machines configurations are also to be
considered more in detail for thermodynamic comparison,
particularly thermoelectric, thermomagnetic, Stirling and
Ericsson configurations, as well as thermoacoustic and
Ranque Hilsch permanent gas systems.
(f) Thermoeconomics evaluation has been well considered in
the past, and is now moving to a new form named exer-
goeconomic: the main difficulty being to dispose from
good corresponding correlations.
(g) Very few papers refers from a thermodynamical point of
view, on transient conditions for all these reverse cycle
machines. This seems a good challenge for the future, and
necessary due to periodic change of the environment
temperature. We hope that some progress are in due
course in this direction, and will appear in the literature
soon.
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