ra By G. G. Pope, A. S. Brooks and E. Delgon REPRINTED FROM: Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory, 2nd ed; E. Delso, |. Tattersall, J A \Van Cowvering and A. S, Brooks, eds. Garland: ‘New York. 2000 WITH THE COMPLIMENTS OF: Eric Delson Department of Vertebrate Paleontology ‘American Museum of Natural History New York, NY 10024 Asia, Eastom and Southern Regjcn of c.20 million km which has yielded many impor tant horsinid and hominid fossils and an archacological se quence chat in some parts ofthe region, differs markedly fom those of Europe, Afia ox southwestern Asa. For the pur poses ofthis encyclopedia, the Eurasian continent has been ‘ded int four geographical regions: Europe, westof the C= asus; Rusia (including Siberia); western Asa (including the area commonly referred os the Middle East and the Cental Asian republisof ee forme Soviet Union); and exsern and southern Asa, rom Pakistan and China eastward and south ward the Pacific and Indian oceans, including Malaysia and Tdonesia (but noe Ausualsa). The most important fossil: erousateaso eaten nd southern Asa ate the Sivalik HillsoF Pakistan and India, which have yielded an inporeant collec- tion of Miocene and Plio-Plistocen fei! hominoids and cercopithecoid China, where both homininsand nonhuman hhominoids are knowns and Java, which has yielded hominid fos fom ehroughout the Plezocene. In mainland South- cast Asia (Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, sod Cambodia), much archaeological evidence has been recov- cred, but hominin specimens earl than thelatestPestocene ate limited to finds of individual teeth ascribed to bath Home crectus and “uchaie Homo sapiens" Foss of Pongo and Gi- _umuopithecshave ale been recovered foe this egion. ‘The geography and geomorphology of Asiaare best un derstood in terms of the continuing collision berween che Indo-Burmese continent on the Indian place and the Sino- Malaysian margin of Eurasia, bepinning in che Early Cen zie (or, in new incerpreaions, in latest Cretaceous) secher wich smaller plates carrying the Anacolian and Iranian ‘mass northward at che sae time, resulting in an unbro- ken mountain wall all across Asia, fiom the Taurids through the Elburz and the Tibetan Plateau co the Shan-Yunnan ‘Massif ‘These highlands accentuate and, by and large define avery sharp divide beeween tropical and subtropical habitats in thesouth, and much more seasonal and xeric (dry) cond- tions to the north. The complex tectonics of northera China and the archipelagos of che Southwest Pacificare also linked to subduction and transform faulting along this plate boundary. Eocene continental sediments are found in northern In- dla and Nepal with faunas that suggest a biogeographic con- rection with both Africa and Eurasia Interestingly, nothing. in the Indian Eocene fauna appeats& representa survivor fiom a postulated endemic population tha likely would have inhabited the subcontinent during its pasage across the In- dian Ocean from Affica during the later Mesozoic (thas been suggested that ancestral stepsihines might have boarded this, “Noahs Ask” from Africe carly in the Cenozoic, but there i no fossil evidence for chis hypothesis, nor is ilikely given the deep-water isolation of che Indian plate. ‘Nonhuman Primate History in Eastern Asia The earliest Asian primate is probably Perolemur,a posible plesiadapiform of Early-to-Middle Paleogene age in South ‘China. Decoreden, of comparable age, may be the earliest eu- primace and suggests that omomyids, and perhaps forms, ght have entered North America fom ester A Altanis, an omomyid from the Ealy Eocene of Mongolia, 25 wells new Chinese cagpolestds, support his view of pa- Ieobiogeography. Middle-o-Lace Eocene probable 2 forms from southern Asia include Pondaungia and Amphi- pithecus from Pondaung (Burma), Koharas from Pakistan, ‘loanghonius and Rencunins from China, some of which have been compared with the enigmatic Oligopthecus of Bocene-Oligocene age in the Fayum beds of Egypt. In the 1990s, a whole new suite of Middle Eocene primates has ‘been described from fissure fillings and other sitesi south ‘eastern China. These include the adapiforr Adapoides, the ‘otherwise North American omomyid. Macrotarsus, the Cr sii Tess cocaenas and che probable asiid (claimed asan ancient anheopoid) Eosimiax. Forcunatly for students of carly hominoid, the Indo- ‘Asian collision resulted in che uplift of the Porwar Plateau and the Salt Range in che foothills ofthe Himalayas, which exposed. the famous Neogene fossil beds known as the Siwaliks. The ‘most fsilerousexposurescrop outin Pakistan and India, but the beds asocxtend into Nepal and Bangladesh. The oldest S- vwaliklke faunas of late Early and early Middle Miocene ae, for example at Dera Bugei (Baluchistan), document the immi- gation of proboscideans and bovids, among other Afvican t0ups, via the newly formed Mesopotamian land bridge “Thesasiest Middle Miocene levels of the Karlial beds (ca 16.1 Ma) yielded afew eeth refered to Dionyspithcus, making them the eales well dared primaces in eastern Asia ‘More complete specimens from Sihong (eastern China) oc- cur alongside teeth of Plaradontopthecus both genera ate in: ported from Hexian (Anhui Province), Yunsian (Hubei Province), and Tangshan (near Nanjing, Anhui Province) other sive have yielded teeth. The Hexian cranium may doc- tument the latest known H. eetusin China. The Nanjing and Yunsian craia may present some morphologic charac- ters shar real hose of early sapiens “The nature and che anciquiey of Asian archaeological a semblages continue to spark debate. A major point of con- tention has been the distibutions of Acheulean assemblages and the sowalled choppee-chopping tol complex. In 1940, “American prehistorian FL Movs recognized a diferencein the geognphical distibucion of these assemblages. with Acheulean assemblages occurring in central and southern pares ofthe Indian subcontinent and more rudely manufie- tured, nonbificially worked assemblages occurring farther cast. Local variations of the Mode \ choppe-chopping tool complex have been given various names Pacitanian (Indone: sia), Anyathian (Burma), Fingooian (Thailand), and Tampan- ian (Malaysia). Movius farther suggested chat a line, termed “Movin line by hs colleague the American antheopologist CS. Coon, could be drawn beeween the “ulrural backwater” of eastern Asia and the “more developed” cultures of Afi, India, and Europe, Others have suggested hat cis line may acrually reflec different adapeations ro contesting environ: mens. with the East Asian assemblages reflecting che expoita tion of decidetiy more fresed habitats. G.G, Pope has sug- gested chat bamboo provided avesatle raw material that, to Farge extent, supplanted a reliance on lithic raw aerials Debate has been further complicated by che fact that the vast majority of Asian archaeological assemblages, espe- Gilly outside of China, cannot be shown to be earlier than «2,60 Ka, Some artifacts have been recovered from Middle Pleistocene contexts in Siberia, India, and Southeast Asia, bur they cell us litle abour che nature and exten of variation of the Early Paleolithic in Asia. Apparealy later Middle Pleistocene sites in India have long yielded assemblages with hrandaxes effectively identical co those fom Europe and Alia. S. Mishea and colleagues reported thatthe Bort site near Pune (Maharashera state) has yielded aumerous flakes and several simple bifaces in association with tephra layers dated to 60 Ka by Ar/Ar. Younger Acheulean sites in South Asia have been dated les securely. Middle Paleolithic (Midale Stone Age) assemblages are also known in quaneie. ‘Asin Southeast Asia, no Acheulean or handase assem- blages have yet been recognized in China. Chinese workers recognize “tool tations” in what is probably a highly ‘oversimplified interpretation of the archacologieal record there: & large-tool tradition including “protobifices” and “choppers and asmll-tool radition composed largely of un dilfercsiaced fakes, Some assemblages, ike hose from Ding cn, are said ro be composed ofboth traditions. section of arcifaes from the Lantian region (but nor the swo sites yild- inghuman remains), Dingcun, and. few othersiteshave beenC1 Eat Pbtecre: Home aes Ea Pletocene Fay Paine 1B Eat Pesce 1 acs Ey Fale A. tite Pate Homo ects (© ire Piscine eens Ham sain Mog apt aca ape (A. ise ists Ea Pao 1 Mite Piston Ear Pale 4B, Maite Pisce H eects & ay Pie ce Paton: M sae & ay triage Pa age screen spins & © thie seca 7 0 Sent pc 8 oh axe (© Lie Paitacoe ene Ho sanene © fee wt pens 8 | Use Plstace: Homo i capone 2} LaPlesucene Hs. sapen Lae Pbltic ‘tat Petes: anganan~ esa © jatPabaime a 4 ooze nein ore gost Pattie Map of Eatrn and Southern Avia (ean ose} soning mar al bmn and ‘rharlegel bales Spel radi ae aa ncldd ta rindi, ‘hile number ripen site nan in approximate ance ody ls 1. Mojotons, Sent, Sle Tinie 2. Longo. 3. Gongaoglng atin 4 Nabe 5, Lanpeing ian Shi) 6 Varo, 7 Nou 8 bung Ba, Bae; 9 Chenchies(Lantin) 10, Bari 1. Mae Th, Ban Don Mun, Kao Pah ‘Nam: 12, Rar 13, Lang Trang, Huludog Noni) 15, Yaon (Quyinhabos 16, Zhou (nate 3 bl of dfn ages A. (Gatumban (Vyas 1. Takanori 18, Xabuassen (Nanchae) 19, Daigo (men, 20. Nba 21, Chon gk ns 2 Tham Kinyen. Thom Ha. Keo emg 23, Bagong Vari 24, Dnghe (Lona: 2, Tam Hang. 26, Tham (Om: 27 Miaohouev: 28 Langtendo (Hesen): 29, Dali 30, Loved (Chgpame) 3 fnninion (Von $2, Toes Tagen 39, Yan (Chaesion 3, Hahuars (Narmada): 35, Ube: 38, Mabe 37, Digan: 38 Hang Ham: 39, Xian $0. Xuanrendong Xho: 41 Shien: 2, Neo 43, Sabu 44 Nh 43, falengane 16 Nsom 47 Linn 48, Kosa Tampon: 4. Hen, 30, Bape; 51, Spi Cave Mares nen sath is eld only arharlgicl ide are wat indeed Tao of bs bed int pe fo ite mbes meal reeinip plied "9inverpreted as bifaces, bur they are ether of uncertain prove rnanceor younger than ca 150 Ka, Well-made bifaces are also known from Chon-gok-ni in South Kores, which have been demonstrated to date to the final Mile or early Late Pleis- tocene, All ofthese ate probably unrelated tothe Acheufean tradition of Africa, Europe, Southwest Asis, and India Clear, much remains to be done to arify and define the earlier Paleolithic in East Asa in che 1990s, however, sym- ‘metrical pointed unificial tools and partially flaked bifacial tool on large ftkes have been recovered ftom the Baise basin Jn soueh China. These finds, which predate 0.732s0.039 ‘Ma, together with small well made bifices from Takarnon in Japan dating to €. 500 Ka, begin 0 blur the distinctions sade by Movius. Several regions of mainland southern and casteen Asia have provided evidence about the later phases of human evo- lution, Crania from India (Narmada) and China (Dali, Xuji- yao, Mapa, Jinshan) testify to che presence of various forms of Homo morphologically intermediate between H. ceretusand anatomically modern H. sapiens. Like the Ngan- dong hominids, the Dali specimen has been of particular in- terest, since its morphology has been claimed to bridge che gap bewween H.ertusand modern regional Asin popul ‘ions while ac the same time diverging from che morphology of the “archaic Fomo sapien" known from Africa and Eu- rope. Other researchers consider that is within de range of such Western fossils as Pewalona and Kabwe, No erue Nean- dertals are known within the areal range of eastern and southeen Asia, although they do extend eastward tothe ma gins of western Cental Asia (Uzbekistan) “The origin and antiquity ofthe modern races of Asia are poorly understood. Early workers, such as Weidensech, dis cerned contemporaneous racial rypes—Esquimoid, Melane sian, and Ainu (elated to Caucasizn)—in a sample from the Upper Cave at Zhoukoudian. Other authors, such as C. Coon, MH. Wolpof, and AT. Thorne, have suggested chat even Middle Pleistocene Asian hominids show a regional con- ‘inuiy thaallie them with recent and modern popalatonsin the sameareasof Asia, On the other hand, base on both pale~ ontological and genetic analyses, it has been suggested ha anatomically modern H. sapiens were che result of invading popultions thac replaced the descendants of #7. eeu: These aleerative models of modem human origins often focus on the South and East Asan fos evidence A vatery of modern human remains discovered in the 1990s in China were re viewed in 1996 by D. Eder, and deualed studies of these should help to clarify the relationships of early Eas Asians. Late Palacalthie aetificts accompany. anatomically ‘modern people in easter Asi, but the assemblages are char- acterized byalow frequency of blades. Microithsare als ate in Ching, excepe in che north, which aso has wedge-shaped cores not unlike those found ata lace date in Alaska, Bone needles and harpoons, elaborate jewelry, and grave goods vere included with the burials at Znoukoudlan Upper Cave Early evidence of agriculture and domestication, esab- lished in Southwest Asa by 11 Ka, is also found somewhac lace in northeastern Asia (Japan). Although dats as early as 2 10 Ka have boon claimed for horticultural practices at Spirit Cave in northers Thailand, most workers think that the evidence is equivocal and does not distinguish berween food collecting and horticulcure. At Jomen sites in Japan, swith an economic pattern of sedentism apparent based on fishing, pottery is thought ro antedate 12.5 Ka and is Followed by the lnttoduction of cereal grains by 9 Ka. By 5 Ka, rice farming. was esuiblished in several areas, including Thailand and coastal Chia where sites such as Hemudu (Zhejiang) suggest a mixture of hunting (dee, shinoceros, elephant) rice cultiva- tion, and animal husbandry (pigs and water buffalo). By 5004-2500 BP the coastal Neolithic culture (Longshan) vas also characterized by such classic Chinese crafs as jade carv~ ing, and seapulimancy (predicting the future from the pat- tering of cracks in burned animal bones, specially sapulae). Inland sites reflect a different line of Neolithic development: the Yangshao culture. Ar the ste of Banpo near Xian in north Chin's Shanai Province, dating to ca. 7000 BP, an elaborate system of defensive ditches and walls protected che settlement of farmers. A very large, centrally located structure and a spe- cialized area ser aside forthe production of beautifully painted poreery also sugges che early development of economic and social complexiy. Fishhooks and barbed points, cogether with the sized fish desig on che porcery, suggest the importance ofthis resource asa supplement ro an agriculeural economy based on millec and pigs. ‘See aio Acheulear; Adapiformes; Aftica; Anthropoidea; Ar- chaic Homo sapiens; Asia, Western; China; Dali don; Dingcun; Dryopithecinae; Early Paleolithic idse: Europe: Gigamtopithecus; Hexian; Homo; Homo erectus; Homo sapiens: Indonesia; Jinniushan; Lang Trang: Lantian; Longuppo; Lorsidae; Lufeng: Lufengpithecus: Meganthropus; Modern Human Origins: Narmada; Ne- lithic; Ngandong (Solo); Nihewan; Notharctidae ‘Omomyidae; Paleolithic: Paleolithic Lifeways: Peolemt Plesiadapiformes; Pipithecidae: Pondaung: Ponginae; Raw Materials; Russias Sivapithecus: Siwalikss Stone-Tool Mak- ing: Xisochangliang; Yuanmou; Zhoukoudizn. [G.G.P, ASB, ED] Further Readings ‘atawa,, Aoki, K., and Kimura, T, ed. (1992) The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia “Tokyo: Hoksen-Sha Andrews, Pyand Franzen, JL. ed. (1984) The early evolu- ion of man, with special emphasis on Southeast Asia and Afica. Cour. Forsch, Inst. Senckenberg 69:1-277. Bary, J.C (1995) Faunal urnover and diversity inthe rer- resral Neogene of Pakistan [a ES. Viba, G.H. Den- ton, TC. Partridge, and LH, Burele (ed) Paleocl- sate and Evolution, with Emphs Origins. New Haven: Yale Universiy Press, p. 14-134 ElerD. (1996) The fossil evidence for human evolution in ‘Asia, An, Rew: Anthropol. 25:275-301 Franzen, JL. ed (1994) 100 Yeats of Pthecanthropus: The Hom erectus problem, Cour Forsch. lst. Sencken- berg 171:1-361 ison HumanHartson, T., Delson, E. and Guan. J. (1991) A new species ‘of Plpithecus fiom the Middle Miocene of China and its implicaions for ealycararthine 2o0geography. J Hum, Evol. 21:329-361 Huang, W.,and Hou. Y. (1997) Archaeological evidence for the firs human colonisation of East Asia, Indo-Pacific Prehistory Assocation Bulletin 16(3)3-12 Iawa-Smith, F (19°8) Early Paleolithic in South and Ease ‘Asia. The Hague: Mouron Mishra, S. Venkatesan, TR. Rajagutu, SN..and Somaya- jul, BLK. (1995) Ease Acheulian industry from peninsula India, Cure. Anthropol. 36:847-851 ‘Olsen, J.W., and Mille-Antonio, S. (1992) The Paleolithic in Southern China. Asian Persp. 31(2)129-160. M.D.,and Korisrcat R, (eds, (1998) Early ‘Human Behavior in Global Context. London: Routledge Pope, G.G. (1992) The craniofacial evidence forthe origin ‘of modecn humans in Chin. Yebk. Phys. Anthropol 35:243-298. Pope, G.G. (1993) Anciene Asis cutting edge. Nat Hist. 10215):55-59, Pope, G.G., and Keates, $.G. (1994) The evolution of hue ‘man cognition and cultural eapaciy: A view from the Far East. In RS, Corruccini and RL. Ciochon (eds) Incegrative Path to the Past. Englewood Cliff, NJ Prentice-Hall, pp. 31~567. Russell, D-E., and Zhai, R. (1987) The Paleogene of Asia: Mammals and seatigraphy. Mém, Mus, Nat. Hist. (Nac. (Pais) 52:1-488. Schick, KD., and Dong, Z.A, (1993) Ealy Paleolithic of China and Basten Asia. Evol. Anthropol 2:22-36. Schwart, LH. Long, VT, Cuong, NL. Kha, LT, and Tatts | (1995) A review ofthe Pleistocene hom: noid fauna ofthe Socialist Republic of Vietnam (ex- cluding Hylobatidae). Anthropol. Pap, Am, Mus, Nat Hist. “61-24. Swisher, C.C., Rink, WJ, Anton, S.C. Schwarce, H.P, Curtis G.H., Suprijo, A, Widiasmoro (1996) Latest Homo eecusof ava: Poteatal contemporansity with Homo sapienrin southeast Asia. Science 274:1870-18"4 Weiner, S.. Xu, Q. Li, J Goldberg P, and Bar-Yoset, O. (1998) Evidence for the us of Fire at Zhoukoudian, China, Science. 281:251-253, ‘Wolpoff, M.H. (1996) Human Evolution, 1996-1997 edi- tion. New York: MeCicaw-Hil ‘Wa, R. and Olsen, J.W., eds. (1985) Paleoanthropology and Paleolithic Archacology inthe People's Republic of China, New York: Academic. ‘Wu, X..and Poirier, FE. (1995) Human Evolution in China: A Meteie Description of the Fossils anda Re- ‘ew ofthe Sites. New York: Oxford University Pess. Pet om