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01451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145007ffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkm
kstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\ql \li7043\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li
7043\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li7043\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li70
\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li7043\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li7043\s
b0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li7043\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li7043\sb1
52\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Work
ing Paper No. 50 \par\pard\li7043\sb82\sl-241\slmult0\fi0\tx8025 \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex100 August,\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2003\par\pard\ql \li3318\
sb0\sl-506\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3318\sb152\sl-506\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex92 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs43 RIGHT TO FOOD IN INDIA \par\pard\ql \li4878
\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4878\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4878\sb0\s
l-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4878\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4878\sb0\sl-
322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4878\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4878\sb0\sl-32
2\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-12\charscalex94 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs28 S. Mahendra
Dev \par\pard\ql \li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\
pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pa
rd\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2660\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql\li2660\sb291\sl-299\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
3\f4\fs26 CENTRE FOR ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL STUDIES \par\pard\ql \li4358\sb91\
sl-287\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-11\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs24 Begump
et, Hyderabad-500016 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16840\pard\sb0\
sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\ql \li3925\sb0\sl-391\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql\li3925\sb0\sl-391\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3925\sb0\sl-391\slmult0 \par\p
ard\ql\li3925\sb0\sl-391\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3925\sb0\sl-391\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql\li3925\sb0\sl-391\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3925\sb11\sl-391\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex92 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs34 RIGHT TO FOOD IN INDIA \par\pard
\ql \li5048\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5048\sb6\sl-299\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-11\charscalex90 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs26 S. Mahendra Dev \par\pard\ql \li
5542\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5542\sb46\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-10
\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs22 Abstract \par\pard\qj \li2379\sb0\sl-3
20\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2379\ri2155\sb72\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs20 The objective of this paper is to examine r
ight to food in the Indian context. We analyse the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsca
lex100 right to food in terms of availability, accessibility, adequacy and susta
inability. These are \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 examined in terms of eq
uity and justiciability. The study is different from the earlier studies \line \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 on food security as it is based on human rights app
roach. The issue of food is approached from \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
the rights perspective. Specifically, the paper addresses the following question
s: \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (a) W
hat are the definitions, contents and obligations of right to food? \par\pard\ql
\li2379\sb210\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (b) How far India pr
ogressed in fulfilling right to food? \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb210\sl-230\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (c) What are the programmes and policies India fo
llowed in achieving right to food? \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (d) What should be done to achieve right to food to a
ll citizens of India? \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2159\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 Progress is examined in terms of availability, accessibilit
y (physical and economic). policies \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 and Pro
grammes are scrutinized in terms of obligation to respect, protect and fulfill (
facilitate \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 and provide). \par\pard\qj \li237
9\ri2154\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 India is signatory t
o many international treaties involving right to food. Indian Constitution \line
\up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 also indirectly refers to right to food. Therefore
, there is an obligation for the Indian Government \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsca
lex100 (Centre and states) to fulfill the right to food of the people. In spite
of many programmes, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 there are concerns regar
ding food and malnutrition. Some of the worst violations of the right \line \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 to food can be seen in India today. We examined the pr
oblems of various welfare programmes. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In ord
er to realise right to provide, the following programmes have to be strengthened
and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 implemented effectively. \par\pard\qj \
li2379\ri2152\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (a) Public Dist
ribution system and Annapurna schemes; (b ) Extending Antyodaya Anna \line \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 Yojana to all the destitutes in the country.; (c) Nutr
ition programmes for education (mid-day \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 meal
schemes) and Integrated child development schemes (ICDS); (d) Extending Maharas
htra\u8217?s \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Employment Guarantee Scheme (EG
S) throughout India. Part of the wages can be paid as \line \up0 \expndtw-6\char
scalex100 food; (e) Gender aspects of food security should be given importance i
n realizing right to food. \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 Women\u8217?s econ
omic and social empowerment not only improves intra-household food distribution
\line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 and health related matters but also improves
the working of food and nutrition programmes. \par\pard\ql \li5883\sb0\sl-230\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li5883\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5883\sb35\sl-230\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 i
{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft1213\shptop1337\shpright1583\shpbottom1337\shpfhdr0\shp
bxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz25\shplid0{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\s
v 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lineW
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft10347\shptop1337\shpright10703\shpbottom1337\shpfhdr0\s
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\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lin
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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{\shp {\*\shpinst\shpleft10266\shptop15459\shpright10741\shpbottom15459\shpfhdr0
\shpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz25\shplid4{\sp{\sn shapeType
}{\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn l
ineWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 8295}}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\qj \li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0
\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\s
l-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-
320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\ri2148\sb
36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs20 We
also examined the market reforms needed for achieving higher and sustainable gro
wth in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 agriculture and right to food for the
poor. All the things have to be based on rights based \line \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 framework of equality, non-discrimination, transparency, accountabili
ty and participation \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 (ENTAP). Better monitor
ing systems have to be developed at Central, state, district and village \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 levels to realize right to food. Justiciability is o
ne aspect of right to food. In this context, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
recent Supreme Court Orders and the Right to Food to campaign are in the right
direction. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 However, one (particularly the po
or) cannot go to court every time right to food is violated. It \line \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 is the responsibility of citizens and NGOs to organize campa
igns for better functioning of the \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 programmes
. Also there is a need for better delivery systems by the government with transp
arency \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 and public accountability. Other right
s such as right to health and education, right to information \line \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 etc are equally important to realize right to food. We have t
o focus more on demand side \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (social mobiliza
tion, accountability etc.) in the rights approach. Finally, the paper argues tha
t \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 right to employment is crucial for achievi
ng right to food. \par\pard\qj \li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb
0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\
sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl
-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-2
40\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240
\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\s
lmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmul
t0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0
\par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \
par\pard\qj\li2377\ri2154\sb27\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 This
paper was written as part of the project on \u8216?Right to Development in Indi
a\u8217? of the Centre \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 for Development and Hu
man Rights (CDHR), New Delhi and FXB Centre for Health and Human \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-7\charscalex100 Rights , Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, U.S.A. Ea
rlier drafts of this paper have been \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 present
ed and discussed at two workshops organized by CDHR at New Delhi in 2002 and 200
3 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and a seminar at Centre for Economic and S
ocial Studies. Thanks are due to participants for \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 their observations at these meetings. The author is grateful particularly
to Arjun Sengupta, \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\chars
calex100 N.J.Kurian, Stephen Marks, Jean Dreze and Jos Mooij for their comments
on the earlier drafts. \par\pard\ql \li5857\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li58
\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5857\sb30\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 ii
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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}}
}}
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}}
hpbxpage\shpbypage\shpwr3\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz102\shplid8{\sp{\sn shapeType}
{\sv 20}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn lineColor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn li
neWidth}{\sv 14479}}
g4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\ql \li3407\sb0\sl-483\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3407\sb0
l-483\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3407\sb329\sl-483\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
96 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs42 RIGHT TO FOOD IN INDIA \par\pard\ql \li5096\sb0
\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5096\sb134\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs22 S.Mahendra Dev \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-
0\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 1. INTRODU
CTION \par\pard\qj \li2379\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2379\ri2156\sb16\sl
-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Right t
o food is part of an overall goal of achieving right to development. The adoptio
n \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 by the United Nations in 1986 of the Decla
ration on the Right to Development was \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the c
ulmination of a long process of international deliberation on human rights which
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 were perceived from the very beginning as a
n integrated whole of all civil, political, \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100
economic, social and cultural rights\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\
fs17 1\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . The Declaration says \u8220? The Right to
Development \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 is an inalienable human right b
y virtue of which every human person and all peoples \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 are entitled to participate in and contribute to and enjoy economic, so
cial, cultural, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and political development in
which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can \line \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 be fully realized\u8221? \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (Article 1, Para
graph 1). Because of its association with justice \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2153\sb
0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and equity, the Right to developm
ent is fundamentally different from conventional \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscale
x100 policies and progress for development, whether seen as increasing the growt
h of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 GNP, supplying basic needs, or improvin
g the index of human development. The \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 rights
based approach imposes additional constraints on the development process, \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 such as maintaining transparency, accountability,
equity and non-discrimination in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 all the pr
ogrammes. The individuals must have equal opportunity of access to the \line \up
0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 resources for development and receive fair distributi
on of the benefits of development. \par\pard\qj \li2423\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par
\pard\qj\li2423\ri2166\sb80\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\su
per\cf15\f16\fs16\ul0\super\cf15\f16\fs15 1\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 See Sengupta (2000, 2000a, 2002), Marks (2000) and Franc
iscans International (1999-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2002). The right
to development , as adopted by the Declaration and reaffirmed in the \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 Vienna Declaration of 1993, reunified all these rights
into an integrated and interde-\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pendent set o
f human rights, identified with a process of development. Osmani (2000) \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 deals with a set of issues related to the human ri
ghts to food, health and education. He \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 elucid
ates the philosophical underpinning of these rights, by using the conceptual \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 framewok of capabilities developed by Amartya Se
n. In this context, the notion of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \u8216?cap
ability rights as goal rights\u8217? is elaborated and contrasted with a popular
version of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 libertarian rights. In this cont
ext see Sen (1982 and 1985). \par\pard\ql \li5855\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li5855\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5855\sb35\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 1
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
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}}
96\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 An
other important thing is that the right to development approach confers unequivo
cal \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 obligation on duty-holders: individuals
in the community, states at the national level, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 and states at the international level\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14
\f15\fs17 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . Nation states have the responsibili
ty to help \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 realize the process of developmen
t through appropriate development policies. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2151\sb100\sl
-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Although all rights are important, ri
ght to food plays a pivotal role in the rights based \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 approach to development. The objective of this paper is to examine right to f
ood in \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the Indian context. We analyse the right to
food in terms of availability, accessibility, \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 adeq
uacy and sustainability. These will be examined in terms of equity and justiciab
ility. \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The study is different from the earlier stu
dies on food security because it is based \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 on human
rights approach. The issue of food is approached from the rights perspective. \u
p0 \expndtw-9\charscalex98 Specifically, the paper addresses the following quest
ions: \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs20 (a) What are the definitions, contents and obligation
s of right to food? (Section 2) \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 (b) How far India progressed in fulfilling right to food
? (Section 3) \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2791\sb16\sl-320\slmult0\tx2674 \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 (c) What are the programmes and policies India followed in ac
hieving right to food? \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (Section 4) \par\
pard\ql \li2377\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (d) What shoul
d be done to achieve right to food to all citizens of India? (Section 5) \par\pa
rd\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb80\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 2. DEFINITION, CONTENTS AND
OBLIGATIONS OF RIGHT TO FOOD \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2585\sb256\sl-320\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 In order to analyse r
ight to food it is important to be clear about the definition, \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 contents and obligations. This section covers these aspects. \par\p
ard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 2.1. Definition \par\pard\
qj \li2377\ri2155\sb174\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf10\f11\fs20 The evolution of the human right to food derives from the lar
ger human right to an \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 adequate standard of li
ving given in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights \line \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 (UDHR), 1948. Article 25 (1) of the UDHR asserts that \u8216?everyon
e has the right to a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 standard of living adeq
uate for the health and well-being of himself and his family \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 including food, clothing, and housing..\u8217?. In several othe
r international instruments, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the right to fo
od is recognized as part of the right to an adequate standard of living, \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 focusing especially on the need for freedom from hun
ger. The Preamble to the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Constitution of the
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) 1965, declared that \line \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 \u8216?ensuring humanity\u8217?s freedom from hunger\u8217? is
one of its basic purposes. \par\pard\ql \li2440\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
\li2440\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2440\sb99\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 2. See Sengupta (2000a) \par\pard\
ql \li5852\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5852\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li5852\sb14\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\
f11\fs20 2
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Th
e right to food, and the measures that must be taken, are laid out quite clearly
in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 article 11 of the International Covenant
on \ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\f
s20 Economic, social and cultural rights. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Pa
ragraph 1 calls on States to \u8220?recognize the right of everyone to an adequa
te \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 standard of living for himself and his fam
ily, including adequate food\u8230? and the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 c
ontinuous improvement of living conditions\u8221?. Paragraph 2 is more precise,
as it \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 demands that States guarantee the fund
amental right of everyone to be free from \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 hu
nger, and asks them to take \u8220?individually and through international co-op
eration, \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the measures, including specific pr
ogrammes, which are needed : (a) to improve \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
methods of production, conservation and distribution of food by making full use
of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 technical and scientific knowledge, by di
sseminating knowledge of the principles of \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 n
utrition and by developing or reforming agrarian systems in such a way as to ach
ieve \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the most efficient development and util
ization of natural resources; (b) taking into \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex10
0 account the problems of both food-importing and food exporting countries, to e
nsure \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 an equitable distribution of world foo
d supplies in relation to need\u8221?. The UN Convention \line \up0 \expndtw-1\c
harscalex100 on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 1989, goes beyond hunger and addr
esses the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 issue of child nutrition. \par\par
d\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Towards t
he late 1990s, work on the human right to adequate food at the global level \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 centred on a mandate from the World Food Summit
(WFS) held in Rome in 1996. The \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 summit adopt
ed a Plan of Action aimed at reducing the number of undernourished \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-7\charscalex100 people to half their number by 2015. The Plan of Action c
ontained seven commitments \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 that were to act
as guiding principles to all those involved in formulating the policies \line \u
p0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 to implement the Plan at the national and internatio
nal levels and spelt out objectives \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 and actio
ns for the implementation of these commitments. Objective 7.4 (under \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 commitment 7) stipulates the need \u8216? to clarify th
e content of the right to adequate \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 food and
the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger\u8230?\u8217?. It also
called \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 upon UN commissioner for Human Rights
\u8216?to better define the rights related to food \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 in Article 11 of the Covenant and to propose ways to realize these right
s\u8217? \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2158\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex100 The operational concept of right to food as used by FAO is that of food s
ecurity \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 which says \u8216?food security exists when
all people, at all times have physical and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 econom
ic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
\par\pard\ql \li2471\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2471\sb0\sl-207\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li2471\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2471\sb173\sl-207\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 3. More on this see
Ziegler (2002), Osmani (2000) \par\pard\ql \li5855\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql\li5855\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5855\sb14\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 3
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Dur
ing the World Food Summit at Rome, the plenary of the parallel NGO forum \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 proposed a Code of Conduct (CoC) on the Right to Adequate
Food. The Code of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Conduct (CoC) discusses the nor
mative content of the Right to Adequate Food, the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
corresponding obligations of state and non-state actors, the role of civil socie
ty and \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the means and methods of implementation. \p
ar\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Artic
le 4 of the Normative Content states that \u8220?The right to adequate food mean
s \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that every man, woman, and child alone and
in community with others must have \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 physical
and economic access at all times to adequate food or by using a resource \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 base appropriate for its procurement in ways consi
stent with human dignity.\u8221? Article \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 4 fu
rther states that the realization of the right to adequate food requires: (a) th
e \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 availability of food, free from adverse sub
stances and culturally acceptable, in a \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 quan
tity and quality which will satisfy the nutritional and dietary needs of individ
uals; \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2162\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 (b) the accessibility of such food in ways that do not interfere with the enj
oyment of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 other human rights and that is sustainab
le. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2147\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1
00 The CoC specified that the ultimate objective of the right to adequate food i
s the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 achievement of nutritional well being.
It, therefore, states that the right to food needs \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charsc
alex100 to be understood in a much broader sense as the right to adequate food a
nd nutrition. \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 The CoC was recognized by the
Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
Rights (OHCHR) and a series of expert consultations, conferences, studies stead
ily \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 clarified the meaning of the human right
to food. This finally culminated in the publication \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsc
alex100 in May 1999 by the UN Committee on Economic, social and Cultural Rights
of its \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 General Comment 12 (GC12), considered
to be the most authoritative interpretation \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
of the right to adequate food. While reaffirming the definition of the CoC, it
added -\line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \u8220?the right to adequate food sha
ll, therefore, not be interpreted in a narrow or restrictive \line \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 sense which equates it with a minimum package of calories, prote
ins and other \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 specific nutrients. The right
to adequate food will have to be realized progressively\u8221?. \par\pard\ql \li
2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb85\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 2.2. The Content of Right to Food \p
ar\pard\qj \li2377\ri2149\sb236\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The General Comment 12 (GC12) says that the core cont
ent of the right to food is \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 availability and
accessibility. The availability also includes adequacy and acceptability. \par\
pard\ql \li2377\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2.2.1 Availab
ility \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Th
e notion of availability as set out in GC 12 is as follows: \par\pard\ql \li2377
\sb210\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs20
(a) Feeding oneself directly from the productive land or other natural resource
s \par\pard\ql \li5852\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5852\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li5852\sb30\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf10\f11\fs20 4
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 (b
) a well-functioning processing and distribution system that can move food fro
m \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the site of production to where it is needed in
accordance with demand. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-5\charscalex100 According to Asjborn Eide, senior fellow of the Norwegian
Institute of Human Rights, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 it is not enough for th
e foodstuffs to be physically available. They also have to \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 satisfy the following criteria in order to qualify as adequate: \par\pa
rd\qj \li2379\ri2157\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf9\f10\fs20 (a) satisfy the dietary needs (energy and nutrients includi
ng the micronutrients like iron, \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 vitamin and iodin
e); \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (b)
be culturally acceptable (fit in with prevailing food or dietary culture); \par\
pard\ql \li2379\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (c) be safe (
free of toxic elements and contaminants); and \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb210\sl-230\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (d) be of good quality (in terms of, for e
xample taste and texture) \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i2379\sb40\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11
\fs20 2.2.2. Accessibility \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2219\sb236\sl-320\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 The notion of accessibility in GC12 incorporates both p
hysical and economic \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 accessibility \par\pard\qj \l
i2379\ri2151\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
3\f14\fs20 Economic accessibility\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 implies that the
personal or household financial cost \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 associ
ated with the acquisition of food for an adequate diet should not be so high as
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to compromise on other basic needs. As the r
esources available to an individual or \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 house
hold are limited, an increase in the cost of acquisition of food for an adequate
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 diet could lead to a cutting back on other
items of essential expenditure. However, \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 soc
ially vulnerable groups such as landless persons and other impoverished segments
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of the population may need attention through
special programmes to facilitate \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 economic a
ccessibility. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Physical accessibility\ul0\nosupersub
\cf10\f11\fs20 means that adequate food must be accessible to everyone. \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 The sections of the population deserving special attentio
n and priority consideration \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 in this respect have
been identified as the physically and mentally vulnerable which \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 may include infants and young children, elderly people, the physic
ally disabled, the \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 terminally ill and people with
persistent medical problems. The victims of natural \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 disasters or people living in disaster-prone areas and other disadvantaged gro
ups \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 have also been identified as deserving special
attention. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2162\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 The right to food also contains an element of sustainability. Adequat
e food must \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 also be accessible in ways that are su
stainable, that is, the long-term availability as \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
well as accessibility of food must be ensured. \par\pard\ql \li5855\sb0\sl-230\s
lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5855\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5855\sb55\sl-230\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 5
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
g9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb0
0\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb0\sl-230\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb50\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 2.3. Obligations of the State \par\pard\qj \li2377\r
i2153\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f1
1\fs20 The enjoyment of the right to food depends on several factors, ranging fr
om access \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 to land to sufficient income-earnin
g opportunities. The Committee on Economic, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) has entrusted national governments with the
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 primary responsibility of ensuring the right
to food. Under the right to food, there are \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
three different levels of obligation - the obligations to respect, protect and
fulfill the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 right to food. \par\pard\qj \li2
377\ri2154\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 The obligation to
respect, as set out in Para 15 of General Comment 12, means that \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 State parties should not take measure that would hinder the acces
s to adequate \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 food. In other words, States must no
t interfere with individual\u8217?s livelihoods. Or, as \up0 \expndtw-5\charscal
ex100 Asjborn Eide explains, the States should, at the primary level, \u8220?res
pect the resources \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 owned by the individual and the
individual\u8217?s freedom\u8221? to find: \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb195\sl-230\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs20 (a) a job of his
or her preference, \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb150\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 (b) make optimal use of his or her own knowledge \par\pard\qj \li237
7\ri2157\sb93\sl-300\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (c) take necessary ac
tions and use necessary resources (alone or in association with others) \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 to satisfy her or his needs. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2157\s
b184\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20
The obligation to protect\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 means that the state has
to ensure that non-state actors \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (enterprise
s or individuals) do not deprive other individuals or group of their access \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to adequate food. So, rather than passively ackn
owledging the rights and freedoms \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 of individ
uals, the state has to take due account of and action against any negative \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 interference of a third party in the efforts of t
he individuals or groups to satisfy their \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ne
eds. As Eide argues, the State at the secondary level is also obliged to provide
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 active protection against other more assert
ive or aggressive subjects, in particular \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 ag
ainst more economic interests. These sections could be exercising fraud, display
ing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 unethical behaviour in trade and contrac
tual relations, or be involved in marketing \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
and dumping of hazardous or dangerous products and unfair market practices, such
\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 as \u8216?withholding price information or
creating monopolies\u8217?. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2158\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 The obligation to fulfill includes the obligation to
facilitate and the obligation to provide. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Th
e \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 obligation to facilitate \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f1
1\fs20 means that the State must be proactive in strengthening \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 people\u8217?s access to food and utilization of resources an
d means to access to food. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf13\f14\fs20 obligation to provide \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 means that
States must fulfill the right directly whenever \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex
100 an individual or group is unable, for reasons beyond their control, to enjoy
the right to \par\pard\ql \li5852\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5852\sb0\sl
-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5852\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 6
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
g10}{\bkmkend Pg10}\par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\s
0\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb50\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 adequate food with the means at their disposal. \p
ar\pard\qj \li2379\ri2153\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Eide
maintains that the facilitation may take the form of improving measures of \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 production, conservation and distribution of food throu
gh complete utilization of \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 technical and scientifi
c knowledge and by developing or reforming the agrarian system. \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 He has also identified the situations in which states must underta
ke direct provision \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 of food or resources (through
direct food aid or social security): \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2161\sb0\sl-320\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (a) emergencies like severe drought or floods,
armed conflict or the collapse of \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 economic activit
ies within a particular region of a country; \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2157\sb120\s
l-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (b) normal circumstances like unempl
oyment on account of economic recession, \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 old age i
nfirmity, disability, marginalisation of a section of population (e.g. due to \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 structural transformation in the economy and product
ion). \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2159\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 The core obligation in the case of the right to food relates to the State ta
king the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 necessary action to mitigate and alleviat
e hunger as provided for in Article 11 (2) of \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the
ICESCR which recognizes the \u8216?fundamental right of everyone to be free from
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 hunger\u8217? even in times of natural and other
disasters. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb65\sl-2
30\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Violation of right to food \par\pard\qj
\li2379\ri2155\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 General Comme
nt No.12 also refers to violations of the right to food, which occur \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 when the state fails to ensure the satisfaction of, at t
he very least, the minimum \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 essential level re
quired to be free from hunger. Moreover, if a State claims it is \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-6\charscalex100 unable to fulfill its obligation for reasons beyond its con
trol (e.g. resource constraints), \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 it has to
demonstrate to CESCR that \u8216?it has done everything in its power to ensure \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 access to food, including appealing for suppo
rt from the international community\u8217?. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Violation of the right to food includes discrimination in the access to food as
well to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 means and entitlements for its procu
rement \u8216?on the grounds of race, colour, sex, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 language, age, religion, political or other opinion, national or social o
rigin, property, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 birth or other status\u8217
? in a manner that impedes the exercise of economic, social and \line \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 cultural rights. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Implementing the right to food \par\pard\qj \li2379
\ri2150\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Since the means of imp
lementing the right to food vary across nations, GC 12 \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 requires State parties to develop a national strategy to ensure food
and nutrition \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 security for all, based on hum
an rights principles. At the international level, States \line \up0 \expndtw-6\c
harscalex100 are required to recognize the essential role of international coope
ration and to comply \par\pard\ql \li5855\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5855
\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5855\sb15\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 7
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
g11}{\bkmkend Pg11}\par\pard\qj \li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\s
b0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0
l-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\ri2156\
sb36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20
with their commitment to take joint and separate action to achieve the full real
ization \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 of the right to adequate food. \par\pard\q
l \li2377\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
3\f14\fs20 3. PROGRESS ON RIGHT TO FOOD \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2149\sb136\sl-320
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 As mentione
d above, the content of right to food refers to availability, accessibility, \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 adequacy and sustainability. We will examine th
e progress in the indicators relating \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to the
contents of right to food in India. Availability, Accessibility and sustainabi
lity \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 are not separate phenomena - they overl
ap. Food production is linked to livelihood \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
access, food access and food consumption. Livelihood access in turn influences \
line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the demand for food and better prices and inc
entives for production. Better livelihood \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 ac
cess also leads to better education, better living standards, better sanitation,
and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 better knowledge of nutrition, better ab
sorption and better health. For achieving \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 acc
essibility it is also important that the poor have sufficient means to purchase
\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 food. The purchasing power of the poor to bu
y food can be ensured in two ways. One \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 way i
s Government directly providing food or income support in the form of foodgains
\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 at subsidised prices, nutrition programmes,
employment programmes. The other \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 way is to i
ncrease purchasing power by facilitating creation of productive employment \line
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 through sectoral development. Here right to emplo
yment or livelihood is important. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\p
ard\ql\li2377\sb25\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf13\f14\fs20 3.1. Availability \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 3.1.1Foodgrain production
\par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2151\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 O
ne achievement of India is that it achieved self sufficiency of food grains at t
he \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 national level. After remaining a food def
icit country for about two decades after \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 ind
ependence, India has not only become self sufficient in foodgrains but now has a
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 surplus of foodgrains (GOI, 2003). The situ
ation improved gradually after the mid-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1960s
with the introduction of high yielding varieties (HYVs) of crops, and the \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 development of agriculture infrastructure for irrig
ation, input supply, storage and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 marketing.
The era of all-round development on the agriculture front has been called \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Green Revolution. The foodgrains production in
creased from about 50 million \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 tonnes in 1950-
51 to around 211 million tonnes in 2001-02. The production of oilseeds, \line \
up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 cotton, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables and milk also
increased appreciably. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2150\sb220\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 However, in spite of the spectacular achievements, various
constraints and disturbing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 trends continue
to hamper the requisite growth of the agricultural sector. During the \line \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 1990s (1989-90 to 1999-00), the growth of agriculture
decelerated as compared to \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 the 1980s (1979-8
0 to 1989-90). The growth rate of foodgrains production declined to \par\pard\ql
\li5852\sb215\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 8
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
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1.92% per annum from 3.54% per annum. The growth rate of productivity in foodgra
ins \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 decelerated to 1.32% in the 1990s as com
pared to 3.3% in the 1980s. The overall \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 grow
th rate of crop production declined from 3.72% to 2.29% and productivity from \
par\pard\ql \li2379\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 2.99% to 1
.21% per annum. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb20
\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 3.1.2 Per capita Availability \par
\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The p
er capita net availability of foodgrains increased only about 10 per cent over \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 the last 50 years (see Table 1). During the same pe
riod, per capita availability of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pulses declined s
ignificantly. On the other hand, per capita availability of sugar and \up0 \exp
ndtw-5\charscalex100 edible oils has increased over time. In the 1990s, per capi
ta availability of foodgrains \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 has not increased be
cause of 60 million tonnes accumulation of foodgrains by the \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 government and due to exports. \par\pard\ql \li3834\sb0\sl-230\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li3834\sb165\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 1. Net Availability of Cereals and Pulses \par\p
ard\li2509\sb210\sl-230\slmult0\fi192\tx3839\tx6570\tx7507\tx8701 \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Year\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 Per capita net availability\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Edible oil\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Vanaspati\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Suga
r\par\pard\li2509\sb39\sl-230\slmult0\fi1737\tx6762\tx7721\tx8480 \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 per day (grams)\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 (Kg.)\tab \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 (Kg.)\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 (Nov.-Oct.)\pa
r\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi6235 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 (Kg.)\par
\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi1070\tx4573\tx5749 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex
100 Cereals\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Pulses\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 Total\par\pard\li2509\sb63\sl-230\slmult0\fi2961 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscal
ex100 Foodgrains\par\pard\li2509\sb87\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx
6731\tx7754\tx8829 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1951\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charsc
alex100 334.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 60.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 394.9\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 2.5*\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscal
ex100 0.7*\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 5.0*\par\pard\li2509\sb38\sl-230\sl
mult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4685\tx5712\tx6726\tx7744\tx8823 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 1961\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 399.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
69.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 468.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
3.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 0.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 4.8\
par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4685\tx5712\tx6726\tx7744\tx882
3 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1971\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 417.6\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 51.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 468.8\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 3.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.0\tab \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 7.4\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4
685\tx5712\tx6726\tx7744\tx8823 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1981\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-6\charscalex100 417.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 37.5\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-6\charscalex100 454.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 3.8\tab \up0 \expndt
w-6\charscalex100 1.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 7.3\par\pard\li2509\sb10
\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\ch
arscalex100 1990\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 435.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\cha
rscalex100 41.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 476.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\char
scalex100 5.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscal
ex100 12.3\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\t
x7741\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1991\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 468.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 41.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
510.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 5.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1
.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 12.7\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi
0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1992\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 434.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 34.3\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 468.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 5.4\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 13.0\par\par
d\li2509\sb11\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 1993\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 427.9\tab \up0 \
expndtw-6\charscalex100 36.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 464.1\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-6\charscalex100 5.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.0\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-6\charscalex100 13.7\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx
5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1994\tab \up0 \expndtw-6
\charscalex100 434.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 37.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\
charscalex100 471.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 6.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\ch
arscalex100 1.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 12.5\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-2
30\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 1995\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 457.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscal
ex100 37.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 495.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 6.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
13.2\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741
\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1996\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 443
.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 32,8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 476.
2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 7.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.0\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 14.1\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3
671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1997\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 468.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 37.3\tab \up
0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 505.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 8.0\tab \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 14.6\par\pard\li2
509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0 \expn
dtw-6\charscalex100 1998\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 417.3\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-6\charscalex100 33.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 450.3\tab \up0 \expndt
w-6\charscalex100 6.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\
charscalex100 14.5\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\
tx6724\tx7741\tx8763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1999\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\char
scalex100 433.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 36.9\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\chars
calex100 470.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 8.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 1.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 14.9\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\sl
0 2000\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 426.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
9.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 15.6
\par\pard\li2509\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi13\tx3671\tx4684\tx5711\tx6724\tx7741\tx8
763 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 2001(P)\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 390.
6\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 26.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 417.0
\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 8.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1.4\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 15.8\par\pard\ql \li2379\sb162\sl-230\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 * Pertains to the
year 1955-56. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscale
x100 (P) Provisional. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\c
harscalex100 Source: Economic Survey 2001-2002, Government of India\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\ql \li5855\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5855\s
0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 9
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 3.1.2. Changes in Consumption Patterns and demand
for non-cereal food \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-6\charscalex100 In spite of increase in per capita real expenditures during t
he period 1972-73 to 1999-\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 00, the per capita
cereal intake declined in both rural and urban areas. However, the \line \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 fall in cereal consumption was offset by increase in the
consumption of non-cereal \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 food. It is now w
idely recognised that the food basket is more diversified and dramatic \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 changes in food consumption patterns have taken place
in India in the post-green \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 revolution perio
d. For example, at the all India level, cereal consumption declined \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 from 15.3 kilograms per capita per month in 1972-73 to 12
.7 kgs per capita per \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 month in 1999-00 in ru
ral areas\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 4\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\
f11\fs20 . This is true for all classes (rich and poor). The \line \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 cereal shares have seen a dramatic decline of more than 10 p
ercentage points \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 (between 1972-73 to 1993-94
) in most regions - in both rural and urban India. Similarly, \line \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 the share of meat and milk products, and vegetables and fruits
has increased over \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 time. Table 2 shows the
following trends. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 (a) Cereal consumption has declined for
all the classes \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 (b) Rice consumption has not declined for the bottom 30% \par\pard\ql \li
2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 (c) Wheat consumption has
been stagnant for the bottom 30% \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex100 (c) Coarse cereal consumption has declined for all the
classes \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2332\sb16\sl-320\slmult0\tx2698 \up0 \expndtw-6\c
harscalex100 (d) Budget share of non-cereal food has increased for all classes;
the consumption of \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 non-cereal food incre
ased in constant prices even for the bottom 30%. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb75\sl-23
0\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 (e) Budget share of non-food has increas
ed for all classes \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2154\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 It may be noted that changes in
consumption patterns may reflect substitution away \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 from cereals to other food items as income rise. Deaton and Dreze (2002)
with the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 help of data collected by National
Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) show the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
substitution from cereals towards other food items with rising per capita income
s. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex10
0 According to some projections, the household demand for foodgrains would incre
ase \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 from 155 mt. in 2000 to 240 mt. In 2020;
for milk and milk products from 64 mt. to 166 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 mt. and fruits and vegetables from 48 mt. to 113 mt. (Radhakrishna, 2002). Th
e per \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 capita availability of fruits was 58 g
rams per day and 179 grams per day for vegetables. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 Table 2 provides per capita availability and deficit of milk, egg and mea
t. It shows \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the need for increase in availabi
lity of non-cereal food. \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 In terms of per capita \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 availability non-cereal food like fruits, vege
tables, milk, meat and fish India \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 has not ac
hieved self sufficiency. \par\pard\ql \li2401\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li
2401\sb47\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\
fs18 4. For more details on changing consumption patterns, see Rao, CHH (2000) \
par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\ql\li5800\sb14\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf10\f11\fs20 10
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 2: Changes in Consumption Patterns: 1972-73
to 1999-00 \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Rice (Kg/month) \par\pard\li2490\sb113\sl-230\s
lmult0\fi0\tx4237\tx5144\tx6219\tx6900\tx7816\tx8742 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Decile Group\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
1972-73\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1977-78\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 1983\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1987-88\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1990-00\par\pard\li2490\sb121\sl-
230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 Lowest 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.82\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 5.17\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 5.74\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 6.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 6.60\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064
\tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Middle 40%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\char
alex100 7.01\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.42\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 7.54\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.02\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\sl
0 Top 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.93\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
.64\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\tx7985\t
x8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 6.59\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.12\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 6.63\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.04\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.02\tab \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 6.78\par\pard\li2490\sb125\sl-230\slmult0\fi0 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 Wheat (kg/month)\par\pard\li2490\sb68\sl-230\slmult0\fi
0\tx4237\tx5144\tx6219\tx6900\tx7816\tx8742 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Decile
Group\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1972-73\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 1977-78\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1983\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 1987-88\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 1990-00\par\pard\li2490\sb63\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7
064\tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Lowest 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 2.09\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.33\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 3.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.71\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 3.38\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.44\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230
\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 Middle 40%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.58\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
lex100 4.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.17\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 4.47\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\tx
7985\tx8907 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Top 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
5.73\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 5.76\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\
fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All\
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.88\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.05\ta
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.55\par\pa
rd\li2490\sb67\sl-230\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Other Cereals (k
g/month)\par\pard\li2490\sb68\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4237\tx5144\tx6219\tx6900\tx7
816\tx8742 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Decile Group\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 1972-73\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1977-78\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 1983\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1987-88\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1990-00\par\pard\li2490\s
b125\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-
2\charscalex100 Lowest 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.45\tab \up0 \expn
w-2\charscalex100 2.82\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.28\tab \up0 \expndtw-
2\charscalex100 1.41\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx624
3\tx7064\tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Middle 40%\tab \up0 \expndt
2\charscalex100 3.61\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 1.90\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.45\par\pard\li2490\sb10\s
l-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\tx7985\tx8907 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 Top 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 5.07\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
lex100 1.30\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4400\tx5307\tx6243\tx7064\
tx7985\tx8906 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
3.71\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.49\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.
98\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.39\par\pard\li2490\sb92\sl-230\slmult0\fi
0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Total Cereals (kg/month)\par\pard\li2490\sb96\sl
-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4237\tx5144\tx6219\tx6900\tx7816\tx8742 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 Decile Group\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1972-73\tab \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 1977-78\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1983\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 1987-88\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 1990-00\par\pard\li2490\sb96\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx
5255\tx6190\tx7011\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Lowest 30%\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 11.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 11.42\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 11.95\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 12.27\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 11.76\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 11.44\par\pa
rd\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6190\tx7011\tx7933\tx8855 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 Middle 40%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 15.32\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 12.95\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4
347\tx5255\tx6191\tx7012\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Top 30%\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 14.77\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 13.69\par
\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6190\tx7011\tx7933\tx8855 \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 15.26\tab \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 15.25\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 14.80\tab \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 12.72\par\pard\li2490\sb97\sl-230\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 Budget Share of Food\par\pard\li2490\sb91\sl-230\slmult0\
fi0\tx4237\tx5144\tx6219\tx6900\tx7816\tx8742 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Deci
le Group\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1972-73\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 1977-78\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1983\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 1987-88\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 1990-00\par\pard\li2490\sb97\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6190\t
x7011\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Lowest 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 81.22\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 79.50\tab \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 69.76\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 62.71\par\pard\li2490\sb1
0\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6190\tx7011\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 Middle 40%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 78.36\tab \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 76.01\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 72.27\tab \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 60.14\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx
6191\tx7012\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Top 30%\tab \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 53.86\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 51.92\par\pard\li2490\
sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6190\tx7011\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-
2\charscalex100 All\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 72.76\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 66.38\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 66.29\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 64.38\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 60.77\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 56.60\par\pard\li2490\sb120\sl-230\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 Expenditure on Non-cereal food (Rs. 0.00) /month 1990-91 prices\par\p
ard\li2490\sb125\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4237\tx5144\tx6219\tx6900\tx7816\tx8742 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Decile Group\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1972-
73\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1977-78\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1
983\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1987-88\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1990-00\par\pard\li2490\sb126\sl-230\s
lmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6190\tx7011\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 Lowest 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 29.64\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 30.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 32.58\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 34.77\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 36.20\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
1\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Middle 40%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 35.41\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 35.55\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 40.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 40.16\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl
-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6191\tx7012\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 Top 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 38.74\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 41.60\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4347\tx5255\tx6190\tx
7011\tx7933\tx8855 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 36.26\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 34.43\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 38.91\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 39.95\par\pard\ql \li2379\sb170\s
l-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Source
: NSS Consumer Expenditure Surveys \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\
pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb110\sl-230\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-7\charscalex100 11
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 2a: Per capita Availability and Deficit of M
ilk, Egg and Meat \par\pard\li2493\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li2493\sb40\sl-23
0\slmult0\fi0\tx4514\tx6223\tx7902 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf19\f20\fs20 Food Items\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 Per capita\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-9\charscalex95 ICMR dietary\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 Per capita d
eficit\par\pard\li2493\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi1977\tx6177 \up0 \expndtw-9\charsca
lex95 Availability\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 guidelines for\par\pard\li24
93\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi3940 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 Indians\par\pard\li24
93\sb177\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4191\tx5941\tx7874 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 Mi
lk\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 216grams/day\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex9
5 300 milli litre/day\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 34 grams/day\par\pard\li2
493\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4192\tx5946\tx7877 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 Eg
g\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 30 eggs/annum\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex9
5 180 eggs/annum\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 150 eggs/annum\par\pard\li2493
\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4191\tx5948\tx7876 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 Meat\
tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 3.24 kg/annum\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95
10.95 kg/annum\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex95 7.71 kg/annum\par\pard\ql \li249
3\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2493\sb73\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\cha
rscalex100 Source: GOI (2003) \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 3.2. Adequacy \par\pard\qj \
li2377\ri2158\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf10\f11\fs20 Once the foodstuffs are physically available, they have to satisf
y the dietary needs \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 (energy and nutrients includin
g the micronutrients like iron, vitamin and iodine), among \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 other criteria, to qualify as adequate. Thus nutritional aspects need t
o be duly taken \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 into consideration in order to loo
k at the adequacy aspect in the availability of food \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 and not just physical availability. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li2377\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf13\f14\fs20 Nutrition \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2158\sb196\sl-320\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 There are two possible
ways to assess the adequacy of food and nutrition and to \line \up0 \expndtw-6\
charscalex100 detect the presence of inadequacy intake among individuals and pop
ulation groups\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 5\ul0\nosupersub\
cf10\f11\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 These are: Nutritional Inta
ke Assessment and Nutritional Status Assessment. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 Measures of nutritional intake estimate the amount of food a person is eati
ng and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 can be used to assess the adequacy of
the quantity of dietary energy (and protein) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102
supply. In simple terms, one can categorize people as being well nourished or \
line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 undernourished based on whether their intake
of food matches their food energy \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 needs or n
utrient requirements. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2160\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-5\charscalex100 The nutritional status of an individual or a representative
sample of individuals within \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 a population can be a
ssessed by measuring anthropometric, biochemical or \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 physiological (functional) characteristics to determine whether the individual
is well\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 nourished or under-nourished. \par\pard\qj
\li2377\ri2161\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Thus one has t
o go for an assessment of adequacy from both these angles to \up0 \expndtw-7\cha
rscalex100 substantiate whether the food that is available in adequate quantity
is also nutritionally \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 adequate or not. \par\pard\q
j \li2416\ri2700\sb103\sl-220\slmult0\tx2699 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 5. see Shetty (undated); Also see Dreze and Sen (1989)
for a discussion on intake and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 outcomes
on nutrition. \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\s
l-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb12\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 12
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Nutritional Intake Assessment \par\pard\ql \li2379
0 Calories and Protein \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2153\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 The per capita calorie intake for rural population decline
d from 2364 kcal per day in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 1987-88 to 2030 k
cal per day in 1999-00 (Table 3). For the bottom 30% of the \line \up0 \expndtw-
4\charscalex100 population, the calorie intake increased up to 1993-94 and decl
ined in 1999-00. In \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the year 1999-00, the c
alorie intake was 1626 kcal per day for the bottom 30% of \line \up0 \expndtw-8\
charscalex100 population. This level is much below the norm of 2400 calories in
rural areas. However, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 there is a controversy
over the minimum calorie consumption per consumer unit per \line \up0 \expndtw-
3\charscalex100 diem. Sukhatme (1982) and Minhas (1991) have questioned the sanc
tity of calorie \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 norms widely used by nutriti
onists and consider them to be exaggerated. The NNMB \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 data in 1996-97 shows that about 48 per cent of the households consumed
more \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 than adequate amount of both proteins
and calories, while 20 per cent of households \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 consumed inadequate amounts of both the nutrients. \par\pard\ql \li3248\sb0\sl
-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3248\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 3: Average Per Capita Calorie Intake (kca
l/day): Rural \par\pard\li2547\sb220\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4122\tx5254\tx6550\tx7
524\tx8599 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Decile Gr
oup\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1972-73\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
1977-78\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1983\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1990-00\par\pard\li2547\sb149\sl-230\
slmult0\fi0\tx4266\tx5398\tx6550\tx7668\tx8743 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Low
est 30%\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1504\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
1630\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1620\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1
678\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1626\par\pard\li2547\sb87\sl-230\slmult0\f
i0\tx4266\tx5398\tx6550\tx7668\tx8743 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Middle 40%\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2170\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2296\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2144\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2119\tab \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2009\par\pard\li2547\sb91\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4266
\tx5399\tx6550\tx7669\tx8744 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Top 30%\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 3161\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3190\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 2929\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2672\tab \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 2463\par\pard\li2547\sb92\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4266\tx5398\tx65
50\tx7668\tx8743 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 2268\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2364\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 2222\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2152\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
2030\par\pard\ql \li2379\sb201\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex92 Souc
re: NSS Consumer Expenditure Surveys \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb116\sl-320\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The NSS data s
hows that the average protein intake in rural India remained at 62 \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-1\charscalex100 grams per consumer unit per day until 1983 but declined b
y 2 grams in 1993-94. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 There are some states w
here the average protein intake has been declining \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 continuously since 1972-73. These are Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Ta
mil \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. In Kerala, Orissa
and West Bengal, protein intake has \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 increase
d. On the whole at the average level protein energy malnutrition is not apparent
\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 in any of the states. This, however, does n
ot rule out the possibility of protein energy \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 malnutrition in the lower expenditure groups (MS Swaminathan Research Foundati
on, \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 2001). \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb195\sl-230
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Micro nutrient deficiencies \par\pard\qj
\li2379\ri2153\sb76\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Goitre due to i
odine deficiency, blindness due to Vitamin A deficiency, dry and wet \line \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 beriberi and pellagra were the major public health prob
lems in pre-independent India. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql\li5802\sb125\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 13
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sb36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 S
ustained dietary changes resulted in the elimination of beriberi and pellagra. H
owever, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 there has not been any decline in th
e prevalence of anemia due to iron and folic acid \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 deficiency; the decline in Vitamin A deficiency and iodine deficiency diso
rders has \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 been very slow. Diet surveys have
shown that the intake of Vitamin A is significantly \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charsc
alex100 lower than the recommended dietary allowance in young children, dietary
adolescent \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 girls and pregnant women. In thes
e vulnerable sub-groups multiple nutritional problems \line \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 coexist including inadequate intake of energy as well as of micronutri
ents other than \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Vitamin A (GOI, 2003). \par\
pard\ql \li2377\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Access to Dri
nking water \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2156\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\cha
rscalex100 While empirical evidence tends to suggest a positive association betw
een the calorie \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 intake and nutritional status, the
responsiveness is likely to be affected by the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 fact
ors relating to health and environment. For example, safe drinking water is \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 important for proper absorption of food. Around 23 per
cent of the households get \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 water from tap sources
in rural areas (Table 4). Another 49 per cent of households \up0 \expndtw-5\cha
rscalex100 get water from tube well/hand pump. But, there are considerable regio
nal disparities \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 in the major source of drinking wa
ter. \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par
d\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5
0\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\
sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\chars
calex100 14
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
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}}
}}
}}
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}}
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 4. Households by Major Source of Drinking Wa
ter (1995-1996) - Rural (%) \par\pard\li2490\sb150\sl-230\slmult0\fi196\tx4284\t
x5019\tx5699\tx6505\tx7313\tx8100\tx8904 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf19\f20\fs20 States/Uts\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Tap\tab \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 Tube\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Tanker\tab \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 Pucca\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Tank/\tab \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 River/\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Other\par\pard\
li2490\sb19\sl-230\slmult0\fi2519\tx6582\tx7328\tx8139 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 Well/\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Well\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 Pond\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Canal\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-230\slmu
lt0\fi2495\tx7107 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Pump\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 (Reserved)\par\pard\li2490\sb168\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx4956\tx5839\
tx6486\tx7441\tx8199\tx9029 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Andhra Pradesh\tab \up
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.60\tab \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.20\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-213\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx495
6\tx5839\tx6592\tx7441\tx8200\tx9030 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex91 Arunachal Prad
esh\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 60.20\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 10
.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.1
0\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 8.20\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 8.00\
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 8.20\par\pard\li2490\sb2\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx
4328\tx4957\tx5839\tx6487\tx7441\tx8200\tx8924 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Ass
am\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 55.5
\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 7.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.00\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 12.70\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx
4328\tx4957\tx5839\tx6487\tx7441\tx8200\tx9030 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Bih
ar\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.00\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 69.3
ab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.50\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-220\slmult0\fi0\tx4
222\tx5062\tx5839\tx6487\tx7441\tx8200\tx9030 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Goa\
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 44.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.20\t
\tx4956\tx5839\tx6486\tx7441\tx8199\tx9029 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Gujarat
\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 45.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 33.50
\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 19.90\
22\tx4957\tx5840\tx6489\tx7746\tx8202\tx9335 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Harya
na\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 34.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 47.
0\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.00\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-216\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\t
x5062\tx6142\tx6593\tx7442\tx8200\tx9030 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Himachal
Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 82.50\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 0.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 5.0
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 6.60\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx
4222\tx4957\tx5840\tx6594\tx7444\tx8097\tx8928 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex90 Jamm
u & Kashmir\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 50.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
00 10.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 19.30\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-220\slmu
lt0\fi0\tx4222\tx4956\tx5839\tx6486\tx7441\tx8199\tx9029 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 Karnataka\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 41.50\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
calex100 1.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.20\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-221\
slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx5062\tx5839\tx6487\tx7441\tx8200\tx9030 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 11.50\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
calex100 0.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 6.10\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-221\
slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx4956\tx5839\tx6486\tx7441\tx8199\tx9029 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 Madhya Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 10.50\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 54.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.60\tab \up0 \expnd
w-2\charscalex100 2.80\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3.20\par\pard\li2490\sb
0\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx4956\tx5839\tx6486\tx7441\tx8199\tx9029 \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 Maharashtra\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 45.70\tab \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 22.50\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.60\tab \up0
expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.90\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.30\par\pard\li2
490\sb0\sl-216\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx5062\tx5839\tx6592\tx7341\tx8200\tx8924 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 Manipur\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 12.50\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.70\tab \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 6.50\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 28.70\par\pard\l
i2490\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx5062\tx5840\tx6489\tx7444\tx8097\tx8928 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Meghalaya\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 41.30\ta
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 16.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 23.90\par\p
ard\li2490\sb0\sl-220\slmult0\fi0\tx4328\tx5063\tx6143\tx6595\tx7344\tx8097\tx89
28 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mizoram\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.40\
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\tab \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 24.60\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 28.90\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 42.80\par\pa
rd\li2490\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx5062\tx5839\tx6592\tx7341\tx8200\tx903
0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Nagaland\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 67.40
b \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.20\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 5.60\par\
pard\li2490\sb0\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx4328\tx4957\tx5839\tx6487\tx7441\tx8200\tx9
030 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Orissa\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.80\
030 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Punjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 20.00
\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 78.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.10\
029 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Rajasthan\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 28
.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 34.60\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.
par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx5364\tx6142\tx6895\tx7442\tx8201
\tx9031 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Sikkim\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 8
4.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 4.20\tab \up0
i2490\sb0\sl-220\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx4956\tx5839\tx6592\tx7441\tx8200\tx9030 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 56.20\t
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 0.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2.00\par\pa
rd\li2490\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx4956\tx5839\tx6592\tx7441\tx8200\tx892
4 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Tripura\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 32.40\
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1.90\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 18.70\par\
030 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Uttar Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
30\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-216\slmult0\fi0\tx4328\tx4957\tx5839\tx6487\tx7441\tx8
200\tx9030 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 West Bengal\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 3.90\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 82.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
00 1.50\par\pard\li2490\sb124\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4222\tx4956\tx5839\tx6486\tx7
441\tx8199\tx9029 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All India\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 23.20\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 49.00\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 0.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 21.80\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
calex100 2.50\par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2162\sb32\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 Source: Maternal and Child Health Care in India, NSS 52nd Round, July
1995 - June \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1996, Report No.445. \par\pard\ql \li
fs20 Nutritional Status Assessment of Children and Women \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri
fs20 The National Nutritional Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) provides the nutritional
status of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 rural households in seven sample st
ates for three periods: 1975-79, 190-91 and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2
000-01 (see Table 5). The children aged 1-5 years are classified into different
\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 nutritional grades based on weight for age.
If those classified in moderate and severe \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 m
alnutrition ranges are considered together, the percentage of children affected
by \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 malnutrition declined from 62.5 in 1975-7
9 to 56.2 in 1990-91 and further to 47.7 in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
2000-01. It is clear that in spite of some improvements in nutritional status, n
early \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 half of the rural children suffer from
malnutrition\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 6\ul0\nosupersub\c
f10\f11\fs20 . Among the sample states, Madhya \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex
100 Pradesh and Orissa are having the highest incidence of malnutrition. \par\pa
rd\ql \li2379\sb138\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf16\f17\fs18 6.\ul0\nosupersub\cf20\f21\fs16 Children of the poor communitie
s suffering from malnutrition not only do not achieve full genetic \par\pard\ql
\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb228\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 15
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
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}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}
}}
Width}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
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}}
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}}
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}}
l-300\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3289\sb0\sl-300\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3289\ri3069\
Table 5 Per cent Distribution of Children (Aged 1-5 Years) \line \up0 \expndtw
-5\charscalex100 by Nutritional Grade in Rural Areas of Selected States \par\par
d\li2545\sb166\sl-230\slmult0\fi359\tx4326\tx5454\tx6625\tx7612\tx8757 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 State\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 Period\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Normal\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 Mild\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Moderate\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 Severe\par\pard\li2545\sb111\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4235\tx5676\tx6704\tx
7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
1975-79\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 7.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 3
5.7\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 46.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 10.3\
par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx5570\tx6703\tx7894\tx9075 \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 1991-92\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 17.6\tab \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 46.7\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 29.6\tab \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex100 6.0\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi1689\tx5570\tx6703\tx7894
\tx9075 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2000-01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 20
.8\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 50.4\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 26.9\t
ab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1.9\par\pard\li2545\sb103\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4
235\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 1975-79\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 6.2\tab \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 34.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 47.0\tab \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 12.6\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\
tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1991-92\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 8.0\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 39.7\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 4
1.7\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 5.7\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-220\slmult0\fi16
89\tx5570\tx6703\tx7894\tx9075 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2000-01\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 10.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 50.6\tab \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 35.3\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 3.7\par\pard\li2545\sb104
\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4235\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 Karnataka\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1975-79\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 4.6\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 31.1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
00 50.0\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 14.3\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-217\slmult0
\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1991-92\tab \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 3.6\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 33.6\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 54.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 8.3\par\pard\li2545\s
b1\sl-221\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
0 2000-01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 7.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
45.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 45.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2.4\
par\pard\li2545\sb103\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4235\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 Andhra Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1975-79
\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 6.1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 32.4\tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 46.1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 15.4\par\pard
\li2545\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 1991-92\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 9.9\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 39.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 41.9\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 8.9\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi1689\tx5570\tx6703\tx7894\tx9075 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2000-01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 11.5\tab \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 48.6\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 35.8\tab \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 4.1\par\pard\li2545\sb103\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4235\tx567
6\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Maharashtra\tab \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 1975-79\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 3.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex100 25.4\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 49.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 21.9\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\t
x8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1991-92\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 4.5\
tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 33.3\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 44.9\tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 17.3\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi1689\tx56
76\tx6704\tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2000-01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex100 8.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 39.6\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex100 48.0\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 7.2\par\pard\li2545\sb103\sl-230\
slmult0\fi0\tx4235\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Guja
rat\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1975-79\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 3.
8\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 28.1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 54.3\ta
b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 13.8\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx
5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1991-92\tab \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 2.4\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 34.9\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 50.8\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 11.8\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-221
\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2000-01
\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 7.4\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 43.7\tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 40.0\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 8.9\par\pard\
li2545\sb103\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4235\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 Madhya Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1975-79\tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex100 8.4\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 30.3\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 45.1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 16.2\par\pard\li2545\s
b1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
30.4\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 49.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 14.7
\par\pard\li2545\sb103\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4235\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Orissa\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1975-79\tab \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 7.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 35.9\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 41.7\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 14.9\par\pard\li2545
\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
0 38.2\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 42.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 13
.3\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-221\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 2000-01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 6.7\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 38.9\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 47.2\tab \up0 \expndtw
4\tx7895\tx8975 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 All states*\tab \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex100 1975-79\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 5.9\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex100 31.6\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 47.5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 15.0\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx6704\tx7895\tx8975 \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1991-92\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 7.2\tab \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 36.3\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 41.1\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 11.1\par\pard\li2545\sb1\sl-220\slmult0\fi1689\tx5676\tx67
04\tx7895\tx9076 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 2000-01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex100 9.0\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 43.3\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
0 41.3\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 6.4\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb119\sl-207\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Notes: Base
d on National Centre for Health Statistics (NCHS), standards \par\pard\qj \li237
7\ri2180\sb63\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 * Pooled estimates fo
r Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, \up0 \exp
ndtw-8\charscalex95 Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2177\sb11\
sl-280\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Source: National Nutritional
Monitoring Bureau, \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 Report of the Repeat Surveys -
Rural, 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 , \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex98 National
Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad. Quoted in Radhakrishna (2002) \par\pard\qj \
li2377\ri2159\sb67\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f10\f11\fs20 National Family Health Surveys (NFHS I and NFHS II) provide infor
mation on \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 undernourishment of women and chil
dren (Table 6). Comparison of Body Mass Index \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 (BMI), which is essentially a measure of weight for height, brings this out cl
early the \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 undernourishment of women. At the a
ll India level, 36 per cent of women were suffering \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsc
alex100 from undernourishment in 1998-99. The malnutrition (weight for age) for
children \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 declined from 53.4 per cent in 1992
-93 to 47 per cent in 1998-99 at all India level \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb75\sl-230\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 16
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 (Table 6). But, the levels are still high. Inter-s
tate disparities can be seen from Table \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2153\sb16\sl-320\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 6. In Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajas
than and Uttar Pradesh, the incidence of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 malnutrit
ion was more than 50 per cent in 1998-99. Malnutrition of women is also \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 high in these states as shown by the body mass index. \par
\pard\ql \li3080\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 6 : Anthropometric Measures - Women and Children (%) \pa
r\pard\li2490\sb219\sl-230\slmult0\fi311\tx4100\tx6394 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 States/Uts\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Women BMI\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Children below - 2 SD\ul0\super\cf21
\f22\fs18\ul0\super\cf21\f22\fs17 #\par\pard\li2490\sb53\sl-230\slmult0\fi1598\t
x5221\tx6704\tx8317 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 <
18.5Kg/m\ul0\super\cf21\f22\fs18\ul0\super\cf21\f22\fs17 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Weight-for-age\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 Height-for-age\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Weight-for-\par\par
d\li2490\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\fi6023 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 height\par\pard
\li2490\sb51\sl-230\slmult0\fi1732\tx5193\tx5985\tx6724\tx7430\tx8183\tx8875 \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1998-99\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1992-\tab \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1998-\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1992-\tab \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1998-\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1992-\tab \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1998-\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-211\slmult0\fi2841\tx6
128\tx6862\tx7573\tx8327\tx9018 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 93\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 99\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 93\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 99\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 93\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 99\par\pard\li2490\sb101\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6958\t
x7558\tx8402\tx9079 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Andhra Pradesh\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 37.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 49.1\tab \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 37.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 38.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 9.1\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6795\
tx7558\tx8239\tx9079 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Arunachal Pradesh\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 10.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 39.7\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 24.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 53.9\tab \up0 \expnd
-3\charscalex100 7.9\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085
\tx6795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Assam\tab \up0 \expnd
-3\charscalex100 36.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 52.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 50.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 10.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 13.3\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx
6795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Bihar\tab \up0 \expndtw-
scalex100 21.0\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx679
5\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Goa\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
x100 13.1\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6795\tx7
558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Gujarat\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\char
ex100 43.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 18.9\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
58\tx8345\tx9080 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Haryana\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
0 5.3\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6958\tx7558\
tx8402\tx8974 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Himachal Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-3
harscalex100 43.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 41.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 16.9\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6795\tx7
558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Jammu & Kashmir\tab \up0 \expndt
arscalex100 11.8\par\pard\li2490\sb1\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6
795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Karnataka\tab \up0 \expnd
6795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw
rscalex100 11.1\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx69
58\tx7558\tx8402\tx8974 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Madhya Pradesh\tab \up0 \e
ndtw-3\charscalex100 55.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 51.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\c
6795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Maharashtra\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 39.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 54.2\tab \up0 \expn
\tx6795\tx7558\tx8345\tx9080 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Manipur\tab \up0 \exp
-3\charscalex100 31.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 8.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 8.2\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx
6795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Meghalaya\tab \up0 \expn
charscalex100 13.3\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\t
x6795\tx7558\tx8345\tx8974 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Mizoram\tab \up0 \expnd
\charscalex100 34.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Nagaland\tab \up0 \expndt
795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Orissa\tab \up0 \expndtw-
8\tx7560\tx8241\tx9080 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Punjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\
alex100 7.1\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6795\t
x7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Rajasthan\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\
alex100 11.7\par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5648\tx6085\tx7092\
tx7558\tx8537\tx9080 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Sikkim\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 11.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 20.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 31.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4.8
2\tx8974 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
0 36.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 29
.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 19.9\p
ar\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-211\slmult0\fi0\tx4852\tx5346\tx6382\tx6795\tx7860\tx8240\
tx9276 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Tripura\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 -
\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 48.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 -\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 46.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 -\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 17.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 -\par\pard\li249
0\sb1\sl-212\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973 \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 Uttar Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 35.8\tab
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 59.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 55.5\tab \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 16.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 11.1\par\pard\
li2490\sb1\sl-204\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6958\tx7558\tx8402\tx8974 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 West Bengal\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 43.7\
b \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 41.5\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ##\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 13.6\par\pard\l
i2490\sb106\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4554\tx5345\tx6085\tx6795\tx7558\tx8239\tx8973
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 All India\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 35.8\t
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 17.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 15.5\par\par
d\ql \li2379\sb144\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f22\f23\fs18 Note: \par\pard\ql \li2379\ri2174\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx2662\tx2663\
tx2663 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 1. Includes
percentage of ever-married women with BMI below 18.5 kg./m\ul0\nosupersub\cf23\f
24\fs10 2.\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 . Body Mass Index \line\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 is the ratio of the weight in kilograms to the square of t
he height in meters (kg/m\ul0\super\cf23\f24\fs16\ul0\super\cf23\f24\fs15 2 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 ). The \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 data
exclude women who are Pregnant and women who gave birth in the preceding two
\line \tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 months. \par\pard\qj \li2447\ri2173\sb0
\sl-180\slmult0\tx2663 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 2. The index for children i
s expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the \line\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-7\charscalex97 International Reference Population Figures are for c
hildren born 1-47 months prior to survey. \par\pard\ql \li2447\sb4\sl-171\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 3. #: includes children who are below-3 SD from
the International Reference Population. \par\pard\qj \li2447\ri2174\sb2\sl-180\s
lmult0\tx2663 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4. ##: Not available as children\u82
17?s height not measured 1992-93 figure for Jammu & Kashmir \line\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-6\charscalex100 covers only the Jammu region. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2169\sb
0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex97 \ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs18 Sour
ce: \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-1 & 2), 19
98-99, October, 2000, Table 7.5, page 246 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 and Table
7.17, page 270. For 1992-93 Table 10.10 page 286. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb59
\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Some
indicators on anemia of women and children based on NFHS data are given in \par
\pard\ql \li5802\sb170\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 17
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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}
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Table 7. It shows that more than 50 per cent of women and more than 70 per cent
of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 children have anemia. Considerable regio
nal disparities can be noticed in these \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 indi
cators. \par\pard\ql \li2896\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2896\sb165\sl-230
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 7. Pe
rcentage of Women and Children with Anemia : 1998-99 \par\pard\li2545\sb0\sl-230
\slmult0\par\pard\li2545\sb94\sl-230\slmult0\fi744\tx5187\tx7494 \up0 \expndtw-7
\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 States\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscal
ex100 Percentage of Women\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Percentage of childr
en\par\pard\li2545\sb34\sl-230\slmult0\fi2874\tx7899 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex1
00 with any anemia\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 with anaemia\par\pard\li254
5\sb183\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Andhra Pr
adesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 49.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 7
2.3\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charsc
alex100 Assam\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 69.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charsca
lex100 63.2\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-
7\charscalex100 Bihar\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 63.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-7
\charscalex100 81.3\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \
expndtw-7\charscalex100 Gujarat\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 46.3\tab \up0
228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Haryana\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 47.0
\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 83.9\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\
tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Karnataka\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charsc
alex100 42.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 70.6\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\
slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw
-7\charscalex100 22.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 43.9\par\pard\li2545\sb1
0\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Madhya Pradesh\
tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 54.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 75.0\pa
r\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex10
0 Maharashtra\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 48.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charsca
lex100 76.0\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-
7\charscalex100 Orissa\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 63.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-
7\charscalex100 72.3\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5879\tx8229 \up0
\expndtw-7\charscalex100 Punjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 41.4\tab \up0
228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Rajasthan\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 48
0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\cha
rscalex100 56.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 69.0\par\pard\li2545\sb10\sl-2
30\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Uttar Pradesh\tab \up
0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 48.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 73.9\par\pard\
li2545\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 West
Bengal\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 62.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
78.3\par\pard\li2545\sb120\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5877\tx8228 \up0 \expndtw-7\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 India\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
51.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 74.3\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb169\sl-230\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Source: National
Family Health Survey (NFHS-2), 1998-99 \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li2377\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf13\f14\fs20 3.2. Accessibility \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 3.2.1.Physical acces
sibility \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 Availability or physical access of foodgrains at the national level is n
ot a problem. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 However, it is a problem for N
orth Eastern states and other remote and tribal areas. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\cha
rscalex100 Also, it is a problem for vulnerable groups such as old age populatio
n, pregnant and \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 lactating women, children, t
ribals etc. As shown below, Government has programmes \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex100 to take care of the problems of physical access in remote areas and vu
lnerable \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 groups. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb195\
sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Intra-household Distribution of Foo
d consumption \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2214\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex100 One important dimension of physical accessibility is intra-household
disparity in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 consumption. It is widely beli
eved that in India, particularly among the rural poor, \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\
sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb195\
sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 18
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}
}}
Width}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
food distribution is not based on \u8216?need\u8217?. The breadwinner gets suffi
cient food, the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 children get the next share
and the women take the remains. In times of scarcity, the \line \up0 \expndtw-6\
charscalex100 dietary intake of women and children are likely to be most adverse
ly affected. Among \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 children, boys are given p
reference to girls in distribution of food. Several micro \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 studies in different states have reported that intra-household dist
ribution of food \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 follows this traditional pa
ttern even today. However, the empirical evidence shows \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 that the intra-household discrimination is found in some areas only.
\par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 H
addad et al (1996) provide a review of the literature on intrahousehold bias for
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 different countries. Food allocation is the
most studied dimension of intra-household \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 i
nequality. In general, the adjustment for body weight and activity tends to supp
ort \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 gender neutrality of intra-household, al
though a slight pro-male bias persists. Boys \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
may be favoured in India by being given first priority in breast-feeding and in
food \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 supplementation (Pettigrew 1986). In I
ndia, upper-middle caste groups favour sons \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
more in food allocation than lower status groups and tribal groups (Warrier 1992
). \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Miller (1981) found pro-male bias in Nort
h India while there was no sex preference in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
South India. Using village level studies of ICRISAT Behrman and Deolalikar (199
0) \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 do not find any evidence of gender discri
mination in food intake. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 An analysis of household expenditures on goods consumed
exclusively by adults \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 (an \u8216?adult good\u
8217?) has been used as a parsimonious technique for examining \line \up0 \expnd
tw-5\charscalex100 discrimination within households. The basic idea is, do paren
ts reduce expenditures \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 on these adult goods m
ore severely for an extra girl than for an extra boy? \line \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 Subramanian and Deaton (1990) employ a representative sample of some 1
1,000 \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 households from the state of Maharasht
ra, collected in 1983. They find some evidence \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 of discrimination against girls under five years of age who live in rural hou
seholds, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 but only in one (tobacco and paan)
of the two identified adult goods (the other being \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charsca
lex100 alcohol). \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2157\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-
5\charscalex100 Another way is to look at the outcomes (nutritional status ) bas
ed on anthropometric \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 measures. Sen and Sengu
pta (1983) studied the question of undernourishment of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 boys and girls in two villages of West Bengal. Based on weight-for-ag
e indicator, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 they found bias to boys over gi
rls. Sen (2001) cautions about the interpretation of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\chars
calex100 causal process. The lower level of nourishment of girls may not relate
directly to \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 their being underfed vis--vis boy
s. \u8216?Often enough, the differences may particularly \line \up0 \expndtw-1\c
harscalex100 arise from the neglect of health care of girls compared with what b
oys get\u8217? (Sen, \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 2001). \par\pard\ql \li5
charscalex100 19
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
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}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
While comparisons of percentages of underweight girls and boys (1-5 years old) a
t \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the all India level show insignificant dif
ferences in the rates of malnutrition (i.e. ratio \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 close to 1), disaggregated state level data from recent studies by Departme
nt of \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Women and Child Development (1995/96)
and the NNMB (1994) show a distinct \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 trend of
higher percentage of girls than boys who are severely underweight. Notably, \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 while Tamil Nadu, Mizoram and Manipur record so
me of the lowest rates of severely \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 malnouris
hed children, a disproportionate share of them are girl children. Their ratios \
line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 are 1.91, 1.58 and 2.10 respectively (World B
ank, 2001). It may be noted that these \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 gende
r discrepancies are likely higher to be if child mortality rates are accounte
d \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for. The National Family Health Survey 1992
/93 of 25 states found that girl child \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 morta
lity (ages 1-4) is 43 per cent higher than boys. Post-neonatal mortality of girl
s \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 is 13 per cent higher than boys. If these g
irls had been alive, they would almost \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 certa
inly have added to the prevalence of female malnutrition\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18
\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 7\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\ql \li2377\
3.2.2Economic Accessibility \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 Hunger \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2156\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 India has made significa
nt progress in reducing the problem of hunger. Estimates of \line \up0 \expndtw-
5\charscalex100 hunger (two square meals a day) based on self perception from NS
S data show that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 less than 10 per cent of pe
ople suffer from hunger. However, in poorer states like \line \up0 \expndtw-6\ch
arscalex100 Bihar and Orissa the per cent of people suffering from hunger is muc
h higher. One of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the major achievements of In
dia in terms of food is that it averted famines since \line \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 independence\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 8\ul0\nos
upersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . The last one was the Bengal Famine of 1943. But, chron
ic poverty \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 is still high in the country. This
is because lack of economic access (purchasing \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex
100 power) to food . \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377
\sb25\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Poverty Ratios \par\pard\qj \
li2377\ri2155\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 The expenditure
on food (calorie intake) with some allowance for non-food expenditure \line \up
0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 is mostly used as a basis for determining the poverty
line. Thus, the incidence of \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 poverty in a r
egion may give some indication of the extent to which food is accessible \line \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to households. India is perhaps the only developing
country, which has the longest \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 time series
of national household surveys starting from the early 1950s. Till 1973-74, \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 National Sample Survey (NSS) data were available
annually. Between 1972-73 and \par\pard\ql \li2406\ri2204\sb203\sl-220\slmult0\t
x2689\tx2689 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 7\ul0\n
osupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 . By contrast, there are a few states (Karnataka 0.87, G
ujarat 0.77, Goa -0.66 and Daman and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Diu
0.70) where boys appear to be fairing worse than girls. In some states where st
udies of \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 urban areas were conducted, a
similar trend prevails. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb71\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 8. More on this see Dreze and Sen (1989) \par\pard\ql \li5800\s
b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb144\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\chars
calex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 20
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
1999-00, six quinquennial surveys have been carried out with a large sample size
of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 ten households per sample village. The officia
l poverty ratios for all India and major \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 states are
given in Table 8. It shows that the rural poverty declined by about 10 \up0 \ex
pndtw-5\charscalex100 percentage points in the 1990s while urban poverty decline
d by 9 percentage points \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 during the same period. I
n almost all the states, poverty declined in the 1990s. \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 However, rural poverty was above 40 per cent in three states viz., Orissa,
Bihar, \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Assam and in three states (M.P., U.P, and
West Bengal) it was above 30 per cent. In \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the case
of urban poverty, states such as Orissa, M.P., Bihar, U.P. showed higher \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 incidence in 1999-2000. Thus, although income poverty de
clined significantly at the \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 all India level, regio
nal disparities are quite high. \par\pard\ql \li3978\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql\li3978\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
13\f14\fs20 Table 8 Incidence of Poverty Across States \par\pard\li2490\sb214\sl
-230\slmult0\fi38\tx4041\tx6109\tx8247 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf19\f20\fs20 States\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Rural\tab \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex101 Urban\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Total\par\pard\li2490\sb
169\sl-207\slmult0\fi719\tx3911\tx4602\tx5308\tx6018\tx6729\tx7420\tx8145\tx8880
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 1973-74\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1999-00\tab \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1973-74\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1999-00\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1973-74\
tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1999-0
0\par\pard\li2490\sb129\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx
6771\tx7510\tx8250\tx8927 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\
fs20 A.P.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 48.41\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
1 15.92\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 11.05\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
50.61\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 38.33\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 26
.63\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 48.86\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 22.1
9\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 15.77\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0
\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6195\tx6877\tx7511\tx8250\tx8927 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 Assam\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 52.67\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex101 45.01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 40.04\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex101 36.92\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 7.73\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex101 7.47\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 51.21\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
01 40.86\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 36.09\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmu
lt0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx8250\tx8927 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex101 Bihar\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 62.99\tab \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex101 58.21\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 44.30\tab \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex101 52.96\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 34.50\tab \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex101 32.91\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 61.91\tab \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex101 54.96\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 42.60\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl
-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx8250\tx8927
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Guj.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 46.35\tab \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 22.18\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 13.17\tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 52.57\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 27.89\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex101 15.59\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 48.15\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex101 24.21\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 14.07\par\pard\li2490
\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4779\tx5413\tx6095\tx6877\tx7511\tx8250
\tx9033 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Har.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 34.23
\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 28.02\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 8.27\ta
b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 40.18\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 16.38\tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 9.99\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 35.36\tab \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 25.05\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 8.74\par\pard\l
i2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7616\t
x8183\tx8917 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Karn.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
7.38\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 52.53\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 40.
14\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 25.25\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 54.4\
tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 33.16\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 20.04\pa
r\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4779\tx5413\tx6095\tx6772\
tx7511\tx8183\tx8917 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Ker.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex101 59.19\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 25.76\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex101 9.38\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 62.74\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
2.72\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\
tx6772\tx7511\tx8183\tx8917 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 M.P.\tab \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex101 62.66\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 40.64\tab \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex101 37.06\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 57.65\tab \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex101 48.38\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 38.44\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex101 61.78\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 42.52\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex101 37.43\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413
\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx8182\tx8917 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Mah.\tab \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex101 57.71\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 37.93\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex101 23.72\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 43.87\tab \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex101 35.15\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 26.81\tab \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex101 53.24\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 36.86\tab \up0 \expndtw0
\charscalex101 25.02\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx467
4\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx8182\tx8917 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Orissa\
tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 67.28\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 49.72\ta
b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 48.01\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 55.62\tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 41.64\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 42.83\tab \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 66.18\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 48.56\tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 47.15\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3260\tx
3955\tx4780\tx5413\tx6094\tx6875\tx7509\tx8180\tx9019 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1
01 Punj.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 28.21\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 28.15\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 11.77\t
ab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 6.16\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3
258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx8182\tx8917 \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex101 Raj.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 44.76\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal
ex101 26.46\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 13.74\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
27.41\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 15.28\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0
\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx8182\tx8917 \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex101 T.N.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 57.43\tab \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex101 32.48\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 20.55\tab \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex101 49.40\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 39.77\tab \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex101 22.11\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 54.94\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex101 35.03\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 21.12\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230
\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6772\tx7511\tx8183\tx8917 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 U.P.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 56.53\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex101 42.28\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 31.22\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex101 60.09\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 35.39\tab \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex101 30.89\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 57.07\tab \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex101 40.85\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 31.15\par\pard\li2490\sb1
0\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx8182\tx8
917 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 W.B.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 73.16\tab
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 40.80\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 31.85\tab \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 34.67\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 22.41\tab \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 14.86\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 63.43\tab \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex101 35.66\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 27.02\par\pard\li
2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3258\tx3954\tx4674\tx5413\tx6095\tx6771\tx7510\tx
8182\tx8917 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 India\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101
6\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 23.62\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 54.88\
tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 35.97\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 26.10\pa
r\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb61\sl-230\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Source: Economic Survey 2001-02, Government of India
\par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Alternative Estimates of Poverty: The official esti
mates of poverty are based on the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Lakdawala C
ommittee\u8217?s methodology. If one notices the numbers in table 8, the \line \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 urban poverty was higher than rural poverty in 9 st
ates. This is unusual. Deaton and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Dreze(2002
) estimated alternative poverty ratios based on the unit prices generated \line
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 from NSS data. They have also \u8216?adjusted \u
8216? for the non-comparability of 1999-00 NSS \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex1
00 data. The alternative poverty estimates are given in Table 9. It shows that
the rural \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 2
1
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poverty was lower by around 2 percentage points while urban poverty for all Indi
a \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 was considerably lower in the alternative
estimates as compared to official estimates. \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
It also shows that in all the states, urban poverty was lower than rural povert
y. \par\pard\ql \li2920\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 9 Alternative Estimates on Incidence of Poverty
: 1999-2000 \par\pard\li3002\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li3002\sb103\sl-230\slm
ult0\fi546\tx5570\tx7748 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\
fs20 States\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Rural\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 Urban\par\pard\li3002\sb154\sl-230\slmult0\fi1924\tx5951\tx7125\tx8165 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Official\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Alternativ
\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Official\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Al
ternativ\par\pard\li3002\sb120\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Andhra Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 11.
3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 10.8\par\pard\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0
\tx5003\tx6135\tx7373\tx8458 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Assam\tab \up0 \expnd
w-4\charscalex100 7.47\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 11.8\par\pard\li3002\sb
10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
Bihar\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 44.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
4.7\par\pard\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5003\tx6135\tx7268\tx8563 \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 Gujarat\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 13.17\tab \up0 \
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 6.4\par\pard\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5109\tx6241
\tx7375\tx8565 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Haryana\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 8.27\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 5.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 9.99\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 4.6\par\pard\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmul
t0\fi0\tx5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Karnataka\tab \
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 25.25\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 10.8\par\par
d\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5109\tx6136\tx7268\tx8564 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 9.38\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Madhya Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
38.44\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 13.9\par\pard\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmult0
\fi0\tx5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Maharashtra\tab \
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 26.81\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 12.0\par\par
rscalex100 Orissa\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 48.01\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
565 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Punjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 6.35\
tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 5.75\tab
3\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Rajasthan\tab \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 13.74\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 17.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-
4\charscalex100 19.85\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 10.8\par\pard\li3002\sb1
0\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 T
amil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 20.55\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
00 11.3\par\pard\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 Uttar Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 31.22\
ab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 17.3\par\pard\li3002\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx
5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 West Bengal\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 31.85\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 21.9\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 14.86\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 11.3\par\pard\li300
2\sb125\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5003\tx6136\tx7269\tx8460 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 India\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 27.09\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 26.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 23.62\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 12.0\par\pard\ql \li2833\sb178\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
Source: Economic Survey 2000-01 and Deaton and Dreze (2002) \par\pard\qj \li2378
\ri2147\sb296\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\
f11\fs20 Based on growth in average per capita consumer expenditure (APCE) durin
g 1993-\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 94 to 1999-00, Deaton and Dreze (2002
) show a striking regional pattern : \u8220?except for \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 Jammu and Kashmir, the low growth states from one contiguous region m
ade up of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the eastern states (Assam, Orissa
and West Bengal), the so-called BIMARU states \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh) and Andhra Pradesh. The \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 high growth states, for their part, consist of
the southern states (except Andhra \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Pradesh)
, the western states (Gujarat and Maharashtra) and the North western region \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Further,
it is interesting to note that this \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 pattern
is reasonably consistent with independent data on growth rates of per capita \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \u8216?state domestic product\u8217? (SDP)\u82
21?. \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmu
0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb185\sl-230\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 22
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Poverty among Socially Disadvantage Groups \par\p
ard\ql \li2379\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf10\f11\fs20 Scheduled Castes(SCs) \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2147\sb136\sl-320\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 The rate of decline for SCs living below th
e poverty line was marginally higher than \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 th
at of the total population between 1993-94 and 1999-00. The gap between the tota
l \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 population and the SCs also decreased duri
ng the same period in both rural and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 urban a
reas. However, the incidence of poverty amongst SCs still continues to be \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 very high with 36.25 per cent in rural areas and 3
8.47 per cent in urban areas (Table \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 10). Thi
s is primary due to the fact that a large number of SCs who are living below \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the poverty line are landless with no productive
assets and with no access to \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 sustainable em
ployment and minimum wages (GOI, 2003). The women belonging to \line \up0 \expnd
tw-5\charscalex100 these groups suffer even worse because of the added disadvant
age of being denied \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 of equal and minimum wag
es. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb165\sl-230\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 10 Popul
ation Living below Poverty Line Scheduled Castes and Total \par\pard\li2547\sb16
2\sl-230\slmult0\fi283\tx5293\tx7976 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf19\f20\fs20 Category\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Rural\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 Urban\par\pard\li2547\sb120\sl-230\slmult0\fi1910\tx5820\tx7
241\tx8541 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 1999-00\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 1999-00\par\pard\li2547\sb125\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4568\tx5936\tx7352\tx8
657 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Total\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 37.27\
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 27.09\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 32.38\
tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 23.62\par\pard\li2547\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\
tx4568\tx5936\tx7352\tx8658 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 SCs\tab \up0 \expndtw-
2\charscalex100 48.11\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 36.25\tab \up0 \expndtw-
2\charscalex100 49.48\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 38.47\par\pard\li2547\sb
63\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4568\tx5989\tx7352\tx8658 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
Gap\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 10.84\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 9.
16\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 15.82\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 14.
85\par\pard\ql \li2379\sb200\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Source
: GOI, 2003 \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Scheduled Tribes \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\s
b136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 The poverty among scheduled tr
ibes also declined along with general population \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 (Table 11). However, it is disquieting to note that the rate of decline in
respect of STs \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 is much lower than that of the
general population. As a result, the gap between \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 poverty ratios of STs and general population increased during 1990s. Furth
er, the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 incidence of poverty among STs still
continues to be very high with 45.86 and 34.75 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 per cent living below the poverty line in rural and urban areas respectively
. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \pa
rd\ql\li5802\sb95\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 23
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sb36\sl-320\slmult0\tx4715 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f1
4\fs20 Table11: Population Living below Poverty Line \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 Scheduled Tribes and Total \par\pard\li2603\sb141\sl-230\slmult0\fi
230\tx5291\tx7974 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Ca
tegory\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Rural\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
Urban\par\pard\li2603\sb120\sl-230\slmult0\fi1852\tx5823\tx7239\tx8544 \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1999-00\tab \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1999-00\par\
pard\li2603\sb183\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4571\tx5934\tx7355\tx8656 \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 Total\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 37.27\tab \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 23.62\par\pard\li2603\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4571\tx5934\tx735
5\tx8656 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 STs\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 51.
14\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 34.75\par\pard\li2603\sb68\sl-230\slmult0\f
i0\tx4571\tx5934\tx7408\tx8656 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Gap\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 14.67\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 18.77\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 7.48\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 11.13\par\pard\ql \li2
603\sb63\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Source: GOI, 2003 \par\par
d\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb160\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Employment Growth \par\pard
\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb256\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf10\f11\fs20 As mentioned above, creation of employment is one way of ens
uring right to food. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 With increase in purcha
sing power, the poor can increase their food consumption. \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 Therefore, it is useful to know about the overall employment growth
rates in the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Indian economy. The growth rat
e of rural employment was around 0.5 percent per \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscale
x100 annum between 1993-94 and 1999-00 as compared to 1.7 percent per annum betw
een \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1983 and 1993-94. The daily status unemp
loyment rate in rural areas has increased \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 fro
m 5.63% in 1993-94 to 7.21% in 1999-00. As shown in Table 12, the overall \line
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 employment growth declined from 2.04 percent duri
ng 1983-94 to 0.98% during 1994-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 2000. Much o
f the decline in the growth was due to developments in two sectors \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 viz., agriculture and community social& personal services.
These two sectors \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 accounting for 70% of t
he total employment have not shown any growth during the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 1990s. Similar trends can be seen for growth rates of employment ba
sed on current \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 daily status. \par\pard\ql \
li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li
24
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sb36\sl-320\slmult0\tx5019 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f1
4\fs20 Table 12: Growth of Employment : Usual Status and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw
-5\charscalex100 Current Daily Status \par\pard\li2490\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pa
rd\li2490\sb79\sl-230\slmult0\fi902\tx5147\tx7689 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Industry\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Usual S
tatus: Principal and\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Current Daily Status\par\
pard\li2490\sb34\sl-230\slmult0\fi2711\tx7895 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Subs
idiary (% per annum)\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (% per annum)\par\pard\li
2490\sb125\sl-230\slmult0\fi2846\tx6382\tx7602\tx8480 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex
100 1983 to\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1993-94 to\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\cha
rscalex100 1983 to\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1993-94 to\par\pard\li2490\
sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi2822\tx6502\tx7582\tx8599 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 19
93-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1999-00\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex10
0 1993-94\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1999-00\par\pard\li2490\sb178\sl-230
\slmult0\fi0\tx5519\tx6632\tx7779\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Agricultu
re\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1.51\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 -0.3
par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5519\tx6632\tx7779\tx8787 \up0 \expndt
w-5\charscalex100 Mining & quarrying\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 4.16\tab
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 -2.85\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 3.68\tab \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 -1.91\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx551
9\tx6709\tx7779\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Manufacturing\tab \up0 \exp
tw-5\charscalex100 2.26\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 2.58\par\pard\li2490\s
b10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5519\tx6632\tx7779\tx8787 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
Electricity, gas & water supply\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 4.50\tab \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 -0.88\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 5.31\tab \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 -3.55\par\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5519\tx
6709\tx7779\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Construction\tab \up0 \expndtw-
charscalex100 4.18\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 5.21\par\pard\li2490\sb10\s
l-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5519\tx6709\tx7779\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Trad
e\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 3.57\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 5.04\
r\pard\li2490\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5519\tx6709\tx7779\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-
5\charscalex100 Transport, Storage & Commn.\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 3.
tx5519\tx6709\tx7779\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Financial Services\tab
rscalex100 Community social & per. services\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 2.
\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 -2.08\par\pard\li2490\sb125\sl-230\slmult0\fi
0\tx5519\tx6709\tx7779\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Total Employment\tab
d\qj \li2379\ri2164\sb106\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Source: P
lanning Commission, GOI (2001) for Usual status estimates and Planning \up0 \exp
ndtw-9\charscalex95 Commission, GOI, (2002) for Current Daily Status \par\pard\q
l \li2379\sb169\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
3\f14\fs20 Real Wages \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Another indicator of purchasi
ng power is agricultural wages. At the all India level, the \line \up0 \expndtw-
2\charscalex100 growth of real agricultural wages declined from about 5 per cent
per annum in the \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 1980s to 2.5 per cent per
annum in the 1990s. Table 13 provides growth rates of real \line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 agricultural wages for different states. Deaton and Dreze (2002)
say that a healthy \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 growth of real agricultur
al wages appear to be a sufficient condition for significant \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 reduction in poverty in rural areas. In all the states where re
al wages have grown \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 more than 2.5 per cent (
Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) have experienced \line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 sharp reduction in rural poverty. On the other hand, entire Eastern
region (Assam, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Orissa, West Bengal and Biha
r), Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh experienced \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscal
ex100 low growth in agricultural wages and lower reduction in poverty. \par\pard
\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\
rscalex100 25
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table -13 Growth Rates of Real Agricultual Wages
Across States 1990-2000 \par\pard\li3510\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li3510\sb35
\sl-230\slmult0\fi662\tx5989 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f
20\fs20 States\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Growth Rates of real wages (%)\p
ar\pard\li3510\sb149\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Andh
ra Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 1.3\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmu
lt0\fi0\tx7249 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Assam\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex
96 -0.7\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7321 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscale
x96 Bihar\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 0.3\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmul
t0\fi0\tx7321 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Gujarat\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscale
x96 5.1\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscale
x96 Haryana\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 2.7\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slm
ult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Karnataka\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\chars
calex96 3.2\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\chars
calex96 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 7.9\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\
slmult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Madhya Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw
-9\charscalex96 1.8\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7320 \up0 \expndtw
-9\charscalex96 Maharashtra\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 1.6\par\pard\li3510
\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Orissa\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-9\charscalex96 0.7\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7252 \up0 \ex
pndtw-9\charscalex96 Punjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 -0.8\par\pard\li351
0\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7321 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Rajasthan\tab \up0
\expndtw-9\charscalex96 2.8\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7320 \up0
\expndtw-9\charscalex96 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 6.7\par\par
d\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 Uttar Prade
sh\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 2.5\par\pard\li3510\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\
tx7321 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 West Bengal\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96
1.6\par\pard\li3510\sb154\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7322 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex9
6 All India\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 2.5\par\pard\ql \li3510\sb112\sl-2
30\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Source: Dreze and Sen (2002) \par\pard\
ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb160\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Access to PDS \par\pard\qj \l
i2377\ri2154\sb236\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf10\f11\fs20 The public distribution system (PDS) is one of the instruments to
help the poor in \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 accessing limited quantitie
s of food at subsidized rates. National Sample Survey \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex104 Organisation (NSSO) in its 55th round in 1999-2000 collected informatio
n on \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 purchases of rice, wheat, sugar and ker
osene made in fair price shops. These data \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 h
ave been analysed to examine the utilization of PDS. According to the 1999-2000
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 data, the PDS is accessible (Percentage of ho
useholds purchases in Fair Price \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Shops) to a
bout 30 percent of Indian rural households for rice and only 17 percent for \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 wheat (Table 14). The corresponding figures for
states show large variations - from \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 75 perce
nt for Tamil Nadu to 17 percent in West Bengal (barring other Wheat eating \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 States) in case of rice and 34 percent in Gujarat
to 0.21 percent in Punjab (barring \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Rice eati
ng states) in case of wheat. Access to PDS in poorer states like Bihar, \line \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh is low. \par\pard\
ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\
charscalex100 26
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 14: Percentage of Household Accessing PDS :
1999-00 \par\pard\li3287\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li3287\sb35\sl-230\slmult0\
fi484\tx5745\tx7582 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20
States\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Rural\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Urban\par\pard\li3287\sb91\sl-230\slmult0\fi1963\tx6128\tx7165\tx8024 \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 Rice\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Wheat\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 Rice\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Wheat\par\pard\li3287
\sb68\sl-230\slmult0\fi791\tx5317\tx6382\tx7376\tx8399 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 1\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 3\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5\par\pard\
li3287\sb125\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6310\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 Andhra Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 62.93\tab \up0 \expnd
w-3\charscalex100 15.86\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6310\tx
7170\tx8240 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Assam\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
22.28\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1.25\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult
0\fi0\tx5346\tx6310\tx7275\tx8240 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Bihar\tab \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 8.98\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 2.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4.66\par\pard\li328
7\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6205\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 Gujarat\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 43.98\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 34.32\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 17.54\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 12.78\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5346\tx6310\tx7275\tx8240
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Haryana\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.72\tab
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1.34\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245
\tx6205\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Himachal\tab \up0 \expndtw-3
0\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6205\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 J
&K\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 36.55\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 21.
13\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6205\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 Karnataka\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 68.24\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 37.49\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx
6205\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 68.52\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 37.08\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 59.99\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 39.88\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-
230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6205\tx7275\tx8240 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Madhya
Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 16.10\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
0 3.45\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6205\tx7170\tx8135 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 Maharashtra\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 44.26\tab
245\tx6310\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Orissa\tab \up0 \expndtw-
3\charscalex100 51.38\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4.98\tab \up0 \expndtw-3
0\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5350\tx6313\tx7276\tx8240 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 P
unjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.24\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0
0\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5346\tx6310\tx7275\tx8240 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 Rajasthan\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.61\tab \up0 \e
ndtw-3\charscalex100 2.41\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6205\
tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 75.21\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 15.09\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
30\slmult0\fi0\tx5346\tx6310\tx7275\tx8240 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Uttar P
radesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 8.07\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
93\par\pard\li3287\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\tx6205\tx7275\tx8135 \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 West Bengal\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 17.49\tab \up
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 18.36\par\pard\li3287\sb178\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx5245\
tx6205\tx7170\tx8135 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 All India\tab \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 20.28\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 15.12\par\pard\ql \li2379
\sb173\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 Source: Estimated from NSSO 1
999-2000 consumer expenditure data \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex98 Access indicates the percentage of households reporting
purchases from PDS. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379
Some Recent Examples of Violation of Right to Food \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2153\
The country\u8217?s food stocks have increased to more than 65 million tonnes i
n recent \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 years and the food subsidy is nearing Rs.
30,000 crores. Yet hunger and malnutrition \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 continu
e in the country. Half of India\u8217?s women and 70 per cent of children suffer
from \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 anemia. This is the phenomenon of \u8216?hun
ger amidst plenty\u8221?\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 9\ul0\n
osupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . In this respect, India \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
has violated right to food in its worst form. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb100\
sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Various micro studies have document
ed about the prevalence of hunger and starvation \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscale
x100 deaths in many parts of the country. A public hearing on hunger and the rig
ht to food \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 held in Manatu block of Palamau d
istrict of Jharkhand following starvation deaths \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 reveals gross irregularities in food related programmes and a disastrous le
vel of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 public services (Bhatia and Dreze, 200
2). Thousands of hunger-affected people \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-207\slmult0
ersub\cf19\f20\fs20 9. \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 On this see Dreze and S
en (2002) \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb204\sl-2
30\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 27
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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assembled for a public hearing on hunger and the right to food. A widow who test
ified \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 at the public hearing in Manatu, had n
ot eaten for three days and was too weak to \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
stand up. A team comprising members of the Gram Swaraj Abhiyan and the Right to
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Food campaign visited Kusumatand village in
Manatu. The fact-finding committee \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 went to
investigate three starvation deaths in the village, but found that the entire \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 village lived in a condition of permanent semi
-starvation. Despite wide media coverage, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the
government had not taken any serious steps to help the villagers. The main \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 conclusions of the fact finding committee are th
e following\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 10\ul0\nosupersub\cf
10\f11\fs20 : \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2158\sb100\sl-320\slmult0\tx2737\tx2737\tx
2737 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf24\f25\fs20 \u10065?\ul0\no
supersub\cf19\f20\fs20 The people of Kusumatand (block Manatu, district) live
in abject poverty. Many \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 people are in th
e state of permanent semi-starvation. They drink highly polluted \line \tab \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex98 water. They are also deprived of proper facilities such
as primary education, health \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex98 care, and
the public distribution system. \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2164\sb120\sl-320\slmult0
\tx2737\tx2737 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf24\f25\fs20 \u100
65?\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Lack of food and clean water has created a ho
rrendous trail of illness and death. The \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
recent starvation deaths in the village are directly related to the lack of foo
d and \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex93 drinking water. \par\pard\ql \li23
77\ri2163\sb120\sl-320\slmult0\tx2737\tx2737\tx2737\tx2737\tx2737 \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf24\f25\fs20 \u10065?\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\f
s20 The government has taken no serious action to address the problem. Develop
ment \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 works are standstill. There are no
drought relief programmes even though the area \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charsc
alex100 has affected by drought. Even after the hunger deaths occurred and recei
ved wide \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 media attention, the governmen
t remained passive. Instead of taking the action to \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 help the people of the village, the government dismissed the report
s as \u8216?baseless \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 stories\u8217? atte
mpted to muzzle those who have reported. \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2161\sb0\sl-320\
slmult0\tx2737\tx2737\tx2737 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf24\
f25\fs20 \u10065?\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Recent Supreme Court orders rel
ating to the right to food (PUCL vs. Union of India \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\ch
arscalex100 and ORS) being grossly violated in Kusumatand and the surrounding vi
llages. For \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 instance, the PDS is non-fu
nctional and no mid-day meals are being given in the \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-8\
charscalex100 local schools. No attempts have been made to prevent hunger deaths
. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2158\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 In November, 2001, The Supreme Court ordered all
state and Union territories to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 introduce mid
-day meals in all government and government aided primary schools. \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-6\charscalex100 Most states were resisting the order. Bihar, Uttar Prades
h and Jarkhand are violating \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 the order of th
e Supreme Court completely. Karnataka and Chattisgarh are complying \line \up0 \
expndtw-6\charscalex100 partly. The grain quality of the foodgrains is also hamp
ering the scheme in Rajasthan. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2154\sb120\sl-320\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 There have been starvation deaths in many other pla
ces such as in Kashipur in \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Orissa and Anatha
pur in Andhra Pradesh. The KBK (Kalahandi-Bolangir-Koraput) \par\pard\ql \li240
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 10. \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 See w
ebsite www.geocities.com/righttofood \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li5800\sb84\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf10\f11\fs20 28
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region in Orissa is one of the highly food insecure region in the country\ul0\su
per\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 11\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . In
village \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 after village, poor people survive o
n a spartan diet (e.g. rice and salt), drink unsafe \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca
lex100 water and there are no access to health care. Diarrhoea is a common cause
of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 death. Real wages are incredibly low. Ma
ssive environmental degradation clearly \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 cont
ributed to the crisis. In many villages, forests have been decimated and economi
c \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 activities based on forests declined. In s
ome areas, labour migration is the surviving \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100
strategy. Another major reason for backwardness in KBK region is rampant exploi
tation \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 and corruption. \par\pard\ql \li2379\
sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\chars
calex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 4 POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FOR REALISING R
IGHT TO FOOD \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb236\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 India has many international obligation
s to fulfill the right to food with respect to \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex1
00 children as well as adults. India became a party in 1986 to the International
Covenant \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 on Economic, social and cultural r
ights, which is the most important human rights \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 instrument for the right to food as it enshrines the right to food and the
right to be free \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 from hunger in its article
11. Another major step taken in the case of food was the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 convention on the Rights of the Child. The Government of India has
also committed \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 itself to the Convention on
the Rights of the Child in 1990. This convention asserted \line \up0 \expndtw-1\
charscalex100 the right of every child to adequate food and nutrition. The world
community has \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 finally committed it self to
eliminate the hunger of children with the ratification of this \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 convention. India was also part of the World Food Summit held
at Rome in 1996. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2151\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-7\charscalex100 Regarding national level obligations, poverty alleviation has b
een on the policy agenda \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 for more than 50 years. A
s early as 1938, the Indian National Congress constituted \up0 \expndtw-8\charsc
alex97 a National Planning Committee (NPC) headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, which had
declared \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 that the social objective should be \u82
20?to ensure an adequate standard of living for the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103
masses, in other words, to get rid of the appalling poverty of the people\u8221
?. The \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Constitution of India has a number of funda
mental rights in Part III of the Constitution \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 and
are classified under seven broad groups as given below\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\u
l0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 12\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\ql \li3099\s
b195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs20 R
ight to Equality (Articles 14-18) \par\pard\ql \li3099\ri5055\sb16\sl-320\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Right to particular freedoms (Arts. 19-22) \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Rights against exploitation (Arts. 23-24) \line \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Right to Freedom of Religion (Arts.23-24) \line \up
0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Cultural and educational rights (Arts. 29-30) \par\pa
rd\ql \li2418\sb114\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf16\f17\fs18 11. see Dreze (2003) for the situation in KBK region in Orissa \p
ar\pard\ql \li2418\sb133\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 12. See CD
HR (2002) \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb124\sl-2
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Part IV (Arts. 36 to 51) of the Constitution contains the Directive Principles o
f State \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Policy. The Directives, however, dif
fer from the Fundamental Rights as they are not \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex
100 enforceable in the Courts and do not create any justiciable rights in favour
of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 individuals. Although there is no exp
licit provision for the \u8216?right to food\u8217? in the \line \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 Constitution of India, the comparable human right provisions in t
he Constitution of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 India are found in few Ar
ticles of Fundamental Rights as well as Directive Principles \line \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 of State Policy. Article 21 of the Indian constitution provide
s the fundamental right \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 to protection of lif
e and personal liberty. The Directive Principles implicitly incorporates \line \
up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the right to food either in the form of non-justici
able right of the citizens (Arts. 39, 41) \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 or
in the form of directives in the nature of ideals of the state (Art.47) and the
se are: \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Right to adequate means of livelihood (Art. 39 a)
\par\pard\ql \li2377\ri4428\sb16\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Ri
ght of both sexes to equal pay for equal work (Art. 39 d) \up0 \expndtw-5\chars
calex100 Right against economic exploitation ( Art. 39 e-f) \line \up0 \expndtw-
7\charscalex100 Right to work (Art. 41) \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2164\sb0\sl-320\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Right to public assistance in case of unemp
loyment, old age, sickness, and other cases \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 of unde
served want (Art.41) \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2167\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 The State shall endeavor to raise the level of nutrition and s
tandard of living and to \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 improve public health (Ar
t.47) \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2155\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The importance of reduction in poverty and pro
vision of basic needs has been \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 emphasized in
all the five year plans since independence particularly since the 5\ul0\super\c
f14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 th \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Five-Year Plan. But, there has been no legal backing f
or the right to food in India. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Only in recen
t years, Supreme Court has been giving Orders on right to food and \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 right to work. In practice, the Supreme Court started ent
ertaining petitions regarding \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 not only viola
tions of civil and political rights, but also of economic and social rights. \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 In May 2001, the People\u8217?s Union for Civil
Liberties (Rajasthan) submitted a petition \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
in the Supreme Court, demanding that the country\u8217?s gigantic food stocks sh
ould be \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 used without delay to prevent hunger
and starvation. Expressing serious concerns \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
over the starvation deaths in some states, the Supreme Court (SC) observed in \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 August 2001, that it was the primary responsibi
lity of the Central and State \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Governments to
ensure that the food grains overflowing in FCI godowns reached the \line \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex100 starving people and not wasted by being dumped in the sea
or eaten by rats. In \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 September, the SC has
directed 16 states, which had not identified the people below \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex102 the poverty line (BPL) to do so within two weeks to enable the
governments to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 distribute food to them under
the public distribution system (PDS). In November \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-23
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 30
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2001, SC gave interim order directing all State governments to introduce cooked
\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 mid-day meals in primary schools within six
months of the order. Supreme Court \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 hearings
have led to a larger \u8220?right to food campaign\u8221?. The foundation state
ment of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 the campaign says \u8220?The Right to
Food campaign is an informal network of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 orga
nizations and individuals committed to the realization of the right to food in \
line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 India. Realising the right to food requires n
ot only equitable and sustainable food \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 system
s, but also entitlements relating to livelihood security such as the right to \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 work, land reform and social security. We cons
ider that the primary responsibility for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 guar
anteeing these entitlements rests with the state\u8221?. So far, the Right to fo
od \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 campaign has focused mainly on the implem
entation of SC orders relating to the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 right
to food. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb5\sl-230\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 4.1. Analysin
g programmes and Policies in terms Of Obligations of State \par\pard\qj \li2379\
ri2157\sb256\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f
11\fs20 A useful framework to discuss policies and programmes for right to food
is provided \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 by three level obligations of the stat
e - obligation to respect, obligation to protect \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 a
nd obligation to fulfill\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 13\ul0\
nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2158\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 4.1.1.Obligation to Res
pect: \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Under this obligation State should not deny
food to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 any individual or any segment of soc
iety. Particularly during floods and droughts, \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex1
00 some sections may be denied food as the rich corner the relief money or commo
dities. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 This is true of normal food securit
y programmes for the poor. In many of the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pr
ogrammes, non-poor corner some of the benefits as compared to the poor. \par\par
d\ql \li2379\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf13\f14\fs20 4.1.2.Obligation to Protect : Land Ownership and Tenancy \par\par
d\qj \li2379\ri2153\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf10\f11\fs20 One of the important obligations of the state with regard t
o any right is the obligation \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to protect. Th
e obligation to protect in case of food implies ensuring the right to land \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and security of tenure. Agricultural land in Indi
a is overwhelmingly privately owned \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and oper
ated with over 10 million holdings of which 63 per cent are in the small and \li
ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 marginal category. In this way the Government fu
lfils its obligation to respect in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 terms of
privately owned land. It also protects in terms of ownership although land \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 record system is not satisfactory. However, lan
d ownership and operation is regulated \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 by po
licies which place ceiling on agricultural land, restrict leasing, regulate rent
s \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and provide security of tenure. This regul
ation is deemed to be in the interest of both \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex10
0 equity and growth (Srivastava et al, 2003). Abolition of Zamindari system (lan
dlordism) \par\pard\ql \li2398\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2398\sb107\sl-2
07\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 13. \ul0\
nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 See Osmani et al (2003) \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb204\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 31
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sb36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 w
as one of the achievements immediately after independence. The policy of \line \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 redistribution of excess land (above the ceiling li
mit) to the poor, however, has not \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 been succ
essful. There is no security for tenants except in West Bengal. There are \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 gender inequalities in the ownership of land. The
experience of past policies and the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 agrarian
changes which have occurred in the last few decades, called into question \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 some of these set of policies particularly on te
nancy and womens\u8217? rights on land. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
ersub\cf13\f14\fs20 4.1.3. Obligation to fulfill \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb1
96\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Un
der obligation to fulfill, government has to facilitate and provide benefits to
the \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 poor. Pro-poor growth strategy falls unde
r obligation to facilitate. In the case of obligation \line \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 to provide, the Government has several programmes see Table 15. The C
entral and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 State Governments of India implem
ent a broad package of programmes to improve \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
accessibility and adequacy of food and nutrition for the poor and vulnerable gr
oups. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 They include Public Distribution Syste
m (PDS) and its sub-programmes (Annapurna \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Sc
heme and the Anthodaya Anna Yojana, a foodgrain price stabilization programme, \
line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 food-for-work programmes such as the Jawahar
Gram Samriddhi Yojana/Jawahar \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Rojgar Yojana
(JGSY/JRY) and the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), The \line \up0 \expndtw-1\
charscalex100 mid-meals programme and a number of direct nutrition programmes -
Integrated \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Child Development Services, Balwad
i Nutrition Programme, Day Care Centres \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Sche
me, and Vitamin A and Iron Distribution programmes that are linked with the \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 ICDS (World Bank, 2001)\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\
ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 14\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li2401\
sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb
0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\
sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl
-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-2
20\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220
\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\s
lmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmul
t0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\ri2154\sb203\sl-220\slmult0\tx2684 \up0 \expndtw-5\charsc
alex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 14. More on these programmes, see Mahendra
Dev (2000), Mahendra Dev and Ravi (2000) and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscal
ex100 Mahendra Dev et al (2003a) \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\
pard\ql\li5800\sb202\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf10\f11\fs20 32
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf25\f26\fs19 Table 15.Programmes to Improve Accessibility and A
dequacy of Food and Nutrition \par\pard\li2490\sb215\sl-230\slmult0\fi235\tx4508
\tx7390 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex93 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Program/Schem
e\tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex93 Volume of Food-Based Transfer\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-9\charscalex93 Program Interventions\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1
\colw7067\colsr60\colno2\colw4633\colsr160\ql \li2490\sb183\sl-207\slmult0\tx452
5 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 A. Targeted Public\
tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 BPL/ APL: 35 kg rice and\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb
9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4585 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 Distribution System\tab \up
0 \expndtw-8\charscalex93 wheat/ family/ month\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb66\sl-207\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 1. Antyodaya Anna Yojna \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 35 kg of rice and wheat per\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 family classified as poorest of\par\pard\ql \li4530\s
b9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 the poor\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb6
7\sl-207\slmult0\tx4522 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 2. Annapurna Scheme\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 10 kg/ month/indigent senior\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\
sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 citizen\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb66\sl-
207\slmult0\tx4525 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 B
. Food for Work\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 1
kg of rice or wheat/workday\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-8\charscalex97 1.Jawahar Gram\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-8\charscalex93 Samriddhi Yojana\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb67\sl-207\slmult0\tx4
527 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 2. Employment\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96
1 kg of rice or wheat/workday\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-8\charscalex96 Assurance Scheme\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\p
ard\ql \li2490\sb71\sl-207\slmult0\tx4526 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 3. Swarnj
ayanti Gram\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Up to 5 kg grains per person\par\p
ard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4518 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 Swarozgar
Yojana\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 per day\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb66\sl-207\
slmult0\tx4523 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex93 4. Food-for-Work\tab \up0 \expndtw-7
\charscalex100 Food grains up to 5 kg per\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex92 man-day\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb67\sl-207\slmult0\tx
4525 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 C. Mid-Day Meals
Scheme\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 3 kg rice
or wheat/child/month\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\cha
rscalex100 for 10 mos. Or cooked\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 meal (100gm/day) for 200 days\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb66\sl-
207\slmult0\tx4522 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 D
. Nutrition Schemes\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 0 to 6 yrs: 300 calories\pa
r\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4524 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 with F
ood\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 (ready to eat food) + 8-10 gm\par\pard\ql \
li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4517 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Supplementation\t
ab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 protein for 300 days\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-
207\slmult0\tx4525 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 1
. Integrated Child\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs
18 Malnourished Children:\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4515 \up0 \ex
pndtw-8\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Development Services\tab \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 600 calories + 20 gm protein for\par\pard\ql \li2490\s
b9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4524 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex92 Scheme/ Tamil Nadu\tab \up
0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 300 days\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\tx452
5 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 Integrated Nutrition\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 Adolescent girls: \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\f
s18 500 calories +\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4525 \up0 \expndtw-8
\charscalex92 Program\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 20-25 gm protein for 300
days\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 Pregnant & nursing mothers:\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-
207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 500 calo
ries + 20-25 gm\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 protein for 300 days\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb67\sl-207\slmult0\tx4528 \up0 \e
xpndtw-8\charscalex97 2. Pradhan Mantri\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 300 ca
lories and 8-10 gms of\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\tx4521 \up0 \expnd
tw-8\charscalex92 Gramodaya Yojana\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 protein for
Grade I & II children,\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\c
harscalex100 double the amount for Grade III\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 and IV children.\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-207
\slmult0\tx4526 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 3. Balwadi Nutrition\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 300 calories + 12 -15 gm protein\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb9\sl-
207\slmult0\tx4525 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex92 Program\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 for 270 days\par\pard\ql \li2490\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li24
90\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2490\sb27\sl-207\slmult0\tx4528 \up0 \expn
dtw-7\charscalex100 4. Day Care Centers\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 300 ca
lories + 12 -15 gm protein\par\pard\ql \li4530\sb9\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-
5\charscalex100 for 270 days\par\pard\column \ql \li34\sb183\sl-207\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 Price subsidies on rice\par\pard\ql \li29\ri2340\sb0\s
l-244\slmult0\fi3 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 wheat, sugar, edible oils. \line
\up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 A higher price subsidy on rice \line \up0 \expndtw
-6\charscalex100 and wheat than BPL rates\par\pard\qj \li7127\sb0\sl-216\slmult0
\par\pard\qj \li31\ri2433\sb33\sl-216\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Fre
e grain to indigent senior \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 citizens\par\pard\ql \li
25\ri2286\sb57\sl-216\slmult0\fi1 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex92 Employment in lea
n agricultural \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 season for rural workers \line \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex95 below poverty line\par\pard\qj \li20\ri2409\sb58\sl-216
\slmult0\fi17 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 100 days employment during \up0 \expn
dtw-6\charscalex100 lean agricultural season up \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 to
2 members/family\par\pard\qj \li32\ri2700\sb30\sl-244\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-
8\charscalex93 Employment at minimum \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 wage, pa
rtly paid in kind \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 Employment in natural\par\p
ard\ql \li33\sb3\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 calamity areas\par
\pard\qj \li32\ri2508\sb60\sl-216\slmult0\fi1 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 Cooke
d meal or distribution \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 of food grains to pri
mary \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 schools\par\pard\ql \li25\ri2289\sb57\sl
-216\slmult0\fi8 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex93 Supplementary feeding\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf22\f23\fs18 , \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 growth \line \up0 \expndtw-8\ch
arscalex96 monitoring and promotion, \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 nutriti
on and health education \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 to adult women and ad
olescent \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 girls, pre-school education to \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 3-6 years old, immunization, \line \up0 \expndtw
-8\charscalex100 health check-ups and referrals, \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscale
x100 income generating programs\par\pard\ql \li7138\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql \li7138\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li7138\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql \li39\sb93\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 Supplementary feeding
\par\pard\qj \li7138\sb0\sl-216\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li7138\sb0\sl-216\slmult0
\par\pard\qj \li7138\sb0\sl-216\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li32\ri2506\sb2\sl-216\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Supplementary feeding to \line \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 children 3-5 yrs, promote \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 ch
ild\u8217?s social and emotional \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 development\
par\pard\qj \li31\ri2410\sb1\sl-215\slmult0\fi5 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Da
y care services to children \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 below 5 yrs to low inc
ome \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 families, supplementary\par\pard\qj \li34\ri22
91\sb1\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 nutrition, health care, medi
cal \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 check up and immunization \par\pard\sect\sectd\
sbknone \ql \li2379\sb4\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf19\f20\fs20 Source: World Bank (2001) \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb222\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 33
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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\sn geoRight}{\sv 7125}}{\sp{\sn geoBottom}{\sv 10438}}{\sp{\sn shapePath}{\sv 4
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sb36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 D
etails, Accessibility and Adequacy under the Programmes: Obligation to \line \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Provide \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Public Distribution System \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri215
4\sb256\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs
20 Public Distribution System (PDS) is one of the instruments for improving food
security \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 at the household level in India. P
DS ensures availability of essential commodities \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscale
x100 like rice, wheat, edible oils and kerosene to the consumers through a netwo
rk of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 outlets or fair price shops. They are
supplied at below market prices to consumers, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 the access to the system till 1997 was universal. During the first few decades
of its \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 existence, the PDS had actually neve
r operated as an anti-poverty programme but \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 m
erely as an instrument of price stabilization. Till the late 1970s, the PDS was
\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 mainly restricted to urban areas and food de
ficit regions. The main emphasis was on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 price
stabilization and as an alternative channel to private trade. Since the Sixth \
line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Five Year Plan, however, the welfare importan
ce of the PDS has been recognized. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Rural are
as have also been covered in many states in the 1980s. In the 1990s, the \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 government has decided to restructure the PDS in the
form of Revamped PDS \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (RPDS) and Targeted PD
S (TPDS). The PDS has been effective during drought \line \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 years e.g. 1979-80 and 1987-88\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f
15\fs17 15\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . It is also effective in transferring
foodgrains from \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 surplus areas to few deficit
regions like Kerala. However, present system of public \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 distribution has many problems. The problems regarding access of PDS
to poor are \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 discussed below. \par\pard\qj \
li2377\ri2153\sb125\sl-315\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf19\f20\fs20 (a) There has been significant diversion of PDS Commodities. A st
udy was conducted by \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 the Tata Economic Consul
tancy Services to know how much of PDS supplies were diverted \line \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 from the system. At the national level, it was found, there wa
s a diversion of 36% of \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 wheat supplies, 31%
of rice and 23% sugar. The diversion is more in Northern, Eastern \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-8\charscalex98 and North Eastern regions; it is comparatively less in Sout
hern and Western regions. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb121\sl-320\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex98 (b) The overall impact of PDS on the poor seems to be l
ess. Few studies have measured \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the welfare ga
ins due to operation of the PDS. Parikh (1994) says that \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f1
1\fs20 \u8216?\u8216?\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 the cost \line \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 effectiveness of reaching the poorest 20 per cent of households
through pds cereals is \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 very small. For every
rupee spent less than 22 paise reach the poor in all states, excepting \line \up
0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 in Goa, Daman and Diu where 28 paise reach the poor.
This is not to suggest that pds \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 does not ben
efit the poor at all, but only to emphasize that this support is provided at \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 high cost\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 \u8217?\
u8217?\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 . A study by Radhakrishna et al (1997) concl
udes that the \u8216?potential benefits \par\pard\ql \li2401\sb174\sl-207\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 15. \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 See Tendulkar
et al (1993) \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb204\s
l-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 34
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
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}}
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}}
from the PDS to the poor could not be realized cost-effectively due to weak targ
eting \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 and leakages. The cost of income transf
er was high mainly because the programme was \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
open ended and never targeted\u8217? (p.49). The study also says that approache
s other than \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 quantity rationing, including s
elf-targeting and other alternatives such as food stamps, \line \up0 \expndtw-7\
charscalex100 need to be considered in order to deliver food transfers to the ne
edy cost-effectively\ul0\super\cf21\f22\fs18\ul0\super\cf21\f22\fs17 16\ul0\nosu
persub\cf19\f20\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2157\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-8\charscalex96 (c) Poor states have not benefited much from PDS. The rela
tionship between poverty and \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 PDS off-take is
weak across Indian states. Radhakrishna et al (1997) provides the following \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 conclusions on regional disparities: (1) there is
a regional mistargeting in the distribution \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96
of foodgrains through PDS. The off-take by states like Kerala and Andhra Pradesh
, which \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 are implementing subsidized food sch
eme, is high. On the other hand, the off-take by \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscale
x97 the poorer states like Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh is low ; (2) there
has been poor \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 targeting and access in majori
ty of the states. The access of the poor to PDS is still \line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 limited even after four decades of PDS operations. Data for the yea
r 1995 based on \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 selected village surveys rec
onfirm the poor\u8217?s limited access in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 found from the large household data set for 1986-87; (3) E
mpirical evidence for urban \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 bias seems to be
weak. Urban bias was severe only in two states viz., Jammu & Kashmir \line \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex98 and West Bengal ; (4) In states like Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala, the access of the poor is \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 much bette
r. However, even in these states, per capita monthly PDS cereal purchases \line
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 tended to be regressive. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri21
53\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 (d) Targeted public distrib
ution system (TPDS) has undergone changes over time and it \line \up0 \expndtw-7
\charscalex100 has some problems. TPDS was introduced in 1997 by issuing speci
al cards to families \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 below poverty line (BPL
). Separate issue price is fixed for above poverty population \line \up0 \expndt
w-8\charscalex98 (APL). There are problems with targeting of PDS. The Government
\u8217?s approach of TPDS \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 relates to income
based means test. It is known that it is difficult to identify poor \line \up0 \
expndtw-8\charscalex96 through income-based means test. It should be avoided and
some other indicators should \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 be used for tar
geting. Targeting also leads to exclusion and inclusion errors\ul0\super\cf21\f2
2\fs18\ul0\super\cf21\f22\fs17 17\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 . The former \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 error refers to exclusion of poor while the l
atter error refers to inclusion of non-poor. \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96
Both the errors seem to be high under TPDS. The challenge is to minimise the err
ors with \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex94 innovative programmes. \par\pard\ql
398\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2398\sb19\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 16. \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 See Ramaswamy (2002) \par\pard\ql
\li2398\sb153\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19
\f20\fs20 17. \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 See Cornia and Stewart (1995), Sen (
1995) \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb34\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 35
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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}}
A recent study by Mahendra Dev et al (2003) based on NSS 1999-00 data shows \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 that the income gains for rural poor have increa
sed as compared to 1986-87. However, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the gai
ns due to PDS as per cent of per capita monthly expenditure are very low \line
\up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 (Table 16). \par\pard\ql \li3428\ri3215\sb220\sl-32
0\slmult0\tx5037 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Tab
le 16. Income gain per month due to PDS: All India \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\cha
rscalex100 1986-87 and 1999-00 \par\pard\li2435\sb143\sl-230\slmult0\fi2121\tx76
96 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Rural\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 Urban\par\pard\li2435\sb97\sl-230\slmult0\fi826\tx4800\tx
6407\tx7974 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Income gain (Rs.)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\
charscalex100 % of gain to Mean\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Income gain (R
s.)\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 % of gain to Mean\par\pard\li2435\sb10\sl-
230\slmult0\fi892\tx4936\tx6504\tx8117 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (current pr
ices)\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 per capita exp.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 (current prices)\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 per capita exp.\par
\pard\li2435\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi2831\tx8471 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (MP
CE)\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (MPCE)\par\pard\li2435\sb120\sl-230\slmult
0\fi835\tx4062\tx4855\tx5667\tx6445\tx7266\tx8034\tx8827 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 1986-7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1999-0\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 1986-7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1999-0\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 1986-7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1999-0\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 1986-7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1999-0\par\pard\li2435\sb1
25\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3383\tx4122\tx5023\tx5781\tx6553\tx7373\tx8193\tx8932 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Poor\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2.01\tab \up0
pndtw-4\charscalex100 7.65\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 3.2\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 2.52\par\pard\li2435\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3381\tx4172\tx
5022\tx5780\tx6553\tx7326\tx8194\tx8933 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex91 Non-poor\ta
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.29\tab \up
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.09\par\pard\ql
\li2435\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex75 All \par\pard\li2435\s
b10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx3381\tx4172\tx5022\tx5780\tx6553\tx7374\tx8194\tx8934 \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Classes\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 2.30\tab
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 9.87\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1.7\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-1\charscalex100 1.16\par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2165\sb162\sl-240\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex98 Note: Income gain includes gains from all purchases of
rice, wheat, sugar and kerosene \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 made in fair price
shops. Income gain for a given commodity is defined as \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri21
60\sb120\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 IG = (P\ul0\sub\cf21\f22\fs
17 M\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 -P\ul0\sub\cf21\f22\fs17 D\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
9\f20\fs20 )*Q\ul0\sub\cf21\f22\fs17 D\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 , where IG i
s income gain, P\ul0\sub\cf21\f22\fs17 M\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 and P\ul
0\sub\cf21\f22\fs17 D\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 are open market and fair pri
ce of the \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex94 commodity and Q\ul0\sub\cf21\f22\fs17 D\u
l0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 is the quantity purchased in fair price shop. \par\
pard\ql \li2377\sb169\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Source: Mahen
dra Dev et al (2003) \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377
Annapurna Scheme \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb196\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 This programme is linked to the T
argeted PDS. It provides 10 kgs of foodgrains per \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 month for free to indigent senior citizens living alone. Approved during t
he 1999/ \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2000 budget, it is now being operat
ionalized. It is targeted at those who are eligible \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charsc
alex100 for old age pension, but do not receive them and who do not live with th
eir children in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 the same village. The Ministr
y of Rural Development is charged with its \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 i
mplementation, with an annual foodgrain requirement estimated at 166,000 tonnes,
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 issued by FCI at economic costs. The evaluat
ion of this scheme is not readily \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 available.
\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb5\sl-230\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Antyodaya Anna Yojan
a \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2159\sb196\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 This programme was introduced in early 2001 is ad
dressed to the poorest of the \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 poor, as ident
ified by gram panchayats and gram sabhas. Antodaya households \line \up0 \expndt
w-8\charscalex100 have special ration cards and are entitled to 35 kg of grain a
month at highly subsidized \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
\li5800\sb85\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 36
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}
}}
Width}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 14479}}
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prices (Rs. 2 a kg for wheat and Rs.3 kg for rice). In a survey of destitution i
n five \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 states (Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh, J
harkand, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh) \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 indica
tes that the programme is doing well, in contrast, with other components of the
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 PDS\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f
15\fs17 18\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . The selection of Antyodaya households
appears to be quite fair: among the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 450 Ant
yodaya households living in the sample villages, a majority of them turned \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 out to be poor. The programme has, however, some
problems. In some areas, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 survey found tha
t many Antyodaya households had been deprived of their \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 entitlements. Rationshop dealers took advantage of their powerlessnes
s. Another \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 major limitation of the scheme is
its restricted coverage. It is less than 5 per cent of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 the rural population. The problems and limitations can be sorted out
easily as this \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 programme has lot of promise
. In the budget 2003-04, an additional allocation of \line \up0 \expndtw-5\chars
calex100 Rs.507 crores has been provided. With this expansion, 25 per cent of th
e population \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 below the poverty line is to be
covered in the fiscal year 2003-04. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li2379\sb5\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf13\f14\fs20 Wage Employment Programmes \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb196\sl-
320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 India has
a long experience in experimenting with labour intensive public works. \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 After independence in 1947, many schemes were sponsor
ed by the Central \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Government, beginning with
the Rural Manpower programme in 1960\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\
fs17 19\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . The \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS) of Maharashtra has received acclaim from \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 several sources. It is particularly interesting e
xample because of its unprecedented \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 feature
of guaranteed rural employment which makes it a model for other states in \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 India and throughout the developing world\ul0\supe
r\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 20\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . At th
e national level, Jawahar Rojgar \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Yojana (JRY)
and Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) are the important \line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 programmes in rural areas. Food-for-work programme was started in 2
000-01 as a \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 component of the EAS in eight no
tified drought-affected states of Chattisgarh, Gujarat, \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex105 Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Uttaranchal. In terms of person days of emplo
yment created, India\u8217?s rural public \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 wo
rks programmes are the largest in the world. The JRY reached around a billion \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 person days in recent years. JRY\u8217?s share
is quite high in the social sector expenditure. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 Recently JRY was revamped and named as JGSY(Jawahar Grameen Samriddhi \line
\up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Yojana). Given the complementarity of the JGSY, E
AS and Food for Work Programme, \par\pard\ql \li2398\sb134\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 18. See Dreze (2002) \par\
pard\qj \li2398\ri2155\sb43\sl-220\slmult0\tx2682 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
19. From the fourth century BC when the ancient Indian political economist, Kaut
ilya, wrote his \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf18\f19
\fs18 Arthasastra\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 , there has been emphasis on publ
ic relief works, particularly at times of famine. \par\pard\qj \li2398\ri2152\sb
20\sl-220\slmult0\tx2682 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 20. The EGS is commended
by the UNDP\u8217?s Human Development Report (1993) as one of the \line\tab \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex97 largest public works programmes in the developing world
. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb162\sl-230\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 37
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
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}}
all of which aim at the creation of employment opportunities in the rural areas,
they \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 were revamped and merged under the Sampoorna
Gramin Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 scheme from September
2001. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2151\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscal
ex100 Despite its implementation difficulties, evaluations of the longer running
Maharashtra \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Employment Guarantee Scheme (MEGS)ind
icate that it played an important role in \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 combatin
g seasonal malnutrition among poor rural households. There are many direct \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex108 and indirect benefits due to public works programmes. EG
S has reduced \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 unemployment in Maharashtra; increase
d the incomes of many participating \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 households; ac
ted as an insurance mechanism; impacted on agricultural growth and \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex100 agricultural wages; organized the rural poor into a political fo
rce and has had a \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 considerable impact on women (De
v, 1996). The national programmes JRY and EAS \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 are,
however, not as successful as Maharashtra EGS. The findings of the report of \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the concurrent evaluation (1993-94) are as follows.
\par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2157\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 (i) About 77.18 per cent of the works, the panchaya
t functionaries were the executing \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 agency and
only 2.02 per cent of works were executed by the contractors; (ii) A substantia
l \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 amount of JRY funds has been spent on road
s and buildings; (iii) wage and non-wage \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 rat
io has been 53:47; (iv) 47 per cent of employment is generated for SC/ST and 36
per \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 cent for landless labourers; (v) Quality
of majority of assets were found to be good and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscale
x100 only 0.41 per cent of assets were not useful. 86 per cent of assets were re
ported to be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 durable; (vi) 70 per cent of th
e assets created were maintained by the panchayats. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 However, 13 per cent of the assets were not maintained at all; (vii) On
an average \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 employment generated under JRY in
30 days preceding the date of survey has been 11 \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscal
ex100 days (GOI, 2001). \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2150\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Other evaluations show that
the resources were spread thinly so as to increase the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 coverage of areas/ beneficiaries without any concern for duration of
employment. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Projects selected bore no relati
onship to the local needs or the agricultural \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex10
0 development strategy. A study on U.P. reports that the timing of works coincid
ed \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 with peak agricultural season and that th
e selection of works was not done in the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 gra
m sabha as required (GOI, 2000). Wage employment programmes, by effectively \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 intervening in the labour markets, were expected
to exert upward pressure on the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 market wage
s. This could not happen because of insufficient employment provided \line \up0
\expndtw-1\charscalex100 by these programmes. The share of women in employment g
enerated under the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 programme was only 17 per
cent. JRY and similar public works programmes have \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-
38
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tended to breed corruption. The fudging of muster rolls and of measurement books
is \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 very common resulting in huge loss of funds th
at could otherwise have been invested \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 in building
rural infrastructure. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2156\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw0\charscalex100 Notwithstanding some of the problems mentioned above, there
are two positive \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 aspects of the programme (G
OI, 2000). Fitrst, the programme did succeed in creating \line \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 durable community assets in rural areas. It is true that some asset
s built have poor \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 quality. Second, the progr
amme led to empowerment of panchayats as the funds \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 were placed at their disposal along with power to get the works executed
through line \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 departments. \par\pard\ql \li23
79\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb85\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 4.3. Nutrition Programmes \par\pard\ql
\li2379\sb190\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10
\f11\fs20 ICDS \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2156\sb196\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex106 Malnutrition among children and women is severe in India. Integrate
d Child \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Development Services (ICDS) is one of the
main programmes for providing nutrition. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ICDS is pe
rhaps the largest of all the food supplementation programmes in the \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 world. It was initiated in 1975 with the following objectives:
\par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2149\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (
i) To improve the health and nutrition status of children 0-6 years by providing
\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 supplementary food and by coordinating with
state health departments to ensure \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 delivery
of required health inputs; (ii) To provide conditions necessary for psychologic
al \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 and social development of pre-school chil
dren through early stimulation and education; \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex10
0 (iii) to provide pregnant and lactating women with food supplements; (iv) to e
nhance \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 the mother\u8217?s ability to provide
proper child care through health and nutrition education; \par\pard\qj \li2379\
ri2156\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 (v) To achieve effective
coordination of policy and implementation among the various \up0 \expndtw-6\cha
rscalex100 departments to promote child development. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2151
\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Under universalisation of IC
DS, world bank assistance is being received for expansion \line \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 of the ICDS programme since 1990-91. The WB-ICDS project I (1991-9
7) covered \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 301 ICDS projects in the states of
Andhra Pradesh and Orissa while WB-ICDS \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 proj
ect II (1997-2000) covered 454 projects in the states of Bihar and M.P. This \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 project has been extended upto 2002. The WB-ICD
S project III (1998-2004) started \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 in 1998-99
aims at covering 461 priojects in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pra
desh. The World Bank \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 assisted ICDS programme
in A.P. is being implemented in 257 blocks as part of the \line \up0 \expndtw-6
\charscalex100 total programme of Andhra Pradesh Economic Reconstruction Program
me (APERP). \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-2
39
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The scheme was operational in 4384 blocks in 2000. By the end of 2001-02, 5171 \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 blocks/urban areas are proposed to be covered which
implies a 90 per cent coverage \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of blocks by the e
nd of the Ninth Plan. Along with the expansion of this scheme the \up0 \expndtw-
1\charscalex100 allocation of central government for this scheme have also incre
ased. During the \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Ninth Plan a sum of Rs.4960 crore
for ICDS scheme has been allocated against \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 which
Rs.2,159 crores were spent during the first three years. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri
2154\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 During the Ninth Plan IC
DS programme in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh were evaluated \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 by the National Institute of Nutrition. The World Bank and Government of
India have \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 reviewed the ICDS programme in 1997. Th
e findings are: \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 (a) ICDS services were much in demand but there are problems in d
elivery, quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 and coordination. The progra
mme might perhaps be improving food security at \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 household level, but failed to effectively address the issue of prevention,
detection \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and management of undernourished c
hild/mother; (b) Children in 6-24 months age \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
group and pregnant and lactating women did not come to the Anganwadi nor did th
ey \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 get food supplements ; (c) Available food
was shared between mostly 3-5 year old \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 chil
dren irrespective of their nutritional status; (d) There was no focused attentio
n on \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 management of severely undernourished c
hildren; (e) No attempt was made to provide \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
ready mixes that could be given to 6-24 month child 3-4 times a day; nor was nut
rition \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 education focused on meeting these ch
ildren\u8217?s need from the family pot (f) childcare \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 education of the mother was poor or non-existent; (g) there were gaps
in workers \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 training, supervision, and commun
ity support; (h) inter-sectoral coordination was \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscale
x100 poor (GOI, 2000). \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2157\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 Efforts are underway to rectify some of these problems. Cl
oser collaboration between \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 the ICDS and the health
functionaries at all levels is being attempted. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 N
PNSPE \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2155\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 The National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NPNSPE
) \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 aims to promote improved nutrition and att
endance of primary school children in the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 who
le country. The programme, more popularly known as the Mid-Day Meals \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 Programme, seeks to attract children to enroll themselve
s in primary school, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 encourage regular atten
dance by providing supplementary feeding and improve their \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex100 nutritional status. The NPNSPE programme expanded rapidly in the 1
990s, but \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 implementation problems hamper its
effectiveness in achieving its intended goals. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 A recent survey of school level participation in the mid-day-meal programme
found \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb145\sl-230\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 40
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that in 6 states distributing foodgrains, on average only 66 per cent of househo
lds \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 with enrolled primary school children reported
receiving their foodgrain allocations. \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 The progra
mme is plagued with some critical implementation problems\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs1
8\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 21\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\ql \li237
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Supreme Court Orders \par\pard\qj \li23
79\ri2154\sb196\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
0\f11\fs20 In recent years, the campaigns on right to food have given some divid
ends. Supreme \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Court (SC) has given interim orders
in response to the writ petition filed by PUCL in \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
April 2001\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 22\ul0\nosupersub\cf1
0\f11\fs20 . The petition demanded the immediate utilization of the country\u82
17?s food \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 stocks for drought relief and the preven
tion of hunger. The scope of the petition is not \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 r
estricted to drought situations. It also focuses on the general need to uphold t
he \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \u8220?right to food\u8221? which flows from th
e right to life (Article 21). \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 In July 23, 2001 the SC directed the states to see
that all the PDS shops, if closed, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 start func
tioning within one week from today and regular supplies made. In 20\ul0\super\cf
14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 th \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex98 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 August, 2001 hearing, the SC stated that it is the prime
responsibility of the government \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to prevent
hunger and starvation. In 3\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 rd\
ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 September in the same year, the SC asked \line \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the 16 states which had not identified beneficiaries
for the Antyodaya Anna Yojana \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 scheme to do
so within two weeks. The 28\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 th\u
l0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 November hearing concluded with an \line \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 important \u8220?interim Order\u8221? (valid for the duration
of the proceedings). This interim \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 order has
three significant components: (1) It covers the benefits of eight nutrition-\li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 related schemes (PDS, Antyodaya, mid-meals, ICD
S, Annapurna, old-age persons, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 NMBS and NFBS
)into legal entitlements; (2) it directs all state governments to begin \line \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 cooked mid-day meals for all children in government a
nd government-assisted \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 schools; and (3) it di
rects the state and central governments to adopt specific \line \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 measures to ensure public awareness and transparency of these prog
rammes. The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 court also gave a time frame for
implementation and asked the respondents to file \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscal
ex100 compliance reports before 11\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs
17 th\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 February 2002, when the next hearing was sch
eduled. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2151\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charsca
lex100 On May 8, 2002, an interim order was passed by Supreme Court that deals w
ith \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 various aspects of governance and impleme
ntation of the food and employment \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 schemes.
(a) The order directs the states not to divert central funds meant for food \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and employment schemes for other purposes. (2) T
he gram Sabha i.e. the village \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 councils have
been authorized to conduct social audits over all food and employment \line \up
0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 schemes implemented in their area. (3) Dr. N.C. Saxen
a and Mr. S.R. Sankaran are \par\pard\ql \li2398\sb94\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 21. More on this see World Bank
(2001) \par\pard\qj \li2398\ri2156\sb3\sl-220\slmult0\tx2682 \up0 \expndtw-5\ch
arscalex100 22. See the website of the Right to Food Campaign (www.geocities.com
/righttofood/) for the \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 Supreme Court in
terim orders. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb102\
sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 41
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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neWidth}{\sv 6787}}
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neWidth}{\sv 6787}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
appointed as commissioners who are authorized to monitor the implementation of \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the schemes and redress complaints arising the
rein on behalf of the court. As \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 mentioned ea
rlier, many state governments have violated the interim orders. However, \line \
up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 the Supreme Court directives have been putting pres
sure on the governments. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-5\charscalex100 To sum up, the impact of the programmes under obligation
to provide by the State is \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 mixed. Whatever
the reasons, diversion of resources at such a massive scale suggests \line \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex100 serious failure on the part of government\u8217?s part
to discharge its obligation to provide. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
ersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5. HOW TO PROGRESSIVELY REALISE RIGHT TO FOOD? \par\pard\ql
\li2377\sb150\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.1. Supply Side and
Demand Side \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2155\sb176\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 In the food security discussions, the a
nalysis generally focuses on supply side. In \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
the rights approach, one has to go beyond supply side and focus more on demand
\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 side. Supply of food and nutrition is import
ant but as a right demand side is more \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 import
ant. Unless citizens demand right to food, the governments may not fulfill \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 their obligations. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb
120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 While the State is the primary
duty holder, the Declaration puts the responsibility for \line \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 fulfilling rights on everyone - individuals, national governments a
nd the international \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 community. But States h
ave the primary duty to create national and international \line \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 conditions favourable for the realization of the right. In this co
ntext, the five principles \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of rights based a
pproach i.e. ENTAP (Equity, Non-discrimination, Transparency, \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 Accountability and Participatory) should be respected. In thi
s section, we discuss \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 how to progressively re
alize right to food in India keeping in view the State\u8217?s \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 obligations. We also discuss in this section on financial and
institutional issues for \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 realizing right to
food. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2158\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 Before going to these issues, we briefly document here the approach of Ten
th Five \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Year Plan (2002-07) on improving food and
nutrition. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb175\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.2 Tenth Five Year Plan Approach \par\pard\qj
\li2377\ri2152\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf10\f11\fs20 Similar to MDGs (millennium development goals) at international
level, Tenth Plan \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 for the first time sets monitora
ble targets for the Tenth Plan period (2002-07) and \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 beyond (see Box). All the targets directly or indirectly are important for rig
ht to food \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 also. The direct ones are those relating
to poverty, gainful employment, potable \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 drinking
water and forest cover. \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5
0\sb45\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 42
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
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}}
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}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
0\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb50\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex89 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Box 1 \par\pard\ql \li4031\sb149\sl-207\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-8\charscalex93 \ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs18 Monitorable targets for
the Tenth Plan and Beyond \par\pard\qj \li2490\ri2293\sb103\sl-220\slmult0\tx277
3 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf16\f17\fs18 Reduction in poverty ratio by 5 percentage points by 2007 an
d 15 percentage points by \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2012 \par\pard
\qj \li2490\ri2294\sb0\sl-220\slmult0\tx2773 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Providing gainful
and high-quality employment at least to addition to the labour force over \line
\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 the Tenth Plan period \par\pard\ql \li2490\sb1
1\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9
679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 All children in school by 2003; all children
to complete 5 years of schooling by 2007 \par\pard\ql \li2490\sb1\sl-198\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf16\f17\fs18 Reduction in gender gap in literacy and wage rates by at leas
t 50 per cent by 2007 \par\pard\qj \li2490\ri2290\sb4\sl-220\slmult0\tx2773 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\c
f16\f17\fs18 Reduction in the decadal rate of population growth between 2001 an
d 2011 to 16.2 per \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 cent \par\pard\ql \li
fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Increase in literacy rates to 75 per
cent within the plan period \par\pard\qj \li2490\ri2296\sb19\sl-200\slmult0\tx27
73 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosup
ersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Reduction of infant mortality rate (IMR) to 45 per 1000 liv
e births by 2007 and to 28 by \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 2012 \par\
pard\qj \li2490\ri2293\sb4\sl-220\slmult0\tx2773 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Reduction of
maternal mortality rate (MMR) to 2 per 1000 live births by 2007 and to 1 by \lin
e\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 2012 \par\pard\qj \li2490\ri2747\sb9\sl-210\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\
nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Increase in forest and tree cover to 25 per cent by 20
07 and 33 per cent by 2012 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 All villages have sustained a
ccess to potable drinking water within the plan period \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 C
leaning of all major polluted rivers by 2007 and other notified stretches by 201
2 \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb133\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf18\f19\fs18 Source: Planning Commission, GOI (2003) \par\pard\ql \li
2379\sb173\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf27\f28
\fs18 For nutrition, however, specific goals are given. The goals set for Tenth
Plan are: \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2223\sb139\sl-200\slmult0\tx2662 \up0 \expndtw-
1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs
18 Intensify nutrition and health education to improve infant and child feeding
and caring \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 practices so as to \par\pard
\ql \li2888\ri2178\sb67\sl-240\slmult0\tx3171 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf24\f25\fs20 \u10065?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 bring down the
prevalence of underweight children under three years from the current \line\tab
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 level of 47 per cent to 40 per cent \par\pard\ql \
li2888\ri2180\sb60\sl-240\slmult0\tx3171 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf24\f25\fs20 \u10065?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 reduce prevalence of
severe undernutrition in children in the 0-6 years age group by \line\tab \up
0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 50 per cent \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2317\sb0\sl-220\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\no
supersub\cf16\f17\fs18 reduce prevalence of anemia by 25% and that of moderate/
severe anemia by 50 per cent \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\
f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 eliminate vitamin A deficiency as
a public health problem; and \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb1\sl-192\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f1
7\fs18 reduce prevalence of IDD in the country to less than 10 per cent by 2010
\par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb167\sl-230\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Initiatives in the
Tenth Plan for improving food and nutrition \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb190\sl-230\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 There will be
a paradigm shift from: \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2628\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 Household food security and freedom from hunger to nutrit
ion security for the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 family and the individual; \p
ar\pard\ql \li2379\ri2357\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Unt
argeted food supplementation to screening of all the persons from vulnerable \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 groups, identification of those with various grades o
f under-nutrition and \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 appropriate management
; \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2207\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Lack of focused interventions on the prevention of over-nutrition to the promot
ion \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 of appropriate lifestyles and dietary intakes
for the prevention and management of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 over-nutritio
n and obesity. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb225
\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 43
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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}
}}
Width}{\sv 14479}}
\sl-420\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-420\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\ri583
9\sb94\sl-420\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs2
0 Interventions will be initiated to achieve: \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 Adequate availability of foodstuffs by: \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2702\sb103\sl-3
20\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Ensuring production of cereals, pulses
and seasonal vegetables to meet the \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 nutritional ne
eds; \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2155\sb120\sl-320\slmult0\tx2776 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 (a) Making them available throughout the year at affordable cost thr
ough reduction \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 in post harvest losses an
d appropriate processing; \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2162\sb100\sl-320\slmult0\tx277
6\tx2776\tx2776 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (b) More cost-effective and effici
ent targeting of the PDS to address macro and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal
ex100 micronutrient deficiencies. This may include providing coarse grains, pul
ses \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and iodized/double-fortified salt t
o below poverty line (BPL) families through \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 the targeted PDS (TPDS); \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2163\sb120\sl-320\slmult0\t
x2776 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (c) Improving people\u8217?s purchasing pow
er through appropriate programmes including \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex
100 food for work schemes. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-5\charscalex100 Prevention of under-nutrition through nutrition education aim
ed at: \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2200\sb176\sl-320\slmult0\tx2776\tx2776 \up0 \expn
dtw0\charscalex100 (a) Ensuring appropriate infant feeding practices (universal
colostrums feeding, \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 exclusive breast fee
ding up to six months, introduction of semisolids at six \line \tab \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 months); \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb135\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 (b) Promoting appropriate intra-family distribution of food
based on requirements\u8217? \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 (c) Dietary diversification to meet the nutritional needs o
f the family. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb76\sl-320\slmult0\tx2776 \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 (d) Operationalising universal screening of all pregnant wom
en, infants, preschool \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and school childr
en for under-nutrition. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2160\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 Operationalisation of nutrition interventions for the manag
ement of under-nutrition \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 through: \par\pard\
ndtw-4\charscalex100 (a) Targeted food supplementation and health care for thos
e with under-nutrition; \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 (b) Effective monitoring of these individuals and their families
; \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2321\sb16\sl-320\slmult0\tx2776\tx2776 \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 (c) Utilization of the panchayati raj institutions (PRIs) for eff
ective inter-sectoral \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 coordination and c
onvergence of services and improving community \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 participation in planning and monitoring of the ongoing interventions. \
par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2165\sb320\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Pr
evention, early detection and appropriate management of micronutrient deficienci
es \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 and associated health hazards through: \par\par
d\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb45\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-7\charscalex100 44
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
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eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
sb36\sl-320\slmult0\tx2773 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11
\fs20 (a) Nutrition education to promote dietary diversification to achieve a b
alanced \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 intake of all micronutrients; \p
ar\pard\ql \li2379\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (b) Univer
sal access to iodised/double fortified salt; \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2158\sb16\sl
-320\slmult0\tx2773 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (c) Early detection of micron
utrient deficiencies through screening of all children \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5
\charscalex100 with severe under-nutrition, pregnant women and school children;
\par\pard\ql \li2379\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (d) Time
ly treatment of micronutrient deficiencies. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2160\sb176\sl
-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Nutrition monitoring and surveillance
to enable the country to track changes in the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 nut
ritional and health status of the population to ensure that: \par\pard\ql \li237
rscalex100 (a) The existing opportunities for improving nutritional status are
fully utilized; and \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 (b) Emerging problems are identified early and corrected expeditious
ly. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb20\sl-230\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Research efforts will be directed towards: \pa
r\pard\ql \li2379\sb90\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (a) Review
of the recommended dietary intake of Indians; \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb90\sl-230\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (b) Building up of epidemiological data on
: \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2164\sb16\sl-320\slmult0\tx2773 \up0 \expndtw-6\charsca
lex100 (c) Relationship between birth weight, survival, growth and development
in childhood \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 and adolescence; \par\pard\
qj \li2379\ri2165\sb0\sl-320\slmult0\tx2773 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (d) B
ody mass index norms of Indians and health consequences of deviation from \line\
tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 these norms. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2156\sb120
\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 In view of the massive inter-state
(and, perhaps even inter-district) variations in the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 access to nutrition related services and nutritional status, state spe
cific goals to be \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 achieved by 2007 have been
worked out taking the current status into account. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 National goals have been drawn taking into account the state specific goa
ls (Table \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 17). \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2158\sb
0\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The approach of Tenth Plan is in
the right direction. However, it is not clear how the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 targets set in the plan will be achieved. The mechanisms for raising t
he resources \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and the monitoring mechanisms a
re also not clear. It is not directly based on rights \line \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 based approach. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i2379\sb5\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\
fs20 5.3. Realising Right to Food \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2156\sb76\sl-320\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 For realizing righ
t to food, three things may be necessary\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\
f15\fs17 23\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . One is the process of \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 formulation of policies. Second is the progressive realiz
ation of right and concern \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 for disadvantaged
. Third is monitoring and accountability. The process of formulation \line \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 of policies should be participatory. Then only the poli
cy makers come to know of the \par\pard\ql \li2398\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql\li2398\sb7\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\
f17\fs18 23. More on this see Osmani (2003) \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb204\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\
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}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg49}{\bkmkend Pg49}\par\pard\ql \li4963\sb0\sl-2
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4963\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4963\sb0\sl-253\s
lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4963\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4963\sb0\sl-253\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li4963\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4963\sb187\sl-253\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf12\f13\fs22 Table 17: NATIO
NAL AND STATE LEVEL GOALS FOR THE TENTH PLAN \par\pard\li3316\sb128\sl-230\slmul
t0\fi513\tx5538\tx10538 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\f
s20 State Name\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 % under nourished Children < 3
years\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Infant Feeding Practices\par\pard\li3316
\sb125\sl-207\slmult0\fi2112\tx6407\tx7242\tx8198\tx9057\tx10036\tx10900\tx11662
\tx12678\tx13431 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Cur
rent\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Tenth\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 C
urrent\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Tenth\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
Current\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Tenth\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 Curent\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Tenth Plan\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 Current\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Tenth paln\par\pard\li3316\sb
9\sl-207\slmult0\fi2049\tx6448\tx7179\tx8045\tx9040\tx9888\tx10808\tx11733\tx126
21\tx13679 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Levels of\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 Plan\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Levels of\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 Plan Goal\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 levels Of\tab \up0 \expndtw-
4\charscalex100 Plan Goal\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Levels of\tab \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 Goal 80%\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Levels of\tab
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Gola\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi1992\tx
6204\tx7118\tx7966\tx8930\tx9916\tx10741\tx11643\tx12647\tx13622 \up0 \expndtw-8
\charscalex94 Wt-for-age\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 Goal Redn.\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-8\charscalex91 Wt-for-age\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex94 Redn. From\tab
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 % children\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Incr
ease\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex92 % Children\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 of Children\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Comple-\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 Intro-\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi2164\tx6335\tx7228\tx8125
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up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 by 50%\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Below -\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Current\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Breast
\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 To 50%\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 0-3
Months Upto 6\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 mentary\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 duction\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi2150\tx7300\tx8098\tx89
40\tx10769\tx11780\tx12559\tx13557 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 - 3 SD\tab \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 @ SD\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Level of\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Fed within\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Exclusv
ely\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Months\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 F
eeding of\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of semi\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\s
lmult0\fi4809\tx8987\tx10754\tx11879\tx12691\tx13510 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 47% to\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 One hour\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 Breast fed\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to be\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 infants\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Solids at\par\pard\li3316\
sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi4915\tx9046\tx11654\tx12767\tx13497 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 40%\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of birth\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 Exclusively\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 aged\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 6 Months\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi8342\tx12519\tx13458
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slmult0\fi0\tx5654\tx6632\tx7410\tx8316\tx9270\tx10182\tx11059\tx11850\tx12849\t
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ex100 10.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 5.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
0\tx5739\tx6632\tx7410\tx8316\tx9270\tx10094\tx11063\tx11940\tx12846\tx13665 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Arunachal Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 7
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up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 100.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5654
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tw-4\charscalex100 Assam\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 13.3\tab \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 6.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 36.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-4
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21\tx9367\tx10188\tx11066\tx11944\tx12851\tx13758 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
Bihar\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 25.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1
3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 6.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 19.6\t
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ard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5831\tx6633\tx7411\tx8317\tx9270\tx10095\tx1
2849\tx13669 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Goa\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
654\tx6632\tx7410\tx8317\tx9272\tx10184\tx11062\tx11940\tx12847\tx13667 \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 Gujarat\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 16.2\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 8.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 45.1\tab \up0 \expn
charscalex100 100.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5659\tx6637\tx7415\
tx8322\tx9277\tx10189\tx11067\tx11945\tx12852\tx13758 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 Haryana\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 10.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
84\tx11062\tx11940\tx12847\tx13667 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Himachal Prades
h\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 12.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 6.1\t
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 61.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 100.0\par\pard
\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5739\tx6632\tx7410\tx8318\tx9273\tx10185\tx1106
4\tx11943\tx12850\tx13757 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Jammu & Kashmir\tab \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 8.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 4.2\tab \up0 \ex
4\charscalex100 38.9\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 87.1\par\pard\li3316\sb9\
sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5660\tx6638\tx7416\tx8323\tx9278\tx10190\tx11068\tx11946\tx
12853\tx13759 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Karnataka\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 16.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 8.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
8.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 86.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 4.7\tab \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 .4\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 26.9\tab \up0 \ex
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11\tx8318\tx9365\tx10184\tx11063\tx11941\tx12849\tx13756 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 Madhya Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 24.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4
harscalex100 46.9\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 9.9\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\char
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9273\tx10186\tx11065\tx11944\tx12852\tx13760 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Mahar
ashtra\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 17.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5740\tx6633\tx7410\tx8316\tx9270\tx10181\tx
11058\tx11848\tx12846\tx13665 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Manipur\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 5.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2.7\tab \up0 \expndt
charscalex100 69.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 100.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\c
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calex100 3.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 24.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
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xpndtw-4\charscalex100 30.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 67.4\par\pard\li33
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1941\tx12848\tx13756 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Punjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 8.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 4.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
38.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 86.6\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\
fi0\tx5654\tx6542\tx7411\tx8318\tx9365\tx10184\tx11063\tx11941\tx12849\tx13756 \
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9ac687a37c4afdb5fc07e36f87fa9ea7633da5978c7c2361ff0004e6fd80be1cdef88fc3d712a2c7
a9e8f6be3cf0078dbc233df5b19208f5ff000aeb9a6b38b9d3ee113ed7a0028a28a0028a28a0028a
28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a002be00ff0082
5fff00c995fc3aff00b1ff00f691ff00d69cf8c75f7fd7ce1fb25fc10d57f673f813e1af847ad6b9
a7f88f50d03c4df1535b9358d2edee6d2cae6dfc7ff16bc73f10ec224b7bb2678e6b1b0f15dae9f7
7b9991af2d67785de168d8807d1f4514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
50014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514500145145001451450014514
5001451450014514500145145007ffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg50}{\bkmkend
Pg50}\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\
pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li331
6\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-2
07\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0
\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\
li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb0
\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li3316\sb185\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5741\tx6634\tx7411\tx
8318\tx9272\tx10184\tx11062\tx11940\tx12847\tx13668 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 Sikkim\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 4.2\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 2.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 20.6\tab \u
pndtw-6\charscalex100 100.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5654\tx6632
\tx7410\tx8316\tx9271\tx10095\tx11065\tx11943\tx12849\tx13669 \up0 \expndtw-6\ch
arscalex100 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 10.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 5.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 36.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\c
\tx9393\tx10099\tx11186\tx11944\tx12968\tx13669 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Tr
ipura\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 3..
9\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 24.9\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 100.0\tab \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 70.0\tab \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 100.0\par\pard\li3
316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5654\tx6542\tx7411\tx8319\tx9365\tx10185\tx11063\tx
11942\tx12849\tx13756 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Uttar Pradesh\tab \up0 \expn
6\charscalex100 6.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 20.6\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\c
rscalex100 17.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 38.7\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-20
7\slmult0\fi0\tx5654\tx6633\tx7411\tx8317\tx9272\tx10184\tx11062\tx11940\tx12847
\tx13667 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 West Bengal\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
tx5773\tx6810\tx7530\tx8586\tx9392\tx10458\tx11183\tx12215\tx12968\tx14029 \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 A & N Islands\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-6\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\chars
calex100 -\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 -\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5775\tx6634\tx7532\tx8318\tx9393\tx
10185\tx11184\tx11942\tx12970\tx13757 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Chandigarth\
tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 4.7\tab \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 27.0\tab \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 28.5\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 60.0\tab \up0 \expndtw
-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 90.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\s
l-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5775\tx6634\tx7531\tx8318\tx9393\tx10185\tx11184\tx11942\tx1
2970\tx13757 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Dadra & Nagar Haveli\tab \up0 \expndt
w-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 8.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\c
harscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 42.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\chars
calex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 72.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 55.8\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 69.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi
0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Daman & Diu\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 8.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 38.4\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-6\charscalex100 32.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw
-6\charscalex100 94.5\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\c
harscalex100 100.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5654\tx6633\tx7410\t
x8317\tx9272\tx10185\tx11063\tx11942\tx12849\tx13757 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex1
00 Delhi\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 10.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 5.1\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 34.7\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 2
r\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5771\tx6630\tx7528\tx8315\tx9389\tx10094\
tx11184\tx11942\tx12968\tx13668 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Lakshadweep\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 2.4\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 22.9\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 100.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 99.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\ch
arscalex100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 100.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-20
7\slmult0\fi0\tx5774\tx6634\tx7531\tx8318\tx9391\tx10096\tx11184\tx11942\tx12967
\tx13668 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Pondicherry\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 5.3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
NA\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 31.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 100.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 70.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 NA\tab \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 100.0\par\pard\li3316\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx5654\tx
6633\tx7410\tx8317\tx9272\tx10185\tx11063\tx11942\tx12849\tx13757 \up0 \expndtw-
6\charscalex100 All India\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 18.0\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-6\charscalex100 9.2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 47.0\tab \up0 \expndtw-
scalex100 75.0\par\pard\ql \li3316\sb207\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscal
ex96 Source for Current Level: NFHS 1998-99 \par\pard\ql \li3316\sb133\sl-207\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Notes: 1. NFHS was not conducted in State
s with a * mark, in these the values have been estimated. \par\pard\ql \li3864\s
b33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2. Current status for children
in 0-3 years age-group is taken as representing status for children in 0-6 year
s age-group \par\pard\ql \li3864\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex1
00 3. As NFHS data for Chattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttaranchal are not available
, goals laid down are for undivided states. \par\pard\ql \li3883\sb33\sl-207\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 4. As NFHS data for A&N islands was not avai
lable, no goals have been set. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16840
\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg51}{\bkmkend Pg51}\par\pard\qj \li2377\sb0\sl-320\
slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\sl
mult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\sb0\sl-320\slmult
0 \par\pard\qj\li2377\ri2155\sb36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 problems of the poor. Also one has to take care of
the disadvantaged persons in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 providing food and nut
rition. Monitoring and public accountability are important \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 instruments for realization of right to food. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\
sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb5\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.4. Obligation to Respect and Protect: Land I
ssues \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2154\sb76\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Owning or operation of land is one of the inst
ruments for availability and accessibility \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 o
f food. The State has to respect and protect both ownership and security of tena
ncy. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 There is some consensus that although t
here is no case for relaxation of agricultural \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex1
00 land ceiling, a greater liberalization of tenancy market is required. There a
re two \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 arguments in favour of liberalization
of tenancy market. One is that poor will get \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
access to operation of land. Second one is that it increases access to credit fo
r \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 small and marginal farmers once tenancy is
legalized. Another change needed is in \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 the
case of gender inegalitarian land laws and foster land ownership among women\ul0
\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 24 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 including widows. Similarly, the legal and imp
lementation framework is still biased \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 against
tribals and this could be one of the reasons for slow decline in poverty \line
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 among them. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb25\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.5. Improving adequacy and accessibility \par\pard\qj \li
2377\ri2161\sb56\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
10\f11\fs20 There is a need for reforms in the food and nutrition based programm
es in order to \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 improve adequacy and accessib
ility. The reforms needed in the programmes are \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex
100 given below. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charsc
alex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Procurement and Buffer stock Policies : N
eeded Reforms \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2150\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 (a) Involvement of private sector: FC
I inefficiency also led to increase in economic \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 cos
ts of buffer stocks and which in turn led to increase in issue price. There is a
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 need to involve private sector in storage and dis
tribution of foodgrains. The inefficiency \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of FCI i
s known\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 25\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f
11\fs20 . This is also responsible for increasing economic costs of food \up0 \
expndtw-5\charscalex100 subsidy. Private sector has to be involved in handling
the grains particularly storage \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and distribution\
ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 26\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20
. Some studies have shown that private sector costs are lower than \up0 \expndt
w-6\charscalex100 those of FCI in handling the grains. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri21
58\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (b) Freeze minimum support
prices for a few years: In order to control the rise in \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch
arscalex100 minimum support prices, Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices
(CACP) \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 suggested freezing of MSP for a fe
w years. It may be noted farmers are interested \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-207\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb47\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 24. More on gender and land rights see Agarwal (1994
) \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb13\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 25. See
Gulati et al (1996) \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb13\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 26. See World Bank, 1999 for some suggestions. \par\pard\ql \li5800\
sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb204\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 48
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 in the total net income (yield x price) from crops
rather than only in price. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (c) Decentralized procurement: The Union Budget 2001-
02 indicated enlarged role \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for the state gove
rnments in both procurement and distribution of foodgrains for \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 PDS in an attempt to economise on procurement costs. It prop
osed that instead of \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 giving subsidized foodg
rains, funds would be provided to the state governments to \line \up0 \expndtw-6
\charscalex100 enable them to procure and distribute foodgrains. Decentralised p
rocurement already \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 started in Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. Decentralised \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 procurement of foodgrains is intended to benefit both the farmers and consumer
s \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 while simultaneously improving the financi
al position of the Government. However, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 stat
e governments such as Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala opposed \line \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the decentralized procurement because of the lack o
f infrastructure and resources \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 with the state
s. These problems have to be solved before implementing the \line \up0 \expndtw-
5\charscalex100 decentralized procurement. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb120\sl-
320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (d) Need for diversification of crops:
The changing consumption patterns have \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 impli
cations for food demand projections and need for more focus on non-cereal \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 food crops and allied agricultural activities . So
me forecasts on cereal demand show \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 that 224
million tonnes (193.5 for food and 30.1 for feed) would be enough by 2020 \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (Dyson and Hanchate 2000). Even other forecasts sh
ow that it would be around 250 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 million tonne
s. Thus there appears to be no case for concern over cereal demand \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-5\charscalex100 outstripping cereal supply in the Indian context. Slow do
wn in population growth and \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 changing consump
tion patterns away from cereals would be responsible for slowdown \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 in cereal demand in future. It also indicates the need to
take care of the supply side \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 factors for non
-cereal food crops and allied agricultural activities (e.g. dairy). Public \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and private investment in infrastructure and rese
arch is needed for these activities. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 The min
imum support policy has to be modified to encourage changes in cropping \line \u
p0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 pattern. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb120\sl-320\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 (f) Buffer stock levels: The FCI role should
be restricted to price stabilization and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 PD
S operations may be left to states. FCI should procure only the required amounts
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 in the open market. Various committees have
suggested the optimal size of buffer \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 stoc
k which varies from 15 to 25 million tonnes depending on the season in a year.
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The Expenditure Reforms commission recommen
ded 17 million tonnes as the total \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 average
stocks to be maintained for distribution and buffer stock. The private sector \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 has to be involved in storage and handling the
grains. Restrictions on storage may \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 have to
be removed. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb165\s
l-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 49
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
idth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
}}
eWidth}{\sv 3619}}
\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Reforms in the Public Distribution System and othe
r Programmes \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2159\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Inspite of spending Rs.25,000 Crores on
food subsidy, many of the poor are not \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 benefiting
from the system. There is a need to have methods to reduce costs and \up0 \expn
dtw-7\charscalex100 reach the poor. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2157\sb120\sl-320\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (a) Geographical targeting is better. As ment
ioned above, there is a need to have \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 innovat
ive programmes to minimize the errors of targeting. In this context, some \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 studies have shown geographical targeting is bette
r than income based targeting\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 2
7\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 In fact, th
e limited evidence on RPDS (revamped PDS) in Andhra Pradesh and \line \up0 \expn
dtw-4\charscalex100 Madhya Pradesh suggest that the performance of PDS in RPDS v
illages was much \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 better than that in non-RPD
S villages with similar socio-economic characteristics. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2
151\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (b) Cost Effectiveness: B
ecause of ineffective targeting, some estimates show that \line \up0 \expndtw-7\
charscalex100 Rs.6 are needed to give Rs.1 to the poor under PDS. There are thre
e principal reasons \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 why the PDS does not del
iver food subsidies efficiently (Ramaswami, 2002). These \line \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 are: (a) targeting errors i.e. income transfer to non-target groups
; (b) excessive costs \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 of procurement, stora
ge and distribution (relative to the private sector) and; (c) \line \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 leakages or fraud, i.e. illegal diversions of subsidized grain
to the open market. Our \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 estimates show that
out of around Rs.7000 crores consumer subsidy on wheat and \line \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 rice, only Rs.1000 crores reach the poor (see Mahendra Dev etal
, 2003). \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex102 (b) Food coupon system or food credit card system could also be tried. A
food \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 coupon system for distribution of rice and k
erosene through PDS was introduced in \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Andhra Prade
sh in 1998-99. The scheme was aimed at improving the delivery system \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 of these two commodities. Under the scheme mere possession of
card was not \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 adequate to draw PDS rice. Physical
presence of the cardholder whose photo was \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 affixed
on the card was insisted upon for obtaining the coupons. This has reduced \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 the scope of diversion of rice and kerosene to a great
extent, if not totally eliminated \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 it. Another alte
rnative is food credit card system which can be used by the customers \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 to buy subsidized foodgrains from the market and the retaile
rs can claim the subsidy \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 from the government. Howev
er, private sector has to be ensured that they get \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
reimbursements from the government without delay \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2206\sb
120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (c) Recommendations of High Leve
l Committee on long term grain policy: The \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 c
ommittee has given short term and long term recommendations. Social Security \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 programmes with some food component in India br
oadly fall into three groups : \par\pard\ql \li2401\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql\li2401\sb27\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
6\f17\fs18 27. Bigman and Srinivasan (2001) Jha and Srinivasan (2001) \par\pard\
ndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 50
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sb36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 e
mployment programmes for the able bodied, welfare programmes or social \line \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 assistance for specific vulnerable groups (including
infants, pregnant and lactating \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 women, disab
led and old age persons) and programmes for basic education and \line \up0 \expn
dtw-7\charscalex100 nutrition of children. Once the current stocks are reduced,
the committee recommends \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 that the resultant
savings should be used for these programmes. They recommend \line \up0 \expndtw-
7\charscalex100 a food-based employment programme for the short run. The fiscal
commitment should \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 continue after stocks have
returned to normal. This should be in the form of a food-\line \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 linked employment guarantee component in the SGSY which is purely
self-targeted. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Linkage with food in such case
s could be through the existing PDS system (by \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex1
00 issuing coupons, or other food entitlement as wages). Expand the existing Ant
yodaya \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 scheme of food support to become a fo
od security system for the entire destitute \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100
population. Central support should be given to the extent of 50 per cent for mov
ing to \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 a cooked Mid-day meal scheme for all
school-going children. Support and strengthen \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex10
0 the programmes like ICDS to help women and children. On PDS, The committee \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 recommends that a system of universal PDS be in
troduced\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 28\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\
f11\fs20 . . \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2151\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 (d) Effective implementation of Food for work programmes (FFW) can
improve food \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 accessibility. As mentioned ab
ove public works programmes have many direct and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 indirect benefits to the poor . In public works we can have two components.
One is \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 how to utilise the available excess
stocks effectively for FFW. Second one is that \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 we should also improve the effectiveness of cash for work programmes like SGR
Y \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 in order to increase purchasing power for
the unskilled workers. With the increase in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
purchasing power they can buy foodgrains in PDS or in the market. Therefore, foo
d \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 accessibility does not mean that we should
deal with only foodgrains. We should \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 also d
eal with increase in purchasing power. Another question is how to link it with \
line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 PDS. One thing is to ensure that subsidized f
oodgrains under PDS are reached to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the worke
rs working in FFW. They will get double benefits (under FFW and PDS). \line \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 Recently announced Prime Minister\u8217?s Sampoorna Ro
jgar Yojana (Rs.10,000 crores) \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 is supposed
to provide full assistance for the states to implement FFW. \par\pard\qj \li2379
\ri2154\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (e) Improve the Effec
tiveness of ICDS and other nutritional programmes\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20
. \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 ICDS has \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 been effec
tive but there are some gaps in implementation as shown by several \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex102 evaluations. Tamil Nadu Integrated Nutrition Programme (TINP) is
effective in \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 improving nutrition of children and
enrolment in schools. \par\pard\ql \li2398\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li239
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 28. On the advantages of universal PDS,
see Swaminathan (2000) \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 51
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 How different is TINP\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\
super\cf14\f15\fs17 29\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 ? \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri21
73\sb36\sl-320\slmult0\tx2661 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf26
\f27\fs18 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 The percentage of expenditure on
nutrition in total revenue expenditure is highest \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\cha
rscalex94 in TN. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2182\sb57\sl-300\slmult0\tx2661 \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\
f18\fs19 Reduction in severe malnutrition among 6-60 months old children in 5 y
ears during \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 TINP-I. \par\pard\ql \li2377
\ri2167\sb44\sl-320\slmult0\tx2661\tx2661 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 TINP-II showed system
atic improvements in severe and moderate malnutrition \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 reductions with increase in normal and mild malnourished categorie
s for the children \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 and reductions in lo
w birth weights. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2231\sb20\sl-320\slmult0\tx2661 \up0 \ex
pndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f
18\fs19 Regular growth monitoring and selective feeding based on this informati
on were \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 identified as the main causes of
success. \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2155\sb40\sl-320\slmult0\tx2661\tx2661 \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\
f18\fs19 Immunization of children and mothers was regular with (universal) cove
rage of 90% \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and massive doses of micronu
trient supplementation like Vitamin A, iron and folic \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 acids with a coverage rate varying from 35 to 60 percent. \par\pa
rd\ql \li2377\sb105\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 Better targeting of the sche
mes due to decentralization. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb142\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f
18\fs19 Better management of the schemes leading to low level of leakage. \par\
pard\ql \li2377\sb122\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 Good coordination with he
alth services in the later stages of the program. \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2167\sb
38\sl-320\slmult0\tx2661\tx2661\tx2661 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 The nutrition centers i
n rural areas had two workers, one looking after the needs of \line\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-1\charscalex100 the 0-3 year olds and the other to take care of pres-schoo
l education and nutrition \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of the 3-6 ye
ar olds. This resulted in good impacts for both the age groups unlike the \line
\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 experience in ICDS areas which favored the 3-
6 year olds. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2168\sb40\sl-320\slmult0\tx2661 \up0 \expndt
w-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\
fs19 Calorie-protein content of the food supplement is clearly stated with regu
lar surveillance \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 of the quality. Few dev
iations form quality had been observed. \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2166\sb4\sl-340\s
lmult0\tx2661 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679
?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 Some success seems to have been achieved in chan
ging permanent nutritional behavior. \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 Institutional sustainabil
ity is apparent as the program is now being completely managed \line\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-7\charscalex100 by the staff as the World Bank input has come to an end.
\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb101\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 Strong political com
mitment to implement and improve the nutrition schemes. \par\pard\ql \li2377\ri2
165\sb38\sl-320\slmult0\tx2661\tx2661\tx2661\tx2661 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102
\ul0\nosupersub\cf28\f29\fs19 \u9679?\ul0\nosupersub\cf17\f18\fs19 A recent po
licy note by the state government indicates a plan for (a) making the \line\tab
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 state malnutrition free along the United Nations a
dvocated approach of \u8220?nutrition \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 t
hroughout the life-cycle\u8221? (b) change in focus of the programs from managem
ent to \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 prevention of malnutrition (c) c
onvergence of health and nutrition services under \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 one department (d) focusing on nutrition and education of the adolesc
ent girls and \par\pard\ql \li2661\sb85\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 (e) economic empowerment of women. \par\pard\ql \li2401\sb0\sl-207\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li2401\sb125\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf16\f17\fs18 29. This is based on Viswanathan (2003) \par\pard\ql \li580
52
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 It is not clear why this has not been tried effec
tively in other states. \par\pard\ql \li2379\ri2154\sb120\sl-315\slmult0\tx2662\
tx2662\tx2662\tx2662 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (f) Focus on women and other
vulnerable groups:\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 W
omen\u8217?s agency is important in \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 reali
zing food. Widows and single woman should be given special attention. \line \tab
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Women\u8217?s empowerment in terms of active econ
omic, social and political roles is \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 imp
ortant for not only improving intra-household distribution but also improving \l
ine \tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the government and NGO programmes. \par\p
ard\ql \li2379\ri2154\sb105\sl-316\slmult0\tx2662\tx2662\tx2662\tx2662\tx2662 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (g) Regionally Differentiated Strategy: Uniform poli
cies at the national level may not \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 be ap
plicable at state level because the requirements of availability, accessibility
\line \tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of food and nutrition differ from state
to state. For example, Kerala is a deficit \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 state in foodgrains. Food availability is as important as food access. Ther
e are \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 many surplus states in foodgrains
(Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, West \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
Bengal). In Bihar, seasonal hunger is a problem than availability in a year. \p
ar\pard\ql \li2379\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2379\sb66\sl-230\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Right to Food campaign
proposals \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The Right to Food Campaign has been advo
cating for programmes of employment \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 for the able a
nd food entitlements for the destitute as shown below. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri21
56\sb105\sl-314\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (a) Expanding the Employme
nt Guarantee through the country: An application has \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc
alex104 been made to the Supreme Court arguing that the Maharashtra\u8217?s succ
essful \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Employment Guarantee Scheme should be
expanded through the country. The \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 scheme gua
rantees unskilled manual labour for any able bodied person who presents \line \u
p0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 himself or herself for work. Each person is entitled
to up to 100 days of employment. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The greate
st success of the scheme lies in the selection of the right beneficiaries. \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The Supreme Court has asked the respondents to rep
ly to this application. The \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 states have been
filing their applications and the hearings are going on. \par\pard\qj \li2379\r
i2149\sb127\sl-313\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (b) A Social Security S
ystem for the Destitute: Some of the most vulnerable people \up0 \expndtw0\chars
calex102 to hunger are the destitute including widows & old without family suppo
rt, and \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 physically and mentally disabled. These ar
e people who would find it difficult to find \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 an em
ployment especially when the going gets tough. They would not be able to \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 avail of employment opportunities even if employment were
to become a right. To \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 these people, The Right to
Food Campaign argues for having direct food entitlement \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 as a right. The application is being prepared arguing for a scheme that gi
ves direct \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 food entitlement for the destitute. The
scheme should be universal in nature (covering \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 al
l destitute, as are defined). They argue for the adoption of the many of the fea
tures \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 of the Antyodaya Anna Yojana for this scheme
. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb226\sl-230\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 53
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sb36\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 A
part from the above, there is a need to promote grain bank schemes and food \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 credit schemes\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\
f15\fs17 30\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmu
lt0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.6. WTO Agreement and Food Security \par\pard\qj \li237
7\ri2153\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10
\f11\fs20 India does not have to reduce its subsidies due to WTO. It has to be v
igilant regarding \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 imports from other countri
es and change tariffs based on circumstances. India has \line \up0 \expndtw-5\ch
arscalex100 submitted its proposals for the current negotiations on the Agreemen
t on Agriculture \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 in the areas of market acce
ss, domestic support, export competition and food security \line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 to the WTO in January, 2001. The guiding principles on which thes
e are based are: \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Food & livelihood security
of our people, protection of the interest of domestic farmers \line \up0 \expndt
w-7\charscalex100 and maximising export opportunities for Indian agricultural pr
oducts. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2157\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 Implementation of the WTO agreement on Agriculture since 1995 has brought
out \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 the inadequacies inherent in the agreem
ent. The ongoing negotiations in the WTO on \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100
the AOA provide an opportunity for India to rectify these inadequacies and inequ
alities. \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 India would therefore do well to us
e this occasion to lay stress on the implementation \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charsc
alex100 of Uruguay round agreements to reduce subsidies and other distortions by
developed \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 countries. \par\pard\ql \li2377\s
b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb85\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.7. Employment and Livelihoods: Labour I
ntensive Pattern of Growth \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb76\sl-320\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 As mentioned above, right
to fulfill includes right to facilitate. Productive employment \line \up0 \expn
dtw-4\charscalex100 is crucial for achieving right to food. One of the reasons f
or accumulation of over 60 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 million tonnes of
food stocks with FCI is attributed to low purchasing power of the \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 poor. Two factors could be responsible for the low purcha
sing power in the 1990s. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 First, high relativ
e prices of food due to high procurement prices could have reduced \line \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex102 the capacity of the poor to purchase more food grains. Sec
ond factor could be \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 decline in employment opp
ortunities inspite of high GDP growth. The solution to \line \up0 \expndtw0\char
scalex100 food security and reduction in poverty is to improve economic access
through \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 employment. Diversification and pro
motion of rural non-farm employment are needed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10
2 to create productive employment. Therefore, right to employment is crucial for
\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 achieving right to food. As shown above, t
he experience of the1990s in employment \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 cre
ation is not very encouraging. \par\pard\qj \li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard
\qj\li2401\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2401\ri2157\sb203\sl-220\slmult0\tx
2795 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 30. On grain b
anks in Andhra Pradesh, see Satish (2000). On food credit scheme see Gopal and \
line\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Ranjan (2002) \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl
-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb52\sl-
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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How to create more employment opportunities and improve their quality? There are
\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 mainly two approaches. One is through secto
ral programmes and the other is through \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 dire
ct employment programmes. There is some overlapping in both the approaches. \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The elasticity of employment to GDP shows that f
or the entire economy it was 0.53 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 in the peri
od 1977-83 and declined to 0.41 in the period 1983-94. The elasticity \line \up0
\expndtw-7\charscalex100 declined sharply to 0.15 in the during 1993-2000. Empl
oyment elasticities in agriculture \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and commu
nity social and personal services were zero during the same period. In \line \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the case of manufacturing it was 0.26 while in the ca
se of services it was more than \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-5\charscalex100 0.50 during this period. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb11
6\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Agriculture still contributes 60%
of the total employment in the country. In the decade \line \up0 \expndtw-1\cha
rscalex100 1983-94, agriculture contributed 50% of the additional employment. On
the other \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 hand, there was an absolute decli
ne in agricultural employment between 1993-94 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 and 1999-00. In the process of economic development, the workers in agricultur
e \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 are supposed to shift to non-agriculture
. However, underemployment can be removed \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 wi
th higher agricultural growth. Also, agriculture has still potential of absorbin
g workers \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 in regions with higher incidence o
f rural poverty such as Orissa, Bihar, Assam, \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb75\sl-230
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 M.P., West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh. \par\pa
rd\qj \li2379\ri2153\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 Within a
griculture and allied activities, there seems to be some diversification towards
\line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 non-cereal crops. Diversification to fruits
and vegetables, fisheries, animal husbandry \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
is expected to promote employment. For example, in Maharashtra, the requirement
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of person days per hectare per crop season
for wheat is 143 while for vegetables it \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 is 2
00. The corresponding numbers for fruits and grapes are 855 and 2,510 respective
ly. \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Thus, fruits in general require nearly s
ix times and grapes in particular over seventeen \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 times the person days required per hectare as compared with wheat. However,
risk \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 and uncertainty is associated with div
ersification. Technology, infrastructure and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
market have to be improved in order to shift the farmers to non-foodgrain crops
. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100
Development of wastelands will also increase lot of employment opportunities. \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Currently, there are about 24 million hectares
of land that are categorized as culturable \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100
wasteland and permanent fallows, which is feasible to be developed and brought \
line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 into cultivation. There can be two alternativ
es here. First, one can think of distributing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 these lands to panchayats and small and marginal farmers. Another alternative
is to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 give it to corporate sector on long le
ase of say 20 years. Panchayats and corporate \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex10
0 sector can develop the waste land by raising resources in the market. However,
one \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 has to make sure that corporate sector
does not occupy the fertile land. \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\p
ard\ql\li5802\sb165\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 55
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Growth in Rural non-farm employment (RNFE) can improve rural wages and also be \
line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 an escape route for agricultural workers lead
ing to an improvement in their purchasing \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 po
wer.\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The importance\
ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 of the rural non-far
m sector in poverty alleviation and promotion \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex10
0 of livelihoods is being increasingly recognised. Increase in rural non-farm em
ployment \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 is one of the main factors responsi
ble for the reduction in poverty in the 1980s. The \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 percentage of RNFE in total rural employment in India increased from 16.
6 per cent \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 in 1977-78 to 18.4 per cent in 19
83, to 21.6 per cent in 1993-94 and to 23.8 per cent \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 in 1999-2000. The growth rate (compound) in RNFE during 1977-83 was 4.0
6 per \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 cent per annum while it was 3.28 per c
ent per annum and 2.14 per cent per annum \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 du
ring 1983-94 and 1993-2000 respectively. In other words, during the reform perio
d \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (\u8217?93-94 to \u8217?99-00) the growth
rate of employment in RNFE was lower than the pre-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x102 reform period. This is a matter of concern. However, this has to be seen in
the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 context of the low overall growth of emp
loyment (around 1 per cent per annum) \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 during
the reform period. At the same time the expected growth in non-agriculture \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 due to economic reforms does not seem to have ma
terialised. As compared to the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 East Asian ex
perience, the growth in RNFE in India has been much slower. \par\pard\qj \li2377
\ri2150\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 One of the challenges
of the reforms now is to improve the quality of employment \line \up0 \expndtw-
2\charscalex100 and incomes in the rural non-farm sector. A three- pronged strat
egy is needed for \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 enhancement in the livelih
oods of the rural poor. First, the Government should have \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 policies to improve education and skills of the workers. Second, t
hey should have \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 several policies to increase
employment for the unskilled workers. Third, the incomes \line \up0 \expndtw-6\
charscalex100 of the women have to be improved by creating opportunities in the
higher productivity \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 sectors. Most of the wom
en are confined to agriculture. There was only 0.7 per cent \line \up0 \expndtw-
8\charscalex100 increase in the share of RNFE during the reform period. For the
above three strategies, \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 pro-poor growth engi
nes have to be identified at sub-sectoral level rather than at the \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 level of broad sectors. Public investment in agriculture
and rural non-agriculture has \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 to be improved
significantly to improve the quality of RNFE. In order to improve rural \line \
up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 non-farm sector, there is a need to look at issues s
uch as, rural-urban linkages, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sectoral and s
ub-sector potentials, markets, regulations and promotional policies, \line \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 human capital, training, entrepreneurship, skills and fi
nally infrastructure and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 technology. Rigidit
ies in these factors have to be removed to promote rural non-farm \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-5\charscalex100 sector. Allowing the poor to contribute to and benefit fro
m increased growth rates will \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 pose particular
challenges as employment in India is largely in the unorganised \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-7\charscalex100 sector. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb115\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 Thus, right to employment becomes crucial for the success o
f right to food. \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb6
0\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 56
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.8. Sustainability of Right to Food \par\pard\qj
\li2379\ri2150\sb99\sl-316\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf10\f11\fs20 It is important to have sustainability as one of the important ele
ments of right to \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 food. Long term availabili
ty and accessibility of food has to be ensured. Technological \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex100 improvements in agriculture, infrastructure and environment fri
endly agricultural \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 practices are important f
or ensuring sustainable food production. Similarly, the food \line \up0 \expndtw
-5\charscalex100 and nutrition programmes have to be cost effective and delivery
systems have to be \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 improved. Also, creation
of productive or quality employment is needed for \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 sustainability of right to food. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb176\sl-230\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.9. Costs of Reali
zing Right to Food \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2160\sb124\sl-310\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 It is difficult to estimate cost
s for employment creation through sectors as we need \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex1
00 to estimate required investments in different sectors. However, we can have s
ome \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 idea about the costs for different programmes
for realizing right to food. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2137\sb91\sl-309\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Methodology for estimati
ng the costs:\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The cost of ensuring that the poor e
at \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 cereals as per the norms is estimated usi
ng the NSSO, 1999-2000 data ( Table 18). \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 We
take two alternative norms. The ICMR norm prescribes minimum quantity intake \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 for cereal for adult men, women and children. A
n average norm is worked out using \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the popul
ation proportions of NSSO data. The average norm estimated was 157.00 \line \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 Kg per capita per annum. The second norm is the 143.00
kgs per capita per annum. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 This norm is pres
cribed by NIN. The average per capita cereal consumption of poor \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 is 131.87 kg. For the poor the cereal consumption is 25.13
kgs lower than the ICMR \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 norm (157.00 kgs). W
e assume that this gap will be filled by rice and whet supplies \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 through PDS. With an estimated 221.65 million poor, the tota
l quantity of rice and \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 wheat required to be
supplied would be 5.57 million tones. From the PDS utilization \line \up0 \expn
dtw-6\charscalex100 data of 1999-2000 we have estimates of total PDS supplies of
rice and wheat to poor \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 as well as to all th
e consumers. In 1999-2000 the total aggregate supply to all the \line \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 poor was 2.64 mt and for all the consumers it was 12.03 mt.
For the same year the \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 total central Governme
nt spending on the PDS was 73161 million rupees. This implies \line \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 that to transfer a kg of rice/wheat to poor under present syst
em, it cost the central \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Government Rs. 27.70
. For all the consumers the cost was Rs. 6.08/kg. Under perfect \line \up0 \expn
dtw-1\charscalex100 targeting this would be the cost. Given the cost of transfer
ring one kg of rice and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 wheat/rice, the tota
l additional costs required to supply the additional quantities are \line \up0 \
expndtw-7\charscalex100 worked out. To ensure that the poor consume cereals as p
er ICMR norm the additional \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 amount required
would be Rs. 154297 millions under the present system (Table 18). \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 If there is perfect targeting, the cost would be Rs. 74027
millions. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb77\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 The costs for NIN norms are similarly worked out (Table 18). \par\pard\ql \li5
charscalex100 57
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 18: Cost of Ensuring Dietary Intake of Norms
of Cereals to Poor \par\pard\li2535\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li2535\sb77\sl-
207\slmult0\fi91\tx2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\f
s18 1\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Population\par\pard\li2535\sb42\sl-207\s
lmult0\fi338\tx8051\tx8896 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 a) Rural\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-7\charscalex100 Millions\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 713.34\par\pard\
li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi338\tx8051\tx8895 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 b)
Urban\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Millions\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex1
00 283.69\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi338\tx8039\tx8895 \up0 \expndtw-7
\charscalex100 c) Total\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Millions\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-7\charscalex100 997.02\par\pard\li2535\sb125\sl-207\slmult0\fi91\tx2886 \u
p0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Percentage of Po
or\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi393\tx8305\tx9030 \up0 \expndtw-7\charsc
alex100 a) Rural\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 %\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charsc
alex100 26.30\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi372\tx8282\tx9007 \up0 \expnd
tw-7\charscalex100 b) Urban\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 %\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-7\charscalex100 12.00\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi372\tx8283\tx8986
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 c) Total\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 %\tab
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 22.23\par\pard\li2535\sb119\sl-207\slmult0\fi91\tx
2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 3\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Number of
Poor\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi369\tx8050\tx8895 \up0 \expndtw-7\cha
rscalex100 a) Rural\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Millions\tab \up0 \expndt
w-7\charscalex100 187.61\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi368\tx8050\tx8986
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 b) Urban\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Millio
ns\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 34.04\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi
368\tx8070\tx8895 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 c) Total\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\ch
arscalex100 Millions\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 221.65\par\pard\li2535\sb
124\sl-207\slmult0\fi91\tx2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 4\tab \up0 \expndtw
-7\charscalex100 Percapita per annum PDS Purchase of Rice+wheat by poor\par\pard
\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi366\tx8254\tx9002 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 a)
Rural\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Kg\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 12
.12\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi366\tx8256\tx9096 \up0 \expndtw-7\chars
calex100 b) Urban\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Kg\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\char
scalex100 10.8\par\pard\li2535\sb119\sl-207\slmult0\fi91\tx2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\
charscalex100 5\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Percapita per annum PDS Purcha
se of Rice+wheat by all\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi366\tx8254\tx9002 \
up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 a) Rural\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Kg\tab
253\tx9002 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 b) Urban\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscale
x100 Kg\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 11.04\par\pard\li2535\sb125\sl-207\slm
ult0\fi91\tx2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 7\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex1
00 Aggregate annual PDS supply of Rice+Whear -All India\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-2
07\slmult0\fi362\tx8247\tx9092 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 a) Poor\tab \up0 \
expndtw-7\charscalex100 MT\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 2.64\par\pard\li253
5\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi362\tx8245\tx8998 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 b) All\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 MT\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 12.03\par\
pard\li2535\sb119\sl-207\slmult0\fi91\tx2886\tx7942\tx8956 \up0 \expndtw-7\chars
calex100 8\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Total Annual Spending on the PDS (R
ice +Wheat)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Rs. Million\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\ch
arscalex100 73161\par\pard\li2535\sb124\sl-207\slmult0\fi91\tx2886\tx8054\tx8990
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 9\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Cost of trans
fer of one kg Rice+Wheat to poor (8/7a)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Rs 0
.00\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 27.70\par\pard\li2535\sb124\sl-207\slmult0
\fi0\tx2886\tx8046\tx9078 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 10\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\c
harscalex100 Cost of transfer of one kg Rice + Whear) to all (8/7b)\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-7\charscalex100 Rs 0.00\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 6.08\par\pard\li
2535\sb120\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 11\tab \up0 \
expndtw-7\charscalex100 Average cereal consumption of poor (per annum)\par\pard\
li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi353\tx8245\tx8903 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 a)
Rural (11.23 kg*12)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Kg\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\cha
rscalex100 134.76\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi350\tx8242\tx8900 \up0 \e
xpndtw-7\charscalex100 b) Urban (9.66kg*12)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 K
g\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 115.92\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi
350\tx8241\tx8899 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 c) All India\tab \up0 \expndtw-
7\charscalex100 Kg\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 131.87\par\pard\li2535\sb12
4\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2886\tx8238\tx9135 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 12\tab \
up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 NIN Norm for cereal consumption\tab \up0 \expndtw-7
\charscalex100 Kg\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 157\par\pard\li2535\sb119\sl
-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2886\tx8232\tx9078 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 13\tab \up0
\expndtw-7\charscalex100 Additional Aggregate Cereal quantity required to meet N
IN norm\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 MT\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 5
.57\par\pard\li2535\sb124\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex10
0 14\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Costs Required for supplying additional r
ice+wheat\par\pard\li2535\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi350\tx8040\tx8864 \up0 \expndtw-7
\charscalex100 (in the existing system) (15a*9*1000)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charsca
lex100 Millions\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 154297\par\pard\li2535\sb120\s
l-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2886 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 15\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\ch
arscalex100 Costs Required for supplying additional rice +wheat\par\pard\li2535\
sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi350\tx8045\tx8959 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 (in perfect
Targeting) (15b*10*1000)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Millions\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-7\charscalex100 74027\par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
58
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\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex86 \ul0\nosupersub\cf22\f23\fs18 ALTERNATIVE
NORM DERIVED FROM ICMR \par\pard\li2538\sb80\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2888\tx8245\tx
8903 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 12\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-8\charscalex97 NIN Norm for cereal consumption\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscal
ex97 Kg\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 143.00\par\pard\li2538\sb9\sl-207\slmul
t0\fi0\tx2888 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 13\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 A
dditional Aggregate Cereal quantity required to meet NIN norm\par\pard\li2538\sb
9\sl-207\slmult0\fi361\tx8242\tx9075 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 a) For poor\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 MT\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 2.47\par\par
d\li2538\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi350\tx8230\tx9349 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 b)
For all\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 MT\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 -\
par\pard\li2538\sb124\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2888 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 14\
tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 Costs Required for supplying additional rice+wh
eat\par\pard\li2538\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi350\tx8051\tx8962 \up0 \expndtw-8\chars
calex97 (in the existing system)\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 Millions\tab \
up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 68350\par\pard\li2538\sb119\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx288
8 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 15\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 Costs Require
d for supplying additional rice +wheat\par\pard\li2538\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi350\
tx8049\tx8958 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 (in perfect Targeting)\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-8\charscalex97 Millions\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 15002\par\pard\qj \
li2379\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2379\ri2158\sb42\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-8\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Note: The norm is taken as t
he weighted average of norms specified for men, women and \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 children using population weights. In case of rural areas the average n
orms under \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 sedentary, moderate work and heavy work
is taken, while in urban areas the norm taken \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex96 is fo
r sedentary work. \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb69\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\chars
calex100 Source: Estimated by the author. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb156\sl-3
20\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The repor
t of Tenth Five Year Plan provides some estimates of gaps in requirement \line \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of funds for nutrition. These are given in Table 19
. It shows that around Rs.2050 \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 crores are ne
eded to provide double the ration to all severely under nourished children \line
\up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 and pregnant women. State level requirements can
be seen from the table. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-1\charscalex100 The high level Committee on Long-term grain Policy indica
tes that the proposals \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 suggested in the report woul
d \u8216?release enough resources not only for support to \up0 \expndtw-5\charsc
alex100 farmers and better rural infrastructure, but also can make a real dent o
n malnutrition \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 and hunger. It advocates enlargemen
t of Antyodaya to all the destitute, a guaranteed \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
employment of 30 days of employment for agricultural labourers, cooked meals in
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 all schools and making ICDS more effective. \par\p
ard\qj \li2379\ri2153\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Accordi
ng to the Committee, very large fiscal resources of around Rs.10,000 crore \line
\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 annually will become available as the stocks are r
educed to normal levels. It \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 recommends expan
sion of SGRY by increasing cash component by at least Rs.5000 \line \up0 \expndt
w-5\charscalex100 crore annually. Another recommendation is extension of 50 per
cent Central support \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 to states for moving to
a cooked Mid-day Meal scheme for all school-going children. \par\pard\qj \li237
9\ri2154\sb125\sl-315\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 In terms of resource
s, presently the Central Government spends lot of resources on \up0 \expndtw-7\c
harscalex100 existing programmes. In 2001-02, government spent Rs.25,000 crores
on food subsidy \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and about Rs.10,000 crores on othe
r programmes. It comes to around 1.6 per cent \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of G
DP and 10 per cent of total government expenditure. Main problem seems is to \up
0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 improve the effectiveness of the programmes. \par\par
d\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li5802\sb36\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 59
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 Table 19:Gaps in Requirement of Funds for Nutritio
n \par\pard\li2478\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li2478\sb48\sl-207\slmult0\fi28\t
x3568\tx5017\tx7142 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18
Sl.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 State\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Fu
nds available for\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Requirement of funds for\par
\pard\li2478\sb43\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx3549\tx4820\tx7147 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 No.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Name\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 Supplementary Nutrition\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Supplementary Nut
rition\par\pard\li2478\sb66\sl-207\slmult0\fi2313\tx5517\tx6203\tx6952\tx7614\tx
8334\tx9059 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 State\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 PMG\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Total\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
I*\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 II*\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 III*\
tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 IV*\par\pard\li2478\sb28\sl-207\slmult0\fi2347
\tx5622 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Plan\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Y\p
ar\pard\li2478\sb129\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4857\tx5538\tx6273\tx6955\tx763
7\tx8314\tx9053 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 01.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 Andhra Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 31.50\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 21.31\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 52.81\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 54.32\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 95.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 54.80\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 75.09\par\pard\li2478\sb9\s
l-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4941\tx5529\tx6268\tx7045\tx7721\tx8401\tx9139 \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 02.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Arunachal Pradesh\
\tx4849\tx5531\tx6265\tx6947\tx7629\tx8305\tx9045 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
03.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Assam\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 30
.00\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 26.94\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 56
.63\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4849\tx5530\tx6265\tx6855\tx
7536\tx8218\tx9043 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 04.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 Bihar\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 32.92\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 244.13\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 295.41\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
07\slmult0\fi0\tx2918\tx4939\tx5616\tx6356\tx7037\tx7714\tx8396\tx9136 \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 05.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Goa\tab \up0 \expndtw
70\tx6944\tx7626\tx8303\tx9043 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 06.\tab \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 Gujarat\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 129.50\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 9.72\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 139.22\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 34.96\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 92.58\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 61.19\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 84.03\par\pard\li2
42 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 07.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Haryana\t
0\tx4941\tx5529\tx6267\tx7043\tx7718\tx8398\tx9044 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
08.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Himachal Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\char
calex100 19.99\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2.13\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
ex100 19.29\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4941\tx5528\tx6264\t
x7039\tx7627\tx8397\tx9042 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 09.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 Jammu & Kashmir\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 8.25\tab \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 25.74\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 33.99\tab \up0 \
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 6.53\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 26.16\par\pard\li2
45 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 10.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Karnataka
tx2920\tx4939\tx5531\tx6266\tx6948\tx7631\tx8400\tx9043 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 11.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Kerala\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 0.30\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 10.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 10.66\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 16.35\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
62\tx7542\tx8223\tx9048 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 12.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 Madhya Pradesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 51.25\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 17.07\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 68.32\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 142.43\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 189.26\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 141.91\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 90.45\par\pard\l
i2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2919\tx4849\tx5531\tx6265\tx6856\tx7537\tx8219\tx
8953 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 13.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Maharas
htra\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 57.47\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1
127.65\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 107.07\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmu
lt0\fi0\tx2920\tx4941\tx5616\tx6264\tx7041\tx7717\tx8398\tx9136 \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 14.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Manipur\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\
calex100 8.67\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4945\tx5621\tx6268
\tx7046\tx7722\tx8403\tx9141 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 15.\tab \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 Meghalaya\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 6.15\tab \up0 \expn
-4\charscalex100 2.84\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 5.28\par\pard\li2478\sb9
\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4944\tx5619\tx6267\tx7044\tx7720\tx8401\tx9139 \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 16.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Mizoram\tab \up0
ndtw-4\charscalex100 3.21\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4941\t
x5617\tx6265\tx7043\tx7720\tx8401\tx9140 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 17.\tab \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Nagaland\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 6.17\tab
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 3.00\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.43\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.14\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 6.63\par\pard
\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2921\tx4849\tx5531\tx6265\tx6947\tx7629\tx8305\
tx9045 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 18.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Oriss
a\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 54.79\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 14.7
\tx2920\tx4941\tx5614\tx6259\tx7034\tx7621\tx8300\tx9042 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 19.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Punjab\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
49\tx7540\tx8221\tx9047 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 20.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 Rajasthan\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 25.69\tab \up0 \expndtw-
4\charscalex100 14.46\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 40.15\tab \up0 \expndtw-
4\charscalex100 56.76\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 161.41\tab \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 119.56\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 62.64\par\pard\li2478\
sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4941\tx5617\tx6357\tx7039\tx7716\tx8398\tx9137 \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 21.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Sikkim\tab \u
pndtw-4\charscalex100 1.35\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4853\
tx5534\tx6176\tx6948\tx7629\tx8305\tx8952 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 22.\tab
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Tamil Nadu\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 93.87
37\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4941\tx5616\tx6262\tx7039 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 23.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Tripura\tab \up
i2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4860\tx5540\tx6182\tx6862\tx7542\tx8221\tx
8954 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 24.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Uttar P
radesh\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 63.77\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
0 340.75\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 495.73\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 367.04\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 164.67\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\s
lmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4857\tx5538\tx6181\tx6861\tx7542\tx8309\tx8956 \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 25.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 West Bengal\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 97.47\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 25.17\tab \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 122.64\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 105.05\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 147.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 99.81\tab \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 103.38\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4
941\tx5617\tx6357\tx7039\tx9136 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 26.\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-4\charscalex100 A & N Islands\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.54\tab \up
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 0.33\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 0.93\par\pard\li
dtw-4\charscalex100 27.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Chandigarth\tab \up0 \
dtw-4\charscalex100 0.75\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4999\tx
5617\tx6357\tx7039\tx9136 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 28.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 Dadra & Nagar Haveli\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 067\tab \up
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 0.24\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 0.33\par\pard\li
dtw-4\charscalex100 29.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Daman & Diu\tab \up0 \
dtw-4\charscalex100 0.21\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4851\tx
5617\tx6263\tx7038\tx7626\tx8306\tx9139 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 30.\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Delhi\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 25.17\tab \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.66\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 26.83\tab \up
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 10.69\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 8.85\par\pard\
li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2918\tx4942\tx5619\tx6358\tx7040\tx9138 \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 31.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Lakshadweep\tab \up0
pndtw-4\charscalex100 0.15\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2920\tx4941\
tx5617\tx6357\tx7039\tx9136 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 32.\tab \up0 \expndtw-
4\charscalex100 Pondicherry\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 6.46\tab \up0 \exp
tw-4\charscalex100 0.86\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1.77\par\pard\li2478\s
b120\sl-207\slmult0\fi441\tx4763\tx5442\tx6087\tx6760\tx7489\tx8153\tx8865 \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 All India\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 828.62\tab
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 375.03\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1203.65\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1402.59\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2050.
27\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1463.51\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1
280.55\par\pard\li2478\sb182\sl-207\slmult0\fi144\tx2942 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 I*.\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 To provide nutrition @ Rs. 1/- per
day for 300 days in an year to all pregnant women and\par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207
\slmult0\fi465 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 children upto 6 years in the BPL
families (by Planning Commission)\par\pard\li2478\sb66\sl-207\slmult0\fi81\tx294
4 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 II*.\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 To provid
e double the ration to all severely under nourished children and pregnant women\
par\pard\li2478\sb9\sl-207\slmult0\fi465 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (by Plann
ing Commission)\par\pard\li2478\sb67\sl-207\slmult0\fi24\tx2944 \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 III*.\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 To provide double the rati
on to all severely under nourished children only (by Planning\par\pard\li2478\sb
9\sl-207\slmult0\fi465 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Commission)\par\pard\ql \li
2531\sb46\sl-207\slmult0\tx2946 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 IV*. \tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-5\charscalex100 To provide nutrition @ Rs.1/- per day for 300 days in an y
ear to beneficiaries (72 in no.) \par\pard\ql \li2944\sb13\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-8\charscalex100 as per ICDS norms of 1999 (by Department of WCD) \par\pa
rd\ql \li2377\sb74\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf19\f20\fs20 Source: GOI (2003) \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pa
rd\ql\li5800\sb140\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf10\f11\fs20 60
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.10. Role of the Government in Implementing the R
ight to Food \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2150\sb116\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\ch
arscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 The primary responsibility in implemen
ting the right to food lies with the government \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex
100 (center and states). In order to fulfil the obligations all levels of govern
ment and \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 public sector organizations must co
ordinate their actions. This coordination should \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscale
x100 be not only among themselves, but also with other parties within the countr
y including \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 NGOs, individuals and other nati
onal institutions, as well as with other countries and \line \up0 \expndtw-8\cha
rscalex100 international organizations. Such coordination, or at least the exist
ence of a functioning \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 coordination mechanism
, would be essential for effective implementation of right to \line \up0 \expndt
w-7\charscalex100 food. But the absence of coordination can not justify the non-
fulfillment of an obligation. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2151\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 The government has the obligation to provide food t
o the poor and vulnerable groups. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Effective i
mplementation of the programmes mentioned above (PDS, nutrition \line \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 programmes, direct employment programmes, Antodaya programme
etc.) will partly \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 satisfy the obligation to
provide under right to food. The state also has the obligation \line \up0 \expn
dtw-7\charscalex100 of provide direct provision of food or resources during emer
gencies like severe drought \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 or floods or arm
ed conflict. The role of government as a facilitator is also important. \line \u
p0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 The measures mentioned by us for creation of employm
ent through labour intensive \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 growth fall un
der the obligation to facilitate. It includes improving measures for \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 development of sectors like agriculture and non-agricul
ture. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 What are the constraints for implementing the right to food? Resource const
raints, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the usual problems of governance and insti
tutions, lack of political will have been \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 acting
as constraints for implementing right to food. In the Indian case resources in \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 terms of availability of foodgrains do not seem to
be a problem. We have more than \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 50 million tones o
f foodgrains with the government. It is true that most of the state \up0 \expndt
w-5\charscalex100 governments are having fiscal problems. However, it is the lac
k of political will rather \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 than resources is the p
roblem. Unfortunately, the institutional structures that could \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 undertake appropriate delivery systems have eroded over the years,
and there is an \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 urgent need to reinvent them along
appropriate levels. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 At the national level, 20 countries in the world have consti
tutions that more or less \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 explicitly refer t
o the right to food or a related norm. India\u8217?s name figures in the list of
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 these countries. However, there is no frame
work for achieving right to food. Enforce \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 me
chanisms are also weak or non-existent as a consequence of both the fact that \l
ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 national legislation is inadequate and the fact
that economic, social and cultural \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 rights a
re generally not considered to be justiciable, by their very nature. It is there
fore \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 not possible to bring a complaint befor
e a court of law. However, there is now very \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 61
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visible progress being made on the justiciability of the right to food. As juris
prudence \line \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 builds up, it will also become incr
easingly clear how the right to food can be justiciable. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 There are already a number of cases of national jurisprudence that
show clearly that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the right to food or other
economic, social and cultural rights can be considered \line \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 justiciable. Although enforcement mechanisms are generally weak, ther
e has been \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 some encouraging progress. The PU
CL\u8217?s (People\u8217?s Union for Civil Liberties) petition \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 and the subsequent Supreme Court interim orders on right to f
ood are in the right \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 direction. The Supreme
Court reminded Government\u8217?s obligation of right to food and, \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 at the very least, the people are not exposed to malnutri
tion, starvation and other \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 related problems.
\par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2149\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
Monitoring mechanisms should be developed in order to fulfill the obligation of
right \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to food. It is necessary to identify a
ppropriate indicators and benchmarks to monitor \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex
98 the status of realization of right to food. The indicators or benchmarks have
to represent \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 not only the quantitative prog
ress in providing a particular service to a population but \line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 also the qualitative manner the service is provided. The base lin
e indicators should \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 cover levels and trends o
f food security in its multiple dimensions - availability, \line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 economic access and absorption and other dimensions such as vulne
rability, social \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 exclusion, and acute destit
ution. India has a wealth of information on food security \line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 indicators. A baseline of key indicators can be developed even at
the district level. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Particular effort will
have to be made to identify differences in trends in urban and \line \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 rural outcomes and gender dimensions. The baseline exercise w
ill not only lay out \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the facts (levels and r
ecent trends in food security indicators and the efforts towards \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 fulfilling right to food) but also identify some of the key
policy challenges in reaching \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 these goals.
As noted above, the challenges are likely to be different between urban \line \
up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 and rural areas and in different regions. \par\pard
\ql \li2377\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f13\f14\fs20 5.11. Ensuring and monitoring Five principles of Rights Based Appr
oach \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2160\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 There is a need to ensure and monitor the five
principles (ENTAP) of rights based \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 approach. \par
\pard\qj \li2377\ri2154\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Equit
y: Monitoring mechanisms should be adopted to help the poor and vulnerable \up0
\expndtw-6\charscalex100 groups. The latter category include children, pregnant
women, widows, single women, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 old age population,
destitute, disabled persons, socially disadvantage sections like \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Also inequalities across a
nd within states \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 should be reduced. Production and
distribution policies have to be sensitive to the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
local problems in ensuring food and nutrition. \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb65\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 62
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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Non-discrimination: Gender discrimination should be avoided and intra-household
\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 distribution should be improved. Similarly,
as mentioned above, poverty among SCs \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and ST
s is high and they should not be discriminated while ensuring right to food. In
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 other words, social exclusion should be avoi
ded while identifying the beneficiaries \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 unde
r the programmes. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2152\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-5\charscalex100 Transparency, Accountability and Participation: Right to inform
ation as demanded in \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Rajasthan would help transpar
ency, accountability and participation in government \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex1
00 programmes. Involvement of good NGOs make these rights based principles possi
ble. \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 On participation, decentralization of adminis
tration and involvement of Panchayats \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 would help
increase participation. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw0\charscalex100 As Dreze and Sen (2002) mention, the losers due to corrupt
ion and other non-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 transparent methods have t
o be mobilized. They give the illustration of the work of \line \up0 \expndtw0\c
harscalex100 Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan. \u8216?It has b
een noted, for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 instance, that drought relief
programmes in Rajasthan in 2000-01 have been \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
remarkably \u8216?corrupt-free (at least in comparison with the situation that
prevailed in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 earlier droughts) largely due to
greater public vigilance as well as the improved \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 accessibility of official records - both of which are closely related to th
e \u8216?right to \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 information\u8217? movemen
t (p.367)\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 31\ul0\nosupersub\cf10
\f11\fs20 . \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\ch
arscalex100 In order to achieve the goals of Tenth Plan and beyond on food and n
utrition in a \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 rights based perspective, effe
ctive monitoring system has to be introduced at different \line \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 levels i.e. Centre, state, district and village levels. While the
functions of the State in \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 India have steadil
y increased, capacity to deliver has declined over the years due to \line \up0 \
expndtw-6\charscalex100 administrative cynicism, rising indiscipline, and a grow
ing belief widely shared among \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 the political
and bureaucratic elite that state is an arena where public office is to be \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 used for private ends. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri21
56\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 The working of public dist
ribution system (PDS) illustrates the weak monitoring system \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 in many of the programmes. The officials at the Ministry of Foo
d at the Centre are \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 aware that the numbers r
eported by the states are often unreliable, but they see no \line \up0 \expndtw-
1\charscalex100 possibility for efficient checks of the provided information. Th
e agencies seem to \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 keep their bookkeeping st
raight. But these numbers, based on household survey do \line \up0 \expndtw-6\ch
arscalex100 not reflect the reality in the villages, where only a fraction of th
e supply chain reaches \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 the card holders. The
supervision by the supply inspector on the block and village \par\pard\qj \li23
79\sb0\sl-200\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2379\ri2170\sb20\sl-200\slmult0\tx2831 \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\f17\fs18 31. More on transparen
cy and corruption, accountability and countervailing power, see Dreze \line\tab
\up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 and Sen (2002). \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li5802\sb86\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 63
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level is in general weak. The vigilance committees of the PRIs comprise some of
the \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 same government officials who are supposed to
be supervised by these committees. \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Field reports o
n UP show that in localities visited, there were no functioning vigilance \up0 \
expndtw-1\charscalex100 committee on the district or block level\ul0\super\cf14\
f15\fs18\ul0\super\cf14\f15\fs17 32\ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 . There is als
o inadequate transparency \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 regarding the beneficiar
ies\u8217? access to information about quantity, quality, prices, and \up0 \expn
dtw-6\charscalex100 times of supply was limited in several of the villages visit
ed. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb65\sl-230\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.12. Conditions
for Success \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2150\sb136\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 Political Will: In order to implement
the programmes, political will is important. The \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 So
uthern states in India have done well in terms of political will as compared to
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 some of the Northern and Eastern states. \par\pard
\qj \li2377\ri2185\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Resources:
Resources are important for undertaking some of the programmes in \up0 \expndtw
0\charscalex102 realizing right to food. Growth of the economy and resources are
important for \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sustainability of the programmes.Ho
wever, resource availability can not be a pre\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 condi
tion for fulfilling rights. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2159\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Effective Implementation: Providing resources is only
one part of the story. Effective \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 implementa
tion of the programmes is important in order to reach the benefits to the \line
\up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 poor. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2157\sb120\sl-320\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Right to Information: As mentioned above, righ
t to information would empower the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 poor regarding t
heir rights in terms of government programmes and leads to \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 accountability. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2158\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-1\charscalex100 Social Mobilisation: Mobilisation of poor and other vuln
erable groups and putting \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pressures on burea
ucracy and politicians would enhance public accountability. \par\pard\qj \li2377
\ri2158\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Decentralisation: Dec
entralisation is also important for accountability. It is also more \up0 \expndt
w-1\charscalex100 participatory. The lower strata of society will have a chance
to participate in local \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 governance. It may be note
d that women in panchayats are relatively doing well in \up0 \expndtw0\charscale
x100 solving people\u8217?s problems. One can expect better delivery systems in
PDS and \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 other programmes if panchayats are involve
d. \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2377\sb25\sl-230\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 5.13. Role of NGO
s and International Organisations \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2150\sb116\sl-320\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs20 NGOs in particula
r and civil society in general have to play a major role in fulfilling \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the right to food. They can help in two ways. First,
NGOs themselves can organize \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li2377\sb47\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf16\
f17\fs18 32. See Kriesel and Zaidi (1999) \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb144\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\no
supersub\cf10\f11\fs20 64
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innovative programmes for raising food security of the poor. Grain bank at local
level \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 is an example of NGOs innovative progr
ammes. Secondly, they can help the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 governmen
t in fulfilling the obligation of right to food. NGOs have a major role to play
\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in applying the principles of accountability,
transparency and participation in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 implementi
ng the right to food. NGOs can play a very effective role in the \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-8\charscalex100 implementation of the rights. When the right to food has to
be realized in a participatory \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 manner, with
participation of the beneficiaries in the decision making and benefit-\line \up
0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sharing, with accountability, transparency and in a w
idely decentralized process, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 NGOs may have t
o play an even more crucial role in monitoring the programmes \line \up0 \expndt
w0\charscalex105 and delivering the services and sometimes may have to replace t
he existing \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 bureaucracy. The human rights NG
O People\u8217?s Union for Civil Liberties and the Right \line \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 to Food Campaign have played important role ,in recent years, in hi
ghlighting the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 obligation of fulfilling the
right to food by the government. However, there has been a \line \up0 \expndtw0\
charscalex105 proliferation of NGOs in India. The issues of funding, the ident
ities and the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 commitments of NGOs are quite c
omplex. There is a need for transparency and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
accountability for NGOs. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2154\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-8\charscalex98 The charter of the United Nations recognized the obligat
ion of international cooperation, \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 by virtue
of which the international community and multinational organisations are \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 expected to cooperate with nation states to enable
them to fulfil the human rights of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the indi
vidual level. At one level, the developed countries can increase the target of \
line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 at least 0.7 per cent of GNP to official deve
lopment assistance (ODA). In practice, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 howe
ver, there is no big support from developed countries in fulfilling right to foo
d in \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 developing countries. \par\pard\ql \li2
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 6. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS \par\pard\
qj \li2379\ri2152\sb176\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosuper
sub\cf10\f11\fs20 The objective of this paper is to examine right to food in the
Indian context. We \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 analysed the right to food in t
erms of availability, accessibility, adequacy and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
sustainability. These were examined in rights based perspective. Specifically, t
he \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 paper addressed the following questions: \par\p
ard\li2379\sb150\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2946 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (a)\tab
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 What are the definitions, contents and obligation
s of right to food? (Section 2)\par\pard\li2379\sb145\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2946
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (b)\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 How far Indi
a progressed in fulfilling realising to food?\par\pard\li2379\sb149\sl-230\slmu
lt0\fi0\tx2946 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (c)\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 What are the programmes and policies India followed in realising right to foo
d?\par\pard\li2379\sb145\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2946 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
(d)\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 What should be done to realise right to f
ood to all citizens of India?\par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\q
li5802\sb16\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 65
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Progress is examined in terms of availability, accessibility (physical and econo
mic). \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Programmes and policies are scrutinized in t
erms of obligation to respect, protect \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and fulfill
(facilitate and provide). \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2153\sb100\sl-320\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw0\charscalex104 India is signatory to many international treaties invol
ving right to food. Indian \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Constitution also
indirectly refers to right to food. Therefore, there is an obligation for \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Indian Government (Centre and states) to fulf
ill the right to food of the people. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Inspite
of many programmes, there are concerns regarding food and malnutrition. \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Some of the worst violations of the right to food c
an be seen in India today. On the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 undernut
rition levels are among the highest in the world. The problem of malnutrition \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 is acute and widespread. It is extremely serio
us among women and children. The \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 proportion
of pregnant women with anemia is as high as 88 per cent. At the all India \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 level, more than 50 per cent of the children under
five are underweight in 1998-99. \line \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 The percen
tage of malnutrition is much higher in poorer states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh \
line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 and Madhya Pradesh. On the other hand, India h
as accumulated more than 50 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 million tones of
rice and wheat in public warehouses - largest accumulation in world \line \up0
\expndtw-7\charscalex100 history. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2159\sb120\sl-320\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 We examined the problems in various welfare pro
grammes. In order to realise right \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 to provid
e, the following programmes have to be strengthened and implemented \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 effectively \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb195\sl-230\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (a) Public Distribution system and Annapurna schemes
\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb150\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (b ) Ex
tending Antyodaya Anna Yojana to all the destitutes in the country. \par\pard\qj
\li2377\ri2158\sb56\sl-320\slmult0\tx2718 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 (c) Nut
rition programmes for education (mid-day meal schemes) and Integrated child \lin
e\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 development schemes (ICDS). \par\pard\qj \li
2377\ri2155\sb60\sl-320\slmult0\tx2718 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 (d) Extendi
ng Maharashtra\u8217?s Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS) throughout India. \line
\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Part of the wages can be paid as food. \par\p
ard\ql \li2377\ri2156\sb60\sl-320\slmult0\tx2718\tx2718\tx2718 \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 (e) Gender aspects of food security should be given importance in r
ealizing right to \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 food. Women\u8217?s ec
onomic and social empowerment not only improves intra-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw-1
\charscalex100 household food distribution and health related matters but also i
mproves the \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 working of food and nutriti
on programmes. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2160\sb140\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 We also examined the market reforms needed for achieving higher an
d sustainable \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 growth in agriculture and righ
t to food for the poor. As mentioned above, we have a \line \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 paradoxical situation of large accumulation of foodgrain stocks along
with 260 million \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0
\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb215\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charsca
lex100 66
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population below poverty line. Continuous increase in procurement prices have le
d \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 to accumulation of stocks much above the le
vels required for buffer stock. The \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 steep ri
se in the procurement prices have discouraged the holding of stocks by the \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 private sector, made exports uncompetitive and re
duced the domestic consumption \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 of food grain
s, particularly by the poor. Procurement system has to be decentralised. \line \
up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Private sector may have to be involved in storage a
nd handling the grains. In the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 case of PDS, c
ost effective methods have to be tried in order to reach the poor \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 effectively. In the case of agricultural policies, there i
s a need to have faster reforms \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in agricultu
re in order to have win-win-situation for farmer, worker and consumer. \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Supply side factors such as irrigation, infrastructure
, technology, research and \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 extension and, ma
rketing have to be improved to have higher and sustainable growth. \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 A multi-dimensional reform agenda has to be developed by
improving incentives, \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 rationalizing subsidie
s, promoting investments and protecting the poor. WTO provides \line \up0 \expnd
tw-3\charscalex100 opportunities and challenges for Indian agriculture. The expe
cted gains since 1995 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 due to WTO i.e. reduct
ion of agricultural subsidies by developing countries have not \line \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 materialised. There is a need for extreme vigilance so as to
take timely measures \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 within the existing tari
ff bindings to restrict imports, which affect our producers\u8217? \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 livelihoods. The viability of Indian agriculture depends
on internal factors like public \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 investment in
infrastructure and research. Cost-reducing technology has to be \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-5\charscalex100 promoted to compete in the world markets and to achieve foo
d security for the poor. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2155\sb140\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw0\charscalex107 The accumulation of foodgrains also indicates that there
is a need for crop \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 diversification in agriculture
sector. This will also improve employment opportunities. \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 Similarly, reforms should be undertaken for the growth of rural non-farm
sector. The \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 rigidities for increasing rural non-fa
rm employment have to be removed in order to \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 have
rural transformation. \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2148\sb140\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 All the above things have to be based on rights based frame
work of equality, non-\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 discrimination, transp
arency, accountability and participation (ENTAP). Basically we \line \up0 \expnd
tw0\charscalex100 have to go beyond supply side and focus on demand side. Social
pressures are \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 needed for public action. Bet
ter monitoring systems have to be developed at Central, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 state, district and village levels to realize right to food. Justici
ability is one aspect of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 right to food. In t
his context, recent Supreme Court Orders and the Right to Food to \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-6\charscalex100 campaign are in the right direction. However, one (particu
larly the poor) can not go to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 court every ti
me right to food is violated. It is the responsibility of citizens and NGOs \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to organize campaigns for better functioning of
the programmes. Also there is need \par\pard\ql \li5802\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql\li5802\sb225\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 67
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
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for mechanisms for better delivery systems by the government with transparency \
line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and accountability. Public accountability is
crucial for the success of right to food. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2158\sb100\sl-3
20\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Other rights such as right to health an
d education, right to information, right to water \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 etc. are equally important for realization of right to food. It may be not
ed that health \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 facilities and drinking water
would improve the food absorption by people and in turn \line \up0 \expndtw-6\c
harscalex100 nutrition. \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2152\sb120\sl-320\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-1\charscalex100 Finally, the paper argues that right to employment is cru
cial for achieving right to \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 food. As Amartya
Sen and others argued that food availability is not a major problem \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 at the national or local level. It is the economic acce
ss at the household level which \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 is responsib
le for low accessibility of food. In this context, creating purchasing power \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 through employment is crucial. The Government c
an facilitate labour intensive growth \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and pr
ovide direct programmes to generate productive employment which in turn \line \u
p0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 can ensure right to food. \par\pard\ql \li5800\sb0\s
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmu
0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par
d\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\
800\sb105\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 68
idth}{\sv 3619}}
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
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\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 References \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2588\sb142\sl-24
0\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 Agarwal, Bi
na (1994), \u8216?A Field of one\u8217?s oen:Gender and Land Rights in South Asi
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ine, Volume 19, \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 Issue 16, August 3-16, 2002 \par
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n, D. and P.V. Srinivasan, 2001\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 , \ul0\nosupersub\c
f19\f20\fs20 Geographical targeting of Poverty Alleviation \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 Programs: Methodology and Applications in Rural India, Indira Gandhi In
stitute of \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex93 Development Research, mimeo. \par\pard\q
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arscalex98 CDHR(2002), \u8220?Right to Food\u8221?, Centre for Development and H
uman Rights, New Delhi, \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex89 mimeo \par\pard\qj \l
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s and World Bank, Baltimore \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb129\sl-230\slmult0\tx4985\tx5
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0\charscalex101 (2002), \tab \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 \u8220?Poverty and In
equality in India: A \par\pard\ql \li2379\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\ch
arscalex96 Reexamination\u8221?, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.37, No.36 \p
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rsity Press, New York \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2161\sb101\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \exp
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Participation\u8221?, Oxford University \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex91 Press
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idth}{\sv 3619}}
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neWidth}{\sv 7541}}
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pal, K.S. and J. Ranjan (2002), \u8220?Addressing Hunger in Drought prone areas:
The A.P. \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex95 model for achieving Food Assurance\u8221?
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States\u8221?, Economic and Political Weekly, August 9 \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb12
9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex97 Mahendra Dev, S. and C.Ravi (2002)
, \u8220?Food Security and Child Work in South India: \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri216
4\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 Determinants and Policies\u822
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w-8\charscalex89 to Grips with Rural Child Work: A Food Security Approach\u8221?
, Institute for Human Development \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex89 and UN World Food
Programme, New Delhi \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri2492\sb100\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \exp
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Security in India\ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 , Institute for Human Development
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ecurity Approach\u8221?, Institute for Human Development and UN World Food Progr
amme, \line \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex84 New Delhi \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2160\s
b122\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Rao, CHH (2000), \u8220?Declin
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7 Implications\u8221?, Economic and Political Weekly\ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs20
, \ul0\nosupersub\cf19\f20\fs20 January 22 \par\pard\qj \li2379\ri2161\sb100\sl
-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 Rao, CHH (2002), \u8220?Food grain Sur
pluses: Causes and Policy Implications\u8221?, Fifth Dr. C.D. \up0 \expndtw-9\ch
arscalex96 Deshmukh Memorial Lecture, March 16, 2002, Hyderabad \par\pard\qj \li
2379\ri2158\sb100\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex92 Ramaswamy, Bharat
(2002), \u8220?Efficiency and Equity of Food Market Interventions\u8221?, Econom
ic \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex92 and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, No.12 \par\pard\q
j \li2379\ri2161\sb129\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Satheesh (20
00), \u8220?Food Security for Dryland Communities: Local Control is the key\u822
1?, \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 paper presented at the conference on \u8216?Fo
od Security \u8220? organized by CESS and IHD at \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 C
entre for Economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad, March 16-18, 2000 \par\pard\qj
\li2379\ri2164\sb139\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex92 Sengupta, Arju
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0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf29\f30\fs26 CENTRE FOR ECONOMI
C AND SOCIAL STUDIES \par\pard\ql \li3022\ri2789\sb13\sl-333\slmult0\fi184\tx342
6\tx5106 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf27\f28\fs18 BEGUMPET, H
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ANDHRA PRADESH - INDIA \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs
20 Telephones: 040-23402789, 040-23416780, Director\u8217?s Ph : 55570480 \line\
tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Website: www. cess.ac.in, E-mail: postmaster@c
ess.ac.in \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 FAX: 040-23406808 \par\pard\q
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calex93 A Study of Groundwater Depletion in Andhra Pradesh \up0 \expndtw-9\chars
calex92 V. Ratna Reddy\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li23
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Differentials in Adult Mortality in India \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 -\par\p
ard\ql \li2377\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex93 With Notes on Ru
ral-Urban Contrasts\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\char
scalex95 N. Krishnaji and K.S. James\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql \li2377\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex94 Energy and Lab
our Use in Andhra Pradesh Industry\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-9\charscalex91 By. Deepita Chakravarthy\par\pard\qj \li2377\sb0\sl-240\
slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2377\ri1310\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscale
x100 Causes of Fertility Decline in India and Bangladesh \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 The role of Community\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 By. S. Mahendra Dev, K.S. James and Binayak Sen\par\
pard\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0
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\ql \li2377\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2377\sb6\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \exp
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India in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1990s\par\pard\ql \li2377\sb9\sl-230\s
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pndtw-9\charscalex93 Working Organization and Employment Contracts\par\pard\ql
\li2377\sb10\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex91 By. Deepita Chakrav
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