.

- - .

.



.
.



.
.

.
) (Scientific Method
:
-1 ) : (Observation
) (Facts .
-2 ) : (Theory or Hypothesis

.
-3 ) : (Testing ) (Experiment

.

) (Law
.
.

.
.
- -
.
.
.

: ) (1 2 3 4 5
) (3-5
... 5 4 3 2 1 8 -5
.


2 ................................................................................................

2
3 ....................................................................................
6 - ................................................................
7 .................................................................................. 1-1
7 ......................................................................... 2-1
8 ............................................................................ 3-1
11 - ........................................................................
12 .............................................................. 1-2
15 ..................................................................................... 2-2
15 .................................................................................... 3-2
17 .................................................................................. 4-2
22 .....................................................
21 ............................................................................................... 1-3
21 ................................................................... 2-3
22 ................................................................... 3-3
22 ..................................................................... 4-3
22 ................................................................................... 5-3
22 .................................................................................... 6-3
24 .................................................................... 7-3
26 ............................................................................... 8-3
29 ........................................................................... 9-3
32 ...................................................................................... 12-3
32 ...................................................................... 11-3
35 .................................................................................... 12-3
36 ......................................................................... 13-3

42 - ...........................................................................
41 ...................................................................................... 1-4
41 ......................................................................... 2-4
41 ............................................................................... 3-4
45 ........................................................................................ 4-4

3
48 ...................................................................................... 5-4
51 ...................................................................................... 6-4
56 ........................................................................... 7-4
62 - .........................................................................
63 ....................................................................................... 1-5
63 .......................................................................................... 2-5
64 .......................................................................................... 3-5
64 ..................................................................................... 4-5
65 ..................................................................................... 5-5
66 ...................................................................................... 6-5
68 ........................................................................... 7-5
72 ...................................................................................
72 ............................................ 8-5
71 ............................................... 9-5
75 ........................................................................ 12-5
79 ................................................................... 11-5
83 ...................................................................................
83 ...................................................................................... 12-5
84 .................................................................................... 13-5
85 ......................................................................................... 14-5
85 ............................................................................................... 15-5

4

5

1-1
2-1
3-1

Units and Dimensions
.
.

6
 22 22222
1 = 1222.
1-1 Physical quantities
:
.
:
: T , L , M .
:
.
Units of physical quantities 2-1

82 82 82
82 .

:ISU M K S system
C G S system.
: F B S.
1-1 2-1 .

( )1-1
()FBS ()ISU
Kg Mass

M Length

S Time
( )2-1
()FBS ()ISU
2
2m2
3
3m3
3
/ Kg/m3 = /

7
 LB N
2
/ N/m3 = /

3-1 Dimensions of physical quantities

Mass Length Time
M L T 3-1
.
( )3-1

M3 ML3
=
L

v L LT 1
v =
T
1

LT T 1 =
L

LT 1
a LT 2

= (a
T

F M LT 2 MLT 2 ) = (F x

W MLT 2 L ML2T 2 ) = (W x

ML2T 2
P ML2T 3

P =
T

:
.
:
- .

8
 - .
- .

:
L
T 2 )(1-1
g

2
.
:
L
2
T2 T )(1-2
LT

-1 v a F W P.

-2 .

v v0 at

t a v .

-3 .

9
 v 2 v0 2a
2

*************************

12

1-2
2-2
3-2
4-2

Vectors

Scalars and vectors 1-2

11
 :
- : .
.
- : .
A

A . A

A A lAl . lAl

.
A
1-2 .

1-2 .
:
:
B A
A
A = B A
B
2-2 B A

B 2-2 .
A :
A A A
3-2 3-2 .
:

. .
:
-1 .
.
-2 :
- :

12
 B C A

C Resultant .
B
A
A A B
4-2


.B A 4-2.
- :
C
B A A
A B C A
5-2
A+B B 5-2 .

).(2-1

A C=A+B )(2-1
B
C
B A
6-2
B+A
B+A 6-2
C :

A+B=B+A )(2-2
C
A+B+C .
A+B
B
A B C 7-2.
A
7-2
)(2-3 )A + B) + C = A + (B + C

13
 A B
C D 8-2
D
:
A+B+C C
A+B+C+D B+C
R=A+B+C+D )(2-4
A+B
B
A A D
8-2

.
:

A
A B C C
AB
A
B B
A .B B
9-2 C
A B 9-2 .
). (2-5
C=AB )(2-5
:
2A 2A .A
A c cA A
c . A c.
P
m v ).(2-6

P=mv )(2-6
vectors Unit 2-2
) (Unity .

14

k j i i j k
x y z
12-2 A x A B
y y B C z C
:

j A=Ai, B=Bj, C=Ck )(2-7

i x
k

z :
12-2 i jk i . x

x y z

y
3-2 Analysis of vectors
A xy
(Ax) x y
) (Ay : A
A
Ay
x
Ax
A = Ax i + Ay j )(2-7

11-2 A
A
x 11-2 A
x y Ax Ay A :

Ax = A cos , Ay = A sin )(2-8

Ax Ay
.
Ax Ay A
A ): (2-9

A 2 Ax 2 Ay 2
15
 11-2

Ay
tan )(2-10
Ax

Ax Ax
Ay Ay A
A Ax A 2y
2

)(2-9 tan 1 y
)(2-11
Ax
Ax Ax
Ay Ay Ay
) (2-11
Ax

Ay Ax
12-2
. A 12-2

.

()1
:
- A 6 240o
y x
o
Ax 240
x :
o
60
Ax = A cos 240 = 6 (-1/2) = -3
A Ay
3
Ay = A sin 240 ) = -5.2 = 6 (-
2
:

Ax = -A cos 60 = -6 (1/2) = -3
3
Ay = -A sin 60 ) = -5.2 ( = -6
2

- B 5 1100
y x
:
B By
20o
110o
16
x
Bx
Bx = B cos 110 = - 1.7
By = B sin 110 = 4.7
:
Bx = -B sin 20 = - 1.7
By = B cos 20 = 4.7

4-2 Resultant of vectors

A B C
3 2 1
:
Ax = A cos 1 , Bx = B cos 2 , Cx = C cos 3

Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx = A cos 1 + B cos 2 + C cos 3

Ry = Ay + By + Cy = A sin 1 + B sin 2 + C sin 3

R Rx2 Ry2 )(2-12

Ry
tan 1 )(2-13
Rx

R = A + B + C = (Ax+ Bx + Cx) i + (Ay+ By + Cy) j + (Az+ Bz + Cz) k )(2-14

17
 ()2
10 km
15 km 30
20 km .
45o
30o
:

.

13-2 1


.
Rx = 0 + 15 cos 30 + 20 cos 45 = 15 0.866 + 20 0.707 = 27.13 Km
Ry = -10 + 15 sin 30 + 20 sin 45 = -10 + 15 0.5 + 20 0.707 = 11.64 Km

R Rx2 Ry2 27.132 11.642 736 135.5 871.5 29.5Km

11.64
tan 1 tan 1 0.429
27.13
23.2O
/ :
R = Rx i + Ry j = 27.13 i + 11.64 j

-1 5km 2km . .

18
 -2 20km 35km 60 .
.

-3 A 3m 30 B
3m .

3A - B B - A A-B A + B

. A -4 A
:
A = 8m , = 60
A = 6m , = 120
A = 12m , = 225

-5 :
150 100 20 80 120 120 170 240
.

*************************

19


1-3
2-3 ()
3-3 ()
4-3 ()
5-3
6-3
7-3
8-3
9-3
11-3
11-3

Linear Motion
22

. .

.

1-3 Displacement
O . .
A
xi x
.
xf
B
x

1-3 x
A B
.
x .
x x
x . 1-3 x A ti
B .tf :

x x f xi )(3-1

distance displacement

.

2-3 () Average velocity

ti tf
.t :

x x f xi
v )(3-2
t t f ti
3-3 () Instantaneous velocity

21
 :
dx
v )(3-3
dt
4-3 Average speed

s :

d
s )(3-4
t
d .t

5-3 Average acceleration

a
.

v v f vi
a )(3-5
t t f ti

6-3 Instantaneous acceleration

:
dv
a )(3-8
dt
()1-3
20m 40m
60m .


.

22
 .
:

x = x1 + x2 + x3

x = 40m 20m + 60m = 80m
.

x x 2 - x1 80m 4 m
V
t t 2 - t1 6s 4s 10s s

.

= x = ( 20 40 )m = -20m

= t = 4s
- 20m
v -5m
4s s

= d = 40m + 20m + 60m = 120m

d 120m
s 6m
t 6s 4s 10s s

.4 m/s

7-3 Linear motion with constant acceleration

23
 a
.
v1 = v0 t1=0 t2 = t
v2 = v

v v - v0
a )(3-9
t t -0

: v0 a ) (3-9 v
t

v v0 at )(3-10

: t x :

)(3-11
1
x v0t at 2
2

t a x

a
v - v0 t
v - v0
t a

3-11 t :

2 2
v v0 2ax )(3-12

()2-3

24
 . 5 m/s2 .
:
v0 = 0 , t = 3 s , a = 5 m/s2
v = v0 + at
v = 0 + (5) (3) = 15 m/s
()3-3
360 Km/hr .
. 1200 m
:
v0 = 0 , v = 360 Km/hr = 360 103 / 60 60 = 100 m/s
x = 1200 m
v2 = v02 + 2ax
)(100)2 = 0 + 2 (a) (1200) 10000 = 2400 (a
a = 10000 / 2400 = 4.16 m/s2
()4-3
. 2.5 m/s2
. 50 m
.
:
v0 = 0 , a = 2.5 m/s2 , x = 50 m
v2 = v02 + 2ax

x = v0t + 1/2 at2 50 = (0) (t) + 1/2 (2.5) t2

50 = (2.5 / 2) t2 = 1.25 t2
t2 = 50 / 1.25 = 40
t = (40) = 6.32 s

v = v0 + at v = 0 + (2.5) (6.32) = 15.8 m/s.
()5-3
25
 45 km/hr
. 40 m
:
.
.
:

t = 4 sec
v0 = 45 km/hr = 45 (1000 m / 60 60 sec) = 12.5 m/s
x = 40 m
x = v0t + 1/2 at2
40 = (12.5) (4) + (1/2) a (4)2
a = 1.5 m/s2
.
:
v = v0 + at v = 12.5 + (1.25) (4) = 7.5 m/s.

8-3 Newton's law of motion

:
:
.
.
.
. .
:
F
. a .

F=m.a )(3-13

.

26
 t v
v
a
t
) (3-13
v
F m
t

F . t = m v = m (v2 v1 ) = mv2 mv1

v2 , v1 .t
mv P Kg.m/sec

P = mv )(3-14

)(Impulse

I = F . t

I :

I = P = P2 P1 = mv2 mv1 )(3-15

).(Kg.m/sec

()6-3
1500 kg 2-3 . vi = 4.5 m/s
vf = 2.6 m/s .
.
F = 1.76 105 N .t

27
 2.6 m/s 4.5 m/s

2-3

:
.

I = P = P2 P1 = mv2 mv1

})I = m (v2 v1) = 1500 {2.6 ( 4.5

I = 1500 {2.6 + 4.5} = 1.07 104 kg . m/s

I = F . t

t = I / F = 1.07 104 / 1.76 105

t = 60.5 10-3 sec

Mass & Weight

: .
: .
m g W :

W=mg )(3-16

28
 .
:

. .

9-3 Law of conservation of momentum

.



.
m2 m1 v2 v1 .
F2 F1 . F1 = -F2
. t 'v2' v1
:

F1 = m1 (v1' v1) / t
F2 = m2 (v2' v2) / t

F1 = -F2
m1 (v1' v1) / t = m2 (v2' v2) / t

' m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v1' + m2 v2 )(3-17

.
' v

'v1' = v2' = v

' m1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1+ m2) v

)(3-18

29
 ()7-3
2gm 600gm
28000 cm/s .
:
v2 = 0
' v1 ' v2

'm1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1+ m2) v
'2 (28000) + 0 = (2 + 600) v
v' = 56000 / 602 = 93.3 cm/sec

11-3 Work and energy

.
. F A B
d 3-3

)(3-19
W F .d

C
F

A d B A d B
3-3

F A C
W = (F cos ) d

W = F d cos )(3-19

32
 d) (F cos F .d

) (cos 0 = 1
Kf = 0
Uf = mgy ).(cos 1800 = -1
. erg .
joule
y 1 = 712 . = 712.

v Ki = (1/2) m v2

Ui = 0
.
4-3
U 4-3 .
. ... :

" "
=
W = U

4-3.

()8-3
2Kg ) (F=20N 370 5-3 .
) (d=4m .F
:
C
F

370
W = F d cos
A d B
W = (20) (4) (cos 370) = 63.9 J
5-3
31
 ()9-3
2Kg ) .(d=4m .
:

.1800

W = F d cos

W = (20) (4) (cos 1800) = 80 J
.

d
80J .

11-3 Potential and kinetic energy

m :
F = mg
g
y :

U = W = ( Fy) = mgy

) (U = Uf Ui . )(Ui = 0
) (Uf = U

U = mgy )(3-20

32
 y
.

:g

v2 = v02 2ax

v0 v
:

)(3-21

1 2 2
2

v v0 gy

a g x y
) (3-21 m :

1 2 1 2
mv mv0 mgy W
2 2

1 2
K : mv
2

1 2
K mv )(3-21
2

K f Ki K W )(3-22

W
.

33
 ()11-3
1Kg 1m A
A - B 0.5m -
3.13m/s 6-3 .
vB=3.13m/s .A
y=1m B
.B
y=0.5m .
C
:
A y=1m
6-3

UA = mgy = (1) (9.8) (1) = 9.8 J
A ) (KA=0 ).(vA=0
B
UB = mgy = (1) (9.8) (0.5) = 4.9 J
B
KB = (1/2) m v2

KB = (1/2) (1) (3.13)2 = 4.9 J

) (U=0 .y=0

.
v2 = v02 + 2ay
v2 = (0)2 + 2 (9.8) (1) = 19.6 m2/s2
K = (1/2) m v2 = (1/2) (1) (19.6) = 9.8 J

34
 12-3 Law of conservation of energy

.

.

Kf Ki = W = U = (Uf Ui) = Uf + Ui

Kf + U f = K i + U i )(3-23

Ef = Ei )(3-24

E=K+U )(3-24

.

.

A ()11-3
m=2Kg h=10m
7-3 . :
?=vB
h=10m B y=4m .
.
?= vC y=4m
C :
A B
7-3
35
 KA+ UA = KB + UB
0 + mgh = (1/2) m vB2 + mgy
2g (h y) = vB2
vB2 = (2) (9.8) (10 4) = 117.6
vB = 10.8 m/s
A C
KA+ UA = KC + UC
0 + mgh = (1/2) m vC2 + 0
2g h = vC2
vC2 = (2) (9.8) (10 ) = 196
vC = 14 m/s.

13-3 Uniform circular motion

.

.
v r 8-3
. A
B t .O

:
= / t
t
O ).(rad/sec
:
v 8-3 .m/s
:

36
 v=r )(3-25

r .
T :
2
2n )(3-26
T

n
1
n )(3-27
T

) (3-25 ) (3-26 :
2
v r r
T

2r
v )(3-28
T

= / .
v
ar
:
v2
ar )(3-29
r

()11-3
3.8510 Km 27.3 .
5

.
.
:

T = 27.3 24 60 60 = 2.36 106 sec

v=2r/T

v = 2 (3.85 105 103) / 2.36 106 =1026 m/s

37

ar = v2 / r = (1026)2 / 3.85 108 = 2073 103

= 2 / T = 2 / 2.36 106
= 2.6 106 rad/sec

= v / r = 1026 / 3.85 108 = 2.6 106 rad/sec

-1 100km/hr
.
-2 10m/s 200m 20m/s 140m
.
.
.
-3 10m/s 200m 20m/s 140m
. .
-4 10m/s . 2m/s
.
-5 12 . 120m/s :
.
.
-6 . 6.4m/s 3.5m/s2
2.8sec .
-7 60m 6
15m/s :
.
.
-8 1800kg . 8m/s2

38
 -9 50N . 5kg
-12 3kg . 5m/s
-11 1kg . 20m/s 8m/s
:
.
.
.
0.02sec
-12 1500kg 30m/s 800kg 20m/s
.
.
.
-13 3N 10m .
.
-14 2Kg ) (F=20N 370 5-3 .
) (d=4m .F
-15 2kg 5m .
-16 10m/s a= -10m/s2
.
0.5kg
. .
-17 6m/s 3m
.
-18 0.6m 6

.
.
.

*************************

39


1-4
2-4
3-4
4-4
5-4
6-4
7-4

42

Heat
1-4 Temperature
.

.
.

.

2-4 Effect of heat on bodies

. .
.
.
.

3-4 Thermometric scale

:
1
.
2
76 76 cm Hg .
3
.

41
 Centigrade (or Celsius) scale
100 122 ) (100C
Celsius .
Reaumer
80 0R . 80R
Fahrenheit scale
180 32F . 212F

F R C
212 80 100

32 0 0

1-4

F R C
32 Melting Point

212 80 100 Boiling Point

1-4

42
 :

C F 32 R
)(4-1
100 180 80

F 32 180 9 )(4-2

C 100 5

9
(4-3) F C 32
5

()1-4

.

:
:
C 2C 32

100 180
F=2C .
:
C 2C 32

100 180
C 1600C , F 3200F

:
C C 32
F C
100 180

F C 400

Absolute (Kelvin) scale

.
) ( 273C
:

K C 273 )(4-4

43


C K 273
.
100 373

0 273

273 0

2-4

X
:
Xo X .
X100 X 100C .
XT X ).(T
X :
X T X 0 X 100 X 0
)(4-5
T 0 100 0
XT X 0
T 0C 100 )(4-6
X 100 X 0

X :
X T X 32 X 212 X 32
)(4-7
T 32 212 32

X T X 32
T 0F 180 32 )(4-8
X 212 X 32

44


.

4-4 Thermometers
-
-1 40C0
. 357C0
.
-2
.
-3
35C0 42C0 95F0 110F0

.
-
110 C0


.

.78 C0 110 C0
-
:
-1 .
-2
.

45

Pa

1-4



1

7

1-4


.

h
:T
PT Pa hT )(4-9
:
PT T
Pa atmospheric pressure
hT T
P0 P100 100C

) (4-6 :

PT P0
T 0C 100
P100 P0 )(4-10

46
 PT Pa hT
P0 Pa h0

P100 Pa h100

hT h0
T 100 )(4-11
h100 h0

:
.(1500C

()2-4
109.3cm 80cm
100C0 0C0 . 83cm 100cm
. .

:
hT h0
T 100
h100 h0

83 80
T 100
109.3 80

3
T 100 10.2C 0
29.3

100 80
T 100
109.3 80

20
T 100 68.3C 0
29.3

47
 5-4 Heat as an energy


.
.



.
Heat capacity

C c.g.s
Calorie/degree m.k.s Joule/degree
.1Cal=4.186 Joule

.
Q )(4-12
C
T
Q .
Specific heat
.
.
" " " " .S

.

Q
S )(4-13
mT
) (4-11
C )(4-14
S
m

Cal/gmC0
:
48
 Swater 1Cal / gC 0 4.186 J / gC 0

Sice 0.5Cal / gC 0 2.1J / gC 0

dQ m dT :

dQ SmdT )(4-15

Q Tf Tf

dQ SmdT mS dT
0 Ti Ti
)(4-16

Q mS (T f Ti ) mST )(4-17

Q mST )(4-18

Q CT )(4-19

Q c.g.s
.m.k.s
m
T f . Ti

:
Q mL )(4-20
L c.g.s .Cal/gm
Latent heat
.
:
-1
= 540Cal/gm
= 80Cal/gm

49
 -2 :

.
()3-4
720gm -10C0

15C0

S ice 2220 J / kg.k 0 , L 333KJ / Kg

S water 4190 J / kg.k 0

:
0C0
-10C
0
:

) Q1 msT ms(Tc Ti
Ti 10C 0
T f 0C 0
Q1 .72 2220 (0 (10)) 15984 J

0C0 0C0 :

Q2 ml
Q2 0.72 333 103 239760 J

15C0 0C0 :

) Q3 ms(T f Ti
Ti 0C 0
T f 15C 0
Q3 0.72 4190 (15 0) 45252 J

Q Q1 Q2 Q3 300996 J

52
 ()3-4
m=75gm . T=312c

m=220gm c=45 cal/k

. T=120C T

s 0.092 cal / g.k , sw 1cal / g.0 k

mcopper 75 gm, Tcopper 3120c
mwater 220 gm, Cbea ker 45cal / k 0
Ti 12

Qcopper Qwater Qbea ker

) mc s c (Ti T f ) m w s w (T f Ti ) cb (T f Ti
)75 0.092(312 T f ) 220 1(T f 12) 45(T f 12
2152.8 6.9T f 220T f 2640 45T f 540
5332.8 271.9Tf
T f 19.61 0 c

6-4 Transmission of heat

, -:

conduction

( .)2-4

51
 .

""

2-4

dx A T

T-dT .
dQ
T A dQ T-dT
dQ ( )

dx :
3-4
-1 .A

dQ
A )(4-21
dt

-2

(T dT ) T dT
dQ
dT )(4-22
dt

52
 -3 dx

dQ

1 )4-23
dt dx

dQ dT
A
dt dx
dQ dT
kA )4-24
dt dx

k )( the coefficient of thermal conductivity

cal cm-1 sec-1 c0-1

dT/dx 0

dT/dx

.
Q
T1 A Q T2
Q x

x T1,T2

4-4 ( )4-4

:
dQ T T
kA 2 1 )4-25
dt x
dQ T1 T2
kA )4-26
dt x

T2,T1 ( ) .

53
 T1 T2
Q kA t )4-26
x

convection

, ""

, ( )

Radiation

, ""

()4-4

54
 ( )5-4 2.0cm 200cm2

100 0C

k=0.2 c.g.s units

k .2cgs
A 200cm 2
x 0.2cm
T2
T1 T2 100 0
A
t 1 min 60 sec
T1 T2
Q kA t
T1 x
100
Q 0.2 200 60
0 .2
Q 12 10 5 cal
x

5-4
()5-4
30cm 5cm2 . AB

BC B ( .)6-4 A

.0 0C 200 0C C

K1 K copper 0.9 c.g.s unit

K 2 K iron 0.12 c.gs unit
:

x1 15 cm, x2 15 cm
A 5 cm 2

(T )1 200 T , (T2 ) T 0
K1 0.9 c.g.s copper
K 2 0.12 c.g.s iron

AB BC :
55
 dQ dQ
( )1 ( ) 2
dT dT
)k1 A(200 T ) k 2 A(T 0

x1 x2
) 0.9(200 T ) 0.12(T
T 176.47 0 c

dQ ) (T T
( ) k1 A 1
dT x1
)0.9 5 (200 176.47
7.059cal / sec
15

Expansion of solids 7-4

, , , .

, ,

-:

T1 T2
L1

( )T2-T1

L T2 T1
L L1
) L L1 (T2 T1 )(1
, L L2 L1 )(2
) L2 L1 L1 (T2 T1
) L 2 L1 L1(T2 T1
L2 L1 1 (T2 T1 ) )4-27

.0C-1

56
 T LT: 0 0C L0 :

LT L0 1 T )4-28

( )1-4 :

( )1-4

C0-1x10-6 C0-1x10-6

10 25

12 11

1 11

11 1 ()

0.4 3 ()

(
5 1.2
)

(
30 14
)

()6-4

57
 .20 0C 10cm

,420 0C

.a .

.b 20 0C.420 0C

-
L L1 T2 T1
)L 3 10 6 (420 20
3 10 6 10 400
L 0.012cm

L 2 L1 1 (T 2T1

)L2 10 1 3 10 6 (420 20
L 2 10.012cm

-1 ,35 0C

-2 :

-40 0F, 85 0F, 95 0F, 77 0F, 50 0F

-3 -10 0C

-4

. -5

58
 0 -6

100 ,109.3cm 0
C 0C 80cm

( )hT=100cm ,68.3 0C

0 0
C -7

20 0C ,85.8cm ,80cm

( )h100=109cm

20gm 90 0C 30 0C -1

( )Q= -1200cal 1cal/g.0C

.90 0C -1 300gm ( )

.15 0
C 50gm ( )

( )T= 79.3 C

. 20 0C 150gm (( )) 20gm -10

30gm 100 0C .

, 25 0C

S=0.21 cal/g 0C Swater=1 cal/g 0C

( )Smetal=1 cal/g 0C

10gm ( ( )S=0.031 cal/g 0C -11

20 0C 100 0C

-5 0C 20 0C 30 gm -12

. L=80cal/ , Sice= 0.5cal/ g 0C , Swater=1cal/g 0C

59
 150gm 00c 18gm -13

. 250c

L=80cal/gm

400g 100g ( ) S=0.2cal/g0C 70g -14

. ( S=0.1cal/g0C

) 300g , . 100C

. L=80cal/g . Swater=1cal/g 0C

A=2cm2 . x=1m -15

( (T1=1000C . T2=00C

. 10min

( .)Q=240 cal k=0.2cal/cm sec 0C

0.5m 0.5cm -16

1000C .200C

1sec ( . k= 0.2 cal/cm sec. 0C )

2mm -17

1000 C . 200 C

40cm2 ( ) t=1h

. k=510-4 cal/cm sec 0C

0.1cm -11

,0.5cm ,00C

62
 .1000C . k=0.2cal/cm sec 0C

k=510-4cal/cm sec 0C.

.200C , 5cm -11

300 C ,=1810-6 0C-1

. 320C 100cm -20

,770C =510-6 C-1

( )L2=100.0125 cm

. 270 C , -21

.370C

.=910-6 C-1

*************************

61


1-5
2-5
3-5
4-5
5-5
6-5
7-5

8-5
9-5
11-5
11-5

12-5
13-5
14-5
15-5

light
62
 nature of light 1-5

0 0
0

0 (
)0
0760
) ( (
) 0
0001 ( )

0 0310
0301
( )0

0
0 ( )
( )0

Propagation of light 2-5

.

Velocity of light 3-5

63
 0
0
0 c=2.998x108 m/s c

Refractive index 4-5

n
c
n )(5-1
v
. v
0
( )0-1
=1030A0
( )Lambda 0
1 Ao =10-10 m = 10-8cm=10-1nm

( )1-5

n
c n
c

v v
1.53 1.003 *
1.59 1.33
1.63 1.36
1.66 1.36
1.74 1.46
2.42 1.5
1.52

()1-5
1.63
. 3108m/s

64
 :
c
n
v
c
v
n
3 108
v 1.84 108 m / s
1.63

Reflection of light 5-5

0
:

0
0
: ( )0-1
AB
BC
D DB

A C i
r
i r

( ) i
B

1-5 0
( ) r

0

0

Law of reflection

65
 :
-0 0
0 -2

6-5 Refraction of light

(.)2-1

( .
1
( ) )

( ) 2 (
)
2-5
. -:
- .
- .
- 2 .

Angle of refraction
.

( )0

( )
:
-0
.

66
 sin n
1 2
sin n
2 1

n sin n sin
1 1 2 2 )(5-2

.
:
) (n2=n: ) (n1=1

sin
n1
)(5-3
sin 2

. -2

()2-5
1.52 45
. -
-
1 - ( ) .
:

2 1 450 , n 1.52
1 ? 2
sin 1
n -
sin 2
sin 45
sin 2 0.4652
1.52
2 sin 1 0.4652 27.720

- 2 1
( ) ( )0

- ( )

67
 1 2 45 27.72 17.280

( )Phi

()3-5
( )n1=1.33 ) (1=600 )(n2=1.52
:
(? = (r -
(? =(2 -
:

r 1
r 600
1 r n1 n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2

1.33 sin 60 1.52 sin 2
sin 2 0.7577
2 n2
2 sin 1 (0.7577) 49.270

Total internal reflection 7-5

.
0 ( )1-1 30
) ( 30 ( )
) .(critical angle
.

1 2
n2 2 3

1 c >c 4

n1
68
3-5
 ( )C 90o =2 :
n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
n1 sin c n2 sin 90
n1 sin c n2
n2
sin c )(5-4
n1

( )n2=1 : ) (n1=1.33

Sinc=11.33=0.75188
c=sin-1(0.75188)=48.70

Mirrors and Lenses

8-5

69
Images Formed by Reflection at plane mirrors
S ( )4-1

S .

'V
'Q Q

'y y
'P V P

'S S

4-5

VPQ '( VP'Q )

S'=S
.

y'=y
' y y
Magnification
m :

'y
m )(5-5
y

. 1 ' y=y
9-5
Images Formed by Reflection at a spherical mirrors

72

( .)1-1

concave mirror

.

convex mirrors
( (Diverging mirror
.

() ()

5-5

(.)7-1

C F
V

()7-1
center of curvature (c) -1

71
 .
vertex -2 )(v
.
-3 )Radius of curvature (R
C . V
-4 Principle axis
.
Focus -5 )(F
(
) .
. C V ( ) .
Focal length - )(f
F . V

( )7-5 :
( . 6-1 -0
. -2
. -1

C F C F C F

)(3 )(2 )(1

7-5

72
 (
( )
) ( 0-0-1 )1-0-1
.

y I

O C 'y F

1-8-5

C F
'y

2-8-5

73
 y

C F
'y

3-8-5

C F

4-8-5

'y

C F

5-8-5

74

( )3-1 :

C F

9-5

Images Formed by Refraction 11-5

.
:
-1 convex lens
( )1-12-5 conversing lens .
-2 concave lens
( )2-00-1 diverging lens .

F F F F

1-12-5
2-12-5

75
 :
-1 Principle

-2 optical center
.
-3(Focus )F
) (
). (
-4 (focal length )f
.

:
( .)0-00-1 -0
( .)2-00-1 -2
( .)1-00-1 -1

2-11-5 1-11-5

3-11-5

76
 .

2-12-5 1-12-5

3-12-5

( 02-1 : )06-1

F 2F
2F F

12-5 .

77

F 2F
2F F

13-5 .

F 2F
2F F

14-5
.

F 2F
2F F

15-5 .

78

F 2F
2F F

16-5 .

F 2F
2F F

17-5
.

11-5 :
The general formula for mirrors and lenses
' S f S
:

Q A

y F
'P
P F O f
'y

S 'S
'Q
18-5

'FP'Q FOA :

79
 ' P' Q' FP

OA FO
y ' s ' f
)(1
y f

' OP'Q OPQ :

P' Q' P' O

PQ PO
' y' S
)(2
y S

( )1 ( )2
S ' S ' f 'S
1
S f f
1 1 1

S 'f S
1 1 1
)(5-6
S S' f

()5-6
( (5-6 .
:
-0 ( (f ( ) ( )
( ) ( ).
-2 S .
. ' S -1
-4 S'-S-f .

( )2 :
' y' S
m )(5-7
y S

82
 ()4-5
. 5cm 5cm 4cm
.
:
Y=5cm S=4cm F=+5cm ?='S ?=Y
1 1 1

S S' f
1 1 1

'S' f S
1 1 1

S' 5 4
S ' 20cm

' y' S
m
y S
y ' 20
5
5 4
y ' 5 5 25cm

.
( )1-0-1
.
:
y ' 25
m 5 1
y 5
m 1

. m

81
 ()5-5
15cm 5cm 40cm
.
:
y=5cm S=40cm F=15cm ?='S ?='Y
1 1 1

S S' f
1 1 1 1 1 25

S ' f S 15 40 600
S ' 24cm
' y' S
m
y S
y ' 24

5 40
24
y' 5 3cm
40
:
. -0
. -2
. -1
( )0-0-1
.
:
y' 3
m 0.6 1
y 5

. m 1

82

Optical instruments

Simple microscope 12-5

( )03-1
25cm
25cm:

S ' 25cm
m )(5-8
S S

S .

'y

y
F F

19-5

83
 Compound microscope 13-5
(
)Objective lens ( .)Ocular lens
( )20-1 .

d
S '1 S2


y F1 F2 F2

F1 'y

S1 f1
"y

S '2

22-5

'y' ' y' ' y' ' y
m m2 m1
y 'y y' y
m m1 m 2 )(5-9

m1 m2 .

84
 Camera 14-5

(.)20-1

21-5

Ophthalmoscope 15-5


( . )22-1

L1
L2

22-5

85
 ()6-5
S1=1.2cm
S2'=25cm f1=1.1cm f2=3cm
:
?='.S1 -0
?=.S2 -2
-1 ( ) ?=.d
-4 ?=.m1
-1 ?=.m2
?=.m -7
:
1 1 1
(1)
s1 s1 ' f1
1 1 1 1 1. 2 1. 1 0.1
'
1.2 s1 ' 1.1 s1 (1.1)(1.2) 1.32
1.32
s1 ' 13.2cm
0.1
1 1 1
( 2)
s2 ' s2 ' f 2
1 1 1 1 25 3 28

s2 25 3 s2 (3)(25) 75
75
s2 2.75cm
28
(3) d s1 ' s2 ' 13.2 2.75 15.95cm
' s1 13.2
(4) m1 11
s1 1. 2
's2 25
(5) m2 9.09
s2 2.75
(6) m m1m2 11 9.09 99.99 100

86
 ()7-5
. 27cm 9cm
:
s 27cm, f 9cm
1 1 1

s s' f
1 1 1 1 3 1
( ' )
27 s ' 9 s 27
27
s' 6.75cm
4

s' 6.75
m 0.25 1
s 27

()8-5
8cm . 2.5cm 10cm
:
1 1 1

s s' f
1 1 1 1 10 8
'
10 s ' 8 )s (8)(10
80
s' 40cm
2
. ' S
's' y
m
s y
's
y' y
s
40
y ' 2.5 10cm
10

. y ' y

87

1.66 -0
. 2.99108m/s
1.99108m/s -2
C=2.99108m/s .
1.66 -1 30
. -
-
- .
( )n1=1.33 ) (1=300 )(n2=1.52 -4
:
(? = . (r -
(? =. (2 -
34cm -1
.
45cm : 15cm -7 2.5cm
- .
- .
25cm : -7 5cm
- .
- .
. 330 25cm -6
. 0.5 cm . 2.5cm
()d=17.77cm
( )+10cm( )+5cm . 30cm -0
18cm .+10cm

()S2'=-15cm
.

88

A

>< ^+-%

~
h {

89