ISBN: 978-960-603-403-9

Copyright , 2015

Creative Commons -
- 3.0.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/gr/

9, 15780
www.kallipos.gr


, - .

ii
iii
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-
. ()
, Supremum ,
, -
. ,
, .

. -
.
,
, Supremum,
. , , -
Bolzano - Weierstrass , ,

.
: -
. ( ) -
, , , -
, , .
.
1. . ,
n n. ,

.
2. ,
, 10 -
. , ,
.
3. Riemann Darboux
. ,
Riemann .
Riemann -
, Darboux
Darboux
Riemann.
4. . .
,
: R -
( -
). Rd
. , ,

() . ,

.
5.
, , . ,
( , Riemann ,

iv
 ,
...) .
6. -
Peano. , ,
. Foundations of Analysis E. Landau -
. () ()
Dedekind. , ,
Cauchy , .
7.
. , Cauchy -
.
8. , , , -
. :
- ,
-
. , , .
:

.
9. , . , -
(, ). ,
-
IQ.
. , -
.
10. ( )
.
.
11. , ,
:
Mathematical Analysis, T. Apostol.
Differential and Integral Calculus, R. Courant.
The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, L. Graves.
Foundations of Analysis, E. Landau.
Principles of Mathematical Analysis, W. Rudin.
The Theory of Functions, E. C. Titchmarsh.
. , Graves
,
.
,
.
( )
.
: . -
- -
.
,
, .
, , , -

v

.

2015.

vi
vii


1 . 1
1.1 R R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Supremum infimum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Supremum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 . 23
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3 . 73
3.1 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.6 Cauchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

viii
4 . 115
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3.1 - . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.5.2 . . . . . . . 149
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

5 . 159
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.7 Taylor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.8 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

6 Riemann. 225
6.1 Darboux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.2 . Darboux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.2.1 Riemann. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.5 . Riemann. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

7 . 263
7.1 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.3.4 . . . . . . . . . 284

ix
 7.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.4 Taylor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

8 . 301
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
8.2.1 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
8.2.2 p- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
8.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.5 Cauchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

9 . 343
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.3 Weierstrass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

10 . 361
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
10.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
10.3 Taylor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
10.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
10.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
10.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

11 . 399
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
11.2 , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
11.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

12 . 453
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
12.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
12.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
12.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
12.4 . . . . . . . . . . 470
12.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
12.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

x
13 . 487
13.1 Peano. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
13.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
13.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
13.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
13.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
13.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
13.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
13.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
13.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
13.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
13.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
13.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
13.3.4 supremum R+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
13.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
13.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
13.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
13.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
13.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
13.4.4 supremum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
13.4.5 R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
13.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
13.5.1 Cauchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
13.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

14 . 517
14.1 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
14.2 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
14.3 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
14.4 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
14.5 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
14.6 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
14.7 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
14.8 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
14.9 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
14.10 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
14.11 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
14.12 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866

xi
 1

1.1 R R.
R. , -
, , N, Z Q. :
N = {1, 2, 3, . . . }. , 0.
-
R .1

.

1.1. n N, n 2.
[] x, y

y n xn = (y x)(y n1 + y n2 x + + yxn2 + xn1 ). (1.1)

[]
nxn1 (y x) y n xn ny n1 (y x) 0 x y. (1.2)

. [] .
[] 0 x y ,
(1.1) x y, (
) n y n1 , y
x, ( ) n
xn1 .

BERNOULLI. n N.

(a + 1)n na + 1 a 1.

. 2 a 0, y = a + 1 x = 1 (1.2) ,
1 a 0, y = 1 x = a + 1 (1.2).

NEWTON. n N. x, y
( )
(x + y)n = nk=0 nk xk y nk = nk=0 k!(nk)!
n!
xk y nk .
1
11 .
2
Bernoulli 1.1.5 5.4.6.

1
. 3

(x + y)n = (x + y) (x + y) (n )

,
n
x y . , k Z 0 k n
xk y nk x k y
n k . , k Z 0 k n,
xk y nk
n k k
x. , k n

(n ) n! n(n1)(nk+1)
k = k!(nk)! = k! .
(n)
k Z 0 k n k xk y nk .

, , |x| x -
x 0. , , |x y| 4 x
y. |x y| x y.
, .
1.2. [] a > 0, :

|x| a a x a.

|x| < a a < x < a.

[] x, y :

|x y| |x| + |y|.

. x y 0 0. ,
.

1.1. R,

R = R {, +}.

+ ,
+. :

< x, x < +, < +.

(+) = , () = + .

(+) + x = +, x + (+) = +, (+) + (+) = +,

3
Newton 1.1.5 5.4.8. -
, .
4
.
, ,
d- . ,
9 10.
11 .

2
 () + x = , x + () = , () + () = .
,

(+) + (), () + (+)

(+) x = +, x () = +, (+) () = +,

() x = , x (+) = , () (+) = .

(+) (+), () ()

()x = , x() = x > 0,

()x = , x() = x < 0,

()() = +, ()() = .

()0, 0()

.

1 1
+ = 0, = 0.

1
0

.


x = x > 0, x = x < 0, x
= 0.

x
0, 0 , ,

.
,5

| + | = +, | | = +.

R R
(a, +), [a, +), (, b), (, b] (, +)
{x | x > a}, {x | x a}, {x | x < b}, {x | x b} R, -
. R , , (a, +], [a, +], [, b), [, b],
[, +), (, +], [, +].
5
1.10 2.13.

3
 R R . -
(
) ( ) . -
,
(+) + (+) = +.
, ,
-
.
(+) (+) . ,
( )
,
, .
(+)0 , , .
a A , , . , , -
, , a (3, +] a +.
A [, 2] A .

1.1.1. 6 a x b a y b, |x y| b a
.

1.1.2. x y < 0 z w < 0, 0 < yw xz.

: a, b 0, ab 0.

1.1.3. [] b1 , . . . , bn > 0. l a1
b1 , . . . , abnn u, l b1 ++bn u.
a1 ++an

1 y1 ++n yn
[]7 1 , . . . , n N. l y1 , . . . , yn u, l 1 ++n u.
, w1 , . . . , wn > 0 w1 + + wn = 1. l y1 , . . . , yn u,
l w1 y1 + + wn yn u.

1.1.4. -
x : |x+1| > 2, |x1| < |x+1|, x+2
x x+3
> 3x+1 ,
(x1)(x+4) (x1)(x3)
(x 2)2 4, |x2 7x| > x2 7x, (x7)(x+5) > 0, (x2)2
0.
x
x : (, 3], (2, +), (3, 7),
(, 2) (1, 4) (7, +), [2, 4] [6, +), [1, 4) (4, 8], (, 2] [1, 4) [7, +).

1.1.5. Bernoulli Newton .

1.2 Supremum infimum.

1.2. - A.
A u x u x A.
u A.
6
, .
7
y1 , . . . , yn , yk k , -
,
1 y1 ++n yn
1 ++n
= 1
1 ++n
y1 + + n
1 ++n
yn = w1 y1 + + wn yn ,
k
wk = 1 ++ n
yk ,
yk y1 , . . . , yn . , w1 , . . . , wn > 0
w1 + + wn = 1, w1 , . . . , wn w1 y1 + + wn yn
y1 , . . . yn .

4
 A l l x x A.
l A.
, A , -
l u l x u x A.

: u A, u u
A. , l A, l l A.

1.3. [] l x x > a. l a.
[] u x x < b. u b.

. [] ( ) a < l. x =
a+l
2 a < x < l. , , x > a
l x. , , .
[] , u < b. x = u+b
2 u < x < b.
, , x < b u x. .

1.2.1. l a
[a, b], (a, b], [a, b), (a, b), (a, +), [a, +). l
.
[a, b], [a, b), [a, +). l
, l a, a -
. l a
.
(a, b], (a, b), (a, +). l
. a -
, l a. .
, , l
(a, +). , , l x x > a. , ,
1.3 l a. (a, b], (a, b), (a, +)
l a .
, , [a, b], (a, b], [a, b), (a, b), (a, +), [a, +)
, a, l a .
(, a].

1.2.2. , u b
[a, b], [a, b), (a, b], (a, b), (, b), (, b].
, , -
. [a, b], (a, b], (, b]
1.3 [a, b), (a, b), (, b). , ,
, b, u b
. [b, +).

1.2.3. (a, +), [a, +), (, +)

(, b), (, b], (, +) .

1.2.4. N , 1
, N l 1 . , 1
N N (, 1].
N .

1.2.1, 1.2.2 1.2.3 . -

1.2.4 .
. (, , ...)

5
 ,
.
,
.
, .

SUPREMUM. -, .

supremum R. ,
,
.
supremum.
R
R N. , R
N supremum, 13.
, supremum, infimum.
: 0
, , .
INFIMUM. -, .
. -, A.

A = {x | x A}.
A A 0. ,
.
A -, A -.
, l A, l A,
A .
, , A - , supremum
u0 A.
u0 A, u0 A.
l A u0 , l A
u0 . u0 A.
l A u0 .
u0 A.

1.3. - A -
infimum A.
- A supremum
A.
infimum supremum A , ,
inf A g.l.b. A sup A l.u.b. A.
1.2.5. 1.2.1 1.2.2, [a, b],
(a, b), (a, b], [a, b) (, b], (, b) supremum, b, [a, b],
(a, b), (a, b], [a, b), (a, +), [a, +) infimum, a.
1.4. A , , -
, minimum maximum A.
minimum maximum A , ,
min A max A.

6
 [a, b] [a, b) -, -
maximum maximum. , -,
supremum.

1.2.6. A maximum, sup A = max A, supremum

A maximum A.
, A max A, max A
A. , max A A A
max A. max A A.
, A minimum, inf A = min A,
infimum A minimum A.
A = {0} [2, 3] {4} min A = 0 max A = 4. inf A = 0 sup A = 4.

1.2.7. min N = 1, inf N = 1. , N :

n N N n + 1 N n.
, N N
supremum. N
. , , N
- . .

1.2.8. A = { n1 | n N} = {1, 12 , 13 , 14 , . . . } max A = 1, sup A = 1.

, A : n1 A A
n+1 A n . , A ,
1 1

, 0, A infimum. inf A .

1.5. - A , inf A = .
- A , sup A = +.

(: ) . A ,
. , +
, , , , ,
A.
- A supremum infimum. A -
, supremum , , supremum +.
, A , infimum , -
, infimum . , - A

inf A sup A.

, x A inf A x x sup A , , inf A

A sup A A.
, sup A, ,
+. , inf A .
sup A
inf A. 1.
sup A (i) (ii):
(i) A sup A.
sup A = + , sup A ,
sup A A.
(i) , , :

x A x sup A.

(ii) sup A A.

7
, sup A = + u, .
u A ( A ), x A
u < x. + A.
sup A > 0, .
sup A A ( sup A
A), x A sup A < x , ( (i)),

sup A < x sup A.

x A, sup A -
. sup A A.
(ii) , , :

u < sup A x A u < x sup A.

(i) (ii) supremum A;

, , sup A , , ,
R , sup A.
, u (i) (ii). (i) u (
A u.) , , u A.
(ii) u ( u A.)
A u. , u < u A,
u u A u
(ii). u = + (i) (ii),
(ii) + A
, sup A = +.

, inf A (i) (ii):

(i) A inf A.

x A inf A x.

(ii) inf A A.

l > inf A x A inf A x < l.

supremum infimum
.
A . A -
: x1 , x2 A x1 < x2 x x1 < x < x2 x A.
: . 1.4
, - R, .

8
 1.4. - A : x1 , x2 A x1 < x2
x x1 < x < x2 x A. A .

.
u = sup A, l = inf A,
l u +. , , A [l, u].
x (l, u). x A,
x1 , x2 A x1 < x < x2 . , x A. , (l, u) A.
(l, u) A [l, u] :

A = (l, u) A = [l, u] A = (l, u] A = [l, u).

A , , inf A sup A.

.
x+y+|xy| x+y|xy|
1.2.1. max{x, y} = 2 min{x, y} = 2 .

1.2.2. (a, +) [a, b)

.

1.2.3. l a + > 0, l a.
|a b| > 0, a = b.

1.2.4. a
1 0 < < 1, a 0.

1.2.5. inf A = inf B sup A = sup B. A = B;

1.2.6. - A. [inf A, sup A]

R A.

1.2.7. [a, b];

1.2.8. - A. ( ) sup A
A, : sup A = + sup A < +.
A inf A.

1.2.9. - A. sup A A A
. inf A A.

1.2.10. A = [0, 2], A = [0, 2), A = [0, 1]{2}, ,

, -, A u = sup A :
A (u , u] = > 0;
A (u , u) = > 0;
, , u / A;
l = inf A.

1.2.11. - A u.
sup A u x u x A.
u sup A < u x A < x.
inf A l.

9
1.2.12. - A, B.
[] sup A inf B x y x A, y B.
[] , .
A = (, 0], B = [0, +) x y
x A, y B. , x y
x A, y B.
A = (, 0], B = (0, +), A = (4, 2), B = (2, +)
A = (, 0), B = [1, 13].
, , x y x A, y B. ( )
sup A, inf B x y x A,
y B.
[] x y x A, y B > 0 x A,
y B y x . sup A = inf B
x y x A, y B. ;
[] 0 < x y x A, y B > 0
x A, y B xy 1 + . sup A = inf B
x y x A, y B.

1.2.13. - A, B A B = R x < y x A,
y B. A, B A B.
A = (, ), B = [, +) A = (, ], B = (, +).

1.2.14. - A, B. A sup A sup B x A

< x y B y > .

1.2.15. - A, B A B. inf B inf A sup A sup B.

1.2.16. [] - A, B.
sup(A B) = max{sup A, sup B} inf(A B) = min{inf A, inf B}.
, , A B , sup(A B) min{sup A, sup B}
inf(A B) max{inf A, inf B}.
sup(A B) = min{sup A, sup B} inf(A B) = max{inf A, inf B};
[] - A A = {x | x A}.
sup(A) = inf A inf(A) = sup A.
[] - A, B A + B = {x + y | x A, y B}.
A + B A = [3, 5], B = [1, 7] A = (3, 5), B = (1, 7) ;
inf(A + B) = inf A + inf B sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B.
[] - A, B A B = {xy | x A, y B}.
A B A = [3, 5], B = [1, 7], A = (3, 5), B = (1, 7) A = (1, 5),
B = (2, 7) ;
A, B (0, +), inf(A B) = inf A inf B sup(A B) = sup A sup B.

1.2.17. ; ,
inf , sup ; inf sup ;

1.2.18. 8 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) > a f (b) < b,

(a, b) f () = .
[] I f : I R x I > 0
f (x ) f (x) f (x ) x , x (x , x + ) I x x x . f
I.
8
2.4.16.

10
1.3 Supremum.
1.2.4 1.2.7.

1.1. N , , sup N = +.

. ( ) N ,
sup N .
sup N 1 N, n N sup N 1 < n.
sup N < n + 1 , n + 1 N.

1.1 :

. l > 0, n N 0 < 1
n < l.

, l > 0, 1l , N ,
n N 1l < n , , 0 < n1 < l.

1.3.1. 1.2.8.
A = { n1 | n N} = {1, 12 , 31 , 14 , . . . } inf A = 0.
, 0 A -
l > 0 A. ,
A 0.

1.5 .

1.5. x k Z k x < k + 1.

. x.
1.1 n N n > x m N m > x.
l = m, l, n

l < x < n.

:
k Z, k x, k + 1 x.
k x k = l,
k x k Z k l. , ,
k x k = n.
, , k Z k x
k + 1 > x, k x < k + 1.
k k x < k + 1 .
k x < k + 1 k x < k + 1 k, k Z. k < k + 1 k < k + 1,
1 < k k < 1. k k Z, k k = 0, k = k.

1.6. k Z k x < k + 1,
1.5, x [x].

,
[x] Z [x] x < [x] + 1.

1.3.2. [3] = 3, [3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.5] = 4.

11
 , , -
. ,
, ( R) Q (
R). .

YKNOTHTA . a, b a < b r a < r < b.

. b a > 0, , ,
n N n1 < b a. , na + 1 < nb,

na < [na] + 1 na + 1 < nb.

[na]+1
r = n a < r < b.

1.3.1. 1.2.3.
l a + n1 n N, l a.
|a b| n1 n N, a = b.

1.3.2. infimum supremum {(1)n n | n N}, N { n1 | n N},

+ 1
{(1)n n1 | n N}, { 2n
1
| n N} {1 2n
1
| n N}, +
n=1 [2n 1, 2n], n=1 [ 2n , 2n1 ].
1

1.3.3. infimum supremum (a, b) Q = {r Q | a < r < b}.

1.3.4. 1.2.12.
A = { n1 | n N}, B = { n1 | n N} x y
x A, y B. x y
x A, y B. A = {r Q | r < 0}, B = {r Q | r > 0}.

1.3.5. r a r Q r > b, b a.
{r Q | r < a} = {r Q | r < b}, a = b.
{r Q | r < a} {r Q | r > b} = , a b.
{r Q | r a} {r Q | r b} = Q, b a.

1.4 , , .
.
n Z, n 1 (, n N), an :

an = a a (n ).

n Z, n 1 a = 0, :
1
an = aa (n ) .

, n = 0 a = 0, :
a0 = 1.
1.4.3
.
.
.

12
1.4.1 .
, - , ,
.
supremum.

1.2. n N, n 2. y 0 x 0 xn = y.

. 9 n N, n 2 y 0.

X = {x | x 0, xn y}.
, 0 X, X -. , y + 1 1
(y + 1)n y + 1 > y. x X xn y < (y + 1)n , ,
x < y + 1. X y + 1.
X - , sup X .

= sup X.

, 0, 0 X. n = y.
y n
n < y. n(+1)n1 > 0 > 0
y n
1 n(+1)n1
. (1.2)
( )
( + )n n n( + )n1 ( + ) = n( + )n1 n( + 1)n1 y n .

( + )n y, + X. , X. n y.
n y
n > y. n n1 > 0 > 0
yn
n n1 . , (1.2),
( )
n ( )n n n1 ( ) = n n1 n y.
y ( )n . x X xn y ( )n , , x .
X. ,
X. n y.
n y n y n = y.
, , - xn = y y 0.
- xn = y. :
1 , 2 0, 1 n = y 2 n = y, 1 n = 2 n , 1 = 2 .

1.7. n N, n 2. y 0, - xn = y,
1.2, n-
y

n
y.

n = 2, 2 y y.

n y - y. ,

n- ( - xn = y) n 0 = 0
n y > 0 y > 0.

, - xn = y
y 0, . n , xn = y

(i) , n y n y, y > 0, (ii) , 0, y = 0,
(iii) , y < 0. n , xn = y (i)
9
, 4.4.20 n- n y
- y. 2.4.12.

13

, n y, y > 0, (ii) , 0, y = 0, (iii) ,

n y, y < 0. .
.

n y.
, supremum.
.
1.4.4 , ,
. .
1.2 . , n N,
xn (, , --) [0, +)
[0, +). . 1.2 xn
[0, +) [0, +). , y = xn
, [0, +), , [0, +).

, , x = n y
[0, +) [0, +). ,

y = xn ( [0, +)) x = n y . , y = xn

, x = n y .
- - .
.

1.6. n, k. n k k n-
. , n k , .

.
k n- , m N k = mn .
n
k = m , , .
, n k , n k = ml , m, l N. -
, ,
m, l > 1.
n k = ml ln k = mn . ,
> 1 ,
. , l ln k, mn = mn1 m. l -
> 1 m, l mn1 = mn2 m. , l
mn2 = mn3 m. , l m0 = 1.
l = 1, k = mn k n- .

, , R .

1.7. R \ Q .

.
, , 2 , 1.6
2 .

1.2
, , supremum.
, , -
. ( R)
R \ Q ( R).

YKNOTHTA . a, b a < b x a < x < b.

. a < b.
c, c = 2. a c < b c,
r a c < r < b c. r + c a < r + c < b.

14
1.4.2 - .
-
- .
l k
1.1. y > 0, m, k Z, n, l N, n, l 2 m k m
n = l . ( y) = ( y) .
n

. c = ( n y)m d = ( l y)k , c = d.
, ,
( )mk ( )mk
cnk = ( n y)mnk = ( n y)n = y mk , dml = ( l y)kml = ( l y)l = y mk

, ,
cnk = dml . (1.3)
, nk = ml.
nk = ml = 0, (1.3) c = d.

nk = ml = 0 , , m = k = 0, ( n y)m = ( l y)k = 1
.

1.8. , y > 0 r Q r .
m Z, n N n 2 r = m n . , 1.1,
m
( y) . ,
n

y r = ( n y)m ,

m Z, n N n 2 r = m
n.
, r Q r > 0,
0r = 0.

n N n 2 y 1/n = n y y 0.
.
, y r > 0 y > 0 r.
1.4.5 .
, ,
.
.
, y r - r
- y , , r 0, y r
y.

1.4.3 .
, x y > 1.

X = {y r | r Q, r < x}.

X - r < x ( ,
r = [x]) y r X. X
. , r Q r < x r < [x] + 1 , , y r < y [x]+1
( ). y [x]+1 X.
sup X .
1.9. 10 y > 1 x ,

y x = sup{y r | r Q, r < x}.

10
2.4.20.

15
, y = 1 x ,

1x = 1.
1
0 < y < 1 x , y > 1, ( y1 )x

yx = 1
(1/y)x .

, x x > 0,

0x = 0.

, , .
y < 0, y x x .11 y = 0, y x
x . y > 0, y x x.
1.2. y > 1. b > 1 n N 1 < y 1/n < b.
b1
. y > 1 b > 1, , y1 > 0,
n N 0 < n < y1 . (1.2) , n,
1 b1

bn 1 n(b 1) > y 1
, , y 1/n < b. 1 < y 1/n .

1.3. x Q y > 1. y x = sup{y r | r Q, r < x}.

. x Q y > 1.
r Q r < x, y r < y x . y x {y r | r Q, r < x}.
a {y r | r Q, r < x}.
, a > 0.
x
( ) a < y x , ya > 1. , 1.2,
x
n N 1 < y 1/n < ya , , a < y x(1/n) . , ,
x n1 Q x n1 < x , , y x(1/n) {y r | r Q, r < x}.
y x a.
y x {y r | r Q, r < x}.

1.3 y x = sup{y r | r Q, r < x}

x . , x
: y x .
1.4. [] r Q r < x1 + x2 . r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1
r2 < x2 r1 + r2 = r.
[] x1 , x2 > 0, r Q 0 < r < x1 x2 . r1 , r2 Q 0 < r1 < x1
0 < r2 < x2 r1 r2 = r.
. [] r Q r < x1 + x2 .
r x1 < x2 , r2 Q r x1 < r2 < x2 . r1 = r r2 ,
r1 Q. , r1 < x1 r2 < x2 r1 + r2 = r.
[] x1 , x2 > 0, r Q 0 < r < x1 x2 .
0 < xr1 < x2 , r2 Q 0 < xr1 < r2 < x2 . r1 = rr2 ,
r1 Q. , 0 < r1 < x1 0 < r2 < x2 r1 r2 = r.

1.8 . -
.
11
, 4.3.1, y x - y < 0.

16
 1.8. [] y, y1 , y2 > 0. y1 x y2 x = (y1 y2 )x , y x1 y x2 = y x1 +x2 , (y x1 )x2 =
y x1 x2 .
[] x1 < x2 . y > 1, y x1 < y x2 . 0 < y < 1, y x1 > y x2 .
[] 0 < y1 < y2 . x > 0, y1 x < y2 x . x < 0, y1 x > y2 x .

. [] .
(i) y > 1, y r y x r Q r < x.
( y x {y r | r Q, r < x}.)
(ii) y > 1 y r a r Q r < x, y x a.
(, , a {y r | r Q, r < x}
y x .)
.
y1 , y2 > 1.
r Q r < x. (y1 y2 )r = y1 r y2 r y1 x y2 x . (y1 y2 )x y1 x y2 x .
r1 , r2 Q r1 , r2 < x. r = max{r1 , r2 } Q, r < x,
x x
y1 r1 y2 r2 y1 r y2 r = (y1 y2 )r (y1 y2 )x . y1 r1 (yy12yr22) . y1 x (yy12yr22) .
x x
y2 r2 (yy1 y1 x2 ) , , y2 x (yy1 y1 x2 ) . y1 x y2 x (y1 y2 )x .
(y1 y2 )x y1 x y2 x y1 x y2 x (y1 y2 )x y1 x y2 x = (y1 y2 )x .
.
.
y > 1.
r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1 r2 < x2 . y r1 y r2 = y r1 +r2 y x1 +x2
x1 +x2 x1 +x2 x1 +x2
, , y r1 y yr2 . y x1 y yr2 . y r2 y yx1 , ,
x1 +x2
y x2 y yx1 . y x1 y x2 y x1 +x2 .
r Q r < x1 + x2 . r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1 r2 < x2
r1 + r2 = r. y r = y r1 +r2 = y r1 y r2 y x1 y x2 . y x1 +x2 y x1 y x2 .
y x1 y x2 y x1 +x2 y x1 +x2 y x1 y x2 y x1 y x2 = y x1 +x2 .
.
.
y > 1 x1 , x2 > 0.
r1 , r2 Q r1 < x1 r2 < x2 . r1 , r2 Q r1 r1

r2 r2 0 < r1 < x1 0 < r2 < x2 . (y r1 )r2 = y r1 r2 y x1 x2 , ,

y r1 y r1 (y x1 x2 )1/r2 . y x1 (y x1 x2 )1/r2 . y x1 y r1 > 1, (y x1 )r2

(y x1 )r2 y x1 x2 , , (y x1 )x2 y x1 x2 .
r Q r < x1 x2 . r Q r r 0 < r < x1 x2 .

r1 , r2 Q 0 < r1 < x1 0 < r2 < x2 r1 r2 = r . y r y r = y r1 r2 =
(y r1 )r2 (y x1 )r2 (y x1 )x2 . y x1 x2 (y x1 )x2 .
(y x1 )x2 y x1 x2 y x1 x2 (y x1 )x2 (y x1 )x2 = y x1 x2 .
.
[] x1 < x2 y > 1.
r1 , r2 Q x1 < r1 < r2 < x2 . r Q r < x1 y r y r1 .
y x1 y r1 . , y r1 < y r2 y x2 . y x1 < y x2 .
0 < y < 1 .
[] 0 < y1 < y2 x > 0.
1 < yy21 , [], 1 = ( yy21 )0 < ( yy21 )x , [], y1 x < y1 x ( yy12 )x = (y1 yy12 )x = y2 x .
x < 0 .

.
. y > 1, y x x R

17
, 0 < y < 1, y x x R.
, . x > 0, y x -
y [0, +) , x < 0, y x y
(0, +).

1.10.

a+ = + a > 1, a+ = 0 0 a < 1,

a = 0 a > 1, a = + 0 < a < 1,

(+)b = + b > 0 b = +, (+)b = 0 b < 0 b = .

00 , 1+ , 1 , (+)0 , 0

1.1. , ,
,
.

1.4.4 .
, , .

1.3. a > 0, a = 1. y > 0 x ax = y.

. a > 1 y > 1.

X = {x | ax y}.
, 0 X. , 1.2, n N an > y. ,
x X ax y an , x n. X - ,
sup X .

= sup X.
a = y.
a < y. 1.2 n N a1/n < ay . a+(1/n) < y,
+ n1 X. X. a y.

a > y. 1.2, , n N a1/n < ay . y < a(1/n) ,
x X ax y < a(1/n) , , x < n1 . n1
X. X. a y.
a y a y a = y.
.
a > 1 y = 1, ax = y x = 0.
a > 1 0 < y < 1, , y1 > 1, a = y1 , ,
= a = a = y.
, 0 < a < 1 y > 0, , a1 > 1, ( a1 ) = y,
= a = a = y.
ax = y : a1 = y a2 = y,
a1 = a2 , 1 = 2 .

18
 1.11. 12 y > 0 a > 0, a = 1, ax = y,
1.3, y
a
loga y.
a > 1. , , y = ax
(, +) (, +). y = ax .
, 1.3 (0, +). , y = ax
(, +) (0, +). , -
, x = loga y
(0, +) (, +). y = ax
x (, +), x = loga y y
(0, +).
0 < a < 1, a > 1 . y = ax
x (, +) (0, +) x = loga y
y (0, +) (, +). ,
.
1.9 .
1.9. a, b > 0, a, b = 1.
[] loga (y1 y2 ) = loga y1 + loga y2 y1 , y2 > 0.
[] loga (y z ) = z loga y y > 0 z.
loga y
[] logb y = loga b y > 0.
[] loga 1 = 0, loga a = 1.
[] 0 < y1 < y2 . a > 1, loga y1 < loga y2 . 0 < a < 1, loga y1 > loga y2 .
. [] x1 = loga y1 x2 = loga y2 , ax1 = y1 ax2 = y2 .
ax1 +x2 = ax1 ax2 = y1 y2 , loga (y1 y2 ) = x1 + x2 = loga y1 + loga y2 .
[] x = loga y, ax = y. azx = (ax )z = y z , , loga (y z ) = zx =
z loga y.
[] x = logb y w = loga b, bx = y aw = b. awx = (aw )x = bx = y.
loga y = wx = loga b logb y.
[] loga 1 = 0 a0 = 1 loga a = 1 a1 = a.
[] x1 = loga y1 x2 = loga y2 , y1 = ax1 y2 = ax2 . ax1 < ax2 ,
a > 1, x1 < x2 , 0 < a < 1, x1 > x2 .

1.4.1. infimum supremum (a, b) (R \ Q) = {x R \ Q | a < x < b}.

1.4.2. a A = {r Q | r < a}.
A Q A - Q. , u Q (
, u = [a] + 1) r u r A.
Q, A.
Q supremum.
1.4.3. [] a, b > 0 m, n Z, an bn = (ab)n , am an = am+n , (am )n = amn .
[] m, n Z m < n. a > 1, am < an . 0 < a < 1,
an < a m .
[] 0 < a < b n Z. n > 0, 0 < an < bn . n < 0,
0 < bn < a n .
12
2.4.21.

19
1.4.4. n, m N n, m 2.

[] y, y1 , y2 0, n y1 y2 = n y1 n y2 n m y = nm y.

[] n < m. y > 1, m y < n y. 0 < y < 1, n y < m y.

[] 0 y1 < y2 . n y1 < n y2 .

1.4.5. r, r1 , r2 Q.
[] y, y1 , y2 > 0, y1 r y2 r = (y1 y2 )r , y r1 y r2 = y r1 +r2 , (y r1 )r2 = y r1 r2 .
[] r1 < r2 . y > 1, y r1 < y r2 . 0 < y < 1, y r1 > y r2 .
[] 0 < y1 < y2 . r > 0, y1 r < y2 r . r < 0, y1 r > y2 r .

1.4.6. y > 1. y x = inf{y r | r Q, x < r}.

1.4.7. 3, 7 129 3 2 + 5 .

1.4.8. 13 [] n, k, m N k, m > 1.
n
k/m k, m n- .
[] a0 , a1 , . . . , an Z k, m Z > 1. mk

an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 , k a0
m an .

1.4.9. m, n N, m, n 2. ,
m, n, logm n .

13
1.6.

20
 .
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 1. Addison-Wesley.
Bartle, R. (1967) The Elements of Real Analysis, Ch I. Wiley.
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 2. Wiley.
Beals, R. (2004) Analysis, an Introduction, Ch 2. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 2. Springer.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 1-2. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 2. Springer.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 1. Springer.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap I. Springer.
Hayes Jr, C. (1964) Concepts of Real Analysis, Ch 2. Wiley.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 2. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Introduction. American Math. Society &
Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch I. Springer.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 1, 3. Springer.
Rosenlicht, M. (1986) Introduction to Analysis, Ch II. Dover.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 1. Springer.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 1. McGraw-Hill.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 1-2, 8, 28. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 1. Pearson.

.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 1-2. Dover.
Buck, R. & Buck, E. (2003) Advanced Calculus, Ch 1. Waveland Press.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 1. Springer.
Dieudonn, J. (1969) Foundations of Modern Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 2. Academic Press.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 1. Harper and Row.
Goffman, C. (1953) Real Functions, Ch 4. Rinehart.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 1. Wiley.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 2. Mir Publishers.
Pugh, C. (2015) Real Mathematical Analysis, Ch 1. Springer.
Smirnov, V. I. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch I. Pergammon Press.

21
22
 2

2.1 .
2.1. ( ) x : N
R N . n N x(n) -
, , xn . , n N

xn = x(n).

, , -
: x1 , x2 , x3 ...
, / -
. xn+1 xn xn1 xn .
n, N, -
. x : N R ,
,

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . . ) (xn ) (xn )+

n=1 .

, , , x, n,
: (yn ), (xk ), (zm ) ...
, , . ,
n, m, k, , -
( 0),
n N m N k N.

2.1.1. ( n1 ) (1, 12 , 31 , . . . , n1 , . . . ).

2.1.2. (n) (1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , n, . . . ).

2.1.3. (1) (1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, . . . ).

2.1.4. ((1)n1 ) (1, 1, 1, 1, . . . , 1, 1, . . . ).

( )
2.1.5. 101n ( 10
1
, 1012 , 1013 , . . . , 101n , . . . ).

2.1.6. n- n,
(1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 4, 3, 4, 2, . . . ). n-
.

2.1.7. (m n)+
n=1 (m 1, m 2, m 3, . . . , m n, . . . ).

2.1.8. (m n)+
m=1 (1 n, 2 n, 3 n, . . . , m n, . . . ).

23
 -
(xn )+ n=1 , (xn ), ,
, .
: . -
, .
(1)+ n=1 {1} . , ,
(1, 1, 1, . . . ). ,
.
, . ,
(1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . ), (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . )
{1, 1}. (1, 12 , 13 , 41 , 15 , 61 , . . . ), ( 12 , 1, 41 , 13 , 16 , 51 , . . . )
{ n1 | n N}.

2.2. (xn ) xn+1 xn n,

xn+1 > xn n, xn+1 xn n
xn+1 < xn n.
(xn )
.
(xn ) , c
xn = c n. , (c) (c, c, c, . . . , c, . . . ).

. 2.1.1, 2.1.5, 2.1.7

, 2.1.2, 2.1.8
, 2.1.3 2.1.4, 2.1.6
.

2.3. (xn )
, u : xn u n.
u (xn ).
(xn ) -
, l : l xn n. l
(xn ).
(xn ) , -
l u : l xn u n.

, u (xn ), u u
, l (xn ), l l .

2.1.9. (c) .
( n1 )
2.1.10. ( n1 ), (1)n , ( n1
n ), ((1)
n1 )

[1, 1].
( n1 )n )
2.1.11. (1+(1) 2 (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, 0, . . . ) -
. , l 0 .
, ,
. .

2.1.12. (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, 0, . . . ), -
, . l ,
l,
l, .

24
 2.1.13. ((1)n1 n) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . ) -
. , , -
, ,
.

(xn ) , l, u

l xn u

n. , xn [l, u] n. , ,
0 [M, M ] [l, u],

M xn M

, , |xn | M n. , (xn ) ,
M |xn | M n. : M
|xn | M n, M xn M n, M
M (xn ). :
(xn ) M |xn | M n.

n. : n 234 4 n n2 n > 8
xn < xn+1 (xn ).

2.4. , n,
, , n n0
n n0 .

n (xn )
(xn ), (xn ) , , n
. : xn+1 xn , xn+1 > xn ,
xn u, xn = c. , (xn ) , ,
, , u, c.

2.1.14. (1, 23 , 7, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . ) ,
.

2.1.15. (n2 14n + 8) . ,

n2 14n + 8 = (n 7)2 41 n 7 , ,
.

n
n0 , n0 n n0
n n0 .

n0 = max{n0 , n0 }.

n0 n0 , n n0 . , n0 n0 ,
n n0 . n n0 .
:
,
, , .

2.1.16. n2 3n 37 n 8. , 2n+1
n+1 >
25
13
n 13. n 3n 37 n+1 > 13 n max{8, 13} = 13.
2 2n+1 25

25
 , , -
: , n0 , n0 ,
, . ,
,
!

2.5. n .

2.1.17. (1)n1 > 0 n, n. ,

(1)n1 0 n, n.

n
n . ,
n , , , n.

2.1.1. , .
( )
2.1.2. a+b2 + (1)
n1 ab .
2
( )
n +
m N, n m[ m ] n=1 .
m = 1, 2, 3.

2.1.3. : 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36.

49; 24; ;

2.1.4. -
.

2.1.5. (xn ) (yn ) (xn + yn ).

, ,
.
, , .
(xn ) (yn ) (xn yn ).
, , , xn , yn 0
n.
( n1 ) ( ) ( 13n ) ( n30 ) ( n ) ( )
2.1.6. ((1)n1 n), (1)n , n218n
+n+1
, n! , 2 n , 2[ 2 ] , n 3[ n
3 ]
; ; ;

2.1.7. n k
n > k .
n
.

2.1.8. , ,
, , . , -
.

2.1.9. (xn ) .
c xn = c n.

2.1.10. 1 a, b, p, q, p, q 0, (xn )
x1 = a x2 = b xn+2 = pxn+1 + qxn .
1
n-
.

26
(i) p = 0, q = 0. xn = bpn2 n 2.
n1 n2
(ii) p = 0, q = 0. xn = aq 2 n xn = bq 2
n.
(iii) p = 0, q = 0.
x2 = px + q , 1 , 2 , ,
xn = 1 n1 + 2 n1 n.
x2 = px + q , , ,
xn = n1 + (n 1)n1 n.
x2 = px + q , , , [0, 2)
xn = n1 cos((n 1)) + n1 sin((n 1)) n.
n- 2
x1 = x2 = 1 xn+2 = 3xn , xn+2 = xn+1 + xn , xn+2 =
2xn+1 xn , xn+2 = xn+1 xn .
2.1.11. ( ) (xn )
xn+1 = x1 + + xn ;
xn+3 = xnxn+1 xn+2
, xn+1 = 1 x1n xn+1 = 2 x1n .

2.2 , .
2.2.1. ( n1 ) :

1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , . . . , 100
1 1
, 101 1
, . . . , 100000 1
, . . . , 100000000 , ... .

, n , n1
, , n1
0.
2.2.2. ( n1
n ) :

0, 21 , 23 , 34 , 45 , . . . , 100
99 100 99999
, 101 , . . . , 100000 99999999
, . . . , 100000000 , ... .

, n , n1
n
1 . , n1 n 1
| n 1| = n , , n ,
n1 1

n1 .
(xn ) :
n , xn x
.
. xn x
|xn x| . n -
n . ,
, :
|xn x| n
.
:
2.2.1. ( n1 ).
n1 0 | n1 0| = n1 , , -
n .
2
Fibonnaci 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13.

27
 ;
, 0.000132.
n1 0.000132 n -
; , :
n n1 0.000132; :
n1 < 0.000132 n > 1000000 132 = 7575.75 . . . .
n > 1000000
132 ; 7576 > 1000000
132 , , n -
7576, n < 0.000132. ,
1

0.0000000000132. , n -
75757575758, n1 < 0.0000000000132.
, , :
( 0.000132 0.0000000000132)
( 7576 75757575758). , , .
-
. ,
, .
, ,
,
n0 , , n n0 , n1 < . , , -
: > 0 n0 n10 ,
, n10 , n01+1 , n01+2 , . . . < .
( )
n0 . n0 ( )
n1 < ; , .
n1 < n > 1 (, n)
.

2.1. a 0, n0 = [a] + 1 n > a. a < 0,

n0 = 1 n > a.

. .

: n > 3 1, n > 83
3 = [ 38 ] + 1 n > 2 3 = 2 + 1 = [2] + 1.
( 1 0) n0 n0 = [ 1 ] + 1.
, ( )
n0 ,
n0 .
, . 2.

2.6. (xn ) x (xn ) x

x (xn ) > 0 n0 |xn x| <
n n0 . : (xn ) x > 0 |xn x| < .
(xn ) x

xn x lim xn = x limn+ xn = x.

(xn ) , (xn ) .

, , (xn ) x
n- xn x n .

28
 :
[ ]
xn x > 0 n0 N n N (n n0 |xn x| < )

xn x > 0
n0 ( )

n n0 () |xn x| <

, ,

|xn x| < () n n0 .

|xn x| <

n n0 . : n .
:
|xn x| < P1 Pm n n0 ,
P1 , . . . , Pm .
: -

. , -
. .
.
2.2.1 .
2.2.1.
1
n 0.

> 0. n0 | n1 0| < n n0 . ,
, | n1 0| < n n0 .
, | n1 0| < ( ) n1 <
( ) n > 1 . :

| n1 0| < 1
n < n > 1 .

, 1.1 n0 n0 > 1 . , -
n > 1 n0 n n0 . n0
n n0 n > 1 | n1 0| < . :

n n0 n > 1
1
n < | n1 0| < .

( ) n0 . , 1 0,
n0 = [ 1 ] + 1 n > 1 . , n0
n0 , | n1 0| < n n0 .

29
 2.2.3. (c) c.

c c.

> 0. n0 |c c| < n n0 .
|cc| < ( ) 0 < . , 0 <
n ( n). ,
n0 ( , n0 = 1), |c c| < n n0 .
2.2.4. ((1)n1 ) .
( ) ((1)n1 ) x. > 0
n0 n n0 |(1)n1 x| < . ,
n0 , n n0 . , n n0 |1x| <
n n0 |1 x| < . | 1 x| <
1 (x , x + ) |1 x| < 1 (x , x + ). , > 0
1, 1 (x , x + ). , , 0 < 1,
2, .
n1
2.2.5. (1)n 0.
 (1)n1 
> 0.  n 0 < ( ) n1 <
( ) n > 1 . , n0 > 1 .
n0 , n n0 n > 1 | n1 0| < .
2
3 n 0.
n +1
2.2.6. 2n
 n2 +1 
> 0.  3 0 < ( )
2n n
n2 +1
<
2n3 n
( ) n >
2n3 1
(n
2
+ 1). ,
n, .
( )
n2 +1 n2 +n2
2n3 n
2n3 n3
= n2 ,
2
n +1 2
2n 3 n < (, ) n < -
2
( ) n > . .
n0 > 2 . n0 , n n0 n > 2
 n2 +1 
 2n 
3 n 0 < .
2
n +1 2
2n 3 n , , n . -
, ,
:

a b, a < b < .

a < b < .
, b a
a.
2.7. (xn ) + (xn ) +
+ (xn ) M > 0 n0 xn > M n n0 .
: (xn ) + M > 0 xn > M .
(xn ) +,

xn + lim xn = + limn+ xn = +.

, (xn ) (xn )
(xn ) M > 0 n0 xn < M n n0 .

30
 : (xn ) M > 0 xn < M .
(xn ) ,

xn lim xn = limn+ xn = .

, , : (xn ) + n-
xn + n .
.
:
[ ]
xn + M > 0 n0 N n N (n n0 xn > M )
[ ]
xn M > 0 n0 N n N (n n0 xn < M )

2.2.7.

n +.

M > 0. n0 n > M n n0 .
. 1.1, n0 > M . ,
n > M n0 n n0 . n0
n n0 n > M .
( ) n0 = [M ] + 1 ,
n0 n0 , n > M n n0 .

2.2.8. ((1)n1 n) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . )

+ .
( ) +. M > 0
n0 (1)n1 n > M n n0 . ,
n0 , n n0 . n n0 n > M
n n0 n > M . , n > M , , -
, .
, .
n3 +n
2.2.9. n2 +3
+.
n3 +n
M > 0. n2 +3
> M n3 + n > M n2 +3M .
3 3
n, nn2+n
+3
> M nn2+n
+3

. ( )

n3 +n n3
n2 +3
n2 +3n n
2 = 4.

3
nn2+n
+3
> M n4 > M n > 4M . -
n0 n0 > 4M , , n0 , n n0
3
n > 4M nn2+n
+3
> M.
3
nn2+n
+3
, , n4 .
, :

a b, a > M b > M.

a > M b > M . -
, b a
a.3
3
2.2.6.

31
 , lim, limn+
, . -

, .
limn+ xn , , R.
,
.

2.8. > 0. (x , x + ) - x.
( 1 , +] - + [, 1 ) - .

Nx () = (x , x + ), N+ () = ( 1 , +], N () = [, 1 ).

M = 1 , = M 1

+ ( , +] (M, +]
1

[, 1 ) [, M ).
:
x R , Nx () .
x Nx ().
Nx () x Nx ().
, .
l < x, x ( +) l,
> 0 Nx () l.
, x < u, x ( ) u,
> 0 Nx () u.
, , l < x < u, x () l, u,
> 0 Nx () l, u.
|xn x| < xn x , ,
x < xn < x + , , xn (x , x + ) , , xn Nx ().
, xn > M xn < M xn
, , xn (M, +] xn [, M ) , , xn N+ ()
xn N (), = M 1 4
.

.

2.9. x R. xn x > 0 n0 xn
Nx () n n0 , , > 0 xn Nx ().

, , -
. , ,
, -
.5

2.2.1. , : 1
n+8 0, 2n+5 2 , n+5
3n+1 3 1
0,
n4 n2 +1
2n2 n +, n
2n2 1
0, n2 7n +, n2 +3
+, 2n 2n/2 +, 5n 4
1
n 0.
4
, xn
+ xn N+ () = ( 1 , +] xn N () = [, 1 ).
5
,
.

32
2.2.2. 2.8.

2.2.3. x, y R, x = y. > 0 Nx () Ny () = .

2.2.4. x R.
> 0 n Nx ( n1 ) Nx ().

>0 Nx () = {x} , ,
x x.

+n=1 Nx ( n ) = {x}.
1

2.2.5. xn x. > 0 n0 () n0 xn Nx ()
n n0 . , 0 < < , n0 ( ) n0 ().

2.2.6. 6 (xn ) x > 0

xn
/ Nx () n.

2.2.7. 7 0 > 0. xn x 0 < 0

xn Nx ().

2.2.8. (xn ) x : n0 > 0

|xn x| < n n0 . xn x.
(xn ) .

2.2.9. [] (xn ) . ,
xn x, (xn ) x .
[] (xn ) xn Z n. xn x, (xn )
x Z.

2.2.10. x (xn ).
[] , > 0 |xn x| < ,
|xn x| . . : xn = (1)n1 , x = 0, = 1.
: xn x > 0
|xn x| .
[] , M > 0 xn > M , M
xn M . . : xn = 1, M = 1.
: xn + M > 0
xn M .

2.3 .
2.1 ,
, .

2.1. .
, .

. (xn ), (yn )
k0 , m0

xk0 = ym0 , xk0 +1 = ym0 +1 , xk0 +2 = ym0 +2 , . . . . (2.1)

6
.
7
. > 0
0 > 0.

33
 xn a R.
> 0. xn Na () . (2.1)
yn Na () . , xn Na ()
n0 . .
. n0 k0 , xn Na () k0 , ,
yn Na () m0 .
. n0 > k0 , n0 = k0 + p
yn Na () m0 + p .
yn a.

2.3.1. (1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , . . . ), (2, 5, 41 , 15 , 61 , . . . ). -

0. , -
.
0.
2.3.2. (xn ) (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . ). (xn+1 )
(x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . ) (xn+2 ) (x3 , x4 , x5 , . . . ). ,
(xn+m ) (x1+m , x2+m , x3+m , . . . ). 2.1,

limn+ xn = x limn+ xn+m = x.

: 1
n+3 0 1
n 0.

2.3.1 .
2.2 :
.
2.2. xn x R u, l.
[] x > u, xn > u.
[] x < l, xn < l.
[] u < x < l, u < xn < l.
. [] > 0 Nx ()
u. xn Nx (), xn > u.
[] > 0 Nx () l.
xn Nx (), xn < l.
[] > 0 Nx ()
u, l. xn Nx (), u < xn < l.
. [] [] xn > u
xn < l. xn > u xn < l , , u < xn < l.

2.3 .
.
2.3. .
. (xn ) a, b.
> 0 Na () Nb ()
. xn Na () , , xn Nb ().
xn Na () xn Nb () .
. (xn ) a, b
c a, b. [] [] 2.2
xn < c xn > c. xn < c xn > c
.

34
 2.4. [] xn x R, (xn ) .
[] xn +, (xn ) .
[] xn , (xn ) .

. [] x, (x 1, x + 1).
(xn ) n0 (x 1, x + 1). ,
(xn ) (x 1, x + 1)
x1 , . . . , xn0 1 . , ,
, (x 1, x + 1) [l, u]
(xn ). (xn ) .
[] +, (1, +].
(xn ) n0 (1, +].
(xn ) (1, +] x1 , . . . , xn0 1 .
, , ,
(1, +] [l, +] (xn ).
(xn ) .
, l xn > l. l (xn ),
(xn ) .
[] [].

2.3.3. H ((1)n1 ) . -
2.4[].
( n1 )n )
2.3.4. (1+(1) 2 , (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . ),
. , +,
, 2.2, > 1, .
, (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . ) ,
. 2.4[,] .

2.3.2 .
2.5 :
.
2.5
2.2. ,
.
2.5 - : -
,
.8

2.5. [] xn l n xn x R, x l.
[] xn u n xn x R, x u.
[] u < l xn u n xn l n, (xn ) .

. [] x < l, , 2.2, xn < l,

xn l n . x l.
[] .
[] (xn ) , , [] [], u l , ,
l u . (xn ) .

2.3.5. xn x R xn [l, u] n, x [l, u].

8
. 2.5.15.

35
 2.3.6. ((1)n1 n), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . ), ,
1 1.
( )
2.3.7. n 3[ n3 ] , (1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, . . . ), ,
2 0.

2.6. xn yn n xn x R yn y R, x y.

. ( ) y < x.
a y < a < x. yn < a
a < xn . , yn < a a < xn . yn < xn , ,
xn yn n. .
x y.

2.3.8. n1 < n1 n n1 0 n1 0.
, xn < yn n xn x R yn y
R, x < y. xn < yn n
xn yn n x y. x < y x = y
.

2.7 2.8 -
:
( ) .

2.7. xn yn .
[] xn +, yn +.
[] yn , xn .

. [] M > 0. xn > M , yn xn ,
xn > M yn xn . yn > M . ,
yn +.
[] .

2.3.9. 2n + (1)n n = 2n n n n n +. ,
2n + (1)n n +.
n2 +2n+1 n2 +2n+1
2.3.10. n+2 n n n +. n+2 +.

2.3.11. n! n n. n! +.

2.8 .

2.8. xn yn zn . xn a zn a, yn a.

. > 0. xn (a , a + ) , , zn
(a , a + ). xn , zn (a , a + ) , yn
xn , zn , yn (a , a + ). yn a.
(1)n
2.3.12. n1 n 1
n n. n1 0 1
n 0, -
n
(1)
n 0.
n2[n/2]
2.3.13. 0 n 1
n n. 0 0 1
n 0,
n2[n/2]
n 0.

36
2.3.3 .

.

2.10. (xn ) (xn ).

(xn ) (yn ) (xn + yn ).
(xn ) (yn ) (xn yn ). xn yn =
xn + (yn ), (xn ) (yn ) (xn )
(yn ).
(xn ) (yn ) (xn yn ).
(xn ) (xn ). ,
(xn ) () (xn )
( )
(xn ) x1n .
(1)
xn xn = 0 n.
( )
(xn ) (yn ) xynn . xynn = xn y1n ,
(xn ) (yn )
( xn ) (xn ) (yn ).
yn yn = 0 n.
(xn ) (|xn |).

2.9. x, y R .
[] xn x, xn x.
[] xn x, |xn | |x|.
[] xn x yn y x + y , xn + yn x + y.
[] xn x yn y x y , xn yn x y.
[] xn x yn y xy , xn yn xy.
[] xn x x , xn x.
[] xn = 0 n. xn x x1 (,
x = 0), x1n x1 .
[] yn = 0 n. xn x yn y xy
, xynn xy .

. [] xn x x R. > 0 |xn x| < ,

,
|(xn ) (x)| = |xn x| < .
xn x.
xn +. M > 0 xn > M , , xn < M .
xn , xn (+).
xn . M > 0 xn < M , , xn > M .
xn +, xn ().
[] xn x x R. > 0 |xn x| < , ,
 
|xn | |x| |xn x| < .

|xn | |x|.
xn +. M > 0 xn > M , , |xn | > M .
|xn | +, |xn | | + |.
xn . M > 0 xn < M , , |xn | > M .
|xn | +, |xn | | |.

37
[] xn x yn y x, y R. > 0 |xn x| < 2
, , |yn y| < 2 , ,

|(xn + yn ) (x + y)| = |(xn x) + (yn y)| |xn x| + |yn y| <

2 +
2 = .

xn + yn x + y.
xn + yn y y (, +]. (yn ) ,
l yn > l n. , M > 0 xn > M l
, ,

xn + yn > (M l) + l = M.

xn + yn +, xn + yn x + y.
[].
[] [] [].
[] xn x yn y x, y R. (yn ) , M 0
|yn | M n. , > 0 |xn x| < 2M+1 ,
, |yn y| < 2|x|+1

, ,

|x|
|xn yn xy| = |(xn x)yn + x(yn y)| |xn x||yn | + |x||yn y| M
2M +1 + 2|x|+1 < .

xn yn xy.
xn + yn y y (0, +]. l 0 < l < y.
l < yn . , M > 0 xn > Ml , ,

xn yn > Ml l = M.
xn yn +, xn yn xy.
[].
[] [].
[] xn x x R \ {0} xn = 0 n. |xn | |x|.
|x| > 0, l 0 < l < |x| |xn | > l. ,
> 0 |xn x| < |x|l , ,
 
 1
x1  = |xn x|
< |x|l
= .
xn |x||xn | |x|l

x1n x1 .
xn +. > 0 xn > 1 , ,
1 
 0 = 1 < .
xn xn

x1n 0, x1n +1
.
xn [].
[] [] [].

2.3.14. xn x, x R k N, xn k xk .
, xn k = xn xn (k ) x x (k ) = xk .
, n1 n 1 ( n ) 1 = 1.
n1 3 3

xn +, , , xn +. , xn , xn k +,
k

k , xn k , k .
, (

38
 ), , xn , xn1 k 0.
: {
+, k Z, k > 0
nk
0, k Z, k < 0
 
2.3.15. (1)n1  = 1 1 ((1)n1 ) . ,
2.9[] .
 xn 0 |xn | |0| = 0.
, , x = 0, :
, |xn 0| < |xn | 0 <
xn 0 |xn | 0 .
2.3.16. a0 + a1 x + + ak xk . -
, k 1 ak = 0.

( )
a0 + a1 n + + ak nk = nk a0 n1k + a1 nk1
1
+ + ak1 n1 + ak .

ak , 0. ,
nk +.
{
+, ak > 0
a0 + a1 n + + ak nk ak (+) =
, ak < 0

.
, limn+ (a0 + a1 n + + ak nk ) = limn+ ak nk .
: 3n2 5n + 2 + 12 n5 + 4n4 n3 .
: 2n5 2n2 + n 7 , (2n5 2n2 + n 7)8 +.
: n3 + 2n 1 , (n3 + 2n 1)5 .
k
2.3.17. ba00+b m , ak = 0, bm = 0.
+a1 x++ak x
1 x++bm x

a0 +a1 n++ak nk nk
( 1 )/( 1 )
b0 +b1 n++bm nm = nm a0 nk + + ak1 n + ak b0 nm + + bm1 n1 + bm .
1

k
ak bm . nnm = nkm ,


(ak /bm )(+), k > m
a0 +a1 n++ak nk
b0 +b1 n++bm nm ak /bm , k = m

0, k < m

.
3 2n2 +n+1
+, n n4 n3 n2 +n+4
2 +n
: n 2n 2 3n1 n+2 , n4 +1 1 n3 +n2 +5n+6 0.
( 3 +n2 +n+1 )7
: 2n 2n+3 , 2n 2n+3
3 +n2 +n+1
.
n3 +n+7
( n3 +n+7 )3
: 3n3 +n2 +1 3 , 3n3 +n2 +1 27 .
1 1

2.3.18.
{
+, a > 0
na
0, a < 0

a > 0. M > 0 n0 na > M

n n0 .

39
, na > M n > M 1/a . 1.1,
n0 > M 1/a . , n > M 1/a n0
n n0 . , n0 , n > M 1/a , , na > M n n0 .
( ) n0 = [M 1/a ] + 1 ,
n0 n0 , n > M 1/a n n0 .
a < 0. , , na 0 ,
: a > 0 , ,
1
na = na + 1
= 0.

2.3.19. (a, a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . ), (an ).

: a.
a = 1, (1) 1. , a = 0,
(0) 0.
a 1, (an ) a 1, a2 1, a3 1, a4 1, . . . . ,
1 1 , , .
a > 1. Bernoulli

an n(a 1) + 1

n. n(a 1) + 1 +, an +.
, , . M > 0 n0
an > M n n0 . , an > M n > loga M .
n0 > loga M , n0 , n > loga M
, , an > M n n0 .
, 0 < |a| < 1. |a|
1
> 1,
|a | = (1/|a|)n + = 0. a 0.
n 1 1 n

:9

+,


a > 1
1, a = 1
an

0, 1 < a < 1


, a 1

2.3.20. (1 + a + a2 + + an1 + an )
a. :


+, a 1
1 + a + a + + a
2 n
1/(1 a), 1 < a < 1


, a 1

a 1,
1 + a + a2 + + an 1 + 1 + 1 + + 1 = n + 1.
n + 1 +, 1 + a + a2 + + an +.
. 1 < a < 1,
an+1 1
1 + a + a2 + + an = a1 01
a1 = 1
1a .

a 1. an+1 = 1 + (a 1)(1 + a + a2 + + an ) n.
1 + a + a2 + + an x R, an+1 1 + (a 1)x. , (an+1 )
. (1 + a + a2 + + an1 + an ) .
9
2.4.9
2.3.22, 2.3.23, 2.3.24 2.3.25.

40
 2.3.21.
{
+, a > 1
loga n
, 0 < a < 1
a > 1. M > 0 n0 loga n > M
n n0 . a > 1, loga n > M n > aM . ,
n0 n0 > aM , , n0 , loga n > M , ,
n > aM n n0 .
0 < a < 1. a1 > 1, loga n = log1/a n (+) = .
- - .
2.3.22.

n
a1 a > 0.

a = 1 : n 1 = 1 1.
n ) 1+n n = a
a > 1. Bernoulli (1+ a1 n a1

, , 1 n a 1 + a1
n n. ,
n
a 1.
0 < a < 1, a > 1, a =
1 n
n
1
1
1 = 1.
1/a

2.3.23.

n
n 1.

Bernoulli (1 + n1
n ) 1+n
n n1
= n ,
n
, 1 n n (1 + n1 2 1 2
n ) < (1 + n ) n.
n
n 1.
2.10
.
2.10. 10 xn > 0 n.
[] 0 < b < 1 xxn+1
n
b, xn 0.
xn+1
[] b > 1 xn b, xn +.
[] 0 a < 1 xxn+1
n
a, xn 0.
xn+1
[] a > 1 xn a, xn +.
. ,
.
[] , n0 xxn+1
n
b n n0 .
n n0 + 1
xn xn1 xn0 +2 xn0 +1 xn0
0 < xn = xn1 xn2 xn0 +1 xn0 xn0 b b b b xn0 = bnn0 xn0 = bn0 bn = c bn ,
x
c = bnn00 . 0 < b < 1, bn 0. xn 0.
[] , n0 xxn+1 n
b n n0 .
n n0 + 1
xn xn1 xn0 +2 xn0 +1 xn0
xn = xn1 xn2 xn0 +1 xn0 xn0 b b b b xn0 = bnn0 xn0 = bn0 bn = c bn ,
x
c = bnn00 . b > 1, bn +. xn +.
xn+1
[] b a < b < 1. xn b []
xn 0.
xn+1
[] b a > b > 1. xn b []
xn +.
10
2.4.11.

41
 2.3.24.
an
nk
+ a > 1 k N.
n+1 k ( n )k n
a an/(n+1)
/nk
= a n+1 a a > 1. na k +.
:
(an ) a > 1
(nk ).

2.3.25.
an
n! 0.
an
a = 0, , , n! = 0 0.
|a|n+1 /(n+1)! |a|
0. |a|
n
an
a = 0. |a|n /n! = n+1 n! 0 , , n! 0. :
(an ) a > 1 (n!).

2.11
2.9 .

2.11. [] xn + (yn ) , xn + yn +.
xn (yn ) , xn + yn .
[] xn 0 (yn ) , xn yn 0.
[] xn + (yn ) , xn yn +.
xn (yn ) , xn yn .
[] xn = 0 n.
xn 0 (xn ) , x1n +.
xn 0 (xn ) , x1n .
[] xn = 0 n. |xn | +, 1
xn 0.

. [] xn + (yn ) ,
l yn l n. M > 0 xn > M l , ,
xn + yn > (M l) + l = M . xn + yn +.
.
[] xn 0 (yn ) , M 0
|yn | M n. > 0 |xn | < M+1 , ,

|xn yn | = |xn ||yn | M

M +1 < .

xn yn 0.
[] xn + (yn ) ,
l > 0 yn l. M > 0 xn > Ml , ,
xn yn > Ml l = M . xn yn +.
.
[] xn 0 xn > 0. M > 0
|xn 0| < M 1
. 0 < xn < M 1
, , x1n > M . x1n +.
.
[] xn = 0 n |xn | +. |x1n | 0 , , x1n 0.

2.3.26. (xn ) , xn
n 0.
1+(1)n1 n3[n/3]
, n 0. : n 0 sin n
n 0.

42
 ( )  
2.3.27. (1)n1 n (1)n1 n = n +.
(1)n1
n1 n 0. , (1)n1 n 0.
1 1
=
((1) n1 ) n
(1) n .

x = 0 2.9[];
01 .
(1)n1 ( )
2.3.28. n 0, (1)n1 n
.

2.3.28;
( n1 )
(1)n , ,
.
(xn ) , ( x1n )
+. , (xn ) , ( x1n )
. , (xn ) ,
. xn 0
|xn | 0 |x1n | +. |x1n | 1, ,
, x1n 1 n x1n 1
n. ( x1n ) .
, , :
10 0
0 .
0+ 0
0
0 , ,
2.11[].

2.11.
1
0+ = +, 1
0 = .

1.1
: ,
, ,
.
, 2.12, 4.3.
, ( )
. -
1.10 ab . 00 , 1+ ,
1 , (+)0 0 .

() 2.12. (xn ) (yn )

y
xn .n

2.12. xn > 0 n. xn x R yn y R
xy , xn yn xy . , xn 0 yn ,
xn yn +.

2.3.29. 2.12, n a 1 a > 0.
, (a) ( n1 ). a a n1 0,

n a = a1/n a0 = 1.

43
 2.3.30. (an ) a > 1 0 < a < 1 ,
, 2.12. (a)
(n). a a n +, an a+ ,
+, a > 1, 0, 0 < a < 1.

2.3.31. n n 1 2.12.
(n) ( n1 ), n + n1 0, (+)0
.

0 , , , -
2.12 .

2.13.
(0+) = +.

.
( 27 (n+3)79 ) ( n3 +(1)n n2 +1 ) ( n(n+1)
4n3
)
2.3.1. (n+1) 106 , 2 n1 , n+4 2 ,
( n3 +n+1 9 ) ( 2n +3n (2n+1)
)
3n +2(1) n
4n +1
((1 n) + n ), ( 3n2 +3n+1 ) , 2n+1 +3n+1 , ( n + 1 n), ( n + n + 1 n + 1).
5 4 2 2

( )
2.3.2. , , (1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n ), 1 + 21 + + 21n ,
( 7 8 n+6 ) ( n n+1 2n )
(1 2 + 22 + + (1)n 2n ), 237 + 328 + + 23n+6 , 23n + 23n+1 + + 322n .
( ) ( 23 1 33 1 n3 1
)
2.3.3. 21 2+1 3+1 n+1 , 23 +1 33 +1 n3 +1 .
31 n1

1 n
2.3.4. x = 1 ( xxn +1 ) .
x ( xx2n 1
2n
+1
) .
(x+1)2n
2.3.5. x limn+ (2x+1)n ;

2.3.6. x = 1 xn = 1 n. xn x
1xn 1x .
xn x

n 3+(1)n
2.3.7. 11 3+(1) 0, > 0 n
( 3+(1)n ) 2n 2n

2n .
(3(1)n1 )n ( (3(1)n1 )n )
2 + 2 .

2.3.8. (xn ) n2 2n < n2 xn n2 + 3.

: n + 1 2nxn n + 2xn + 3, n2 + nxn 15n
n2 xn 2 2n(n 1)xn + n2 2n 3 0.

2.3.9. xn x R yn y R. x < y, xn < yn .

2.3.10. xn x R yn y R x = y. |x y| > a,
|xn yn | > a.

2.3.11. , xn [l, u] n xn x, x [l, u].

x (xn ), xn (l, u) n;
;

2.3.12. 2.5[], -
( n1 ) (( n1 )n ) ( ) ( )
2(1) , 1 + (1)2 n
, (1)n1 + n103 , (1)n1 n+1 .
11
0 +, -
, , .

44
 (1 (1)n1 )n
2.3.13. 2n + (1)n1 n +, 22n+(1)
n1 n
0, 2 + 4 0.
[ 3n2 n+1 ]
[ n] [ 3n2 n+1 ]
2.3.14. n+2 +,
n
1 n+2
3n2 n+1 n+2 1.
2
2.3.15. (1 + n1 )n +, (1 n12 )n 1, (1 + n12 )n 1.


+, x > 0
+, x > y
2.3.16. [nx] 0,
12
x = 0 [nx] [ny] 0, x = y



, x < 0 , x < y


+, x > y


0, x = y Z
nx [ny]

, x < y


, x = y Q \ Z

(3n)!
2.3.17. (n!)3
+.

2.3.18. 0 a b c. n an + bn b, n an + bn + cn c.

2.3.19. n3 1, n n4 + 3n2 + n + 1 1.
n

[a]+[2a]++[na]
2.3.20. a, n2
a2 .

2.3.21. n
n2 +1
+ n
n2 +2
++ n
n2 +n
1 1
n2 +1
+ 1
n2 +2
++ 1
n2 +n
1.
{
( ) 1, x Q
2.3.22. limm+ limn+ (cos m!x)2n =
0, x R \ Q

2.3.23. (xn ) -
: xn+1 = xn +2, xn+3 = xn 3, xn+1 = xn 2 2, xn+2 = xn 2 +2,
xn+1 = xn 2 + 3, xn+2 = xn+1 + xn 3 ;

2.3.24. xn x yn y, max{xn , yn } max{x, y} min{xn , yn }

min{x, y}.

2.3.25. : n n1 = n1 + + n1 (n ) 0 + + 0 (n ) = n0 = 0.
: (1 + n1 )n = (1 + n1 ) (1 + n1 ) (n ) 1 1 (n ) = 1n = 1.
2.9[,];

2.3.26. x1 > 0 xn+1 x1 + + xn n N. 0 < a < 2,

an +. a = 2 (2 ).
xn n

2.3.27. (xn ), (yn ) (xn + yn ) .

(xn ), (yn ) (xn yn ) .

2.3.28. (xn + yn ) (xn ), (yn ) , ,

, .
(xn yn ) (xn ), (yn ) , , ,
.
12
x = y R \ Q 2.7.18.

45
2.3.29. 13 (xn ), (yn ) xn +, yn (xn + yn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn + (xn yn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn 0 ( xynn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
(xn ), (yn ) xn +, yn + ( xynn ) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . ( xynn ) c [, 0);
( )
2.3.30. 14 (xn ), (yn ) xn +, yn 0 ( xn yn) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn
c [, 0);
( )
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn 0 ( xn yn) (i) -
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn c [, 0);
( )
(xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn xn(yn (i) )
c {+, } (ii) . xn yn c R;
2.3.31. (xn ), (yn ) xn , yn > 0 n, xn 0, yn +
(xn yn ) .
2.3.32. x (rn ) rn x.
x (tn ) tn x.
x (rn )
(sn ) rn x sn x. .
2.3.33. - A.
A sup A A
sup A. inf A.
[0, 2], [0, 2), {2}, [0, 1] {2}
supremum . ,
( )
, , . , ,
,
.
N, Z, Q, { n1 | n N}, (0, 1] (R \ Q), (0, 2) Q
, supremum infimum
.
2.3.34. - A u A. u = sup A
A u. inf A
l A.
2.3.35. - A.
sup A A A sup A.
sup A / A, A sup A.
inf A.
2.3.36. k N, k 2 xn 0 n.

xn x, k xn k x.

xn +, k xn +.
2.12.
13
.
14
. 2.4.10.

46
2.3.37. |xn xm | 1 n, m n = m. |xn | +.
(xn ) ; (n), (n), ((1)n1 n).

2.3.38. xn x xn x n, sup{xn | n N} = x.
x < y xn < y n xn x, sup{xn |n N} < y.

2.3.39. xn x, k inf{xn | n k} x sup{xn | n k}.

2.3.40. xn x.
(xn ) k xk x.
(xn ) k xk x.

2.3.41. 15 [] Cesro: xn x R, x1 ++x n

n
x.
xn = (1) n1 n, x 1 ++x
n
n
0.
1+(1)n
xn = 2 n n, x1 ++xn
n +.
(xn ) . -
Cesro.
[] an+1 an a R, ann a.
( n) ( log n )
an n
a
a > 1.
[] Cesro: 16 (xn ), (yn )
yn > 0 n y1 + + yn +. xynn l R, xy11 ++x
++yn l.
n

[]17 xn > 0 n xn x [0, +], n x1 xn x.

[] an > 0 n an+1
an a [0, +],
n a a.
n
(
n
) ( )
n
( n), n! n 2
(2n)!/(n!) .

2.3.42. [] n kn N n,1 , . . . , n,kn :

(i) M |n,1 | + + |n,kn | M n,
(ii) n,1 + + n,kn 1,
(iii) k n,k 0 ( n,k = 0 n kn < k).
, xn x, n,1 x1 + + n,kn xkn x.
[] xn x, 21n x1 + 2n1
1
x2 + + 212 xn1 + 12 xn x.

2.4 .
2.1 .
, ,
, ,
. - : ((1)n1 )
((1)n1 n) .
2.1
.

2.1. 18 . :
[] (xn ) , limn+ xn = sup{xn | n N}.
: (xn ) , +, ,
15
2.7.13.
16
Cesro yn = 1 n.
17
4.3.3 [] -
.
18
supremum 2.4.17.

47
 . -
.
[] (xn ) , limn+ xn = inf{xn | n N}.
: (xn ) , , ,
. -
.

3.

. [] - {xn | n N}. (
) supremum ,
( ) supremum +.
(xn ) .

sup{xn | n N} = +

xn +.
M > 0. M {xn | n N}, n0 xn0 > M .
(xn ) ,

xn xn0 > M

n n0 . xn +.
(xn ) .

x = sup{xn | n N}

xn x.
> 0. x < x, x {xn | n N}. n0
x < xn0 . (xn ) ,

x < xn0 xn

n n0 . , x {xn | n N},

xn x < x +

n.
x < xn < x +
n n0 . xn x.
[] .

2.1. (xn ) -
, , 2.1, (xn ) ,
x, . , xn x
n. , , (xn ) , xn < x n.

48
, xn0 = x n0 , ( )
x = xn0 xn x n n0 , , . -
, (xn ) , xn < x n.
. :
(xn ) xn x, xn x n. , ,
(xn ) (, , ), xn < x
n.
(xn ) xn x, xn x n. , ,
(xn ) (, , ), xn > x
n.
2.1 . ,
,
( ) .19

2.4.1. (xn ) x1 = 1

xn+1 = 3x n +6
xn +4 n 1.

x1 = 1, x2 = 95 , x3 = 57
29 , x4 = 345
173 .

, ,
4,
. , ,

xn 0

n. , x1 = 1 0 , xn 0, , ,
xn+1 0.
, -
xn+1 xn :
3xn1 +6 6(xn xn1 )
xn+1 xn = 3xn +6
xn +4 xn1 +4 = (xn +4)(xn1 +4) .

xn+1 xn n , x2 x1 > 0,
xn+1 xn > 0 n. (xn ) .
xn+1 > xn 3x n +6
xn +4 > xn , ,
xn 2 + xn 6 < 0 , , 3 < xn < 2 n. , (xn )
, , .
, , xn x. xn 0 n x 0 , ,

3x+6
x= x+4 .

x = 3 x = 2 , x 0, x = 2. , xn 2.
, (xn ) , xn < 2 n.
. :
: xn 0 n (xn )
( ), (xn ) . xn +, ,
3+(6/xn )
xn+1 = 1+(4/x n)
n, + = 3,
. (xn ) , , xn 2.
19
, , 2.3.23.

49
 : . x1 = 1, x2 = 1.8, x3 = 1.9655...
x4 = 1.994219... . (xn ) 2,
xn < 2 n. , ,
, (xn )
2.

.
( )
2.4.2. 1 + 1!1 + 1
2! + + 1
n! .
xn = 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
1
n.

xn+1 = 1 + 1
1! + 1
2! + + 1
n! + 1
(n+1)! = xn + 1
(n+1)! > xn

n, (xn ) .
,
n! 2n1
n. , n = 1 n 2 n! =
1 2 3 n 1 2 2 2 = 2n1 .
,
1(1/2n )
xn 1 + 1
1 + 1
2 + + 1
2n1
=1+ 1(1/2) <1+ 1
1(1/2) = 3.

n. (xn ) , , .
( )
2.4.3. (1 + n1 )n , ,
.20
( )n
an = 1 + n1 n.
Newton x = n1 y = 1,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
an = 1 + n1 n1 + n2 n12 + + nk n1k + + nn n1n

2! (1 n ) + + k! (1 n )(1 n2 ) (1
1 1 1 1 1 k1 (2.2)
=1+ 1! + n )
+ + n! (1
1
n ) (1 n ).
1 n1

, , n + 1,
( ) 1 (n+1) 1 ( ) 1 (n+1) 1
an+1 = 1 + n+1 1 n+1 + 2 (n+1)2
+ + n+1
k (n+1) k + + n (n+1)n
(n+1) 1
+ n+1 (n+1)n+1
(2.3)
2! (1 n+1 ) + + k! (1 n+1 )(1 n+1 ) (1 n+1 )
1 1 1 1 1 2 k1
=1+ 1! +
+ + n! (1 n+1 ) (1
1 1
n+1 ) + (n+1)! (1 n+1 ) (1 n+1 )(1
n1 1 1 n1
n
n+1 ).

(2.2) (2.3). k 2 k n, k-
(2.2) k-
(2.3),
n n + 1. , (2.3)
, k = n + 1.

an < an+1

n, (an ) .
xn = 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
1
n, .
20
2.4.4.

50
 (xn ) xn < 3 n.
(2.2) > 0 < 1,

an 1 + 1
1! + 1
2! + + 1
k! + + 1
n! = xn < 3 (2.4)

n. (an ) , , ,
, . a (an ).

an a.

, , k (2.2) ,
() k-,

an 1 + 1
1! + 1
2! (1 n1 ) + + 1
k! (1 n1 )(1 n2 ) (1 k1
n ).

n +, ( k)

a1+ 1
1! + 1
2! + + 1
k! = xk .

, , k , , a xn n.
(2.4)
an x n a
n , an a,

xn a.
( )

( 2.14.
) 2.4.2 2.4.3, 1+ 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
1

(1 + n1 )n .
e. ,
( )n ( )
e = limn+ 1 + n1 = limn+ 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n! 1
.

( ) e
(
)
1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n! 1
(1 + n1 )n . e
, e .
((1 + n1 )n ) , (1 + n1 )n < e n.
, 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 + + n!
1
< e n.
, 1+ (
1.10). xn 1 yn +
: xn yn 1. : xn yn 1yn = 1 1
. , , (1 + n1 )n e . ,
1 + n1 1 n + (1 + n1 )n 1.

2.15. e -
y > 0, loge y,

log y ln y.

2.13 , , 1.9.

2.13. [] log(y1 y2 ) = log y1 + log y2 y1 , y2 > 0.

[] log(y z ) = z log y y > 0 z.
log y
[] loga y = log a y > 0 a > 0, a = 1.
[] log 1 = 0, log e = 1.
[] 0 < y1 < y2 , log y1 < log y2 .

51
 .

2.4.4. 21

1+ 1
2 + 1
3 + + 1
n +.

xn = 1 + 21 + 13 + + n1 n.
xn+1 xn = n+1
1
> 0 n, (xn ) , , .
n

x2n xn = 1
n+1 + + 1
n+n 1
n+n + + 1
n+n
1
= n n+n = 12 .

(xn ) x, , (xn ) ,
xn x2n x x. xn x, x2n x. x2n xn x x = 0
, x2n xn 21 n.
xn +.
xn + .
n k 0 2k
n < 2k+1 . , n 2. ,
k log2 n < k + 1, k = [log2 n].
, k,

xn = 1 + 1
2 + ( 13 + 14 ) + ( 15 + 1
6
1
+
7 + 8)
1
+ + ( 2k11 +1 + + 1
2k
) + 1
2k +1
+ + 1
n
1+ 1
2 + ( 14 + 14 ) + ( 18 + + 18 + 18 )
1
8 + + ( 21k + + 1
2k
)
=1+ 1
2 + 2 14 + 4 18 + + 2k1 21k

2 + 2 + + 2 = 1 + 2.
1 1 1 1 k
=1+ 2 +

xn 1 + 12 [log2 n] > 1 + 12 (log2 n 1) = 1
2 log2 n + 1
2

n , log2 n +, xn +.

2.4.5. 22
( )
1+ 1
22
+ 1
32
+ + 1
n2
.

xn = 1 + 212 + 312 + + n12 n.

xn+1 xn = (n+1)
1
2 > 0 n, (xn ) .

xn 1 + 1
12 + 1
23 + + 1
(n1)n = 1 + ( 11 12 ) + ( 12 31 ) + + ( n1
1
n1 ) = 2 1
n <2

n. (xn ) , , .

. [a1 , b1 ], [a2 , b2 ], . . .
[an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ] n. , (an ) -
(bn ) an bn n. :
(i) (an ) (bn ) .
(ii) x an x bn n.
(iii) x (ii) bn an 0.
(iii), (an ), (bn ) x
.
21
2.5.4, 2.6.2 7.3.20
8.2.7, 8.2.10 8.3.1. 2.4.6, 6.4.11.
22
2.6.1, 8.2.7 8.2.10 6.4.11, 7.3.20 8.2.1.

52
. (an ) (bn ) ,

a1 an bn b1

n, (an ) , , ( b1 )
(bn ) , , ( a1 ).

an a, bn b.

an bn n, a b. ,

an a b bn
n.
x [a, b] an a x b bn n. , x
an x bn n, a x b, x [a, b].
x an x bn n -
[a, b]. , x [a, b]
, , a = b , , bn an 0.
x x = a = b.

an x bn , , x [an , bn ]. , an
x bn n x [an , bn ],
.
:
[an , bn ] ,
+
n=1 [an , bn ] = [a, b],

a = limn+ an b = limn+ bn . 4.

2.4.6. p N, p 2. x [0, 1),

0 x < 1. (2.5)

, x p
[ 1) [1 2) [ )
0, p , p , p , . . . , p1
p ,1

p1 . x;
kp x < k+1p k = 0, 1, . . . , p 1. , , ,
k px < k+1 , , k = [px].
k 0, 1, . . . , p 1 (2.5) 0

53
px < p, px 0, 1, . . . , p 1.
x1 = [px] ( k )
x1
p x< x1
p + 1
p x1 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}. (2.6)

, [ xp1 , xp1 + p1 ), p1 , p
[x ) [x ) [x p1 x1 )
p
1
, xp1 + 1
p2
, p1 + 1 x1
,
p2 p
+ 2
p2
, ... , 1
p + p2
, p + 1
p

1
p2
. x ,
, + x < xp1 + k+1
x1
p
k
p2 p2
k p2 x px1 < k + 1,
k = [p x px1 ]. (2.6) 0 p2 x px1 < p , ,
2

p2 x px1 0, 1, . . . , p 1.
x2 = [p2 x px1 ] ( k )
x1
p + x2
p2
x< x1
p + x2
p2
+ 1
p2
x1 , x2 {0, 1, . . . , p 1}.

. n-
x1
p + + xpnn x < x1
p + + xpnn + p1n x1 , . . . , xn {0, 1, . . . , p 1}. (2.7)

[ xp1 + + xpnn , xp1 + + xpnn + p1n ), p1n , p

[ xp1 + + xpnn + pn+1 k
, xp1 + + xpnn + pk+1
n+1 ) k = 0, 1, . . . , p 1,
1
pn+1 . x
xp1 + + xpnn + pn+1 k
x < xp1 + + xpnn + pk+1
n+1

kp n+1 x p x1 pxn < k + 1 k = [p

n n+1 x p x1 pxn ]. (2.7)
n

0 pn+1 x pn x1 pxn < p, pn+1 x pn x1

pxn 0, 1, . . . , p 1.
xn+1 = [pn+1 x pn x1 pxn ]
xn+1 xn+1
p + + pn+1 x< p + + pn+1 + pn+1 x1 , . . . , xn+1 {0, 1, . . . , p1}.
x1 x1 1

, , x [0, 1) : (xn ),
(sn ) (tn ). n :

sn = x1
p + + xn
pn , tn = x1
p + + xn
pn + 1
pn .

, n, xn 0, 1, . . . , p 1

sn x < tn (2.8)

n. ,
[sn , tn ) [sn+1 , tn+1 ). , (sn ) (tn )
. :
( ) ( n+1 )
sn+1 = sn + xpn+1 n+1
sn , tn+1 = tn p1n + xpn+1 1
+ pn+1 tn p1n + pp1 1
n+1 + pn+1 = tn .

, (sn ) (tn ) -
. ,

tn sn = 1
pn 0,

(sn ), (tn ) . ; (2.8)

sn x, tn x.

54
 (xn ) : p 1.
( ) n0 xn = p 1
n n0 . n n0
( ) ( n+1 )
tn+1 = tn p1n + xpn+1 1
+ pn+1 = tn p1n + pp1 1
n+1 + pn+1 = tn .

(tn ) , tn x, tn = x.
(2.8).
2.16. (xn ) p- x.
(sn ) p- ( ) x (tn ) -
p- x.
:
p = 2 0, 1,
p = 3 0, 1, 2,
p = 10 0, 1, . . . , 9
p = 16 0, 1, . . . , 14, 15.
p- 8.2.2.
.
( 2n n! ) ( n )
2.4.1. nn 4nnn! .
2.4.2. 2.4.2, n 4 1 + 1!1 + 2!1 +
3! xn 1 + 1! + 2! + 3! + 23 + + 2n1 2 < 12 e 12 < 3.
1 1 1 1 1 1 32 35

e.
2.4.3. 23 k, (1 + nk )n ek ( n +, )
k N.
(1 + nk )n ek k Z.
( )
2.4.4. 24 (1 + n1 )n , , : -
( )n+1 ( 2 +2n )n+1
(1 + n1 )n (1 + n+11 n+1
) n
n+1 n(n+2)
(n+1)2
= n2n+2n+1
Bernoulli.
( )
(1 + n1 )n+1 .
,
, e.
( k+1k ) e ( k ) k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1
k k+1 k+1
n n+1
n! e
n n1 n! n.
n

n
25 nn! 1e 26 n n! +.
2.4.5. 1 + 12 + + n1 log2 n + 1 n,
2.4.4.
2.4.6. 2.4.4 (an ) (bn ) an = 1 + 12 + +
n1 log n bn = 1+ 2 + + n log n n. (an ) ,
1 1 1

(bn ) .27
23
2.5.3.
24
e.
25
7.3.19.
26
2.3.41 , , 8.3.7.
27
Euler .
6.4.11 7.3.20.

55
2.4.7.
( 2.4.2 ) 2.4.3 , t > 0,
2 n) (
1 + 1!t + t2! + + tn! (1 + nt )n .28
2.4.8. [] x1 = 1 xn+1 = xn + xn1 2 n.
(xn ) .

[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 2xn n. ,
x1 , (xn ) .
[] 7xn+1 = xn 3 + 6 n. , x1 ,
(xn ) .
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 6+6x 7+xn n. ,
n

x1 , (xn ) .
[] xn+1 = 2 x1n n. x1 = 1, (xn )
. x1 > 1, (xn ) . x1 < 1
x1 = k1 k k N, (xn )
. x1 = k1k k N;
[] x1 , x2 > 0 xn+2 = xn+1 + 2xn n.
( xxn+1
n
) .
[] xn+1 = sin xn n. (xn )
, , .
2.4.9. 29 [] a > 1, (an ) ,
an+1 = aan , an +. 0 < a < 1.
n
[] a > 1 k N, ( na k ) , -
an+1 k n an
(n+1)k
n
= a (n+1) a
+.
k nk , nk

n
[] a > 1, ( a) , -
( )2
2n a = n a, n a 1. a = 1, 0 < a < 1;

[] ( n n)

n n 1.
n an+1 an a
[] ( an! ) , (n+1)! = n! n+1 ,
an
n! 0.
( )
2.4.10. 30 (xn ), (yn ) xn 1, yn + ( xn yn) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn
c [, 0);
( )
(xn ), (yn ) xn 1, yn ( xn)yn (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn c [, 0);
1
2.4.11. [] b , b+1 1
+ b+2 1
+ b+3 + + b+n
1
+.
[]31 (1 + a1 ) (1 + an ) 1 + a1 + + an ,
a1 , . . . , an 0, (1 a1 ) (1 an ) 1 a1 an , 0 a1 , . . . , an 1.
b , limn+ (a+1)(a+2)(a+n)
(b+1)(b+2)(b+n) , -
a = b, a > b, a < b.
[] xn > 0 n.
( )
c < 0 n xxn+1 1 c, xn 0.
( xn+1
n
)
c > 0 n xn 1 c, xn +.
28
2.5.5.
29
2.3.19 2.3.22, 2.3.23, 2.3.24 2.3.25.
30
. 2.3.30.
31
(1 + a)n 1 + na Bernoulli a 0
1 a 0, .

56
 ( xn+1)
d < 0 n 1 d, xn 0.
( xn )
d > 0 n xxn+1
1 d, xn +.
n

2.10.
(2n)!
4n (n!)2
0. -
2.10;
2.4.12. 32 y 0 k N, k 2. (xn ) x1 > 0
y
xn+1 = k1 1
k xn + k xn k1 n.
xn > 0 n.
, Bernoulli, xn k y n 2
, , xn+1 xn n 2.
(xn ) , x = limn+ xn , xk = y x 0.
2.4.13. xn+1 xn +x
2
n+2
n.33
, , (xn ) . (xn xn+1 )
xn xn+1 0. (xn ) . (xn ) .
(xn ) , , , .
2.4.14. 0 < a b.

x1 = a y1 = b xn+1 = xn yn yn+1 = xn +y 2
n
n,
(xn ) , (yn ) , xn yn n (xn ), (yn )
, GA (a, b).34

w1 = a z1 = b wn+1 = w2wn +z n zn
n
zn+1 = wn zn n,
(wn ) , (zn ) , wn zn n (wn ), (zn )
, HG (a, b).35
a, b, HG (a, b), GA (a, b)
2ab
H (a, b) = a+b , G (a, b) = ab A (a, b) = a+b 2 ;

2.4.15. xn = 135(2n1) 2
246(2n) n. (nxn )
( )
(n + 12 )xn 2 .
.
2.4.16. 1.2.18.
2.4.17. . -
, supremum.36
. 21n 0.
, - A.
x1 A y1 A. [x1 , y1 ] A
A. x1 +y 2
1
A, x2 = x1 , y2 = x1 +y 1
2 , ,
x1 +y1
x2 = 2 , y2 = y1 . [x2 , y2 ] A
A. ,
x1
[x1 , y1 ], [x2 , y2 ], . . . [xn+1 , yn+1 ] [xn , yn ] yn xn = y21n1 n
[xn , yn ] an A un A.
u xn u, yn u , , an u, un u. u
A.
32
1.2.
33
(xn ) . n, -
.
34
GA (a, b) - a, b.
35
HG (a, b) - a, b.
36
supremum : .

57
2.4.18. 37 I, .
( ) (an ) I = {an | n N}.
[x1 , y1 ] I y1 x1 > 0 a1 / [x1 , y1 ]. [x2 , y2 ] [x1 , y1 ]
y2 x2 > 0 a2 / [x2 , y2 ]. ,
[x1 , y1 ], [x2 , y2 ], . . . [xn+1 , yn+1 ] [xn , yn ] an /
[xn , yn ] n. [xn , yn ] , , = an
n. I .

2.4.19. 38 1 , n 2, 2n
2n .
pn qn , , .

p2 = 4 2 q2 = 8
( ( 2 )1/2 )1/2 ( ( 2 )1/2 )1
pn+1 = 2pn 2 + 4 p4nn qn+1 = 4qn 2 + 4 + q4nn n 2.
( pn 2 )1/2
qn = pn 1 4n+1 n 2.
(pn ) , (qn ) pn < qn n 2.
(pn ), (qn ) .39

2.4.20. 40 x (rn ) rn x.
, p- x -
2.3.32.
.
y > 1 x . (rn )
rn x (y rn ) . (
) (rn ) rn x (y rn )
(rn ) rn x. y x = limn+ y rn
(rn ) rn x.
y > 1 x . y x = limn+ y rn
(rn ) rn x.
0 y 1 x . y x -
( 1.9).
1.8 .

2.4.21. [] y > 0.
y r1 1 y r2 1
r1 , r2 r1 < r2 r1 , r2 = 0, r1 r2 .
y x1 1 y x2 1
x1 < x2 x1 , x2 = 0, x1 x2 .
[]41 y > 0.
( )
n( n y 1) .
.

log y = limn+ n( n y 1).
y xn 1
log y = limn+ xn (xn ) xn 0 xn = 0
n.
37
A, R,
a : N A A. an = a(n),
A A = {an | n N} , , A
. A , .
38
.
39

, , , 2,
. , pn 2 qn n 2. pn 2 qn 2.
40
.
41
.

58
 2.13 ( []) .
log y
a > 0, a = 1 y > 0. loga y = log a 1.9.

2.4.22. , -
;

2.5 .
2.17. (xn ). n1 , n2 , n3 , . . . , nk , . . .
n n1 < n2 < < nk < nk+1 < .
(xn ). x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . . xn1 , xn2 , . . . , xnk , . . . .
: xn1 ,
xn2 . ,
(xnk ). , (xnk )
(xn ).

, n1 < n2 < < nk < nk+1 < ,

.

2.5.1. n1 = 2, n2 = 5, n3 = 6, n4 = 9, n5 = 13,
(xn ) x2 , x5 , x6 , x9 , x13 .
, n1 = 2, n2 = 5, n3 = 6, n4 = 10, n5 = 8
(xn ). x2 , x5 , x6 , x10 , x8
(xn ) : x10 x8 (xn ) ( x9 )
x10 x8 .

2.5.2. nk = 2k k,
(xn ), (x2k ) (x2 , x4 , x6 , x8 , x10 , . . . ).

2.5.3. nk = 2k 1 k,
(xn ), (x2k1 ) (x1 , x3 , x5 , x7 , x9 , . . . ).

2.5.4. nk = k k,
(xk ) (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , . . . ). (xn ) (xn ).

2.5.5. nk = 2k1 k, (x2k1 )

(x1 , x2 , x4 , x8 , x16 , . . . ).

(xnk ) k. k -
1, 2, 3, . . . , nk
(xn ).
, (xn )
(xn ). , ,
(xn ) (xn ). ,
(xn ), (xn ) . -
(xn )
n1 . , xn1 , (xn )
n2 . ,
xn1 xn2 , (xn )
n3 . (xnk )
(xn ) (xn ) .

59
 2.2. nk N nk < nk+1 k. nk k k.

. n1 1 n1 N. nk k k.
nk+1 > nk nk , nk+1 N, nk+1 nk + 1 , , nk+1 k + 1.
nk k k.

2.2

nk +.

2.14. , .

. xn x R (xnk ) (xn ). xnk x.

> 0. n0 xn Nx () n n0 .
nk +. k nk n0 , , xnk Nx ().
xnk x.

2.14 , , :
, .42

2.5.6. ((1)n1 ) .
, (1)(2k1)1 = 1 1
(1)(2k)1 = 1 1.

2.15 .

2.15. x R x2k x x2k1 x. xn x.

. > 0. x2k x, xn Nx ()
n n . , x2k1 x,
xn Nx () n n .
xn Nx () n ( n n ) .
xn x.

2.5.7. 43
( )
1 12 + 13 1
4 + + (1)n1 n1 .

xn = 1 12 + 13 41 + + (1)n1 n1 n.
x2k+2 x2k = 2k+1
1
2k+2
1
> 0 k. ,

x2k = 1 ( 21 13 ) ( 14 15 ) ( 2k2
1
1
2k1 ) 1
2k <1

k, . (x2k )
, , .
, x2k+1 x2k1 = 2k 1 1
+ 2k+1 < 0 k. ,

x2k1 = (1 21 ) + ( 31 14 ) + + ( 2k3
1
1
2k2 ) + 1
2k1 >0

k, . (x2k1 ) -
, , .
,
x2k x2k1 = 2k1
0,
42
. 2.5.15.
43
2.6.3 6.4.11 8.3.9.

60
 (x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn ) .
x (xn ), :

x2 < x4 < . . . < x2k < x2k+2 < . . . < x < . . . < x2k+1 < x2k1 < . . . < x3 < x1 .

(x2k ) x , , (x2k1 )
x. , , [x2 , x1 ],
[x4 , x3 ], [x6 , x5 ], . . . x -
.

. .
, ((1)n1 ) . , ((1)n1 ),
, :
1
1. ((1)n1 )
. ,
.

BOLZANO - WEIERSTRASS.
.

. 44 (xn ) l, u l xn u n.
(xn ) ,
: ,
, .
[l, u] [l, l+u l+u
2 ], [ 2 , u]. ()
(xn ) [l, u],
(xn ). [l1 , u1 ]. [l1 , u1 ] [l, u],
u1 l1 = ul2 [l1 , u1 ] (xn ). (xn )
( ) [l1 , u1 ]: xn1 [l1 , u1 ].
[l1 , u1 ] [l1 , l1 +u l1 +u1
2 ], [ 2 , u1 ]. [l1 , u1 ] -
1

(xn ),
(xn ). [l2 , u2 ] (
). [l2 , u2 ] [l1 , u1 ], u2 l2 = u1 2l1 [l2 , u2 ]
(xn ). (xn ) ( ) [l2 , u2 ]:
xn2 [l2 , u2 ]. , , n2 > n1 . ,
(xn ) [l2 , u2 ].
[l2 , u2 ] [l2 , l2 +u l2 +u2
2 ], [ 2 , u2 ]. [l2 , u2 ] -
2

(xn ),
(xn ). [l3 , u3 ]. [l3 , u3 ] [l2 , u2 ],
u3 l3 = u2 2l2 [l3 , u3 ] (xn ).
(xn ) ( ) [l3 , u3 ]: xn3 [l3 , u3 ]. ,
, n3 > n2 .
.
, , [lk , uk ] k
uk lk
[lk+1 , uk+1 ] [lk , uk ], uk+1 lk+1 = 2

k. , xnk (xn ) k

nk+1 > nk , xnk [lk , uk ]

44
2.5.9.

61
 k.
uk lk
uk+1 lk+1 = 2 k uk lk = ul
2k

k,
uk lk 0.
, (lk ), (uk )
. lk x uk x. nk+1 > nk k, (xnk ) -
(xn ) , lk xnk uk k, xnk x.

+ . -
. (1, 0, 3, 0, 5, 0, 7, . . . ) +.
, , +,
+: ,
(1, 3, 5, 7, . . . ). .

2.16. [] -
+.
[]
.

. 45 [] (xn ) .
u (xn ) > u. 46 (
) u (xn )
> u. (xn ) n0 (, u].
(xn ) (, u]
x1 , . . . , xn0 1 . , ,
, (, u] (, u ]
(xn ). (xn ) . .
(xn ) +,
.
(xn ) > 1. : xn1 > 1.
(xn ) > 2. : xn2 > 2.
, , n2 > n1 . > 2.
(xn ) > 3. : xn3 > 3
n3 > n 2 .
.
xnk (xn ) nk+1 > nk xnk > k
k. (xnk ) (xn ) xnk +.
[] .

2.5.1. a < b < c < d. (

) a, b, c
d.
.

2.5.2. (xn ) : () ,
() , , , . -
(xnk ) (xn ) .
45
2.5.9.
46
2.4[]
2.4[].

62
2.5.3.
2.3.36 2.4.3
p n
(1 + qn ) q ep p Z q N q 2. , (1 + nr )n er r Q.
x. > 0. ex ,
r, s Q r < x < s ex < er < es < ex + . ,
ex < (1 + nr )n < (1 + nx )n < (1 + ns )n < ex + (1 + nx )n ex .

2.5.4. (xn ) (xnk ) xnk x R,

xn x.
(xn ) (xnk ) xnk x R,
xn x.
47 xn = 1 + 12 + 13 + + n1 n. 2.4.4
x2n xn 21 n. x2k k2 + 1 k ,
, xn +.
(
2.5.5. 2.4.7, , t 0, 1 + 1!t +
t2 tn
) ( )
2! + + n! (1 + n )
t n
.

2.5.6. [] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + x2n n.

(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn )
.
3
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + 1+x n
n.
(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn )
.
[] 0 < p < 1 xn+2 = (1 p)xn+1 + pxn n.
(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn ) .
xn n, yn = xn+1 xn
n. (xn ).

2.5.7. a, b, x R a = b. x2k a x2k1 b -

(xnk ) xnk x. (xnk ) (x2k )
(x2k1 ). (xnk ) (x2k )
(x2k1 ); x = a x = b.

2.5.8. [] x R x3k x x3k1 x x3k2 x. -

2.15, xn x. .
a, b, c, x R, a = b, a = c, b = c. x3k a x3k1 b x3k2 c
(xnk ) xnk x. x = a x = b x = c.
[] N -
(xn ). N,
. -
, (xn ) .
N .
.
n N n = 2m1 k m N k N. N
: A(m) = {2m1 k | k } m N.
A(1) , A(2) -
, A(3) ... ,
xn = k1 n = 2m1 k m N k N.
(m)
k=1 m N, ,
(xn ) : (xk )+
47
2.4.4. 2.6.2 7.3.20 -
8.2.7, 8.2.10 8.3.1 2.4.6 6.4.11.

63
 (m)
m N, xk = k1 k N. ,
0. (xn ) 0, (x2m1 3 )+
m=1 .

2.5.9. (xn ). xn
m > n xm < xn .48
(xn ) ,
(xn ). (xn ) ,
(xn ) .
.
Bolzano - Weierstrass.
2.5.10. (xn ) n
(xnk ) k.
2.5.11. 49 , -
.
2.5.12. (xn ) x R
(xn ) x.
: (xn ) (xn )
.
2.5.13. xn < x n. sup{xn | n N} = x
(xn ) x.
( n1 ). sup{ n1 | n N} = 1. , ( n1 )
0, ( n1 ), 1. -
;
2.5.14. (xn ) (xnk ).
(xnk ) (xn ).
2.5.15. (xn ) ,
. 2.14.
(xn ) , l, u u < l xn u
n xn l n. 2.5[].
2.5.16. [] xn x xn = x n. (xn )
.
[] (rn ) , rn = pqnn
pn Z qn N n. qn +.
[] x (rn ) rn x rn = pqnn pn Z
qn N n. qn + pn x(+).

2.6 .
2.18. (xn ) Cauchy > 0
n0 |xn xm | < n, m n0 . :

limn,m+ (xn xm ) = 0.

: (xn ) Cauchy
.
48
xn +.
49
2.1.9.

64
 2.17. (xn ) , Cauchy.

. xn x. > 0. n0 |xn x| <

2
n n0 . , n m, |xm x| <
2
m n0 .

|xn xm | = |(xn x) (xm x)| |xn x| + |xm x| <

2 +
2 =

n, m n0 .
(xn ) Cauchy.

Cauchy 2.17.

CAUCHY. (xn ) Cauchy, .

. 50 (xn ) Cauchy.
n0 |xn xm | < 1 n, m n0 . (
m = n0 ), n n0 |xn xn0 | < 1,

|xn | = |(xn xn0 ) + xn0 | |xn xn0 | + |xn0 | < 1 + |xn0 |.

, M = 1 + |xn0 |, (xn )
[M, M ], (xn ) .
(xn ) , , Bolzano - Weierstrass, -
(xnk ) .
xnk x.
xn x.
> 0. n0

|xn xm | <
2 n, m n0 .

n n0 , , .
nk +, nk n0 , ,

|xn xnk | < 2 . (2.9)

, xnk x,

|xnk x| < 2 . (2.10)

(2.9) (2.10).
k (2.9) (2.10) k

|xn x| = |(xn xnk ) + (xnk x)| |xn xnk | + |xnk x| <

2 +
2 = .

|xn x| < n n0 , xn x.

Cauchy
2.1. (xn )
x (xn ), |xn x|
x, |xn xm | . , ,
Cauchy Cauchy.
50
2.6.6, 2.6.7 2.7.14.

65
 2.6.1. (xn ) xn = 1 + 212 + 312 + + n12 n.
, ( 2.4.5.51 ) (xn ) .
m > n.

|xn xm | = 1
(n+1)2
1
+ (n+2) 2 + + (m1)2 + m2
1 1

n(n+1) + (n+1)(n+2) + + (m2)(m1) + (m1)m

1 1 1 1
<
= ( n1 n+1
1 1
) + ( n+1 n+2 1
) + + ( m2
1
m1
1 1
) + ( m1 1
m) = 1
n 1
m < n1 .

, > 0. n0 n10 < . m > n n0

|xn xm | < n1 n10 < .
(xn ) Cauchy , , .

Cauchy R.

. Cauchy .

Bolzano - Weierstrass, -
, , supremum.

2.6.1. (xn ), (yn ) Cauchy. , , (xn +yn ),

(xn yn ) Cauchy.

2.6.2. 52 xn = 1 + 12 + + n1 n, 2.4.4
x2n xn 12 n. (xn ) Cauchy; xn +.
(1)n1
2.6.3. 53 xn = 1 1
2 + 1
3 1
4 + + n n.
 1 (1)mn1 
|xn xm | =  n+1 n+2
1
+ + m n+1
1
n, m
n < m. (xn ) Cauchy .

2.6.4. [] 0 < M < 1 |xn xn+1 | cM n .

Mn
n0 |xn xm | c 1M n, m n0 n < m. (xn )
Mn
Cauchy. x (xn ), |xn x| c 1M .
[] 0 < M < 1 |xn+1 xn+2 | M |xn xn+1 |.54
(xn ) Cauchy. x (xn ), c 0
Mn
|xn x| c 1M .
3
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + 1+x n
n. (xn )
. n- xn
.
[] 0 < || < 1 xn+1 = a + sin xn n. (xn )
. n- xn
.

2.6.5. . , -
, supremum.55
51
8.2.7 8.2.10 6.4.11, 7.3.20 8.2.1.
52
2.4.4. 2.5.4 7.3.20
8.2.7, 8.2.10 8.3.1 2.4.6 6.4.11.
53
2.5.7. 6.4.11 8.3.9.
54
(xn ) . 0 M 1, .
55
supremum -
.

66
 2.4.17 .
, -
. 21n 0 , ,
(xn ), (yn ) Cauchy. -
.
2.6.6. 56 Cauchy (xn ).
[a1 , b1 ] b1 a1 < 1 xn [a1 , b1 ]. -
[a2 , b2 ] [a1 , b1 ] b2 a2 < 12 xn [a2 , b2 ].
, [ak , bk ]
k [ak+1 , bk+1 ] [ak , bk ] bk ak < k1 k
xn [ak , bk ] k. x x [ak , bk ]
k , , xn x.
2.6.7. 57 Cauchy (xn ).
ln = inf{xk | k n} un = sup{xk | k n} n
ln un ln ln+1 un+1 un n. un ln 0
x ln x un x. ln xn un n,
xn x.

2.7 .
2.19. (xn ) x R. x
(xn ) (xn ) x.
2.7.1. (xn ) , ,
. , ( n1 )
0 (n) .
2.7.2. (xn ) xn = (1)n1 n -
, 1 1. (x2k ) 1 (x2k1 )
1.
x (xn ).
(xnk ) (xn ) x.
(x2k ) (x2k1 ) (xn ), (xnk )
(x2k ) (x2k1 ).
(xnk ) (x2k ), (xnk ) (x2k ) -
, (xnk ), x ,
(x2k ), 1 , , x = 1.
, (xnk ) (x2k1 ), x = 1.
, x (xn ), x = 1 x = 1.
(xn ) 1 1.
( n1 )
2.7.3. , (1) 2 +1 n
0 +.
Bolzano - Weierstrass 2.16,
: , -
, ,
. -
-.
56
Cauchy.
57
Cauchy.

67
 2.2. -
.

. : (xn ) .
+ (xn ) , , -
(xn ).
: (xn ) .
, , (xn ).
: (xn ) = .
(xn ) , u xn u n.
(xn ) , ,
(xn ) u. (xn ) -
= u. L
(xn ),

L = {x R | x (xn ) }.

- R. L supremum -

x = sup L.
x (xn ). x
L, L , ,
(xn ).
> 0. x = sup L, x L x < x x , ,
x < x < x + . x L, (xn ) x.
(x , x + ) , ,
(xn ) (x , x + ).
= 1, 12 , 13 , . . . .
(xn ) (x 1, x + 1), ,
xn1 ,
x 1 < xn1 < x + 1.
(xn ) (x 12 , x + 12 ), ,
xn2 ,
x 12 < xn2 < x + 12 n2 > n1 .
(xn ) (x 13 , x + 13 ), ,
xn3 ,
x 13 < xn3 < x + 13 n3 > n2 .
, (xnk ) (xn )

x k1 < xnk < x + k1 k
, ,
xnk x.
x , , (xn ).
, (xn )
.
(xn ) .

68
 2.20. 58 (xn ) -
(xn )

lim sup xn lim sup xn lim xn .

n+

(xn ) (xn )

lim inf xn lim inf xn lim xn .
n+

2.18. [] lim xn :
(i) lim xn < x, xn < x.
(ii) x < lim xn , x < xn n.
[] lim xn :
(i) x < lim xn , x < xn .
(ii) lim xn < x, xn < x n.

. [] (i) lim xn < x xn < x.

(xn ) x. (xn )
x.
, , (xn ) x .
x, (xn ) x.
, lim xn < x lim xn (xn ).
(ii) x < lim xn . lim xn (xn ), -
(xn ) lim xn . > x,
(xn ) > x.
[] .

. , , ,
.

2.19. (xn ).
[] lim xn lim xn .
[] (xn ) lim xn = lim xn . , (xn ) ,
lim xn = lim xn = lim xn .

. [] , lim xn lim xn
(xn ).
[] (xn ) .
lim xn , ,
(xn ). lim xn = lim xn = lim xn . ( 2.7.1.)
, lim xn = lim xn .
lim xn = lim xn = +, (i) 2.18[] x
x < xn , , lim xn = +.
lim xn = lim xn = , (i) 2.18[] x
xn < x , , lim xn = .
, lim xn = lim xn = x R. (i) 2.18[]
> 0 xn < x + (i) 2.18[]
> 0 x < xn . > 0 x < xn < x + .
lim xn = x.
58
2.7.15
.

69
 .

2.7.1. a < b < c (a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, . . . ) (a, b, c, a, b, c, a, b, c, . . . ).

lim lim .
2
2.7.2. , , lim, lim : ( n+1 n +n+1 n
n ),) ( n+3 ), ((2) ),
( (1)n1 n ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 , (1)n1 (1 n1 ) , (1)n1 (1 + n1 ) , 2n3[n/3] , sin 2n
3 .

2.7.3. lim xn = + (xn ) .

lim xn = xn .
lim xn ;

2.7.4. lim xn = lim(xn ).

2.7.5. xn yn , lim xn lim yn lim xn lim yn .

2.7.6. an bn cn . lim cn lim an ,

(an ), (bn ), (cn ) .

2.7.7. lim xn + lim yn lim(xn + yn ) lim(xn + yn ) lim xn + lim yn

.
lim xn lim yn lim(xn yn ) lim(xn yn ) lim xn lim yn xn > 0
yn > 0 .
t > 0, lim(txn ) = t lim xn lim(txn ) = t lim xn . t < 0;

2.7.8. (yn ) ,
lim(xn + yn ) = lim xn + lim yn lim(xn + yn ) = lim xn + lim yn .
xn , yn > 0, (yn )
, lim(xn yn ) = lim xn lim yn lim(xn yn ) = lim xn lim yn .

2.7.9. m N, (xn ), (xn+m ) .

2.7.10. (xnk ) (xn ).

2.5.14 (xnk ) -
(xn ).
lim xn lim xnk lim xnk lim xn .

2.7.11. [] x R (xn )
> 0 xn Nx () n.
[] X R (xn ). (yn )
X yn y R, y X.
a < b < c d. (xn )
[a, b) [c, d] [a, b] Q.

2.7.12. (xn ) k xk lim xn .

(xn ) k xk lim xn .

2.7.13. [] lim xn lim x1 ++x

n
n
lim x1 ++x
n
n
lim xn .
Cesro 2.3.41[];

[] xn > 0 n, lim xn lim n x1 xn lim n x1 xn
lim xn .
[] yn > 0 n y1 + + yn +, lim xynn lim xy11 ++x
++yn
n

++yn lim yn .
lim xy11 ++x n xn

70
2.7.14. 59 Cauchy (xn ).
x = lim xn R x = lim xn R. Cauchy
(xn ) , x, x R. x < x. l, u x < l < u < x.
xm < l m xn > u n. xn xm > u l
n, m. . x = x, (xn ) .

2.7.15. (xn ). un = sup{xk | k n}, ln = inf{xk | k n} n.

ln un n.
(xn ) , un = + n.
(xn ) , un R un+1 un n,
(un ) [, +). un lim xn .60
(xn ) , ln = n.
(xn ) , ln R ln ln+1 n,
(ln ) (, +]. ln lim xn .61

2.7.16. 2.18.
[] lim xn x : (i)
x < x, xn < x (ii) x < x, x < xn n.
lim xn .
[] xn < x, lim xn x. x < xn n,
x lim xn . lim xn .

2.7.17. (xn ) : xn+1 xn 0. , -

+ (1 + 21 + + n1 ).
x = lim xn x = lim xn , (xn )
[x, x] R.
(0, 1, 12 , 0, 13 , 32 , 1, 34 , 42 , 14 , 0, 15 , 25 , 53 , 45 , 1, 65 , 46 , 63 , 26 , 16 , 0, . . . ). -
;
(xn ) xn+1 xn 0
R.

2.7.18. []62 a > 0. (xn ) xn = na [na] n.

(xn ) [0, 1].
[] a > 0. (xn ) xn = sin(na) n.
(xn ) [1, 1].

59
Cauchy.
60
: lim xn = +, (xn )
, lim xn = lim un , (xn ) .
61
: lim xn = , (xn )
, lim xn = lim ln , (xn ) .
62
2.3.16.

71
 .
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.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 3-4. Springer.
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72
 3

3.1 , .
3.1.1 .
f
R.
f : A R,
A R f . f (x) f
, f (x) y = f (x) -
,
x f (x). A
f (x) x A f (x)
A.
3.1.1. c (, +)
{c}.
1 0.
3.1.2.
xa .
5.
a N, xa (, +). a , xa
(, +) (, +). a ,
xa (, 0] [0, +)
[0, +) [0, +).
a Z \ N, xa (, 0) (0, +). a = 0, x0
1 (, 0) (0, +) {1}. a -
, xa (, 0) (, 0)
(0, +) (0, +). a
, xa (, 0) (0, +)
(0, +) (0, +).
: x0 (, 0) (0, +) 1
(, +). x = 0, 1.
x = 0 x0 .
a R \ Z a > 0, xa [0, +). xa
[0, +) [0, +).
, a R \ Z a < 0, xa (0, +). xa
(0, +) (0, +).

73
 3.1.3.

P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn

R.

a0 +a1 x++an xn
R(x) = b0 +b1 x++bm xm

R\{1 , . . . , k }, 1 , . . . , k
b0 +b1 x+ +bm xm . , , 1 < 2 < . . . < k1 < k ,
(, 1 ) (1 , 2 ) . . . (k1 , k ) (k , +).

3.1.4.

ax expa x.

6.
a = e, exp x expe x.
a > 1, ax (, +) (0, +).
0 < a < 1, ax (, +) (0, +).
a = 1, ax 1 (, +). a = 0, ax 0 (0, +).
, a < 0, ax Z. ,
a = 1 a 0, x.

3.1.5.

loga x.

7.
a = e, log x ln x loge x.
a > 1, loga x (0, +) (, +).
0 < a < 1, loga x (0, +) (, +).
a > 0, a = 1, y = ax x = loga y . ,
x (, +) y (0, +) y = ax x = loga y.

74
 3.1.6.


1, x > 0
sign x = 0, x = 0


1, x < 0

8.
sign x R, |x|x
R \ {0}.
, x = 0, .
3.1.7.

[x]

R ( ) R. n Z,
[x] = n [n, n + 1). 9.

3.1.8. , .
sin x cos x
cos x, sin x, tan x = cos x , cot x = sin x

R , R \ { 2 + k | k Z} R \ {k | k Z}
. 10 11.

75
 .

10.4 .
-
.

. .
cos x sin x [0, 2] :

cos 0 = 1, cos 2 = 0, cos = 1, cos 3

2 = 0, cos 2 = 1,
sin 0 = 0, sin
2 = 1, sin = 0, sin 3
2 = 1, sin 2 = 0.

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y, sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

x, y
(cos x)2 + (sin x)2 = 1
x.

| sin x| 1, | cos x| 1

x.

cos(x + 2) = cos x, sin(x + 2) = sin x

76
 x. cos x sin x 2.
k . cos x ( 2 + 2k, 2 + 2k)
( 2 +2k, 3 2 +2k) sin x (2k, +2k)
( + 2k, 2 + 2k). , cos x
(2k, + 2k) ( + 2k, 2 + 2k) sin x
( 2 + 2k, 2 + 2k)
( 2 + 2k, 3
2 + 2k).
tan x cot x k . tan x
( 2 + k, k) (k, 2 + k) cot x
(k, 2 + k) ( 2 + k, + k). ,
tan x ( 2 + k, 2 + k) cot x
(k, + k).

| sin x| |x| x, |x| | tan x| |x| < 2 .

12.

-
,
. 10.4 -
, , ,
.

3.1.2 .
2.8 R. R > 0,

N () = ( , + ).
= > 0,

N () = [, 1 ), N+ () = ( 1 , +].

N () - .

3.1. R A > 0
x A N () x = .

, R A
A . , ,

77
 R A
A . , , R A
A .
: (i) R A > 0
x A 0 < |x | < , (ii) + A N > 0
x A x > N (iii) A N > 0
x A x < N .
: (i) R A > 0, ,
A ( , ) (, + ), (ii) +
A N > 0, , A (N, +) (iii)
A N > 0, ,
A (, N ).

3.2. A. A
A , , > 0 A
N () , A ( , + ) = {}.

3.1.9. a < b. [a, b], a b,

(a, b). ,
/ [a, b]
(a, b). , (a, b)
[a, b].
, (a, b], [a, b), [a, b]
[a, b].

3.1.10. (a, +), [a, +)

[a, +]. , a + -
(a, +), [a, +). , (, b),
(, b] [, b]. , (, +)
[, +].

3.1.11. a < b. {a, b} . -

, {a, b} .

3.1.12. a < b < c, [a, b) {c}

[a, b]. c [a, b) {c}.

3.1.13. N +. N
.

3.1.14. 0 { n1 | n N}.
{ n1 | n N} .

3.3. R > 0,

N () = ( , ], N+ () = [, + )

- - , .

: N () N+ () = N () N () N+ () = {}.
- -.

3.4. R
A > 0 x A N () x = , , x A
< x < .
R A > 0
x A N+ () x = , , x A < x < + .

78
 , () A
A () . ,
, () A
() A.
:
R A
A.
3.1.15. (a, b] (a, b)
[a, b) (a, b). (a, b)
(a, b).
3.1.16. b (a, b)
(b, c). b
(a, b) (b, c).
3.1.17. 0 { n1 | n N}
{ n1 | n N}. , 0
{ n1 | n N} { n1 | n N}.
x
A, A x A
x A. f (x) > 0 f (x) = 7,
f : A R .
x A f . x
A f x A .
3.1.18. 1 > 2 (0, +),
x
1 . (0, 41 ) [ 41 , +).
x

3.5. A R
A. > 0
x A N () x = .
3.1.19. , 1x > 2
(0, +) 0. , M > 0
, 1x > M 0.
1
3.1.20. > 0, 0 < x < +,
( 1 , +).
1
3.1.21. M > 0, |x| > M 0,
( M , 0) (0, M ). , x1 > M 0.
1 1

3.6. A R
A. > 0
x A N () x = .
:
, .
.
3.1.22. sin x > 0 R + -
R. +,
x = 2 + 2k k Z. , , sin x 0
+, x = 2 + 2k k Z.
sin x > 0 +.

79
 A , ,
A R A.

, , , , , .
, > 0 x A N ( ) x =
> 0 x A N ( ) x = .

= min{ , } > 0,

. N () N ( ) N () N ( ).
x A N () x = .
.

3.7. A.
R A.
> 0
x A ( , ).

> 0 x A ( , ).
R A.
> 0
x A (, + ).
> 0
x A (, + ).

()
() .

3.1.23. 3.1.21. 0
(, 0) (0, +). |x| 1
> M 0 ,
, 0 0 . ,
x1 > M 0 0
, , 0.

3.1.24. 1x > M 3.1.19 0 ,

, 0 . 0
, 0 (0, +),
1x .

3.1.1. a < b < c. (a, b)(b, c), (a, b){c+ n1 | n N},

{(1)n1 (1 + n1 ) | n N}, {2n + m
1
| n, m N}, { n1 + mn
1
2 | n, m N}.

3.1.2. + A A
. A A
.

3.1.3. R A
> 0 N () A.

3.1.4. R A B. A,
B.

80
3.1.5. R Q R \ Q.
(a, b) Q (a, b) \ Q.
3.1.6. - A. , sup A A,
A. , inf A.
- A sup A inf A .
3.1.7.
: x12 > 100, |x1|
x+2
> 1000, 1001
< x+31 1
< 100 ;
0, 1 .

: (1)[1/x] < 0, x [x] > 12 , sin x1 > 21 ;
0, +
0.
0, +, 0.
3.1.8. R A
(xn ) A xn xn = n.
R () A
(xn ) A xn xn > (xn < )
n.
A. A
(xn ) A .
3.1.9. A R A.
-
(xn ) A xn , xn = n xn
n.
()
(xn ) A xn , xn > (xn < )
n xn n.
3.1.10. []1 -
R.
[] R.

3.2 .
, ,
.
3.8. f : A R , R
A. f > 0 > 0 f (x) N ()
x A N () x = . : f > 0
f (x) N () .
:

f (x) f (x) x lim f (x) = .

x x

,
, , , = .
f , f .
1
Bolzano - Weierstrass

81
 13.

: f
f (x) x
.
limx f (x) = , f (x) N () x A N () x =
: f A (N () \ {})
N () , ,
( )
f A (N () \ {}) N ().

:
[ [ ]]
lim f (x) = > 0 > 0 x A (x N () x = ) f (x) N ()
x

, , ,
, .
1: R R.
f > 0 > 0 |f (x) | <
x A 0 < |x | < .
2: R = +.
f + M > 0 > 0 f (x) > M
x A 0 < |x | < .
3: R = .
f M > 0 > 0 f (x) < M
x A 0 < |x | < .
4: = + R.
f + > 0 N > 0 |f (x) | <
x A x > N .
5: = + = +.
f + + M > 0 N > 0 f (x) > M
x A x > N .
6: = + = .
f + M > 0 N > 0 f (x) < M
x A x > N .

82
 7: = R.
f > 0 N > 0 |f (x) | <
x A x < N .
8: = = +.
f + M > 0 N > 0 f (x) > M
x A x < N .
9: = = .
f M > 0 N > 0 f (x) < M
x A x < N .
limx f (x) = ,
R, R.
- limx f (x) R
f . -
,
, .
-
. ,
f (a, b], limx f (x)
[a, b]. , f
(a, b) (b, +), limx f (x)
[a, +]. , f (, b] {c} (d, e], b < c < d,
limx f (x) [, b] [d, e]
c, .
3.2.1.
.
( )1/2
f (x) = x sin x1 .
A f x sin x1 0
( ] [ ] + [ 1 ] [1 )
A = , 1 + n=1 2n , (2n+1) n=1 (2n+1) , 2n , + .
1 1 1

A 0 -
0 0. , 0 (
) A , , -
limx0 f (x).
0.
f ,
0 -
0 f .
- f 0 , -
, 0, 0,
f .

. limx f (x) = , R,
> 0 > 0 (
)
0 < |x | < () |f (x) | <
, ,
|f (x) | < () 0 < |x | < .

83
, , x
f .
|f (x) | <
0 < |x | < (, x)
:
.
x .
.
3.2.2. limx4 (3x + 2) = 14.
> 0. > 0 x 0 < |x 4| < |(3x + 2) 14| < .
|(3x + 2) 14| < |3x 12| < |x 4| < 3 .
:
|(3x + 2) 14| < |3x 12| < |x 4| < 3 .
, 0 < 3 , x 0 < |x 4| <
|x 4| < 3 , , |(3x + 2) 14| < . :
0 < |x 4| < |x 4| <
3 |3x 12| < |(3x + 2) 14| < .
.
x2 +1
3.2.3. limx2 x1 = 5.
x2 +1
> 0. > 0 | x1 5| < x = 1 0 < |x 2| < .
x2 +1
x = 1, x x1 .
5| < |x |x1|
5x+6| |x2||x3|
2 2
| xx1
+1
< < .
|x1|
x,

: |x2||x3| |x1| -
. , |x 1| x = 1,
0 < |x 2| < x 1.
: x 2, 1. ,
0 < 12 , 0 < |x 2| < |x 2| < 12 ,
1 2 1, |x 1| > 12 . ,
x 2, 3. ,
3 2 1, |x 2| < 12 |x 3| < 32 .
, 0 < 12 , 0 < |x 2| <
|x2||x3| |x2|(3/2)
|x1| < 1/2 = 3|x 2|.

:
|x2||x3|
0< 1
2 : 0 < |x 2| < |x1| < 3|x 2|. (3.1)

|x 2| < 3 3|x 2| < . ,

0 < 3 , 0 < |x 2| < 3|x 2| < . :
0<
3 : 0 < |x 2| < 3|x 2| < . (3.2)
, , > 0 12 3 ,
(3.1) (3.2) : 0 < |x 2| < |x2||x3|
|x1| < 3|x 2| (
12 ) 3|x 2| < ( 3 ) , , |x2||x3|
|x1| < . :
{ }
|x2||x3|
< 3|x 2|
0 < min{ 2 , 3 } :
1
0 < |x 2| < |x1| |x2||x3|
|x1| < .
3|x 2| <

84
 .
R =
( ).

3.2.4. c. R

lim c = c.
x

> 0. x |c c| = 0 < . ,
> 0 ( , = 1) x N () x =
|c c| = 0 < .

3.2.5. R,

lim x = .
x

> 0. > 0 x N () x = x N ().

, , 0 < N () N ().
, x N () x = x N ().

3.2.6.
1 1
limx+ x = 0, limx x = 0.

, > 0. N > 0 | x1 0| < x > N .

| x1 0| < |x|
1
< |x| > 1
x > 1 . , N 1 , x > N x > 1 ,
, | x1 0| < .
, > 0. N > 0 | x1 0| < x < N .
| x1 0| < |x|
1
< |x| > 1
x < 1 . , N 1 , x < N x < 1
, , | x1 0| < .

3.9. f : A R, A R.
f > 0 > 0
f (x) N () x A N () x = . : f
> 0 f (x) N () .
:

f (x) f (x) x lim f (x) = .

x x

f : A R, A R. f
> 0 > 0 f (x) N ()
x A N+ () x = . : f > 0
f (x) N () .
:

f (x) f (x) x + lim f (x) = .

x+ x+

: f () f (x)
x () .
- limx+ f (x)
f -

85
limx f (x) -
f .
, ,
.
-


.

3.2.7.

limx0 sign x = limx0 x

|x| = 1, limx0+ sign x = limx0+ x
|x| = 1.
x 
> 0. > 0  |x| (1) < x < x < 0.
x 
x
, x < 0, |x| = 1,  |x| + 1 = 0.
x 
> 0 x < x < 0  |x| + 1 < .
x 
> 0. > 0  |x| 1 < x 0 < x < .
x 
x
, x > 0, |x| = 1,  |x| 1 = 0.
x 
> 0 x 0 < x <  |x| 1 < .

3.2.8.

limx0 1
x = , limx0+ 1
x = +.

M > 0. > 0 x1 < M x < x < 0.

x1 < M M 1
< x < 0. 0 < 1
M
x < x < 0 M1
< x < 0 , , x1 < M .
M > 0. > 0 x1 > M x 0 < x < .
x1 > M 0 < x < M 1
. 0 < 1
M
1
x 0 < x < 0 < x < M , , x1 > M .

3.1. f : A R R -
A. f
f , , limx f (x) = limx f (x) =
limx+ f (x).

. limx f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () . f (x) N ()
.
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = .
, limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N ()
. f (x) N () .
limx f (x) = .
x
3.2.9. limx0 sign x = limx0 |x| , -
.
1
3.2.10. , limx0 x .

3.2. f : A R R.
[] A. f
f , ,
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x).

86
[] A. f
f , ,
limx f (x) = limx f (x).

. [] limx+ f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () . f (x) N ()
.
limx f (x) = .
, limx f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () , f (x) N ()
.
limx+ f (x) = .
[] .
2
3.2.11. x+|x| (0, +) (0, +)
2 2 1 1
x+|x| x+x = x . , , limx0+ x = +, -
2
limx0+ x+|x| = +. , 0
2 2
(0, +) limx0 x+|x| = limx0+ x+|x| = +.

3.2.1 .
.
R limx f (x) = . x -
. (i) R, (x, f (x))
f (, ), -
x = . (ii) = +, (x, f (x)) ,
x = . (iii) ,
= , (x, f (x)) ,
x = . , (x, f (x))
x = , x .
, R limx f (x) = ,
x = f .
. limx+ f (x)
(x, f (x))
x = limx f (x) (x, f (x))
x = . :

3.10. x = -
f : limx f (x) = , limx f (x) = .

, R limx+ f (x) = . , x ,
(x, f (x)) f
y = . , limx f (x) = , , x -
, (x, f (x))
y = .

3.11. R limx+ f (x) = limx f (x) = ,

y = + , ,
f .

3.12. l y = x + ()
+ f , , limx (f (x) x ) = 0
limx+ (f (x) x ) = 0.

87
 (x, f (x)) f
(x, x + ) l ( x )
, . : -
l +.
, ,
= 0.
, , -
.

.

3.2.1. limx0 1
x+|x| , limx1 1
3x2 +2x6
, limx0 x2 , limx3+ 18 2x2 ,
limx1 log(x2 1), limx (x + 2)6/4 ;
: .
limx+ sin1 x , limx0 sin(1/x)
1
, limx+ log sin x, limx0 log sin x1 -
.

3.2.2. limx2 3x = 6, limx1 ( x1 + 1) = 2, limx1 x2 = 1,

2 = +, limx2+ 2x = , limx 2x+1 = 2 , limx (3x + x) = +.
3x x x3 1 2
limx1 (x1)

3.2.3. A B R A, , 3.1.4,
B. g : B R limx g(x) = R.
f : A R g A, f (x) = g(x) x A.
limx f (x) = .

3.2.4. 2 A B = R { A B. f : A R
f (x), x A
g : B R, h : A B R h(x) =
g(x), x B
limx h(x) limx f (x), limx g(x) ,
, limx h(x) = limx f (x) = limx g(x).

3.2.5. 3 f : A R R A.
limx f (x) = > 0
f (x)
/ N () .
limx f (x) = > 0 > 0
x A N () x = f (x) / N ().
( ...) .

3.2.6. 4 f : A R R A 0 > 0.
limx f (x) = 0 < 0 f (x) N () .

3.2.7. f : A R R A. > 0
> 0 f (x) N () x A N () x = . ;

3.3 .
.
2.3.
2
h f g.
3
.
4
. 2.2.7 :
> 0 0 > 0.

88
 ,
. , (-
x ) ( x + x )
. ()
, limx limx+ (limx ),
()
() .

3.3. f, g : A R R A f , g
. f , g ,
.

. limx f (x) = R.
> 0. f (x) N () . , f (x) = g(x) ,
f (x) N () f (x) = g(x) , , g(x) N () .
limx g(x) = .

,
( ),
() .
{
1/x, 0 < |x| < 104
3.3.1. f (x) = f (x) = x1
x, x = 0 |x| 104
0 limx0 x1 , limx0 f (x) .
{
1/x, x > 10100
3.3.2. f (x) = f (x) = x1 +
x, x 10100
limx+ x1 = 0, limx+ f (x) = 0. f (x) = x
limx x = , limx f (x) = .

3.3.1 .
3.4
.

3.4. f : A R, R A limx f (x) = R.

[] > u, f (x) > u .
[] < l, f (x) < l .
[] u < < l, u < f (x) < l .

. [] > 0 N ()
u. f (x) N () , f (x) > u
.
[] > 0 N () l.
f (x) N () , f (x) < l .
[] > 0 N () u, l.
f (x) N () , u < f (x) < l .
5
3.3.3. f (x) = 2x5 x3x+x
+1
2 +8x+1 .
1
limx f (x) = 2 = 0.5. ,
0.4999999 0.5000001, N > 0
0.4999999 < f (x) < 0.5000001 (, N ). ,

89
0.0000001 0.5. ,
N ,
. ,
, , 101000
0.5. , N (
- ) N .
3.5 . ,
.
3.5. f : A R R A. f ,
, .
. ( ) f a, b .
> 0 Na () Nb () .
f (x) Na () f (x) Nb () . f (x) Na ()
f (x) Nb () . .

3.6. f : A R R A.
[] limx f (x) = R, f .
[] limx f (x) = +, f
.
[] limx f (x) = , f
.
. [] l u l < < u,
l = 1, u = + 1. 3.4, l < f (x) < u .
f .
[] l f (x) > l , f -
.
, l f (x) > l . l f
, f .
[] .

3.3.4. limx+ x1 = 0. x1 +.
x1 . x1
R \ {0} (0, +). , , (N, +) x1 .
. , 0 x1 1
x (1, +).

3.3.2 .
3.7
. -
3.7 3.4.
- :

, .
3.7. f : A R R A.
[] f (x) l limx f (x) = R, l.
[] f (x) u limx f (x) = R, u.
[] u < l f (x) l f (x) u
, f .

90
. [] < l, f (x) < l ,
f (x) l . l.
[] .
[] f , l u , , l u.
f .

3.3.5. limx f (x) = R f (x) [l, u]

, [l, u].
3.3.6.

lim cos x lim sin x .

x x

, - cos x 1
, , cos x 1
. , 2k k Z
(2k + 1) k Z.
- .
, limx0 cos x1 limx0 sin x1 .
, cos x1 1 0
. , cos x1 1 0
. , 2k1
k Z
(2k+1) k Z. - limx0 sin x1 .
1

3.8. f, g : A R R A. f (x) g(x)

limx f (x) = R limx g(x) = R,
.
. ( ) < .
a < a < . g(x) < a a < f (x)
. g(x) < a a < f (x) , , g(x) < f (x) . .
.

3.9. f, g : A R R A. , ,
f (x) g(x) .
[]. limx f (x) = +, limx g(x) = +.
[] limx g(x) = , limx f (x) = .
. [] M > 0. f (x) > M . f (x) > M
g(x) f (x) , , g(x) > M . limx g(x) = +.
[] .
2 +x1 x2
3.3.7. x x x = x x (1, +) limx+ x = +.
2
limx+ x +x1
x = +.
3.10 .
3.10. f, g, h : A R R A
f (x) g(x) h(x) . limx f (x) = limx h(x) = R,
limx g(x) = .
. > 0. f (x) (, +) h(x) (, +)
. f (x), h(x) ( , + ) , g(x)
f (x), h(x) , g(x) ( , + ) .
limx g(x) = .

91
 3.3.8. x1 sinx x < x1 x > 0 limx+ ( x1 ) = limx+ x1 =
0. limx+ sinx x = 0. limx sinx x = 0
limx cosx x = 0.

3.3.3 .

.
3.13. f : A R f :
A R (f )(x) = f (x) x A.
f, g : A R f + g : A R (f +
g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) x A.
f, g : A R f g : A R (f g)(x) =
f (x) g(x) x A.
f, g : A R f g : A R (f g)(x) =
f (x)g(x) x A.
f : A R f : A R
(f )(x) = f (x) x A.
( )
f : A R f1 : A R f1 (x) = f (x)
1

x A.
f1 : A R f (x) = 0 x A.
( )
f, g : A R fg : A R fg (x) = fg(x)
(x)

x A.
fg : A R g(x) = 0 x A.
f : A R |f | : A R |f |(x) =
|f (x)| x A.

, .
3.11. f, g : A R R A , R
. x .
[] f (x) , f (x) .
[] f (x) , |f (x)| ||.
[] f (x) , g(x) + , f (x)+g(x) +.
[] f (x) , g(x) , f (x)g(x) .
[] f (x) , g(x) , f (x)g(x) .
[] f (x) , f (x) .
[] f (x) = 0 x A. f (x) 1
( = 0), f (x)
1
1 .

[] g(x) = 0 x A. f (x) , g(x)
f (x)
, g(x) .

. [] f (x) R. > 0 |f (x) | < ,

,
|(f (x)) ()| = |f (x) | <
. f (x) .
f (x) +. M > 0 f (x) > M , , f (x) < M
. f (x) , f (x) (+).

92
 f (x) . M > 0 f (x) < M , , f (x) > M
. f (x) +, f (x) ().
[] f (x) R. > 0 |f (x) | < , ,
 
|f (x)| || |f (x) | <

. |f (x)| ||.
f (x) +. M > 0 f (x) > M , , |f (x)| > M
. |f (x)| +, |f (x)| | + |.
f (x) . M > 0 f (x) < M , , |f (x)| > M
. |f (x)| +, |f (x)| | |.
[] f (x) g(x) , R. > 0 |f (x) | < 2 ,
, |g(x) | < 2 ,
,

|(f (x) + g(x)) ( + )| = |(f (x) ) + (g(x) )| |f (x) | + |g(x) | <

2 +
2 =

. f (x) + g(x) + .
f (x) + g(x) (, +]. g ,
l g(x) > l . , M > 0 f (x) > M l
, ,
f (x) + g(x) > (M l) + l = M
. f (x) + g(x) +, f (x) + g(x) + .
[].
[] [] [].
[] f (x) g(x) , R. g ,
M 0 |g(x)| M . , > 0 |f (x)
| < 2M+1 , , |g(x) | < 2||+1

,
,

|f (x)g(x) | = |(f (x) )g(x) + (g(x) )| |f (x) ||g(x)| + |||g(x) |

||
M
2M +1 + 2||+1 <

. f (x)g(x) .
f (x) + g(x) (0, +]. l 0 <
l < . l < g(x) . , M > 0 f (x) > Ml , ,
M
f (x)g(x) > l l =M

. f (x)g(x) +, f (x)g(x) .
[].
[] [].
[] f (x) R \ {0} f (x) = 0 x A.
|f (x)| ||. || > 0, l 0 < l < ||
|f (x)| > l . , > 0 |f (x) | < ||l , ,
 1  |f (x)|
 1 ||l
f (x) = |||f (x)| < ||l =

1
. f (x) 1 .
f (x) +. > 0 f (x) > 1 , ,
 1 
 
f (x) 0 = f (x) <
1

93
 1
. f (x) 0, f (x)
1
+
1
.
f (x) [].
[] [] [].
( )
3.3.9. limx0 1 + x1 = 1 + () = .
( )
3.3.10. limx+ 1 + x1 = 1 + 0 = 1.
1 1
3.3.11. limx1 x+1 = 1+1 = 12 .
1 1 1
3.3.12. limx+ x2 +x+1
= (+)2 +(+)+1
= + = 0.
x2 +x 12 +1
3.3.13. limx1 x2 = 12 = 2.
3.3.14. R,

lim xk = k k Z, k > 0 k Z, k < 0 = 0.

x

, k N, limx x = limx xk = limx (x x) = = k .

, , = 0, limx x1k = 1k .

3.3.15. k N.
limx0+ x1 = +, limx0+ 1
xk
= limx0+ ( x1 )k = (+)k = +.
limx0 x1 = , , k , limx0 x1k = limx0 ( x1 )k =
()k = + , k , limx0 x1k = limx0 ( x1 )k = ()k = .
, ,
{
+, k Z, k < 0, k
lim xk = + k Z, k < 0 lim xk =
x0+ x0 , k Z, k < 0, k

, {
k = +, k Z, k < 0, k
lim x
x0 , k Z, k < 0, k

3.3.16. k N.
limx+ x = +, limx+ xk = (+)k = +.
limx x = , , k , limx xk = ()k = +
, k , limx xk = ()k = .
limx x1k = 0.
:

{
+, k Z, k > 0 +, k Z, k > 0, k
k k
lim x = lim x = , k Z, k > 0, k
x+ 0, k Z, k < 0 x

0, k Z, k < 0

3.3.17. limx1 |x 2| = |1 2| = 1.
 
3.3.18. limx0  x1 x12  = |() (+)| = | | = +.
3.3.19. limx+ (x2 x) = limx+ x(x 1) = (+)((+) 1) = +.
limx+ (x2 x) .
3.3.20. limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) = limx0 x12 (2 + x) = (+)(2 + 0) = +.
limx0 ( x22 + x1 ) limx0 x1 .

94
 2)
x2 x+1
3.3.21. limx+ x+2 = limx+ x 1(1/x)+(1/x
1+(2/x) = (+) 10+0
1+0 = +.
x2 x+1
limx+ x+2 .

3.3.22. 3.11[].
, limx0 | sign x| = limx0 1 = 1, limx0 sign x .
= 0.

3.3.23. P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn .

lim P (x) = lim (a0 + a1 x + + an xn ) = a0 + a1 + + an n = P ().

x x

P (x) 1.
( an1 1 )
P (x) = an xn aan0 x1n + + an x +1 ,

limx P (x) = limx an xn . , limx P (x)

,
{
an (+), n
lim P (x) = an (+), lim P (x) =
x+ x an (), n

: limx+ (5x3 +x2 4x12) = , limx (5x3 +x2 4x12) = +,

limx (7x4 + x3 x + 5) = +.
n
3.3.24. R(x) = ba00+b m , an , bm = 0.
+a1 x++an x
1 x++bm x

n ( )/( b0 1 )
R(x) = bamnxxm aan0 x1n + + an1
an x
1
+ 1 bm x m + + bm1 1
bm x + 1 ,

, , limx R(x) -



(an /bm )(+), n > m
an nm
limx+ R(x) = limx+ bm x = an /bm , n = m


0, n < m


(an /bm )(+), n m > 0


(a /b )(), n m > 0
an n m
limx R(x) = limx xnm =
bm
an /bm , n = m


0, n < m
x3 x2 +4
= 12 , limx+ x
3 +4x2 +2 2 2x+3
: limx+ 2x3 +1 2x2 +x+1
= , limx+ 3x
x4 +x2 +1
= 0,
2 x3 4 x3 1 3x4 2
limx 3x 2 , limx x4 +2 = 0, limx 2x+1 = , limx 2x+1 = .
+4 3
2x2 1
=
R, limx R(x) .
a0 +a1 ++an n
b0 + b1 + + bm m = 0, limx R(x) = b0 +b1 ++bm m = R(). ,

lim R(x) = R().

x

: limx1 3x2
x4 +2x3 4
312
= 14 +21 3 4 = 1.
b0 + b1 + + bm = 0, x
m b0 + b1 x + + bm xm . (x )k

95
 x b0 + b1 x + + bm xm ,

b0 + b1 x + + bm xm = (x )k Q(x),
Q(x) x , , Q() = 0.
, x a0 + a1 x + + an xn ,
a0 + a1 x + + an xn = (x )l P (x),
l 0 P (x) x , ,
P () = 0. , ,
P (x)
R(x) = (x )lk Q(x)
P (x) P ()
, limx Q(x) == 0,
Q()


= 0, l > k


= (P ()/Q()), l = k
lim R(x)
x = (P ()/Q())(+),
k l > 0


, k l > 0
,
P () P ()
limx R(x) = Q() (), limx+ R(x) = Q() (+), k l > 0.

limx1 xx4x x+1

3 2
2x2 +1
.
1 x4 2x2 + 1, x4 2x2 + 1 x 1.
, ,
x4 2x2 + 1 = (x2 1)2 = (x 1)2 (x + 1)2 .
1 x3 x2 x + 1, :
x3 x2 x + 1 = (x 1)x2 (x 1) = (x 1)2 (x + 1).

x3 x2 x+1 (x1)2 (x+1) 1

x4 2x2 +1
= (x1)2 (x+1)2
= x+1
x = 1, 1. ,
x3 x2 x+1 1 1
limx1 x4 2x2 +1
= limx1 x+1 = 1+1 = 12 .
3 2
limx1 xx3+4x +x6
x2 x+1
.
1 x x x + 1 , , x3 x2 x + 1 = (x 1)2 (x + 1).
3 2

1 x3 + 4x2 + x 6, :
x3 + 4x2 + x 6 = x3 x2 + 5x2 5x + 6x 6 = (x 1)x2 + (x 1)5x + (x 1)6
= (x 1)(x2 + 5x + 6).
x 1 x2 + 5x + 6 1 .
x3 +4x2 +x6 (x1)(x2 +5x+6) 1 x2 +5x+6
x3 x2 x+1
= (x1)2 (x+1)
= x1 x+1

x = 1, 1. :
x3 +4x2 +x6 2 +51+6
limx1+ x3 x2 x+1
= (+) 1 1+1 = +

x3 +4x2 +x6 2 +51+6

limx1 x3 x2 x+1
= () 1 1+1 = .
x3 +4x2 +x6
, limx1 x3 x2 x+1
.

96
 3.3.25. y = x + +
f , limx+ (f (x) x ) = 0.
limx+ f (x)x
x = +0
= 0, limx+ ( f (x)
x x ) = 0 , ,

f (x)
= limx+ x .

, , , limx+ f (x)
x ,
+.
, . ,

= limx+ (f (x) x),
.
, limx+ (f (x) x) ,
+.
, , .
, x + x1 . = limx+ x1 (x + x1 ) = 1
= limx+ (x + x1 1x) = 0. +
y = 1x + 0 = x. : = limx x1 (x + x1 ) = 1 = limx (x + x1 1x) = 0.
y = 1x + 0 = x.

3.12
3.11 . [] 3.12
0+ 1
= + 0 1
= ,
2.3.

3.12. f, g : A R R A.
x .
[] f (x) + g , f (x) + g(x) +.
f (x) g , f (x) + g(x) .
[] f (x) 0 g , f (x)g(x) 0.
[] f (x) + g , f (x)g(x) +.
f (x) g , f (x)g(x) .
[] f (x) = 0 x A.
f (x) 0 f , f (x)
1
+.
f (x) 0 f , f (x) .
1

[] f (x) = 0 x A. |f (x)| +, 1
f (x) 0.

. [] f (x) + g ,
l g(x) l . M > 0 f (x) > M l
, , f (x) + g(x) > (M l) + l = M . f (x) + g(x) +.
.
[] f (x) 0 g , M 0
|g(x)| M . > 0 |f (x)| < M+1 , ,

|f (x)g(x)| = |f (x)||g(x)| M
M +1 <

. f (x)g(x) 0.
[] f (x) + g ,
l > 0 g(x) l . M > 0 f (x) > Ml ,
, f (x)g(x) > Ml l = M . f (x)g(x) +.
.

97
[] f (x) 0 f (x) > 0 . M > 0
|f (x) 0| < M1
. 0 < f (x) < M 1 1
, , f (x) > M .
f (x) +.
1

.
[] f (x) = 0 x A |f (x)| +. |f (x)|
1
0 , ,
f (x) 0.
1

3.3.26. limx+ x1 = 0 x [x] (, -

, +), 0 x [x] < 1 x. limx+ x[x]
x = 0.
3.3.27. x [x] (, , +)
limx+ x = +. limx+ (2x [x]) = limx+ (x + (x [x])) = +.

x 3 x (, , +) , ,
1 1
3.3.28. 2sin
x
limx+ x = +. limx+ 2sin x = +.

3.3.29. limx0 x = 0 limx0 x1 . -

x 0.
3.3.30. limx+ ( x1 x12 ) = 0 0 = 0 1
x x12 > 0 x > 1.
1
limx+ (1/x)(1/x 2 ) = +.

3.3.4 .
3.14. f : A B g : B R
g f : A R (g f )(x) = g(f (x)) x A.
3.13 .
3.13. 5 f : A B, g : B R, R A R
B. f (x) x , f (x) =
g(y) R y , (g f )(x) x .
. > 0. > 0

g(y) N () y B N () y = . (3.3)

f (x) x , f (x) N () . , , f (x) =

f (x) B x A,

f (x) B N () f (x) = . (3.4)

( )
(3.4) (3.3) y = f (x) (g f )(x) = g f (x) N ()
.
(g f )(x) x .

, -
x y = f (x)
( )
limx g f (x) = limy g(y).
(x7 +1)4
3.3.31. limx0 (x7 +1)8 +(x7 +1)12 +5
.
limx0 (x7 + 1) = 1 x7 + 1 = 1 x = 0. ,
x y = x7 + 1,
(x7 +1)4 y4
limx0 (x7 +1)8 +(x7 +1)12 +5
= limy1 y 8 +y 12 +5
= 71 .
5
4.10.

98
 ( )
3.3.32. limx1 1
(x1)2
1
(x1)6
+1 .
1 1
limx1 = +. x y = (x1)
(x1)2 2 ,

( 1 )
limx1 (x1)2 (x1)
1
6 + 1 = limy+ (y y + 1) = .
3

( )
3.3.33. limx+ ( x2x1
+x+1
)2 + ( x2x1
+x+1
)4 .
limx+ x2x1+x+1
= 0 x2x1
+x+1
= 0 x > 1.
x1
x y = x2 +x+1 ,
( )
2 + ( x1 )4 = lim 2 + y 4 ) = +.
limx+ ( x2x1+x+1
) 2
x +x+1 y0 (y

3.3.34. f (x) =
3.13 .
{
0, y = 0
f (x) = sinx x g(y) =
1, y = 0
limx+ f (x) = 0 limy0 g(y) = 0. f (x) = 0
+, f (x) = 0 + , ,
n n Z \ {0}. {
0, x = n n Z \ {0}
, (g f )(x) =
1, x = n n Z \ {0}
, limx+ (g f )(x) , (g f )(x) 0
+ (g f )(x) 1 +.
3.13 .
, . ,
. ()
B g () , ,
f , f (x) > (f (x) < )
. :
f : A B, g : B R, A
B, f (x) x +, f (x) <
g(y) R y , (g f )(x) x +.

3.3.5 .
, -
, .
3.3.35. 3.3.14, 3.3.15 3.3.16
xk k . - .
a R \ Z. xa [0, +), a > 0, (0, +),
a < 0.

lim xa = a > 0.
x

a > 0. > 0. > 0 |xa a | < x > 0

0 < |x | < .
= min{, a } > 0,
a . |xa a | < |xa a | <
a < xa < a + ( a )1/a < x < ( a + )1/a .
( a )1/a ( a + )1/a .
{ }
0 < min ( a )1/a , ( a + )1/a ,

99
 > 0
( a )1/a ( a + )1/a . x 0 < |x | < ( a )1/a < x <
( a + )1/a , , |xa a | < .
a < 0, a > 0 , , limx xa = limx xa 1 1
= a = a.
,
{ {
+, a > 0 0, a > 0
lim xa = lim xa =
x+ 0, a < 0 x0+ +, a < 0

, a > 0. M > 0 N > 0 xa > M

x > N . , xa > M x > M 1/a . ,
N M 1/a , x > N x > M 1/a , ,
xa > M .
,
.
a < 0, a > 0 limx+ xa = limx+ xa 1 1
= + = 0.
a > 0, limx0+ xa = limy+ ( y1 )a = limy+ 1
ya =1
+ = 0.
, a < 0, a > 0 limx0+ xa = 1
= 0+ 1
= +.
limx0+ xa
.

(i) limx+ x + 1 = limy+ y = +.

(ii) limx+ ( x + 1 x) = 0. (i)
(+) (+). -
2 b2
a b = aa+b ,
(x+1)x
limx+ ( x + 1 x) = limx+
x+1+ x
= limx+ 1
x+1+ x
= 1
(+)+(+) = 0.

(iii) limx3 ( xx+1

2 +1 )
1/5 = lim
y2/5 y
1/5 = ( 2 )1/5 .
5

3.3.36. f (x) = (x sin x1 )1/2 3.2.1

A ( ) 0.

0 (x sin x1 )1/2 |x|1/2

x A, limx0 (x sin x1 )1/2 = 0.

3.3.37. ax .
:
lim ax = a .
x

a > 1. > 0 > 0 |ax a | < x

0 < |x | < .
= min{, a2 } > 0,

< a . , |ax a | < |ax a | <

a < ax < a + loga (a ) < x < loga (a + ).
loga (a ) loga (a + ).
{ }
0 < min loga (a ), loga (a + ) ,

x 0 < |x | < loga (a ) < x < loga (a + ) , ,

|ax a | < .
0 < a < 1, a1 > 1, limx ax = limx (1/a) 1 1
x = (1/a) = a .

100
,
{ {
x +, a > 1 x 0, a > 1
lim a = lim a =
x+ 0, 0 < a < 1 x +, 0 < a < 1

, a > 1. M > 0 N > 0 ax > M

x > N . ax > M x > loga M .
N > 0 N loga M x > N x > loga M ,
, ax > M .
0 < a < 1, a1 > 1 , , limx+ ax = limx+ (1/a)
1 1
x = + = 0.

a > 1, limx ax = limy+ ay = limy+ 1

ay = 1
+ = 0.
1 1 1
, 0 < a < 1, a > 1, limx ax = limx (1/a)x = 0+ = +.
a = e,
:

lim ex = e , lim ex = 0, lim ex = +.

x x x+

3.3.38. loga x.
:
lim loga x = loga > 0.
x

a > 1. > 0 > 0 | loga x loga | <

x > 0 0 < |x | < . , | loga x loga | <
loga < loga x < loga + a < x < a .
a a . ,
{ }
0 < min a , a ,

x 0 < |x | < a < x < a , | loga x loga | < .

0 < a < 1, a1 > 1, limx loga x = limx log1/a x = log1/a = loga .
,
{ {
+, a > 1 , a > 1
lim loga x = lim loga x =
x+ , 0 < a < 1 x0+ +, 0 < a < 1

, a > 1. M > 0 N > 0

loga x > M x > N . loga x > M x > aM . ,
N aM , x > N x > aM , , loga x > M .
0 < a < 1, a1 > 1, limx+ loga x = limx+ log1/a x = .
a > 1, limx0+ loga x = limy+ loga 1
y = limy+ loga y = (+) = .
, 0 < a < 1, a1 > 1, limx0+ loga x = limx0+ log1/a x = () = +.
, a = e, , :

lim log x = log > 0, lim log x = , lim log x = +.

x x0+ x+

3.3.39.
( )x
limx+ 1 + x1 = e.

101
 (1 + n1 )n e.
1 n
(1 + n+1 1 n+1
) = (1 + n+1 ) 1
/(1 + n+1 ) e
1 = e, (1 + n1 )n+1 = (1 + n1 )n (1 + n1 ) e 1 = e.
> 0. n0 N
e < (1 + 1 n
n+1 ) < e + , e < (1 + n1 )n+1 < e +
n N, n n0 . ( ) x > n0 [x] n0 ,
( )[x] ( )
1 [x]+1
e < 1 + [x]+1
1
(1 + x1 )x 1 + [x] < e + .
> 0 n0 > 0 e < (1 + x1 )x < e + , ,
|(1 + x1 )x e| < x > n0 .
3.3.40. .
| sin x| |x| cos x cos = 2 sin x x+
2 sin 2 ,
      
| cos x cos | = 2 sin x
2
 sin x+  2 sin x  2 x  = |x |.
2 2 2

, > 0. 0 < , , x 0 <

|x | < | cos x cos | |x | < .
lim cos x = cos .
x

, sin x sin = 2 sin x x+

2 cos 2 | sin x sin |
|x | , ,
lim sin x = sin .
x

:
lim tan x = tan , =
2 + k k Z.
x

lim cot x = cot , = k k Z.

x

, ,
lim tan x = +, lim tan x = =
2 + k k Z.
x x+

lim cot x = , lim cot x = + = k k Z.

x x+

3.3.41. :
sin x 1cos x
limx0 x = 1, limx0 x2
= 12 .
00 .
| sin x| |x| |x| | tan x|, |x| <
2,

cos x sin x
x 1 x ( 2 , 0) (0, 2 ).
sin x
limx0 cos x = cos 0 = 1, limx0 x = 1.

( )
1 sin(x/2) 2
limx0 1cos
x 2
x
= limx0 2 x/2 = limy0 21 ( siny y )2 = 12 .

:
1cos x 1(cos x)2 ( sin x )2 1 1
limx0 x2
= limx0 x2 (1+cos x)
= limx0 x 1+cos x = 12 1+1 = 12 .

102
 3.3.42. limx0 tan x
x = limx0 sin x 1
x cos x =1 1
1 = 1.
sin(ax) sin(ax) sin(ax)/(ax)
3.3.43. limx0 sin(bx) sin(bx) = a
b sin(bx)/(bx) .
sin(ax)
limx0 ax = limy0 siny y = 1 limx0 sin(bx)
bx = limy0 siny y = 1. ,
limx0 sin(ax)
sin(bx) = b 1 = b .
a 1 a

, 3.14, 4.2.
3.15. f : A R, f (x) > 0 x A,
g : A R f g : A R (f g )(x) = f (x)g(x)
x A.
3.14. f, g : A R R A , R
f (x) > 0 x A. x . f (x) ,
g(x) , f (x)g(x) . , f (x) 0,
g(x) , f (x)g(x) +.
3.14 (0+) = + 2.13.
.
x3 +2x2 x2 x4 x3 3x2 +5x2 x3 x2 x+1
3.3.1. limx1 x4 x3 +x2 1
, limx1 x4 +x3 4x2 +x+1
, limx1 x5 3x4 +6x3 10x2 +9x3
.
x3 +1 (2x+1)3 (3x2 +2)6
3.3.2. limx x2 +1
, limx (x2 +1)(x+4)13
, limx0 ( x13 + 1
|x| ), limx0 1
x2 |x|
.
3x2 +2x6/5 4 x3/2 2x6/5
3x
2 1
3.3.3. limx0 (
3 2 ), limx+ x6/5 2x9/8 +2
, limx+ 4x4/3 +2
.
x
x3a 1
3.3.4. a = 0. limx1 1
xa 1 , limx1 1
(xa 1)2
, limx1 xa 1 .

3.3.5. limx+ x( x + 1 x), limx+ x3 ( x + 1 2 x + x 1).

3.3.6. a > 0 limx+ ( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) = 0, A, B
2
a, b, c , A, B, limx+ x( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) = 4acb
.
8a a

3.3.7. limx ( 3xx27x

2
+1
)1/2 , limx0 (1 1
x + 1 1/5
x3
) .
e2x +ex +1
3.3.8. limx (ex e2x + 1), limx 2e2x +1
, limx0 1
ex 1 , limx0 1
(ex 1)2
,
e x
limx log ex/2 +1
.
log(2x) 1 1log x
3.3.9. limx0 log(3x) , limx1 log x , limx0 log 1+(log x)2
.

3.3.10. R limx [x]. limx [x];

limx [1/x], limx x[1/x].
a, b > 0, limx0 (b/x)[x/a].
1cos x 1cos x sin(3x) tan(3x)
3.3.11. limx0 x cot x, limx0 x sin x , limx0 (sin x)2
, limx
sin x , limx0 x+sin x ,
cos(8x)cos(15x) 1 cos x cos((/2) cos x)
limx0 x2
, limx x sin x , limx/2 x(/2) , limx0 sin(sin x) .

3.3.12. limx [x], limx ([x]/x), limx ([x2 ]/x), limx+ ([x]/x2 ).
a, b > 0, limx0 (x/a)[b/x].
( )
n N, limx0 x [1/x] + [2/x] + + [n/x] .


0, a > 1
a
3.3.13. limx0+ x sin x = 1, a = 1


+, a < 1

103

3.3.14. x sin x, x2 sin x, x sin x x1 sin x
.

x sin x1 , x2 sin x1 , x sin x1 x1 sin x1
0. {
a 1 = 0, a > 0
limx0+ x sin x
, a 0
3.3.15. limx1 f (x), (x 1)f (x) 1 x 0 < |x 1| < 14 .
3.3.16. limx+ f (x)

f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 + 1 x > 1.
3x2 +1 301
3.3.17. , . x2 5
< 100 +;
x8 +1
4x4 x2 +2x1
5
8 1; x5 7x3 + x2 107
+; 108 < x4 +13x3 +25x2 +33
x5 +2x+1
< 107 ;
3.3.18. , , -
{ -
x, x 1
x1 , x2 , 3x x5x
4 2 +x1 1
3 +x2 2 , 1x 2, x, f (x) =
3x/(x 1), x < 1
3.3.19. f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R.
limx0 f (|x|) = l limx0+ f (x) = l.
limx0 f (x2 ) = l limx0+ f (x) = l.
f (1/x). limx+ f (1/x) = l
limx0+ f (x) = l limx f (1/x) = l limx0 f (x) = l.
f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R limx0 f (|x|)
limx0 f (x).
( )
3.3.20. f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R. limx0 f (x) + f (x)
1
= 2, limx0 f (x).
( )
f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R. limx0 f (x) + |f (x)|
1
= 0, limx0 f (x).
3.3.21. f, g : A R, R A limx f (x) < limx g(x).
f (x) < g(x) .
3.3.22. f, g : A R, R A. limx f (x) =
R limx g(x) = R, limx max{f (x), g(x)} = max{, }
limx min{f (x), g(x)} = min{, }.
3.3.23. limx (f (x) + g(x))
limx f (x), limx g(x).
limx f (x)g(x) limx f (x), limx g(x).
3.3.24. 6 f , g f (x) +, g(x)
f (x) + g(x) (i) c R (ii) .
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) + f (x)g(x) (i)
c R (ii) .
f (x)
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) 0 g(x) (i)
c R (ii) .
f (x)
f , g f (x) +, g(x) + g(x) (i)
f (x)
c [0, +] (ii) . g(x)
c [, 0);
3.3.25. 7 f , g f (x) +, g(x) 0
6
.
7
.

104
f (x)g(x) (i) c [0, +] (ii) .
f (x)g(x) c [, 0);
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) 0 f (x)g(x) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c [, 0);
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) f (x)g(x) (i)
c {+, } (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c R;
f , g f (x) 1, g(x) + f (x)g(x) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c [, 0);
f , g f (x) 1, g(x) f (x)g(x) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c [, 0);
3.3.26. f : A R, R A, limx f (x) =
f (x) x A x = . sup{f (x) | x A, x = } = .
3.3.27. f : A R, R A limx f (x) = .
inf{f (x) | x A, 0 < |x | < } sup{f (x) | x A, 0 < |x | < } > 0.
3.3.28. |a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + + an sin nx| | sin x| x.
|a1 + 2a2 + + nan | 1.
f (2x)
3.3.29. [] f : (0, +) R (0, +). limx+ f (x) = 1,
a > 0 limx+ ff(ax)
(x) = 1.
[] f : (0, 1] R f (2x) = 3f (x) x (0, 12 ]. f
(0, 1], limx0 f (x) = 0.
3.3.30. f : A R R A. limx f (x) = R
f (x) = ,
{f (x) | x A}. 3.13 .
3.3.31. [] - - -
y+1
y = 2x+1
x1 x = y2 .
[] y = 2x x1 (0, +).

(, +) x = 41 (y + y 2 + 8).
- - -
.
[] , f
f 1 ;

3.4 .
3.1
.
3.1. f : A R R A.
(xn ) A : (i) xn = n (ii) xn .
[] f (x) R x , (xn ) A (i), (ii)
f (xn ) .
[] , (xn ) A (i), (ii)
(f (xn )) , f .

105
. [] limx f (x) = R (xn ) A (i)
(ii).
> 0. > 0
f (x) N () x A N () x = . (3.5)
xn , xn N (). xn A xn = n,

xn A N () xn = . (3.6)
(3.6) (3.5) x = xn
f (xn ) N ().
f (xn ) .
[] (xn ) A (i), (ii)
(f (xn )) R.
A (i) (ii).
, A, n
xn A N ( n1 ) xn = .
, (xn ) A
(i), (ii). (i) . , > 0 n1 < ,
N ( n1 ) N () xn N (). xn .
, (xn ), (xn ) A (i), (ii),
(f (xn )), (f (xn )) ( ) R.

(x1 , x1 , x2 , x2 , x3 , x3 , . . . ),
(i), (ii) ( 2.15).
( )
f (x1 ), f (x1 ), f (x2 ), f (x2 ), f (x3 ), f (x3 ), . . .
R. (f (xn )), (f (xn )), ,
.
R (xn ) A (i), (ii) f (xn ) .
( ) limx f (x) = .
> 0 f (x) N () .
f (x)
/ N () . n
xn A N ( n1 ) xn = f (xn )
/ N ().
(xn ) A
(i), (ii). , , f (xn ) .
f (xn )
/ N () n.
limx f (x) = .
3.4.1. limxe (1 + x2 3x 3
) e 3e 1 + (1 + n )
( ) =1 1n+
2 3 1 2n

3(1+ n ) 1+e 3e . (1+ n )

1 3n 2 3

1 + x2 3x3 , (1 + n1 )n = e n (1 + n1 )n e.
3.4.2.
{ 3.1 xn = n .
0, x = 0 n1
, f (x) = (xn ) xn = 1+(1)n n.
1, x = 0
limx0 f (x) = 0 xn 0. xn = 0 n, xn = 0
n. , f (xn ) = 0 n f (xn ) = 1 n ,
, (f (xn )) .

106
 3.1 -
() , xn = xn >
(xn < ) limx limx+ (limx ).
3.1 .
3.4.1, , .
, limx f (x). (xn )
f , = (f (xn ))
, limx f (x) . , (xn ),
(xn ) f , =
(f (xn )) (f (xn )) , limx f (x) .

3.4.3. limx+ (1)[x] .

(n) (1)[x] n +
((1)n ) . limx+ (1)[x] .
(n) limx (1)[x] .

3.4.4. limx+ sin x .

(2n) ( 2 +2n) sin x 2n +
2 + 2n +. , sin(2n) = 0 0 sin( 2 + 2n) = 1 1.
limx+ sin x.
(2n) ( 2 2n) limx sin x.
, limx cos x.

3.4.1. limx0 (1)[1/x] , limx (x [x]), limx0 sin x1 ,

limx0 cos x1 , .
(( n )3/4 ) (( n3 +n+1 )2 ) (( n5 +1 )1/4 ) ( 2 )
3.4.2. 4n2+1 , 2n2 1
, 2n6 +1 , log nn+1
2 ,
(( 4n 2n )1/5 ) ( n3 /(n+1) ) ( e2n +1
) ( (log n)2 log n+2 )
4n 3n +2 , e , log en +1 , (log n)2 +log n8 .

3.4.3. f : A R R A. , , (xn )
A xn = n xn .
limx f (x) = R f (xn ) l n, l.
limx f (x) = R f (xn ) u n, u.
u < l f (xn ) l n f (xn ) u n,
limx f (x).

3.4.4. f : R R > 0, f (x + ) = f (x) x.

, limx f (x), f .
limx cos x, limx sin x, limx (x [x]).

3.4.5. 3.1, 3.3 -

2.3.

3.4.6. 8 f : (1, +) R f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 + 1
x > 1 limx+ f (x) = .
8
3.3.16.

107
3.5 .
3.2 , 2.1 -
. 3.2
() () ,
() ,
, , + .

3.2. [] R {+}, A (, ), f : A R
A. f , limx f (x) = sup{f (x) | x A}.
, limx f (x) , f , +, f
.
[] [], f , limx f (x) = inf{f (x) | x A}.
, limx f (x) , f , , f
.
[] R {}, A (, +), f : A R
A. f , limx f (x) = inf{f (x) | x A}. , limx f (x)
, f , , f .
[] [], f , limx f (x) = sup{f (x) | x A}.
, limx f (x) , f , +, f
.

14.

. [] f . -
{f (x) | x A} ,

= sup{f (x) | x A}

. limx f (x) = .
> 0. {f (x) | x A}, x0 A
< f (x0 ). f , x A (x0 , )

f (x) f (x0 ) > .

{f (x) | x A},

f (x) < +

108
 x A.
< f (x) < +
, , |f (x) | < x A (x0 , ). |f (x) | < .
limx f (x) = .
f . - {f (x) | x A}
,
sup{f (x) | x A} = +.
limx f (x) = +.
M > 0. M {f (x) | x A}, x0 A
f (x0 ) > M . f , x A (x0 , )
f (x) f (x0 ) > M.
f (x) > M .
limx f (x) = +.
[] - [] .

[] [] 3.2, R, limx f (x)

limx f (x). , [] [], R, limx+ f (x)
limx f (x).
, [] 3.2. = limx f (x)
f , f (x)
x A. f , f (x) <
x A. , f (x0 ) = x0 A, , f A,
= f (x0 ) f (x) x A (x0 , ), f
. , f A, f (x) < x A.
3.2. :
f () A (, ) limx f (x) = , f (x)
(f (x) ) x A. , , f , ,
( ) A, f (x) < (f (x) > ) x A.
f () A (, +) limx f (x) = , f (x)
(f (x) ) x A. , , f , ,
( ) A, f (x) > (f (x) < ) x A.
3.5.1. a > 0, limx+ xa = +, limx0+ xa = 0, -
xa (0, +).
+ .
( ) limx+ xa = R.
limx+ (2x)a = limy+ y a =
, ,
= limx+ (2x)a = limx+ 2a xa = 2a limx+ xa = 2a .
= 0. , xa 1a = 1 x 1, = limx+ xa 1.
limx+ xa = +.
xa > 0 x > 0, limx0+ xa 0 , ,
-: limx0+ xa = 0. ,
limx0+ (2x)a = limy0+ y a = .

= limx0+ (2x)a = limx0+ 2a xa = 2a

, , = 0.

109
 .

3.5.1. [] f : [1, +) R [1, +) f (n) n
n N. limx+ f (x); , .
[] f : (0, 2) R (0, 2) f ( n1 ) = 1 n1 n N.
limx0 f (x); , .
[] f
;

3.5.2. a > 1.
[] loga (ax) = 1 + loga x x > 0
loga x limx+ loga x, limx0 loga x.
[] ax+1 = aax x ax
limx ax .

3.5.3. f : A R A R
A.
= limx f (x) = limx+ f (x),
.
y : f (x ) y f (x ) x , x A
x < < x . y [, ].
f A.

3.5.4. 9 R{+}, A (, ), f : A R A
A. = limx f (x) R {+}
f (x) < x A. B = {f (x) | x A} (, ).
f A, f 1 : B A
B.
A10 B limy f 1 (y) = .
f A
A (, +), R {} A
f A.

3.5.5. 11 f : A R R A. R
f > 0 f (x) N ()
.
R f (xn )
A xn = n, xn f (xn ) .
L R f -
limx f (x) = inf L limx f (x) = sup L.
limx f (x) limx f (x) L,
f .
limx f (x) limx f (x) f
lim supx f (x) lim infx f (x).
: (i) limx f (x) < y, f (x) < y , (ii) y < limx f (x),
y < f (x) .
9
.
10
3.3.30.
11

.
.

110
: (i) y < limx f (x), y < f (x) , (ii) limx f (x) < y,
f (x) < y .
limx f (x) limx f (x).
limx f (x) limx f (x) = limx f (x)
limx f (x) = limx f (x) = limx f (x).
limx+ f (x) = + limx f (x) = ,
limx f (x) = min{ , + } limx f (x) = max{ , + }.
limx0 limx0 [x], x1 , x12 , sin x1 , x sin x1 , x1 sin x1 .
f , 0 > 0 f
(A \ {}) N (0 ). u : (0, 0 ] R
u() = sup{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} (0, 0 ]. u
(0, 0 ] , , lim0 u(). lim0 u() = limx f (x).
f , > 0
sup{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} = +. limx f (x) = +.
f , 0 > 0 f
(A \ {}) N (0 ). l : (0, 0 ] R
l() = inf{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} (0, 0 ]. l
(0, 0 ] , , lim0 l(). lim0 l() = limx f (x).
f , > 0
inf{f (x) | x (A \ {}) N ()} = . limx f (x) = .

3.6 Cauchy.
CAUCHY. f : A R R A. f
, , > 0 > 0
|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x A N () x , x = .
. limx f (x) = R.
> 0. > 0 |f (x) | <
2 x A N () x = .
x , x A N () x , x =

|f (x ) f (x )| |f (x ) | + |f (x ) | <
2 +
2 = .

, > 0 > 0 |f (x ) f (x )| <

x , x A N () x , x = .
(xn ) A : (i) xn = n (ii) xn .
> 0. . n0 xn A N () xn =
n n0 . n, m n, m n0 |f (xn ) f (xm )| < . (f (xn ))
Cauchy, .
(xn ) A (i) (ii) (f (xn ))
R. 3.1, limx f (x) .

> 0 > 0 |f (x ) f (x )| < x , x

A N () x , x =

limx ,x (f (x ) f (x )) = 0.

Cauchy, Cauchy
,
.
|f (x)| f , |f (x )f (x )|
f .

111
 .

3.6.1. f : A R, R A > 0, M > 0, > 0

|f (x )f (x )| M |x x | x , x A 0 < |x | < 0 < |x | < .
limx f (x) .

3.6.2. f : A R R A.
f , 0 > 0 f
(A \ {}) N (0 ).
0 sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x (A \ {}) N ()} < + (0, 0 ].
: (0, 0 ] R+
0 () = sup{f (x )f (x ) | x , x (A\{})N ()}
(0, 0 ].
(0, 0 ], lim0 () 0.
(f ; ) = lim0 ().
f .
sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x (A \ {}) N ()} = + > 0.
(f ; ) = +.12
limx f (x) (f ; ) = 0.
limx f (x). limx f (x)
(f ; ) = + limx f (x) -
0 (f ; ) < + (f ; ) =
| limx+ f (x) limx f (x)|.
3.5.5 limx f (x), limx f (x)
(f ; ) = + limx f (x), limx f (x)
0 (f ; ) < +
(f ; ) = limx f (x) limx f (x).
(f ; 0) [x], x1 , 1
x2
, sin x1 , x sin x1 , 1
x sin x1 .

12
[], [], (f ; ) f .
4.1.16.

112
 .
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 4. Wiley.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 7. Springer.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 3. Dover.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch I. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 1. Springer.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch II, V. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Hayes Jr, C. (1964) Concepts of Real Analysis, Ch 7. Wiley.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 6. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 4. American Math. Society & Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch II. Springer.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 4. Mir Publishers.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 2. Springer.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 3-5. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 4. Pearson.

.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 5. Springer.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 4. Wiley.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch IV. Dover.
Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch I. Pergammon Press.

113
114
 4

4.1 .
4.1. f : A R A. f
> 0 > 0 |f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < , ,
f (x) Nf () () x A N ().

: f f (x) f () x
( ). ,
f , : f , x
, (x, f (x)) f (, f ()).
f , f (x) Nf () () x A N ()
: f A N ()
Nf () () , , ( )
f A N () Nf () ().
15.

.
: A A.
f . , > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < . , > 0
> 0 |f (x) f ()| < x A 0 < |x | < . (
x , x , , .) ,
limx f (x) = f ().

115
, limx f (x) = f (). , > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < x A 0 < |x | < . , x = ,
|f (x) f ()| = |f () f ()| = 0 < . > 0 (
) > 0 |f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < . (
, x ,
x .) f .
: A A , , -
A. , > 0 A ( , + ) = {}.
, > 0 , , x A
|x | < x = , |f (x) f ()| = |f () f ()| = 0 < . f
.
:
A A, f
limx f (x) = f (). A A, f , ,
.
- f
, f ().

4.2. f : A R A.
f > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < x A < x , , f (x) Nf () ()
x A N ().
f > 0 > 0 |f (x)
f ()| < x A x < + , , f (x) Nf () ()
x A N+ ().

, -
() A, f ()
limx+ f (x) = f () (limx f (x) = f ()) ,
() A, f , , ()
.
3.1 3.2 . (i) -
A, f
. (ii)
A, f
. (iii) A, f
.

4.1.1. x2 3, limx3 x2 = 9 = 32 .
.
.
> 0 > 0 x |x 3| <
|x2 9| < .
, |x2 9| < |x+3||x3| < .
x,
, 3.2.3.
|x + 3||x 3| . ,
|x + 3||x 3| M |x 3| 3, M
x .
|x + 3| M . , x 3, |x + 3|
. , > 0 1, x
|x 3| < |x 3| < 1 , , |x + 3| = |(x 3) + 6| |x 3| + 6 < 7.

116
, > 0 1, x |x 3| <
|x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3|. :

0<1 : |x 3| < |x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3|. (4.1)

7|x3| < |x3| < 7 . ,

> 0 7 , x |x 3| < |x 3| < 7 , , 7|x 3| < .
:
0 < 7 : |x 3| < 7|x 3| < . (4.2)
, , > 0 1 7 ,
(4.1) (4.2) : x |x 3| < |x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3| ( 1)
7|x 3| < ( 7 ) , , |x + 3||x 3| < . :
{ }
|x + 3||x 3| < 7|x 3|
0 < min{1, 7}

: |x3| < |x+3||x3| < .
7|x 3| <

4.1.2. x2 (x + 1) A = (, 1] {0}.
0 A, 0.

4.1.3. [x].
Z. [x] 1 [1, ) , limx [x] =
limx ( 1) = 1 = []. , (, + 1) ,
limx+ [x] = limx+ = = []. [x]
, .
/ Z. n Z , , n = [] n < < n+1.
n [n, ) (, n + 1), limx [x] = limx n = n = [].
[x] .
[x] .

4.1.4. c R, limx c = c.

4.3. f : A R A , ,
A.

4.1.5. P (x) , R
limx P (x) = P ().
P (x)
4.1.6. R(x) = Q(x) . ,
, R
Q(x), limx R(x) = R().

4.1.7. xa , (
a) limx xa = a .

4.1.8. ax , limx ax = a .

4.1.9. loga x , > 0 limx loga x = loga .

4.1.10. cos x, sin x , limx cos x = cos

limx sin x = sin . , tan x, cot x .
limx tan x = tan limx cot x = cot .

4.4. f : A R, B A. f B
B, g : B R g(x) = f (x) x B, B.

117
 {
1, 0 x 1
4.1.11. f (x) = R.
0, x < 0 x > 1
f R 0 1. : limx0 f (x) =
limx0 0 = 0 = 1 = f (0) limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ 1 = 1 = f (0). f
0. , f
1.
f [0, 1], g : [0, 1] R
g(x) = 1. g [0, 1]. f [0, 1].
. f : A R
A, (;) {}. ,
!

4.1.1 .
4.5. f : A R A. f ,
f . f , f
f ( ) .
f , ,
A, .
4.6. = limx f (x) = f ().
f f .
16.

f , f
. ,
g : A R
{
f (x), x A, x =
g(x) =
, x =
g f f . g(x) = f (x)
x A x = , limx g(x) = limx f (x) = . ,
g() = , limx g(x) = g(), g .
{
x + 1, x = 0
4.1.12. f (x) = 0,
0, x = 0
{
x + 1, x = 0
limx0 f (x) = limx0 (x + 1) = 1 f (0) = 1. g(x) =
1, x = 0

118
 0. g x + 1 R, f
x + 1 R \ {0}.

4.7. limx f (x) + -

limx+ f (x) limx f (x) .
f f .
limx+ f (x) limx f (x), = 0, f
.

17.

{
1/x2 , x = 0
4.1.13. f (x) = 0,
0, x = 0
{
1/ x, x > 0
limx0 f (x) = +. f (x) =
0, x = 0
{
1/x, x = 0
4.1.14. f (x) = 0,
1, x = 0
limx0+ f (x) = + limx0 f (x) = , 0 +() = +.
{
x + 1, x 0
4.1.15. f (x) =
x, x < 0
0, limx0+ f (x) = 1 limx0 f (x) = 0. 0 1 0 = 1. f
0.

4.8. f
limx+ f (x)
f limx f (x), -
f f
.

18.

119
 {
sin(1/x), x > 0
4.1.16. f (x) = 0,
x, x 0
limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ sin(1/x) . limx0 f (x) = limx0 x =
0 = f (0), f 0.
{
sin(1/x), x = 0
4.1.17. f (x) = 0,
0, x = 0
0.
{
sin(1/x), x > 0
4.1.18. f (x) = 0,
0, x = 0
0.

, , .
{
x sin(1/x), x = 0
4.1.19. H f (x) = 0. ,
0, x = 0
limx0 f (x) = limx0 x sin(1/x) = 0 = f (0), limx0 x = 0 sin(1/x) -
.

f , -
f ().
.1

4.1.2 .
-
f .

4.1. f : A R A A.
[] A.
f .
f , , , .
[] A.
f .
1
4.1.8.

120
. [] f A.
f A(, ) , f (x)
f () x A (, ). 3.2, limx f (x)
, ,
limx f (x) f ().
, f A (, +), f () f (x)
x A (, +). limx+ f (x)

f () limx+ f (x).

limx f (x), limx+ f (x)

limx f (x) f () limx+ f (x). (4.3)

.
limx f (x) = limx+ f (x), limx f (x) = f () =
limx+ f (x) , , f .
limx f (x) < limx+ f (x), f
limx+ f (x) limx f (x) > 0.
f A : ,
limx f (x) f () limx+ f (x).
[] f A A.
, limx+ f (x) limx+ f (x) f (). ,
limx f (x) limx f (x) f ().
. limx f (x) = f () , , f
. limx f (x) > f (),
f .
.

4.1,
f . 19.
4.14.2

2
4.1.15.

121
(i) f : A R A, A
A f ,
.

= lim f (x), + = lim f (x),

x x+

f + > 0. (4.3)

f () + .

, f ,

f (x) x A (, ) + f (x) x A (, +).

f ( , + )
f (). , f () = f () = + , ( , + )
f , < f () < + , ( , f ()) (f (), + )
f .
f , + <
+ f () : (+ , )
f (+ , f ()) (f (), ) f .
(ii) f : A R A, A
A f , .
+ = limx+ f (x), f () < + . f ,
f (x) f () x A (, ) + f (x) x A (, +).
(f (), + ) f .
f , + < f ()
(+ , f ()) f .
f A A
A, , = limx f (x), , f ,
( , f () f , f , (f (), )
f .
:
f : A R A, A
A f .
f - f () -
.

.
2 +1
4.1.1. x, 2x 3, x2 , x1 , x, xx+1 1.
{ { {
x2 , x = 0 x2 + 1, x < 0 x, x 0
4.1.2. f (x) = f (x) = f (x) =
1, x = 0 x + 1, x 0 1/x, x > 0
{ {
(sin x)/x, x = 0 (1 cos x)/x2 , x = 0
f (x) = f (x) =
1, x = 0 1, x = 0
0;
 
4.1.3. [x], x [x], x [x] 12 , x [x] 12 , [x] + x [x].
; .

122
 { { {
x2 , x = 0 1/|x|, x = 0 x, x 0
4.1.4. f (x) = f (x) = f (x) =
1, x = 0 1, x = 0 1/x, x > 0
{ {
sin(1/x), x > 0 (tan x)/x, x = 0
f (x) = f (x) = -
1, x 0 0, x = 0
0. f
0 0. .
nx nx
4.1.5. f (x) = limn+ nx +nx
; -
.
4.1.6. f : ( , + ) R.
[] , f , limh0 (f ( + h) f ( h)) = 0.
{
1, x = 0
f (x) = = 0 ;
0, x = 0
[] , f , limh0 (f ( + h) + f ( h) 2f ()) = 0.
[]
.
4.1.7. f : A R, A > 0, M 0 |f (x)| M x A
|x | < . g : A R g(x) = (x )f (x). g
.
4.1.8. f : A R, A A { -
f (x), x A, x =
f . R g(x) =
, x =
, f .
{
1, x Z
4.1.9. f (x) = x Z
0, x R \ Z
x R \ Z.
{
1, x Q
f (x) = x.
0, x R \ Q
{
0, x Q
f (x) = 0 x = 0.
x, x R \ Q
{
1/n, x = m/n m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1
f (x) = -
0, x R \ Q
x Q x R \ Q.
.
4.1.10. A B, A, g : B R f : A R g
A. , g , f .
{
x(1)[1/x] , x = 0
4.1.11. 3 f (x) = f
0, x = 0
0 0.
.
: 4.1.9 0
x = 0. !
3
, f
(, f ()). , .

123
4.1.12. f : A R, A > 0, M 0, > 0 |f (x) f ()|
M |x | x A |x | < . f .4

x, |x|, x2 , |x|, x |x| = 0
.
= 0 .

= 0 = 0.5
4.1.13. , n N,
{ An Am An = m, n N
1/n, x An n
m = n. f (x) = f
0, x
/ An n
+
x R \ + n=1 An x n=1 An .

4.1.14. - B. f (x) = inf{|x b| | b B} x.6

f B {a}, [a, b],
(a, +), [a, b] [c, d], [a, b] [c, d] [p, q] ( a < b < c < d < p < q), N, Z, Q.
, , |f (x ) f (x )| |x x | x , x , , f
.
4.1.15. 7 I f : I R I.
f J, f I.
, , f : I J I, -
f 1 : J I J.
4.1.16. f : A R A.
f , 0 > 0 f
A N (0 ). 0 sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} < +
(0, 0 ]. : (0, 0 ] R+
0 () = sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x
A N ()} (0, 0 ]. (0, 0 ],
lim0 () 0. (f ; ) = lim0 ().
f . > 0
sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} = +. (f ; ) = +.8
f (f ; ) = 0.
4.1.17. I f : I R I.
a, b I a < x1 < < xn < b jk = limxxk + f (x) limxxk f (x)
f xk k = 1, . . . , n, j1 + + jn limxb f (x) limxa+ f (x).
a, b I k N, x (a, b),
f k1 , k(limxb f (x) limxa+ f (x)).
(am ), (bm ) I (am ) -
I, (bm ) I a1 < b1 .
(a1 , b1 ) f 1. -
(a2 , b2 ) f 21 ,
4
f , Hlder- Hlder- .
= 1, f Lipschitz- .
4.6.3.
5
5.6.7.
6
inf{|x b| | b B} dist(x, B) x B.
7
, .
. 4.14
.
8
, (f ; ) f . -
3.6.2. 6.1.3.

124
. (a3 , b3 ) f 13 , -
. ,
f I .
f I .
f : I R I;
[x] R [ x1 ] (0, +) -
.9

4.1.18. 10 A, f : A R.
f > 0 > 0
f (x) < f () + x A |x | < .
, A, f , ,
, A, f
limx f (x) f ().
f > 0 > 0
f (x) > f () x A |x | < .
, A, f , ,
, A, f
limx f (x) f ().
{
0, x 0
f (x) = 0, f (x) =
1, x > 0
{
0, x < 0
0.
1, x 0
f
.

4.2 .
4.2. f, g : A R A A. f () = g()
f , g . f, g ,
.

. f .
limx f (x) = f () , f , g , limx g(x) =
limx f (x), limx g(x) = f () = g().
g .
{
x + 1, x < 1
4.2.1. f (x) = x2 -
x2 , 1 x < 4
[1, 4). x2 2, f (x) 2.
(1, 4). , f (x) x + 1
(, 1). x + 1 (, 1), f (x)
. , 4.2,
= 1. , , f (x) = 1.

4.3. f : A R, A A f
.
9
10.1.23 10.1.24
Q .
10
3.5.5.

125
[] f () > u, f (x) > u .
[] f () < l, f (x) < l .
[] u < f () < l, u < f (x) < l .

. 3.4 limx f (x) = f ().

x8 +x3 +1 18 +13 +1 3
4.2.2. x5 +3x4 x2 +1
1 15 +314 12 +1
= 4 =
x8 +x3 +1
0.75. > 0 0.7499999 < x5 +3x4 x2 +1
< 0.7500001
x (1 , 1 + ).

4.4. f : A R A A. f
, .

. 3.6 limx f (x) = f ().

1
4.2.3. x(x1) 12 ,
2 . , > 0 x(x1) ( 2 , 2 + ).
1 1 1 1

(0, 1), < 21 .

4.5. f : A R A A.
[] f f (x) l ,
f () l.
[] f f (x) u ,
f () u.
[] u < l f (x) l f (x) u
, f .

. 3.7 limx f (x) = f ().

4.6. f, g : A R A A. f, g
f (x) g(x) , f () g().

. 3.8 limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g().

4.2.4. f : [0, 1) R 0 f (x) x3

x (0, 1). f (0) 03 = 0.

4.7. f, g, h : A R A A. f, h
, f (x) g(x) h(x)
f () = g() = h(), g .

. 3.10 limx f (x) = f (), limx h(x) = h().

4.8. f, g : A R, A, f , g .
f + g, f g, f g, f, |f | : A R . , , g(x) = 0
x A, f /g : A R .

. A, , -
, . A,
3.11 limx f (x) = f () limx g(x) = g().

x+ex x2 + x
4.2.5. (x2x2 ) log x
sin x+cos x .

126
 f /g. f, g : A R,
A A f , g .
g(x) = 0 x A, f /g
A. , , g() = 0. 4.3
g(x) = 0 . , > 0 g(x) = 0 x
A ( , + ). , g g().
, , f /g : A ( , + ) R .

4.9. f : A B, g : B R A. f g
= f (), g f : A R .

. f g = f ().
> 0. > 0

|g(y) g()| < y B |y | < . (4.4)

, > 0

|f (x) | = |f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < . (4.5)

(4.5) (4.4) y = f (x) ( f (x) B) x A

|x | < |g(f (x)) g()| < , , |(g f )(x) (g f )()| < .
g f .

4.2.6. e x , log x, sin x sin x .

4.9 - - 3.13
g f = limx f (x)
g .

4.10. f : A B, g : B R, A. limx f (x) =

B g , limx (g f )(x) = g().

. limx f (x) = B g .
> 0. > 0

|g(y) g()| < y B |y | < . (4.6)

, , > 0

|f (x) | < x A 0 < |x | < . (4.7)

 f (x) B)
( y =)f (x) (
, (4.7) (4.6)
x A 0 < |x | < g f (x) g() < , , |(g f )(x) g()| < .

limx (g f )(x) = g().

,
x y = f (x)
( )
limx g f (x) = limy g(y) = g().
( )
, limx g f (x) = g() limx f (x) =
( ) ( )
limx g f (x) = g limx f (x) .
, limx g g
, f .

127
 (x7 +1)4
4.2.7. limx0 (x7 +1)8 +(x7 +1)12 +5
.
4
limx0 (x7 + 1) = 1 y8 +yy 12 +5 1. ,
7 +1)4
14
x y = x7 + 1, limx0 (x7 +1)(x 1
8 +(x7 +1)12 +5 = 18 +112 +5 = 7 .

x1
( )5 +4( 2x1 )3 +1
x2 +x+1 x +x+1
4.2.8. limx+ 3( 2 x1
)4 +2( 2x1 )2 +1
.
x +x+1 x +x+1
x1 y 5 +4y 3 +1
limx+ x2 +x+1
= 0 3y 4 +2y 2 +1
0. ,
x1
( 2 )5 +4( 2x1 )3 +1
x1 05 +403 +1
x y = x2 +x+1
, limx+ 3(x +x+1 x1
x +x+1
)4 +2( x1 )2 +1
= 30 4 +202 +1 = 1.
x2 +x+1 x2 +x+1
( )
4.2.9. limx+ ( sinx x )3 + sinx x .
limx+ sinx x = 0 y 3 + y
( sin ) 0. ,
sin x x 3 sin x 3
x y = x , limx+ ( x ) + x = 0 + 0 = 0.

3.13 4.10.
(i) 3.13 f 4.10
f . 4.10 3.3.32.
(ii) limx f (x) = , 3.13 f (x) =
. 4.10 g .
4.10 3.3.33, y 2 + y 4
0, 3.13 4.2.9, N
sinx x = 0 x > N . ,
3.3.34, g 0 , ,
N sinx x = 0 x > N .
4.10 3.13 ,
g , f (x) = .

4.2.10. 3.3.39, -
, t, ( )x
limx+ 1 + xt = et .
3.3.39 t = 1 . t = 1.
y y+1
limx+ (1 x1 )x = limx+ ( x1 x
x ) = limy+ ( y+1 )
y
= limy+ ( y+1 )/(1 + y1 )y = 1
e = e1 .

t > 0 t < 0 t = 1 t = 1, , . t > 0,

( )t
limx+ (1 + xt )x = limy+ (1 + y1 )ty = limy+ (1 + y1 )y = limze z t = et

, t < 0,
( )t
limx+ (1 + xt )x = limy+ (1 y1 )ty = limy+ (1 y1 )y = limze1 z t = et .

t = 0 , , .

3.14. h(x) = f (x)g(x) f (x)

g(x) .
0 < < +, < < + h(x) .
4.10, log f (x) log , , log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) log .
4.10, h(x) = elog h(x) e log = .
3.13 4.10.

128
 0 < < 1 = , log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) + ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) + = .
0 < < 1 = +, log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) 0 = .
> 1 = , log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) 0 = .
> 1 = +, log f (x) log log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) + ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) + = .
= + 0 < +, log f (x) + log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) +
, , h(x) = elog h(x) + = .
= + < 0, log f (x) + log h(x) = g(x) log f (x)
, , h(x) = elog h(x) 0 = .
= 0 = , log f (x) log h(x) = g(x) log f (x) + ,
, h(x) = elog h(x) +.

.
2 x
4.2.1. x logx1 x+xe
, x3/4 log(1 x), log(x2 + 1),

log(x2 5x + 6), (ex 1)1/2 , 1 cos x, e1/ log x , (1 x + [x])(x [x]), [x], sin(log x),
e1/ sin x , log(sin x), log(1 cos x).
4.2.2. f, g : A R A f (x) > 0 x A.
f g : A R (f g )(x) = f (x)g(x) .
xx , (x2 3)(x2)/(x+2) , (log x)log x .
;
4.2.3. limx+ e1/x , limx+ e[x]/x , limx0 ex sin(1/x) , limx cos sinx x
4.10. 3.13;
4.2.4. f : A R A A. f
f (x) l f (x) l
, f ().

4.2.5. f : ( , + ) R. limx f (x) = l limh0 f (+h)+f (h)2f

|h|
()
=
m R, f .
limx f (x) m ;
4.2.6. f, g : A R max{f, g} : A R min{f, g} : A R
max{f, g}(x) = max{f (x), g(x)} min{f, g}(x) = min{f (x), g(x)} x A.
, f , g A, max{f, g} min{f, g}
.
4.2.7. f, g, h : A R A. m : A R , x A,
m(x) f (x), g(x), h(x) .
m A.
{
1, x Q
4.2.8. f (x) = R
1, x R \ Q
|f | R.
{
n, x = m/n m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1
4.2.9. f (x) =
0, x R \ Q
f .

129
4.2.10. 11 f : [a, b] R [a, b].
f (a) = 0 f (b) = 0, f [a, b].
f (a) = 0 f (b) = 0, f [a, b].
4.2.11. 12 I f : I R I.
f (r) 0 r I, f (x) 0 x I.
f (r) = 0 r I, f (x) = 0 x I.
f: [0, 2] R [0, 2] f (r) = r2 r [0, 2],
f ( 2).
4.2.12. 13 [] f : R R f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) x1 , x2 .
, f , f (x) = cx
c.
[] f : R R f (x1 + x2 x3 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) f (x3 )
x1 , x2 , x3 . , f ,
f (x) = cx + d c, d.
[] f : R R f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 )f (x2 ) x1 , x2 f (0) = 0.
, f , f (x) = ecx
c.
4.2.13. f : R R R.
, f ,14
R.
, f R ,
R. {
1, x Q
- f (x) = -
0, x R \ Q
.
4.2.14. f : A R A. g : A R
g(x) = sup{f (t) | t A, t x} x A.
g A f (x) g(x) x A.
h : A R A f (x) h(x) x A,
g(x) h(x) x A. , g
A f A.
, f A, g .
4.2.15. f : R R R limx f (x) = , limx+ f (x) = +.
g : R R g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y} y.


x + 1, x 1
3
f (x) = x, f (x) = x , f (x) = 0, 1 x 1


x 1, 1 x
g.
f (g(y)) = y y.
, , f , g f .
g R y. g
y;
11
.
12
. 4.3.2.
13
.
14
f , f .

130
4.3 .
4.1 . -
3.1 , , -
.
4.1. f : A R, A. f
(xn ) A xn f (xn ) f ().
. f (xn ) A
xn .
> 0. > 0

|f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < . (4.8)

,
|xn | < . (4.9)
(4.9) (4.8) x = xn

|f (xn ) f ()| < .

f (xn ) f ().
, (xn ) A xn f (xn ) f ().
( ) f . > 0
> 0 x A |x | < |f (x) f ()| .
= n1 , n N

xn A |xn | < 1
n |f (xn ) f ()| .

(xn ) A xn , ,
f (xn ) f (). .
f .

4.3.1. P (x) xn , P (xn ) P ().

P (x)
4.3.2. R(x) = Q(x) , Q() = 0 Q(xn ) = 0
n xn , R(xn ) R().
4.3.3. xn , exn e .
4.3.4. > 0 xn > 0 n xn , log xn log .
4.3.5. xn , cos xn cos sin xn sin .
limn+ xn = limn+ f (xn ) = f ()
( )
limn+ f (xn ) = f limn+ xn .

limn+ f
f , (xn ).
4.1,
() xn (xn )
n.
, 4.1 3.1. , -
4.1 (
) 3.1 , ,
= .

131
 n n
4.3.6. 1+(1)
n 0 sin x 0. sin 1+(1)
n sin 0 = 0.
1+(1)n
3.1, n = 0 n.
2.12. zn = xn yn xn x yn y.
0 < x < + < y < + zn xy .
4.1, log xn log x , , log zn = yn log xn y log x.
4.1, zn = elog zn ey log x = xy .
3.1 4.1.
0 < x < 1 y = , log xn log x log zn = yn log xn + , ,
zn = elog zn + = xy .
0 < x < 1 y = +, log xn log x log zn = yn log xn , ,
zn = elog zn 0 = xy .
x > 1 y = , log xn log x log zn = yn log xn , ,
zn = elog zn 0 = xy .
x > 1 y = +, log xn log x log zn = yn log xn + , ,
zn = elog zn + = xy .
x = + 0 < y +, log xn + log zn = yn log xn + ,
, zn = elog zn + = xy .
x = + y < 0, log xn + log zn = yn log xn ,
, zn = elog zn 0 = xy .
x = 0 y = , log xn log zn = yn log xn + , ,
zn = elog zn +.

4.3.1 - .

- . , a < 0, ax
x A,
A . , , A
Z ( ax x Z)
A Q , , R.
a < 0.
ax x A -
ax ay = ax+y x, y A. ,
, A : x + y A x, y A.
r Q. , , m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1
r=m n . r .
: (i) r = m n r n ,

m . (ii) r = mn , m Z n N, r = m n r

m
n . m m n
n . , m , m , n ,
n .
, , r Q r = m r
n r. a ,
( )

(ar )n = ar ar = ar++r = anr = am ,

ar xn = am . , n , m
, (ar )n = am < 0, . , r
, ar . , n
n m
, x = a n m
: a ,

m ( am > 0), n am , m ( am < 0).

132
: r ,
ar , r = m n r , a
r

xn = am .
A -
. A , m Z,
m m = m 1 1 . Z A. , A
Q, , , 12 A. A
. , r, s A, r + s A. ,
r, s A r = m k
n s = l r, s, n, l .
r + s = ml+kn
nl nl . , ,
r + s ( r + s = ml+kn nl ) ,
r + s A. , ar r A
, ar as = ar+s
r, s A. . ,
, , ar a < 0 r A,
1.8[].
A : Q. ,
Z
ax Z ,
. : ax
A. ax A
, , A.
r A ( ) ax r. r = m n
r. k N
2k m 2k m+1
tk = 2k n+1
, sk = 2k n+1
.

2k n + 1 , tk , sk
, tk , sk A k N. ,

tk r, sk r.

ax r,

a tk a r , ask ar .
k n+1 km
atk x2 = a2 > 0, atk > 0
k N.
ar 0.
k n+1 k m+1
ask x2 = a2 < 0, ask < 0
k N.
ar 0.
, ar = 0.

ar ar = ar+(r) = a0 = 1.

( a < 0) ax x
A , , , . , ,
, : ,
x, y A, x + y A. , : x, y A, x + y A.
r.
A , r 2 A
2 A, r = (r 2) + 2 A. A . ,

133
 ax x Q.
, A, ,
ax , ax
x . , , ,
ax x.

.
( ) ( n) ( )
4.3.1. (1 + n1 )8 + 4(1 + n1 )5 + 7 , exp 1+(1) , log(1 + n1 ) ,
( ) ( 4 +n4 ) ( n2 +3 ) ( ) n
n log(1 + n1 ) , exp 3n
n4 +n3 +4
, ( 4n2 3 )3/2 , (tan 21n ), 2log(cos(1/n)) .

4.3.2. 2.3.32, 4.2.11.

4.3.3. 2.3.41[] -
2.3.41[].

4.3.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. x [a, b] x [a, b]

|f (x )| |f (x)|
2 . [a, b] f () = 0.

4.3.5. 15 f : [a, +) [a, +) M 0 M < 1

|f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x [a, +). 4.1.12, f
[a, +). [a, +) f () = .
[a, b], (, b], (, +)
[a, +).

4.3.6. f : A R (xn ) A lim xn A.

f A lim xn , lim f (xn ) = f (lim xn ).
lim xn ; f
A;

4.4 .
-
, , .
.

. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f

[a, b].

. 16 f : [a, b] R [a, b].

A = {x [a, b] | f [a, x]}.

, a A f [a, a]. , b
A , , A [a, b]. ,

= sup A,
15
f : A A A M 0 M < 1
|f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x A. A
f A f () = . .
4.4.10.
16
4.4.24 4.4.25.

134
 [a, b].
f a, a, c (a, b] f
[a, c]. c A, a < c b,

a < b.

f , , c [a, ) f
[c, ]. , = sup A, d A c < d . ,
f [a, d] [c, ], [a, ].

A.

< b. f , , c
(, b] f [, c]. , f [a, ] [, c],
[a, c] , , c A. , < c
A.
= b , , f [a, b].
. ( ) f [a, b].
, n N xn [a, b]

|f (xn )| > n.

(xn ) [a, b] |f (xn )| > n n , ,

|f (xn )| +. (4.10)

Bolzano - Weierstrass, (xnk ) (xn )

.
xnk .
a xnk b k, a b. [a, b], f
, xnk

f (xnk ) f ()

, , |f (xnk )| |f ()|. , (4.10) |f (xnk )| + -

.
{
1/x, 0 < x 1
4.4.1. f (x) = [0, 1].
0, x = 0
{
x, 0 < x 1
4.4.2. f (x) = [0, 1].
1, x = 0
1
4.4.3. H x(x1) (0, 1).

4.4.4. x (1, 1).

4.4.5. x R.

4.4.6. 1
x2 +1
R.

4.4.7. x + x1
(0, +), (0, +). , (0, 1] [1, +).

135
 4.4.8. 0 < a < b. u log(ux x1 )
[a, b]. , x + x1 [a, b] [a, b],
u x + x1 < u x [a, b].

- . f : [a, b] R [a, b].

, [a, b] f () f (x) f () x [a, b].

20.

. 17 f : [a, b] R [a, b].

, f [a, b],
{f (x) | x [a, b]} .

u = sup{f (x) | x [a, b]}, (4.11)

u .
, f (x) u x [a, b].
( ) f (x) < u x [a, b].
g : [a, b] R
g(x) = uf1 (x) (4.12)
, , [a, b]. , M

g(x) M (4.13)

x [a, b]. (4.12) (4.13)

f (x) u 1
M

x [a, b]. u M 1
{f (x) | x [a, b]}. , ,
(4.11).
[a, b] f () = u, f (x) f () x [a, b].
, infimum {f (x) | a x b},
f () f (x) x [a, b].
. u = sup{f (x) | x [a, b]}.
n N u n1 {f (x) | a x b}, xn [a, b]

u n1 < f (xn ).
u {f (x) | a x b},

u 1
n < f (xn ) u.

(xn ) [a, b] u 1
n < f (xn ) u n,

f (xn ) u. (4.14)

Bolzano - Weierstrass, (xnk ) -

.
xnk .
a xnk b k, a b, f .
xnk
f (xnk ) f ().
17
-
4.4.25.

136
 (4.14) f (xnk ) u , ,
f () = u,
f (x) f () x [a, b].
, infimum {f (x) | a x b}, .

, -
. f -
f . ,
- , f

. 5.


x + 1, 1 x < 0
4.4.9. f (x) = 0, x = 0 [1, 1]


x 1, 0 < x 1
. , , [1, 1].
{
0, 1 x < 0
4.4.10. f (x) = [1, 1]
1, 0 x 1
.
4.4.11. H x ( ) (1, 1)
(1, 1).


x + 2, 2 < x < 1
4.4.12. f (x) = x, 1 x 1 (2, 2)


x 2, 1 < x < 2
.
x|x|
4.4.13. x2 +1
( ) R
.
{
1/x, |x| > 1
4.4.14. f (x) = R
x, |x| 1
.
4.4.15. 4.4.8. u
log(u x x1 ) [a, b]. , x + x1
[a, b], [a, b] x + x1 + 1 x [a, b].
u + 1 + 1 .

137
 . f : [a, b] R [a, b].
f (a) f (b) f (b) f (a) [a, b] f () = .

21.

. 18 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a) f (b).

A = {x [a, b] | f (x) }.
A - , a A A [a, b].

= sup A,

[a, b] A [a, ].
f () > . , , (a, b]. f , c [a, )
f (x) > x (c, ]. A [a, c]. , c <
= sup A. f () .
f () < . , , [a, b). f , c (, b]
f (x) < x [, c). [, c) A. A [a, ].
f () .
f () f () f () = .
[a, b] f () = .19
f (b) f (a).
. f (a) f (b).
[a, a+b 2 ], [ 2 , b] f (a) f ( 2 )
a+b a+b

f ( 2 ) f (b). a1 = a, b1 = 2 .
a+b a+b

a1 = a+b 2 , b1 = b. , [a1 , b1 ] [a, b], b1 a1 =

2 f (a1 ) f (b1 ).
ba

, [a1 , a1 +b 2 ], [ 2 , b1 ] f (a1 )
1 a1 +b1

2 ) f ( 2 ) f (b1 ). a2 = a1 , b2 =
f ( a1 +b 1 a1 +b1
a1 +b1 a1 +b1
2 . a2 = 2 , b2 = b1 . ,
b1 a1
[a2 , b2 ] [a1 , b1 ], b2 a2 = 2 f (a2 ) f (b2 ).
.
[an , bn ] n
bn an
[an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ], bn+1 an+1 = 2 , f (an ) f (bn ) (4.15)

n.
(4.15) bn an = ba
2n n , ,

bn an 0.

, (an ), (bn )
.
an , bn .
an , bn [a, b] n, [a, b], f .

f (an ) f (), f (bn ) f ()

, (4.15) f () = .
f (b) f (a), .
18
4.6.13.
19
, , f () = .
A = {x [a, b] | f (x) } = inf A, f () = .

138
 . f (a) = f (b), ,
, = f (a) = f (b), f (x) = :
a, b. , f (a) = f (b) = f (a) = f (b), f (x) =
: a b, . f (a) < < f (b)
f (b) < < f (a) . ,
a, b f (x) = , (a, b)
f () = . :
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) < < f (b)
f (b) < < f (a) (a, b) f () = .
. ,
:
.
{
1, 0 < x 1
4.4.16. f (x) = [0, 1].
0, x = 0
(f (0), f (1)) = (0, 1) f .
{
x, 0 x < 1/2
4.4.17. f (x) = [0, 1],
x (1/2), 1/2 x 1
(f (0), f (1)) = (0, 21 ) f .
.
4.4.18. 3x7 1 = x
[0, 1].
3x7 1 x [0, 1]. 3 07 1 0 = 1 3 17 1 1 = 1
1 < 0 < 1. (0, 1) 3 7 1 = 0.
4.4.19. x3 5x2 18x + 7 = 0
, .
f (x) = x3 5x2 18x + 7. a, b a < b 0
f (a), f (b). - : f (0) = 7, f (1) = 15.
(0, 1) f () = 0.
, . (
) . limx f (x) = , a (
) f (a) < 0. , limx+ f (x) =
+, b f (b) > 0. (a, b) f () = 0.

139
 4.4.20. n N. y > 0.
limx+ xn = +, b > 0 bn > y. ,
b > max{y, 1} b > 1 b > y ,
, bn > b > y.
xn [0, b] 0n < y < bn . x (0, b)
xn = y.
, , 1.2:
y > 0 x > 0 xn = y.
xn = y
1.2 y = 0 .

, , .

BOLZANO. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a)f (b) < 0,

(a, b) f () = 0.

. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a)f (b) < 0.

f (a) < 0 < f (b) f (b) < 0 < f (a), (a, b) f () = 0.

. I f : I R I.
f (x) = 0 x I, f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0
x I.

. f : I R I f (x) = 0 x I.
( ) a, b I f (a) < 0 f (b) > 0.
I , [a, b] [b, a] I, f
. (a, b) (b, a) , , I f () = 0. .
f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0 x I.

Bolzano . ,
, .
, Bolzano f : [a, b] R [a, b]
f (a) f (b) f (b) f (a).
= f (a) = f (b), [a, b] f () = : a b, . ,
, f (a) < < f (b) f (b) < < f (a). g : [a, b] R
g(x) = f (x) x [a, b]. g [a, b] g(a)g(b) < 0.
(a, b) g() = 0 , , f () = .
.
, Bolzano .20
, -
:
I f : I R I. f ,
f .
, f (a) f (b) a, b I. I ,
[a, b] [b, a] I, f .
[a, b] [b, a] , , I f () = f .

4.4.1. x2 x + 1 (0, 1);

20
, , .
4.4.21.

140
4.4.2. sin x1 (0, +)
(0, +). ;
x sin x, x1 sin x1 (0, +).
1
1+x sin x1 (0, +).

4.4.3. x7 3x6 + 5x5 + 13x4 x3 12x2 5x + 1 = 0

[0, 1].
x3 + x1 2 1
+ x2 5
+ x3 = 0
(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3).
ex = x + 2 .

4.4.4. a1 < b1 < a2 < b2 < < an < bn .

P (x) = 2(x a1 ) (x an ) + 3(x b1 ) (x bn ) n .

4.4.5. f : I R I n N, n 2.
x1 , . . . , xn I I f () = f (x1 )++f
n
(xn )
.

4.4.6. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1] f (0) = f (1). k N k 2

x [0, k1 1
k ) f (x) = f (x + k ).

4.4.7. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) > g(x)

x [a, b]. > 0 f (x) g(x) + x [a, b].

4.4.8. |f | : [a, b] R, 4.3.4.

4.4.9. f : (a, b) R (a, b) f (x) Q x (a, b).

f (a, b).

4.4.10. [] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) g(a) f (b) g(b),

[a, b] f () = g().
[]21 , f : [a, b] [a, b] [a, b], [a, b]
f () = .
[] f : R R . limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = +,
f () = .

4.4.11. I f, g : I R I f (x) = g(x)

x I.
f (x) < g(x) x I f (x) > g(x) x I.
h : I R I. h(x) = f (x) h(x) = g(x) x I,
h(x) = f (x) x I h(x) = g(x) x I.

4.4.12. [] I f, g : I R I. g(x)2 = f (x)2 > 0

x I, g(x) = f (x) x I g(x) = f (x)
x I.
[] I [0, +) I (, 0] f : I R I.
f (x)2 = x2 x I. f (x) = x x I
f (x) = x x I.
f : R R f (x)2 = x2 x;
[] I [1, 1] f : I R 2
I. x + f (x) = 1
2

x I. f (x) = 1 x x I f (x) =
2

1 x2 x I.
21
2.4.16[].
. 4.3.5. .

141
4.4.13. 22 [] I f1 , . . . , fn : I R I. f1 , . . . , fn
x I n .
;
, , h : I R I x I -
( x) n , ,
(h(x) f1 (x)) (h(x) fn (x)) = 0 x I. h
f1 , . . . , fn ;
[] I [1, +) I [0, 1] h : I R I.
(h(x) x)(h(x) x2 )(h(x) x3 ) = 0 x I. h(x) = x
x I h(x) = x2 x I h(x) = x3 x I.
I = [0, +), - - h;

4.4.14. 23 a, b R, a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b). ,

limxa f (x), limxb f (x) x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) > limxa f (x)
f (x0 ) > limxb f (x), f (a, b).
f (a, b).

4.4.15. I f : I R I. x I,
I, > 0 x (x, x + ) I f (x) f (x ). f
I. {
x, 0 x < 1
f (x) =
x 1, 1 x 2
2.4.16[].

4.4.16. 24 f : R R R. x f
x > x f (x ) > f (x).25 x (a, b) f a, b
f . A f (x) < f (b) x (a, b)
f (a) = f (b).

4.4.17. f : (a, +) R (a+). b > 0

(xn ) (a, +) xn + f (xn + b) f (xn ) 0.

4.4.18. f, g : [a, b] [a, b] [a, b]. g f g = g f .

[a, b] f () = g() = .26

4.4.19. 27 , f : I R -- I,
f I.
{
x, x [0, 1] Q
f : [0, 1] [0, 1] f (x) = f
1 x, x [0, 1] \ Q
--, 12 -
[0, 1].
22
4.4.11.
7.6. 4.5.9, 4.5.10 4.5.11.
23
- .
4.5.12 4.13
.
24
.
2.5.9.
25
f (x) , , f (x ) +.
26
4.3.5 4.4.10, f, g .
27
. --. -
, .

142
4.4.20. I ( ) f : I R f (x) =
. f
I. , I = [a, b), I = (a, b), I = [a, b]
f ;

4.4.21.
.

4.4.22. - A . 1.4,
a, b A a < b f : A R A
f (a) < < f (b) A f () = . : f : A R
A A A .

4.4.23. f : [a, b] R [a, b] -

, f (a) f (b) f (b) f (a)
[a, b] f () = . f [a, b].

4.4.24. 28 f : [a, b] R [a, b].

f [a, b]. f [a, a+b a+b
2 ] [ 2 , b].
[a1 , b1 ] f .
, [an , bn ] n [an+1 , bn+1 ]
[an , bn ], bn+1 an+1 = bn a
2
n
f [an , bn ].
[a, b] an bn f .
n0 f [an0 , bn0 ] .
f [a, b].

4.4.25. 29 f : [a, b] R [a, b].

u = sup{f (x) | x [a, b]}, u R {+}. (xn ) [a, b]
f (xn ) u. (xnk ) (xn ).
xnk . f (xnk ) f () f () = u. u
f [a, b].

4.4.26. 30 f : [a, b] R.
f [a, b],
[a, b] [a, b].
f [a, b],
[a, b] [a, b].

4.5 . .
f
, ,
f (x) = .

4.11. ,
.

. I f : I R I.
A = {f (x) | x I} f y1 , y2 A y1 < y < y2 . y
y1 y2 f , y f , y A.
1.4, A .
28
.
29
- .
30
4.1.18.

143
 4.11 1.4.
f : I R I

l = inf{f (x) | x I} u = sup{f (x) | x I}.

4.11 {f (x) | x I} , -
1.4, l, u R. ,

{f (x) | x I} = [l, u] (l, u) [l, u) (l, u].

.
(i) f ( ) (-
), l u
f , , [l, u].
(ii) f , (l, u).
(iii) f , l f ,
, [l, u).
(iv) f , u f ,
, (l, u].
, -
infimum supremum
.
-
. 4.5.13.

- - .

4.12. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. {f (x) | x [a, b]}

f I.

. 4.11 - .

.
. 5 , ,
. ,
.

4.5.1. x2 [1, 4],

[1, 4] 12 = 1 42 = 16. x2
[1, 4] [1, 16].

4.5.2. x1 [ 21 , 3],
[ 21 , 3] 13 2. x1
[ 12 , 3] [ 13 , 2].

4.5.3. f (x) = x2 6x + 5 = (x 3)2 4

[1, 6]. f [1, 3] [3, 6]. f
[1, 6] f (3) = 4 max{f (1), f (6)} = 12.
f [1, 6] [4, 12].

, ,
.

144
 4.13. 31 P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn .
[] P , n = 2k 1, k N, an = 0.
P (, +).
[] P , n = 2k, k N, an = 0. an > 0, P
, l, [l, +). an < 0, P
, u, (, u].

. [] an > 0, limx P (x) = limx+ P (x) = +.

P , infimum
supremum +. 4.11, P
(, +).
an < 0, limx P (x) = + limx+ P (x) = .
[] an > 0. limx P (x) = limx+ P (x) = +,
a, b a < 0 < b

P (0) < P (x) x (, a) (b, +). (4.16)

, P [a, b], , l, . ,

l P (x) x [a, b]. (4.17)

0 [a, b], l P (0), , (4.16),

l < P (x) x (, a) (b, +). (4.18)

(4.17) (4.18) l P R.
, limx P (x) = limx+ P (x) = + P
. P l supremum
+. P [l, +).
an < 0, .

4.5.4. 2x5 + 4x4 3x3 x2 1 (, +).

4.5.5. P (x) = x4 4x3 + 4x2 7 = x2 (x 2)2 7. ,

P (x) 7 x 7 = P (0) = P (2). 7 P
[7, +).

.32 4.14
, 3.2, ,
(, ) .
, , --. ,
f : I J I J,
f 1 : J I J
I. , f , f 1 , ,
. ,
4.14, f f 1 .

4.14. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].

f [A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b). , f 1 : [A, B] [a, b]
[A, B].
31
4.5.12.
32
5
.

145
[] a, b R, a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).
f (A, B), A = limxa f (x) R, B = limxb f (x) R. ,
f 1 : (A, B) (a, b) (A, B).
[] a R, a < b f : (a, b] R (a, b].
f (A, B], A = limxa f (x) R, B = f (b). , f 1 : (A, B]
(a, b] (A, B].
[] b R, a < b f : [a, b) R [a, b).
f [A, B), A = f (a), B = limxb f (x) R. , f 1 : [A, B)
[a, b) [A, B).
[] - [] f
. A, B . ,
[] [B, A] [A, B].
. f -
. 4.11 3.2.
[] 4.12 4.11, f
[A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b), f 1 : [A, B] [a, b]
[A, B] [a, b].
[] 3.2 infimum supremum
f A = limxa f (x) B = limxb f (x), ,
A < f (x) < B x (a, b). , 4.11 (
), f (A, B),
f 1 : (A, B) (a, b) (A, B) (a, b).
[] infimum f A = limxa f (x) A < f (x)
x (a, b]. B = f (b) . -
f (A, B], f 1 : (A, B] (a, b]
(A, B] (a, b].
[] supremum f B = limxb f (x) f (x) < B
x [a, b). A = f (a) .
f [A, B), f 1 : [A, B) [a, b)
[A, B) [a, b).
, f .
.
f 1 : J I -
J I. f 1
J. J ,
J. f 1 , ,
4.1, f 1
f 1 . , , ,
f 1 I. f 1 J.
4.5.6. f : (1, 3) R f (x) = 2x2 + 1. f
(1, 3) limx1 f (x) = 3, limx3 f (x) = 19. f
(3, 19). f 1 : (3, 19) (1, 3) (3, 19).
f 1 (3, 19),
limy3 f 1 (y) limy19 f 1 (y).
f , (1, 3). limy3 f 1 (y) = 1 limy19 f 1 (y)
= 3.
1 1
f . : f (y) = (y 1)/2.
f 1 3 19.
4.5.7. f : (1, +) R f (x) = x+1
x1 . f
(1, +) limx1 f (x) = +, limx+ f (x) = 1.

146
 f (1, +). f 1 : (1, +) (1, +)
(1, +). f 1 (1, +),
limy+ f 1 (y) limy1 f 1 (y).
(1, +), limy+ f 1 (y) = 1 limy1 f 1 (y) = +.
f 1 f 1 (y) = y+1
y1 . f
1

1 +.

f 1 .
f 1 . , f 1
4.14
f 1 .

4.5.8. f : R R f (x) = x5 + x3 + x
R limx f (x) = , limx+ f (x) = +. f R
( , f ). f 1 : R R
R. , f 1
limy f 1 (y) = limy+ f 1 (y) = +.
f 1 .

4.5.9. f : [0, +) R f (x) = xex + 1

[0, +). f (0) = 1, limx+ f (x) = , f
(, 1] f 1 : (, 1] [0, +) (, 1].
, f 1 limy f 1 (y) = +.
f 1 , x xex +1 = y.

4.5.10. n N, n 2. 1.2 4.4.20 -

y [0, +) xn = y [0, +).

1.7 n y n-

y. , x = n y, -
[0, +).
4.14.
y = xn [0, +) -
[0, +) 0n = 0 limx+ xn = +. 4.14
[0, +) ,

x = n y, [0, +).

x = n y , [0, +).

x = n y ( )

limy n y = n 0.

, x = n y [0, +)
, 4.14

n y = +.
limy+

4.5.11. a > 1. y = ax
(, +) limx ax = 0 limx+ ax = +,
4.14 (0, +).
, , x = loga y,
, (0, +)
(, +).

147
 4.14.
y = ax 4.14 -
, x = loga y, (0, +).
x = loga y y = ax , (, +).
x = loga y

logy loga y = loga .

, x = loga y (, +) -
, 4.14

limy+ loga y = +, limy0+ loga y = .

0 < a < 1.
,
,
.
-
.

4.5.1 .
cos [0, ]. H cos : [0, ] R
[0, ]. cos 0 = 1 cos = 1, [1, 1].
.
4.9. cos : [0, ] [1, 1]
arccos : [1, 1] [0, ].
, x [0, ], y [1, 1], : x = arccos y cos x = y.
arccos : [1, 1] [0, ] [1, 1]
[0, ].
sin [ 2 , 2 ]. H sin : [ 2 , 2 ] R
[ 2 , 2 ]. sin( 2 ) = 1 sin 2 = 1, [1, 1].
.
4.10. sin : [ 2 , 2 ] [1, 1]
arcsin : [1, 1] [ 2 , 2 ].
22.

148
 , x [ 2 , 2 ], y [1, 1], : x = arcsin y sin x = y.
arcsin : [1, 1] [ 2 , 2 ] [1, 1]
[ 2 , 2 ].
tan ( 2 , 2 ). H tan : ( 2 , 2 ) R
( 2 , 2 ). limx 2 + tan x = limx 2 tan x = +,
(, +). .

4.11. tan : ( 2 , 2 ) (, +)
arctan : (, +) ( 2 , 2 ).

23.

, x ( 2 , 2 ), y (, +), : x = arctan y tan x = y.

arctan : (, +) ( 2 , 2 ) (, +)
( 2 , 2 ).
, ,

limy arctan y = 2 , limy+ arctan y = 2 .

, cot (0, ). H cot : (0, ) R -

(0, ). limx0+ cot x = + limx cot x = ,
(, +). .

4.12. cot : (0, ) (, +) -

arccot : (, +) (0, ).

, x (0, ), y (, +), : x = arccot y cot x = y.

arccot : (, +) (0, ) (, +)
(0, ).
,
limy arccot y = , limy+ arccot y = 0.

4.5.2 .
4.13. , , -
:
ex +ex ex ex ex ex ex +ex
cosh x = 2 , sinh x = 2 , tanh x = ex +ex
, coth x = ex ex
.

x x = 0.

149
 :
(cosh x)2 (sinh x)2 = 1, tanh x = sinh x
cosh x , coth x = cosh x
sinh x ,

cosh(x1 + x2 ) = cosh x1 cosh x2 + sinh x1 sinh x2 ,

sinh(x1 + x2 ) = cosh x1 sinh x2 + sinh x1 cosh x2 .
cos x, sin x,
tan x cot x. :
ex = cosh x + sinh x, ex = cosh x sinh x

eix = cos x + i sin x, eix = cos x i sin x
.
cosh [0, +). cosh 0 = 1
limx+ cosh x = +, cosh [0, +) [1, +).
cosh , (, 0]
[1, +). , cosh -- R. ,
cosh [0, +).
4.14. cosh : [0, +) [1, +) -
arccosh : [1, +) [0, +).
arccosh : [1, +) [0, +) [1, +)
[0, +).

arccosh y = log(y + y 2 1) 1 y.
sinh (, +). , limx sinh x =
limx+ sinh x = +, sinh (, +).
.
4.15. sinh : (, +) (, +)
arcsinh : (, +) (, +).
arcsinh : (, +) (, +) (, +)
(, +)

arcsinh y = log(y + y 2 + 1) y.
tanh (, +).
limx tanh x = 1 limx+ tanh x = 1, tanh
(1, 1). .
4.16. tanh : (, +) (1, 1)
arctanh : (1, 1) (, +).
arctanh : (1, 1) (, +) (1, 1)
(, +).
arctanh y = 1
2 log 1+y
1y 1 < y < 1.
coth (0, +) limx0+ coth x = +
limx+ coth x = 1, coth (0, +)
(1, +). coth , (, 0)
(, 1). coth (, 0) (0, +) --
(, 1) (1, +). .

150
 4.17. coth : (, 0) (0, +) (, 1)
(1, +) arccoth : (, 1)
(1, +) (, 0) (0, +).

arccoth : (, 1) (1, +) (, 0) (0, +)

(, 1) (1, +) (, 0)
(0, +). : arccoth (, 1) (1, +)
(, 1) (1, +).

y+1
arccoth y = 21 log y1 y < 1 1 < y.

arctanh arccoth x = 21 log | y+1

y1 |
(, 1) (1, 1) (1, +) (, +).

4.5.1. 2x3 + x2 5x + 6, x4 2x2 + 7, x6 3x4 + 3x2 1 ;

4.5.2. x + 1
x (, 1], [1, 0), (0, 1], [1, +).
3 2 1 5
4.5.3. x + x1 + x2 + x3 = c ;
c.

4.5.4. x2 + 2x [0, 1], x1 (0, 1] x21+1 [0, +).

.
;

4.5.5. P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn . a0 an < 0,

> 0 P () = 0.

4.5.6. 0, 12 , 2
2 , 2
3
1.

4.5.7. arctan y + arccot y = 2 y arccos y + arcsin y = 2

y [1, 1].
y y = cos(arccos y) y = sin(arcsin y); y
y = tan(arctan y) y = cot(arccot y);
arctan y + arctan y1 = 2 y > 0 arctan y + arctan y1 = 2
y < 0.
arccos(cos x) = x x [0, ]. , -
arccos(cos x) x [k, (k + 1)] k Z ;
arcsin(sin x), arctan(tan x)
arccot(cot x) ;

4.5.8. -
y+1
x = 12 log | y1 |.

4.5.9. 33 f1 : (, 0) (, +), f2 : (0, +) (, +)

f1 (x) = f2 (x) = 21 (x x1 ).
f1 , f2 (, +).
f1 1 , f2 1 ,
, , ;
, g f1 1 , f2 1 , g(y)2 2yg(y) 1 = 0
33
4.4.11 4.4.13. g
- .
7.6. 7.3.28.

151
 y (, +).
g : (, +) R (, +) g(y)2 2yg(y) 1 = 0
y (, +). g = f1 1 g = f2 1 .
.

4.5.10. f1 : (, 1] R, f2 : [1, 0) R, f3 : (0, 1] R, f4 : [1, +) R

f1 (x) = f2 (x) = f3 (x) = f4 (x) = 12 (x + x1 ).
f1 , f4 f2 , f3
. , ,
f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 , f4 1 ;
, g f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 , f4 1 , g(y)2
2yg(y) + 1 = 0 y .
g : (, 1] R (, 1] g(y)2 2yg(y) + 1 = 0
y (, 1]. g = f1 1 g = f2 1 .
g : [1, +) R [1, +) g(y)2 2yg(y) + 1 = 0
y [1, +). g = f3 1 g = f4 1 .
.

4.5.11. f1 : (, 1] R, f2 : [1, 1] R, f3 : [1, +) R

f1 (x) = f2 (x) = f3 (x) = x3 3x.
f1 , f3 f2
. , ,
f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 ;
, g f1 1 , f2 1 , f3 1 , g(y)3 3g(y) = y
y .
I g : I R I g(y)3 3g(y) = y y I.
I = [2, +), g = f3 1 . I = (, 2], g = f1 1 . , ,
I = [2, 2], g = f1 1 g = f2 1 g = f3 1 .
.

4.5.12. a, b R , a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).

limxa f (x) = limxb f (x) = . 4.4.14, f
(a, b). u f , f (, u].
limxa f (x) = limxb f (x) = +;

4.5.13. a, b R, a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).

A = limxa f (x) R, B = limxb f (x) R A < B.
(A, B) f .
A < f (x) < B x (a, b), f (A, B).
f (x) < B x (a, b) x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) A,
f (a, b). l , f
[l, B).
A < f (x) x (a, b) x0 (a, b) B f (x0 ),
f (a, b). u , f
(A, u].
x0 , x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) A B f (x0 ), f
(a, b). l u ,
f [l, u].
A > B A = B;
(a, b] [a, b) (a, b);

152
4.6 .
f : A R. f A. f -
> 0 > 0 |f (x) f ()| <
x A |x | < . .
: = (, ). : (i) ,
f , ,
, , , (ii) ,
.
.

4.6.1. f : R R f (x) = x2 .
f . , > 0
> 0 |x2 2 | < x |x | < .
.
( ) , > 0,
> 0 , ,
|x2 2 | < x |x | < . , , x = + 2
|x | < , , |x2 2 | < . , ,
2
| + 4 | < .
2
: | + 4 | < , . !!
2 2
, | + 4 | : lim+ | + 4 | = +.
2
, | + 4 | < .

f : A R A , ,
.
: > 0 > 0 A |f (x) f ()| <
x A |x | < . ,
: > 0 > 0
|f (x) f ()| < , , A x A |x | < .
: > 0 > 0 |f (x)f ()| <
x, A |x | < . , x,
, .

4.18. f : A R. f A
> 0 > 0 |f (x ) f (x )| < x , x A |x x | < .

, f : A R A,
A. , .

4.6.2. 4.6.1, f : R R f (x) = x2

R R.

4.6.3. f : R R f (x) = 3x 2.
> 0. |f (x ) f (x )| < |(3x 2) (3x 2)| <
3|x x | < |x x | < 3 . :

|f (x ) f (x )| < |(3x 2) (3x 2)| < 3|x x | < |x x | < 3 .

0 < 3 . , x , x R |x x | <
|x x | < 3 , , |f (x ) f (x )| < .
f R.

153
 4.2 6 -
.
4.2. 34 f : [a, b] R [a, b],
[a, b].
. f [a, b].
> 0 > 0 x , x [a, b] |x x | <
|f (x ) f (x )| . n N

xn , xn [a, b] |xn xn | < 1

n |f (xn ) f (xn )| .

(xn ) , , Bolzano - Weierstrass,

(xnk ) .

xnk .

a xnk b k, a b. |xnk xnk | < 1

nk
k,
xnk xnk 0.
xnk
xnk .
[a, b], f . xnk xnk

f (xnk ) f () f (xnk ) f ().

,
f (xnk ) f (xnk ) 0.
, , |f (xnk ) f (xnk )| k.
, f [a, b].

.
{
0, x [0, 1)
4.6.1. f (x) =
1, x (1, 2]
[0, 1) (1, 2].

4.6.2. x, |x|, x2 + 1, sin x R,

x [0, +) x1 , sin x1
(0, +).
f (x) = x sin(log(x + 1)) -
[0, +) limx+ f (x).
sin(x2 ) [0, +)
[0, +).
4.6.3. f : A R > 0, M > 0 |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x |
x , x A. f A.35
x |x| R.
x2 [a, b] R.
34
4.2, - -
5.3.20. , 4.6.3, 4.6.7, 4.6.9, 4.6.11
4.6.12.
35
f , Hlder- A Hlder- . ,
= 1, f Lipschitz- A. 4.1.12. ,
, 5.3.20 5.4.10.

154
4.6.4. A B, f : B R. f B,
A.

4.6.5. f : A B, g : B R. f A g
B, g f : A R A.

4.6.6. f, g : A R A.
f + g : A R A.
, , f, g , f g : A R -
A.
A f, g : A R A f g
A.

4.6.7. I1 , I2 -
f : I1 I2 R I1 I2 . f
I1 I2 .

4.6.8. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1]. n1 nk=1 (1)k f (k/n) 0.

4.6.9. f : A R. f A
(xn ), (xn ) A xn xn 0 f (xn ) f (xn ) 0.

4.6.10. f : A R A. (xn ) A Cauchy,

(f (xn )) Cauchy.
x2 ;

4.6.11. 36 b R {+} f : [a, b) R [a, b).

, limxb f (x) , f
[a, b).
, , , b R f [a, b),
limxb f (x) .
, , , b R, f [a, b)
g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) = f (x) x [a, b).
(a, b] (a, b) [a, b).

4.6.12. f : R R R . > 0
f (x + ) = f (x) x. f R.

4.6.13. 37 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a) < < f (b).

k N > 0 = 1/k
. [a, b] a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b
< . nk 1, . . . , n 1 f (xnk ) .
f (xnk ) < f (xnk +1 ) |f (xnk ) | < 1/k , ,
f (xnk ) . Bolzano - Weierstrass [a, b]
f () = .

4.6.14. f : [0, +) R [0, +).

a, b 0 |f (x)| ax + b x 0.

4.6.15. f : [0, +) R [0, +).

[] f (x + n) 0 x 0, limx+ f (x) = 0.
f : [0, +) R [0, +) f (x + n) 0
36
.
37
.

155
 x 0, limx+ f (x) = 0 ;
[] (xn ) xn + xn+1 xn 0 f (xn ) 0,
limx+ f (x) = 0. (xn ) xn +
xn+1 xn 0 ;
f : [0, +) R [0, +) (xn ) xn
+ xn+1 xn 0 f (xn ) 0, limx+ f (x) = 0 ;

4.6.16. A f : A R A. f
.

4.6.17. f : R R , R. f -
R.

4.6.18. f : R R > 0. a - f
|f (a + x) f (x)| < x.
f : R R > 0 L > 0
L - f .
, 1 1 - f 2 2 - f ,
1 + 2 (1 + 2 )- f .
.
.
, f, g : R R , f + g, f g
.
sin x 2. a ,
sin x + sin(ax) .

156
 .
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 5. Wiley.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 8. Springer.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 5-6. Springer.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 3. Dover.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch I. Wiley.
Courant, R & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 1. Springer.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap IV. Springer.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch V. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Hayes Jr, C. (1964) Concepts of Real Analysis, Ch 7. Wiley.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 6. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 3, 8. American Math. Society & Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch II. Springer.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 4. Mir Publishers.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 6-8, 12. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 4. Pearson.

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Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 3-4. Springer.
Boas, R. (1996) A Primer of Real Functions, Ch 2. Math. Association of America.
Buck, R. & Buck, E. (2003) Advanced Calculus, Ch 2. Waveland Press.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 5. Springer.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 4-5. Harper and Row.
Goffman, C. (1953) Real Functions, Ch 7. Rinehart.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 5-6. Wiley.
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Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch I. Pergammon Press.

157
158
 5

5.1 .
5.1. f : A R A A.
limx f (x)f
x
()
, f () f . ,

f () = limx f (x)f ()
x .

, f () R. f () R,
f .

f ()
df dy
Dx f (), dx (), dx ().

y = f (x) x
y.
. , dy dx
f (). .
, ,
. , .
, , x, ,
df dy
Dx f (x), dx (x) dx (x),
df dy
Dx f, dx , dx ,

x .
dx2 x2 12
5.1.1. dx (1) = limx1 x1 = limx1 (x + 1) = 2. x2 -
1.

3 3 3
5.1.2. ddxx (0) = limx0 xx0
0
= limx0 1
3 2 = +. 3
x
x
0 0.

limx f (x)f
x
()
limh0 f (+h)f
h
()
,
x h = x .
limx f (x)f
x
()

0. , f ,
0 00 .

159
 5.2. f : A R, A.
A limx f (x)f
x
()
, f ()
() f .
, A limx+ f (x)f x
()
,
f+ () () f .
df dy
Dx f (), dx () dx ()
.
. (i)
A. f () f (), f+ ()
, , f () = f () = f+ (). (ii)
A. f () f ()
, , f () = f (). (iii)
A. f () f+ () ,
, f () = f+ ().
d|x|
5.1.3. dx+ (0) = limx0+ |x| d|x| |x|
x = 1 dx (0) = limx0 x = 1. |x|
0.

d |x| |x| d |x| |x|
5.1.4. dx+ (0) = limx0+ x = + dx (0) = limx0 x = .

|x| 0.
{
x, x 0
5.1.5. f (x) = f+ (0) = limx0+ xx = +
x, x 0

x
f (0) = limx0 = +. f 0 f (0) = +.
x
{
x sin(1/x), x = 0
5.1.6. f (x) =
0, x = 0
f+ (0) = limx0+ x sin(1/x)
x = limx0+ sin x1 . f (0) = limx0 x sin(1/x)
x =
limx0 sin x1 , , . f 0.
4.1.19 0.
{
x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
5.1.7. f (x) = -
0, x = 0
2
. , , f (0) = limx0 x sin(1/x)
x = limx0 x sin x1 = 0,
limx0 x = 0 sin x1 .

5.1.8. x [0, +). ddxx (0) = d x
dx+ (0) = limx0+ x
x
= +.
5.3. f : A R B A. B f (),
f B. B f () , f
B.
5.4. f : A R. B = { A | f () R},
f .
f B f : B R.
.
5.1.9. c
dc cc
dx () = limx x = limx 0 = 0
. , 0 :
dc
dx =0 x.

160
 155

5.1.10. x
dx x
dx () = limx x = limx 1 = 1.

, 1 :
dx
dx =1 x.

5.1.11.
dxn
dx = nxn1 x, n N, n 2.
n
: dx dx = nx
n1 n = 1.
dx 0
dx = x . 1,
, x x0
x = 0.
.
, .
dxn xn n
dx () = limx x = limx (xn1 + xn2 + + x n2 + n1 ) = n n1 .

5.1.1 .
.
.
24 25.
f : A R A
f , , x
, (x, f (x)) (, f ()). x A
x > lx,+ (, f ()),
(x, f (x)). (, f ())
, (, f ()) f (x)f
x
()
.
.
(i) f+ () = limx+ f (x)f
x
()
, l+ ,

(, f ()), f+ () (, f ()). K x
, lx,+
l+ , ,
lx,+ l+ . l+
f (, f ()).
(ii) f+ () = limx+ f (x)f
x
()
= +, l+ ,
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx,+
, lx,+ l+ , lx,+ -
l+ . l+ f
(, f ()).
(iii) f+ () = limx+ f (x)f
x
()
= , l+ ,
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx,+
, , lx,+ l+ , lx,+
l+ . l+ f

161
 (, f ()).
, (i) - (iii) limx+ f (x)f
x
()
,
f (, f ()).
.
A f
. x A x < lx,
(, f ()), (x, f (x)),
f (x)f
x
()
. .
(i) f () = limx f (x)fx
()
, l ,

(, f ()), f () (, f ()). K x
, lx,
l , ,
lx, l . l
f (, f ()).
(ii) f () = limx f (x)f
x
()
= +, l ,
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx,
, , lx, l , lx,
l . l f
(, f ()).
(iii) f () = limx f (x)f
x
()
= , l ,
(, f ()) (, f ()). K x
, lx, ,
, lx, l , lx,
l . l f
(, f ()).
, (i) - (iii), limx f (x)f
x
()
,
f (, f ()).

162
 , , A
f . ,
, , l l+
f , , (, f ()) -
, , , l f
(, f ()). ,
, , . -
, ,
, , .
5.1.12. |x| (0, 0).
d|x|
(0, 0), dx+ (0) = 1 (0, 0).
d|x|
(0, 0), dx (0) = 1 (0, 0).
, |x| (0, 0).

5.1.13.

|x|
d x
(0, 0). dx+ (0) = +, (0, 0)

(0, 0). , ddxx (0) = , (0, 0)
(0, 0). ,
|x| (0, 0). , ,
(0, 0).
{
x, 0 x
5.1.14. f (x) = -
x, x 0
(0, 0). f+ (0) = +, (0, 0)
(0, 0). , f (0) = +, (0, 0) -
(0, 0).
(0, 0), x = 0.
-
A f , , ,
(, f ()).

5.1.15. x
(0, 0). ddx+x (0) = +, (0, 0) -
(0, 0).

163
 f : A R A
f ( , 5.3,
). , l -
(, f ()) f (),

y = f ()(x ) + f ().
, f f () = + f () = ,
(, f ()) x = .
5.1.16. x2
(, 2 ) y = 2(x ) + 2 .
(, 2 ) -
y = x, , 2 = 1, = 21 .

5.1.2 . .
dy
dx . x = x
y = y = f (x) f ()
, f (x)f
x
()

y f (x)f ()
x = x .

f (), x y
x
0 x . f , y
0. , x y
f (). ,
dy
f () = dx , , , x y
dxdy
. ,
, dx x (: -
0) dy y. dx dy
x y. , x ,
y
x f () , , y f ()
x. , , , , dy f ()
dx. ,
dy
dx = f (), dy = f ()dx. (5.1)

, -
:
dy
dx dx dy .
y
(5.1) x f () x
- (5.1) y f () x
x - .

dy
dy = dx dx.

x,
f (x),
dy dy = f (x)dx.
dx = f (x),
x y, y = f (x)
.
5.5. l(x) = x .
l(x) = x + .

164
 .

- (0, 0).
, , - .
,
.

5.6. f : A R A A.
L limx f (x)f ()L(x)
x = 0, L f .

5.1. f : A R A A.
f f . , f ,
,
f (, f ()).

. f .

limx f (x)f ()
x = f () f () R,

f (x)f ()f ()(x)

limx x = 0. (5.2)
,

L(x) = f () x, (5.3)

(5.2)
f (x)f ()L(x)
limx x =0
, , L f .
,

L(x) = x (5.4)

f ,
f (x)f ()(x)
limx x = 0.

f (x)f ()
limx x = .
f f () = , (5.4) L L(x) =
f () x, (5.3). L, -
f .
, f , f
f () x , , (0, 0).
, f (, f ()) , , -
f () (x ) + f () = f () x + f () f () .
x, .

.

5.1.1. f (x) = 3x2 5x + 3, f (x) = x + 1, f (x) = x 3x+1
2

{ { { x+2 ,
0, x = 0 2x, x 0 2x ,2 x 0
f (x) = sign x, f (x) = f (x) = f (x) =
1, x = 0 3x, x 0 3x , x 0
2

f (x) = x sign x f (x) = (x + 1) sign x. , , f (0), f+ (0), f (0).

2 2

165
5.1.2. M 0, > 1, > 0 |f (x) f ()| M |x |
x ( , + ). f () = 0.
{
2x2 + x + 1, x 0
5.1.3. f (x) = a, b f (0).
ax + b, x > 0
{
2x2 + x + 1, x < 0
f (x) =
ax + b, x 0

5.1.4. g : (a, ] R, h {: [, b) R g() = h() g () = h ()

g(x) , a < x
f : (a, b) R f (x) = f () = g () = h ().
h(x) , x < b
{
x sin(1/x), x = 0
5.1.5. f (x) = 5.1.6
0, x = 0
0, 0. f
a 0+ la,+
(0, 0) (a, f (a)). la,+
(0, 0); a 0 la,
(0, 0) (a, f (a)).
{
x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
f (x) = 5.1.7 0 f (0) = 0.
0, x = 0
, a 0+ a 0 la,+ la, ,
, (0, 0) (a, f (a)).
{
x2 (1)[1/x] , x = 0
5.1.6. f (x) = f (0) = 0.
0, x = 0
f . 0 -
f .
{
x2 , x Q
f (x) = f (0) = 0. f
x , x
2 /Q
x = 0. f ;

5.1.7. f : A R A A. f
g : A R
f (x) f () = g(x)(x ) x A.1

5.1.8.
. ;
y = x2 . -

.
y = x3 y = x4
y = x2 (x 1)2 .
: y = p(x), p
n, ;
1
g : A R f (x)
f () = g(x)(x ) x A Caratheodory .

166
5.2 .
5.2. f, g : A R A A. , ,
f () = g() f, g .
f (), g (), f () = g ().
f (x)f ()
. f, g f () = g(), x =
g(x)g()
x . limx f (x)f
x
()
= limx g(x)g()
x .

5.2, f, g
, .

. , , .

5.2.1. sign x 1 (0, +). ,

(0, +) . sign = 0
(0, +). , sign x 1 (, 0).
sign = 0 (, 0).

5.3. f : A R A A. f -
, f () R, f .

.
f (x)f ()
f (x) = x (x ) + f ()
x A x = ,

limx f (x) = f ()0 + f () = f (),

f .

5.2.2. |x| 0 0.
5.3 .

5.2.3. 5.3 f () R. f () = , f
. , sign x
0. , sign+ 0 = limx0+ x0
10
= + sign 0 = limx0 10 x0 = +,

sign 0 = +.

5.4. f, g : A R A A. f, g
, f + g, f g, f g : A R . , ,
g(x) = 0 x A, f /g : A R .
:
(f + g) () = f () + g (), (f g) () = f () g (),
( f ) f ()g()f ()g ()
(f g) () = f ()g() + f ()g (), g () = (g())2
.

. f + g
( f (x)f () g(x)g() )
(f + g) () = limx (f (x)+g(x))(f ()+g())
x = limx x + x = f () + g ().

f g.
f g :
( f (x)f () )
(f g) () = limx f (x)g(x)f ()g()
x = limx x g(x) + f () g(x)g()
x
= f ()g() + f ()g ().

167
, f /g :

( f ) f (x) f ()
g() ( f (x)f () f () g(x)g() )
g () = limx g(x)
x = limx x
1
g(x) g()g(x) x
f ()g()f ()g ()
= f () g()
1
f ()
(g())2
g () = (g())2
.

y1 = f (x) y2 = g(x), :
d(y1 y2 ) dy1 dy2 d(y1 y2 ) dy1 ( )
dx = dx dx , dx = dx y2 + y1 dy2
dx ,
d y1
dx y2 = 1 dy1
y2 dx y1 dy2
y2 2 dx
.

dx

d(y1 y2 ) = dy1 dy2 , d(y1 y2 ) = y2 dy1 + y1 dy2 , d(y1 /y2 ) = (1/y2 )dy1 (y1 /y2 2 )dy2 .

5.2.4. f : A R A A. f
c R, cf : A R

(cf ) () = cf ().

, (cf ) () = c ()f () + c()f () = 0f () + cf () = cf ().

dxn
5.2.5. dx = nxn1
n N, n 2. ,
dx2 d(xx) dx
dx = dx = dx x + x dx
dx = 1x + x1 = 2x

dxn
, dx = nxn1 ,

dxn+1 d(xn x) dxn

dx = dx = dx x + xn dx
dx = nx
n1 x + xn 1 = (n + 1)xn .

5.2.6.
d
dx (a0 + a1 x + + an xn ) = a1 + 2a2 x + + nan xn1 .

n 1 -
n 1.

5.2.7.
dxn
dx = nxn1 x = 0, n Z, n 0.
0
n = 0 x = 0, dx d1
dx = dx = 0 = 0x
01 .

n 1 x = 0, m = n 1 :
mxm1
dxn
dx = d 1
dx ( xm ) = x2m
= mxm1 = nxn1 .

P (x)
5.2.8. R(x) = Q(x) . , x
P (x)Q(x)P (x)Q (x)
R, x Q(x) = 0, R (x) = (Q(x))2
.
.

.
.

168
 . f : A B, g : B R, A A
= f () B B. f g
, g f : A R

(g f ) () = g ()f () = g (f ())f ().

. G : B R
{ g(y)g()
y , y B, y =
G(y) =
g () , y =

limy G(y) = limy g(y)g()

y = g () = G().

f , , G f : A R
.

limx G(f (x)) = G(f ()) = G() = g (). (5.5)

,
g(y) g() = G(y)(y ) (5.6)
y B. , y B y = ,
G(y) , y = , 0.
(5.6) y = f (x) (5.5),
(gf )(x)(gf )() g(f (x))g(f ()) G(f (x))(f (x)f ())
limx x = limx x = limx x

= limx G(f (x)) limx x = g ()f ().

f (x)f ()

(g f ) () = g ()f ().

y = f (x) z = g(y), : dz
dy = g ()
dy
dx = f (). , z = g(y) = g(f (x)) = (g f )(x), dx dz
= (g f ) ().
, (g f ) () = g ()f () , ,
dz dz dy
dx = dy dx . (5.7)

(5.7). ,
dz
dx, dz = dy dy.

5.2.9. h(x) = (x2 + 3)5 . h (2).

f (x) = x2 + 3 g(y) = y 5 . h = g f , h (2) = g (f (2))f (2) =
g (7)f (2) = 5 74 4.
:
h (x) = g (f (x))f (x) = 5(f (x))4 f (x) = 10x(x2 + 3)4
x.
, y = x2 + 3 z = y 5
dz dz dy
dx = dy dx = 5y 4 2x = 10x(x2 + 3)4 .

169
 .
f -- . f
--, , x = , f (x) = f (),
(gf )(x)(gf )() g(f (x))g(f ()) f (x)f () g(y)g() f (x)f ()
x = f (x)f () x = y x . (5.8)

, f , limx f (x) = , , -
x y = f (x),

(g f ) () = limx (gf )(x)(gf )()

x = limy g(y)g()
y limx f (x)f ()
x = g ()f ().

y = f (x) z = g(y) (5.8)

z z y
x = y x ,

, , (5.7) .
-
x, y z
. ,
, , f --, y = y = f (x) f ()
0 x = x 0.2
f : A R A A. f
A f (). f , f (x)f
x
()
0
x A x = , , f () = limx f (x)f
x
()
0.
, f A f (), f () 0.

A (, ] A [, +),
f () f+ ().
-
.

. 3 I, I, f : I R
I = f (). f ,
J, , , J f 1 : J I
J. f (), (f 1 ) ()


1/f (), 0 < f () < +
(f 1 ) () = 0, f () = +


+, f () = 0

f ,
+.

. f () R f () > 0. f 1 ,
limy f 1 (y) = , , y x = f 1 (y),
f 1 (y)f 1 () /( () )
(f 1 ) () = limy y = limx x
f (x)f () = limx 1 f (x)f
x = 1
f () .

f () = +, 1
+ = 0, (f 1 ) () = 0.
, f () = 0, , f (x)f
x
()
> 0 x I x = ,
1
+, (f ) () = +.
2
.
3
5.2.18 .

170
 (f 1 ) () = 1/f () .
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y). dx
dy
= f () dx
dy = (f
1 ) (). (f 1 ) () = 1/f ()

/( dy )
dx
dy = 1 dx .

x
/( y )
y = 1 x ,

. ,
dy
, dx
dy = 1/( dx ).

5.2.1 .
5.2.10. y = xn , [0, +),

x = n y [0, +). ,

n
dx dy 1 x y
dy = 1/( dx )= nxn1
= nxn = ny

dy dx
y > 0. y = 0, , dx (0) = 0, dy (0) = +.
{
n y/(ny), y > 0
dny
dy =
+, y = 0

5.2.11.
.

dxr
dx = rxr1 x > 0, r Q \ Z.

n m Z n N, n 2, x = ( x) . y =
, r = m r n m n
x
r m
z = x = y

dxr dz dz dy nx m( n x)m1 n x m (m/n)1
dx = dx = dy dx = my m1 nx = nx = nx = rxr1 .

r > 1 x = 0,
dxr dxr xr 0r
dx (0) = dx+ (0) = limx0+ x0 = limx0+ xr1 = 0 = r0r1 ,

xr .
0 < r < 1 x = 0,
dxr dxr xr 0r
dx (0) = dx+ (0) = limx0+ x0 = limx0+ xr1 = +.

0 < r < 1
5.2.10, r = 1/n.
, r < 0, 0 xr , 0
.

5.2.12. a > 0, a = 1.
d loga x 1 1
dx = log a x x > 0.

171
 a = e

limx+ (1 + xt )x = et

4.2.10. ,
d log x log(x+h)log x
dx+ = limh0+ h = limh0+ h1 log(1 + hx )
= limy+ log(1 + 1/x y
y ) = limze1/x log z = log e1/x = x1 .

,
d log x log(x+h)log x
dx = limh0 h = limh0 h1 log(1 + hx )
= limy+ log(1 + 1/x y ) = limze1/x log z
y = log e1/x = x1 .

d log x 1
dx = x x > 0.
log x d loga x 1 d log x 1 1
loga x = log a dx = log a dx = log a x
x > 0.
5.2.13.
d log |x|
dx = 1
x x = 0.

, x > 0, , x < 0,
x y = x = |x|
d log |x| d log y dy
dx = dy dx = y1 = x1 .

5.2.14. a > 0, a = 1.
dax
dx = ax log a x.

-
y = ax x = loga y . ,
dy /( dx ) /( 1 1 )
dx = 1 dy = 1 log a y = y log a.

, a = e
dex
dx = ex x.

5.2.15.
,
d cosh x
dx = sinh x, d sinh x
dx = cosh x, d tanh x
dx = 1
(cosh x)2
, d coth x
dx = (sinh1 x)2 .

, x = arccosh y y = cosh x y > 1 x > 0,

/( dy )
dx
dy = 1
1
dx = sinh x =
1 2 = 1 .
2 (cosh x) 1 y 1

sinh x = (cosh x)2 1 + sinh x > 0
x > 0.
, x = arcsinh y y = sinh x,
/( dy )
dx
dy = 1
1
dx = cosh x =
1 2 = 1 .
2 (sinh x) +1 y +1

172

cosh x = (sinh x)2 + 1 cosh x > 0 x.

d arccosh y
dy = 12 y > 1 d arcsinh y
dy = 12 y.
y 1 y +1

d arctanh y d arccoth y
dy = 1
1y 2
|y| < 1 dy = 1
1y 2
|y| > 1.

5.2.16. -
.
dxa
dx = axa1 x > 0, a R \ Q.

xa = ea log x z = xa y = a log x, z = ey ,
dz dz dy
dx = dy dx = ey a x1 = za x1 = xa a x1 = axa1 .

a > 1 x = 0,
dxa dxa xa 0a
dx (0) = dx+ (0) = limx0+ x0 = limx0+ xa1 = 0 = a0a1 ,

xa .
0 < a < 1 x = 0,
dxa dxa xa 0a
dx (0) = dx+ (0) = limx0+ x0 = limx0+ xa1 = +.

, a < 0, 0 xa , 0
.

5.2.17.
.

cos xcos sin((x)/2)

d cos x
dx () = limx x = limx (x)/2 sin((x + )/2) = sin

d sin x sin xsin sin((x)/2)

dx () = limx x = limx (x)/2 cos((x + )/2) = cos
.
d cos x
dx = sin x, d sin x
dx = cos x.
,
sin x cos xsin x cos x cos x sin xcos x sin x
tan x = (cos x)2
= 1
(cos x)2
, cot x = (sin x)2
= (sin1x)2 .

d tan x
dx = 1
(cos x)2
, d cot x
dx = (sin1x)2 .
x = arcsin y y = sin x 1 < y < 1 2 < x < 2 ,
/( dy )
d arcsin y
dy = dx
dy = 1 dx = 1
cos x = 1
= 1 .
1(sin x)2 1y 2

cos x = 1 (sin x)2 + cos x > 0
2 < x < 2 .
, x = arccos y y = cos x 1 < y < 1 0 < x < ,
/( dy )
d arccos y
dy = dx
dy = 1 dx = sin x =
1 1 2
= 1 .
1(cos x) 1y 2

173

, sin x = 1 (cos x)2 + sin x > 0
0 < x < .

d arcsin y
dy = 1 |y| < 1 d arccos y
dy = 1 |y| < 1.
1y 2 1y 2

, x = arctan y y = tan x y R 2 < x <

2
d arctan y dx
/( dy ) 1 1
dy = dy =1 dx = (cos x)2 = 1+(tan x)2
= 1+y 2
.

d arccot y
dy = 1+y
1
2 ,

d arctan y d arccot y
dy = 1
1+y 2
y dy = 1+y
1
2 y.

5.2.1. x + x2 + x3 + + xn = x x11 1
n+1

x + 2x2 + 3x3 + + nxn x + 4x2 + 9x3 + + n2 xn .

e 1 x 1 x a
5.2.2. limx1 log x
x1 , limx0 x , limx1 x1
.
log x xa xb xa xb ax bx
limx1 xa 1 , limx1 x1 , limx1 log x , limx0 x ,
eax ebx eax eax
limx0 x , limx0 x(eax +eax )
.
  ( )2
5.2.3. [x], x [x], x [x] 12 , x [x] 12 .

5.2.4. arccos(cos x), cos(arccos x).

log3 (sin x), x log(x log(x log(x log x))), logx 3.
{
x sin(1/x), x = 0
5.2.5. f (x) = f .
0, x = 0
{
x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
f (x) = f .
0, x = 0
{
xa sin(1/x), x = 0
. f (x) = a
0, x = 0
f R; f R; f R;

5.2.6. f : A R f (x) > 0 x A A A.

( )1/h ( )1/(log xlog )
f , limh0 f (+h)
f () limx ff (x)
() .
A (0, +).

5.2.7. f, g : A R, A A f (x) > 0 x A.

f, g , f g : A R
(f g ) ().
xx , (x2 + 1)log x , |x 1|x2 |x 2|x1 .

5.2.8. 4 P , P () = 0.
k N P Q
4
5.3.11. -
5.6.13.

174
P (x) = (x )k Q(x) x Q() = 0. Q() = 0 -
Q x . P
k (x )k P .
P , P () = 0, ,
P 0. -
.
P . k N
P k 1 P .
5.2.9. f1 , . . . , fn : A R A A. f1 , . . . , fn
f1 () fn () = 0 g = f1 fn : A R,
() () ()
gg() = ff11 () + + ffnn () .
xR (x)
5.2.10. R limx+ R(x) = 0;

5.2.11. (a, b) R
R (x) = x1 x (a, b).
5.2.12.
.
.
5.2.13. f : A R, A A
f . |f | : A R.
f () = 0, |f | () = sign(f ()) f ().
f () = 0 f () = 0, |f | () = 0.
f () = 0 f () = 0, |f | . , ,
|f |+ () = |f ()| |f | () = |f ()|.
5.2.14. P , Q, P n 2 n
x1 , . . . , xn Q n 1.
n
Q(x)
P (x) =
Q(xk )
k=1 P (xk )(xxk ) x R \ {x1 , . . . , xn }.

nk=1 P (x 1
k)
.
1 m
(m) (1)k
k=0 k x+k x R \ {0, 1, . . . , m}.
1
x(x+1)(x+m) = m!

5.2.15. f : A R A (f (x))2 +4f (x) = x3 5x2 9x+41

x A. (2f (x) + 4)f (x) = 3x2 10x 9 x A
f . A,
f A f .
5.2.16. f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 7. f
R. { f ;
( ) (1/3)(f 1 (y) + 1)2 , y = 6
f 1 , f 1 (y) = ,
+, y = 6
f 1 , .
5.2.17. g -
4.5.9, 4.5.10 4.5.11;

5.2.18. 5 f : A B -- A B f 1 : B A.
A A, f f () = 0
5
.

175
 f 1 = f ().
B f 1
(f 1 ) () = 1/f ().
(f 1 ) () = 1/f ().
f 1 (f (x))) = x x A (f 1 ) ()f () =
1. (f 1 ) () (f 1 ) () = 1/f ().
. ( )
(f 1 ) () , , (f 1 ) () = 1/f ().

5.2.19. f, g : A R A A. f , g
, limx f (x)g()f
x
()g(x)
.

5.2.20. 6 f : A R, A A, f
(xn ), (xn ) A xn , xn xn = , xn = n.
f (xn )f (xn )
xn < < xn n, xn xn f ().
(xn )

| xnxnx n
| M n, f ().
f (xxnn)f x
n

f 5.1.7 ( 5.1.5). , xn =

(/2)+2n xn = (/2)+2n n. f 0 xn 0, xn
1 1

f (xn )f (xn )
0, xn xn f (0).

5.2.21. k N f : R R .
( )
n f ( + n1 ) + f ( + n2 ) + + f ( + nk ) kf () k(k+1)
2 f ().
1
f ( + n2 ) + f ( + n2 ) + + f ( + n2 ) nf () 2 f ().
1 2 n

f (x)f (x)
5.2.22. f : R R 0 0 < < 1 limx0 x = b R.
f (0) = 1
b
.

5.2.23.
.
-
.

.
; -
. -
: , -
.

5.2.24.
.
.

5.2.25.
.
;

5.2.26. l
.
6

.
. 5.3.17.

176
 v ( ),
( ). , ,

.

5.2.27. y 2 = 4x3 .
( )
( );
x, y.

5.2.28. .

dz dz dy
dx = dy dx .
.

5.3 .
5.7. f : A R, A.
f > 0 f (x) f ()
x A |x | < .
f > 0 f (x) f ()
x A |x | < .
f .

, , -
() , . ,
, ()
, .

FERMAT. f : A R A
A. f ,
f () f () = 0.

. f . , f (x)
f () .
f (), f+ () = f () = f ().
f (x)f
x
()
0 .

f () = f+ () = limx+ f (x)f ()
x 0.

f (x)f ()
, x 0 .

f () = f () = limx f (x)f ()
x 0.

f () = 0.
, 0
0 .

Fermat , f
,
.
26.

177
 f () f ()
.
, Fermat f A.

.
d|x|
5.3.1. 0 |x| dx (0).

dx2
5.3.2. 0 x2 dx (0) = 0.
3
5.3.3. dx 3
dx (0) = 0 0 x .
Fermat.

Fermat .
,
: () ,
0.
.

5.3.4. f : [0, 4] R f (x) = 2x3 9x2 + 12x + 5. f (x) =

6x2 18x + 12 = 6(x 1)(x 2), f
0, 4 [0, 4] 1, 2 f . f
5, 37, 10, 9, .
f [0, 4], .
, , 0
, f 5, 4 ,
f 37. 1, 2 .
f [0, 2], [0, 2].
0, 1, 2,
f . f 5, 10, 9, 1 [0, 2]
, , [0, 4].
, 1, 2, 4 10, 9, 37, , 2
[1, 4] , , [0, 4].
.

Fermat .

5.5. [] f : A R A A.
f , f+ () f+ () 0
f+ () 0, .
[] f : A R A A.

178
 f , f () f () 0 f () 0,
.
. [] f , f (x) f () .
f+ (). f (x)f
x
()
0 ,
f+ () = limx+ f (x)f
x
()
0.
.
[] .
, f+ () 0 f+ () 0,
f+ ()
= f+ () = +, . f ().
5.3.5. f : [0, 2] R f (x) = x 0
f+ (0) = 1 0. 2 f (2) = 1 0.

5.3.6. f : [0, 2] R f (x) = x 0
f+ (0) = + 0.
ROLLE. f : [a, b] R [a, b]
(a, b). f (a) = f (b), (a, b) f () = 0.
. f [a, b], f (x) = f (a) = f (b)
x (a, b). f () = 0 (a, b).
f [a, b]. (i) f > f (a) =
f (b) (ii) f < f (a) = f (b).
.
(i) - , [a, b]
f . f f (a) = f (b), f () >
f (a) = f (b), (a, b). , f () ,
Fermat, f () = 0.
(ii) - , [a, b]
f . f f (a) = f (b), f () <
f (a) = f (b), (a, b). , f () ,
Fermat, f () = 0.
Rolle , , f (a) = f (b),
(a, b) f (, f ()) .

5.3.7. f : [2, 3] R f (x) = x3 + 2x

2 3x 5

[2, 3], f (x)
= 3x2 + 4x 3 x (2, 3) f (2) = f ( 3) = 1.

(2, 3) 3 2 + 4 3 = 0.

2 13

3x + 4x 3 = 0.
2
3 (2, 3).
Rolle . ,
f () = 0. , f
(a, b), (a, b) f () = 0.
,
(a, b). .
5.3.8. f : [1, 1] R f (x) = |x| [1, 1] f (1) =
f (1) = 1. , (1, 1) f () = 0.
{
x x, 0 x 1
5.3.9. f (x) = f (1) = f (1) = 0.
x x, 1 x 0


(1/(2 x)) 1, 0 < x 1

f (x) = +, f () = 0 = 14 .
x = 0


(1/(2 x)) 1, 1 x < 0

179
 (LAGRANGE).
f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b). (a, b)

f () = f (b)f (a)
ba .

. h : [a, b] R

h(x) = (b a)f (x) (f (b) f (a))x.

h [a, b]

h (x) = (b a)f (x) (f (b) f (a))

(a, b). , h(a) = h(b). (a, b) h () = 0,

f (b)f
ba
(a)
= f ().

Lagrange , ,
(a, b) f (, f ()) (
) (a, f (a)) (b, f (b)).
27.

(CAUCHY). f, g :
[a, b] R [a, b] (a, b). (a, b)

(f (b) f (a))g () = (g(b) g(a))f ().

. h : [a, b] R

h(x) = (g(b) g(a))f (x) (f (b) f (a))g(x).

h [a, b] (a, b)

h (x) = (g(b) g(a))f (x) (f (b) f (a))g (x).

, h(a) = h(b). (a, b) h () = 0,

(g(b) g(a))f () (f (b) f (a))g () = 0.

Rolle
Lagrange Lagrange (
g(x) = x) Cauchy. ,
Cauchy Rolle.
.

180
 Cauchy -
. , g(a) = g(b) f (x) = g (x) = 0 x (a, b),
(a, b)
f (b)f (a) f ()
g(b)g(a) = g () . (5.9)

, (f (b) f (a))g () = (g(b) g(a))f () fg(b)g(a)

(b)f (a)
g () = f ().
, g () = 0, f () = 0, . g () = 0
.
, (5.9)
f () (f (b)f (a))/(ba)
g () = (g(b)g(a))/(ba) ,

Cauchy (a, b)
f g (, f ()) (, g()) -
(a, f (a))
(b, f (b)) (a, g(a)) (b, g(b)) .

5.3.1. a < b. (a, b) sin bsin a

ba = cos
(a, b) sinebbsin
ea
a
= e cos .
bn an
5.3.2. a < b. (a, b) ba = n n1
b1/n a1/n 1/n
(a, b) bn an = n2 n
.

5.3.3. , c, x3 12x = c
[2, 2]; (, 2]; [2, +);

5.3.4. x2 = x sin x+cos x

0.
an
5.3.5. n+1 + an1
n + + 2 + a0 = 0, an x + an1 x
a1 n n1 + + a x + a = 0
1 0
(0, 1).

5.3.6. xn + ax + b = 0
, n , , n .
2 xn
x
5.3.7. 1 + 1! + x2! + + n! = 0 , n
, , n .
x2 xn
5.3.8. ex = 1 + x
1! + 2! + + n! .

5.3.9. [] I f : I R I f (x) = 0
x I. f -- I.
[] I f : I R I |f (x)| M
x I. c = 0 g : I R g(x) =
x + cf (x) -- I.

5.3.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b)

f (a) = f (b) = 0. (a, b) f () = f ().

5.3.11. [] Rolle ,
n n .
[] a1 < . . . < an P (x) = (x a1 ) (x an ). P
n 1 . P a1 , . . . , an .

181
[] 5.2.8.
P 1 , . . . , m . k1 , . . . , km
P , P (x) = (x1 )k1 (xm )km Q(x)
x, Q . P
k = k1 + + km P k.
P k, P
k 1. , P n P n,
P n 1.

5.3.12. m > 0, I f : I R I f (x)

x I. x1 , x2 I |f (x2 ) f (x1 )| = d.
|f (x)| m x I, |x2 x1 | m
d
.
|f (x)| m x I, |x2 x1 | d
m.

5.3.13. f : [ h, + h] R [ h, + h] ( h, )
(, + h).
(0, h) f (+h)f (h)
h = f ( + ) + f ( ).
(0, h) f (+h)2f ()+f (h)
h = f ( + ) f ( ).

5.3.14. f : (0, +) R (0, +) |f (x)| 1

x
x > 0. limx+ (f (x + x) f (x)) = 0.

5.3.15. f : (0, +) R (0, +) limx+ f (x) = 0.

limx+ (f (x + 1) f (x)) = 0.

5.3.16. 7 f : [, b) R [, b) (, b).
limx+ f (x), f+ () .
limx f (x) f ();

5.3.17. 5.2.20 A , f A f
(xn )
, f (xxnn)f
x
n
f ().
{
x sin(1/x), x = 0
5.3.18. f (x) = 0. f
0, x = 0
0 ; f .
{
|x|(2 + sin(1/x)), x = 0
f (x) = f 0; f
0, x = 0
0 ; f .
f : R R f (0) = 0 0
f ;

5.3.19. 8 f, g : I R I. W (f, g) : I R
 
 f (x) g(x) 

W (f, g)(x) =   = f (x)g (x) f (x)g(x)
f (x) g (x)
Wronski f g I.
W (f, g)(x) = 0 x I. 4.2.10
f , f (x) = 0, . ,
f f , f
7
.
8
7.2.15.

182
 (, ) , ,
f , f (,
). g. , ,
f g .
f g ;
cos x sin x ;

5.3.20. 9 []10 f : I R I f
I. |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x A
|f (x)| M x I.
[]11 f : I R I |f (x)| M
x I. f I.

x [0, 1];
[0, 1]; [1, +);
4.6.2.
[] f : I R I |f (x)| M
x I. , (xn ) Cauchy I, (f (xn ))
Cauchy.
[] b R f : [a, b) R [a, b) |f (x)| M
x (a, b). limxb f (x) g : [a, b] R
[a, b] g(x) = f (x) x [a, b).

5.3.21. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).

f (a, f (a)) (b, f (b)),
1 , 2 (a, b) f (1 ) < f (b)f
ba
(a)
< f (2 ).
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b). f (a) =
f (b) = 0 f (x0 ) = 1 x0 (a, b), (a, b) |f ()|

ba . , (a, b) |f ()| > ba .
2 2

5.3.22. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f [a, b]. A-

 
> 0 > 0  f (x)f
xy
(y)
f (y) <

x, y [a, b] 0 < |x y| < .

5.3.23. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a) < 0 < f (b),

f [a, b] (
- ) (a, b).
f (a) > 0 > f (b);
[] Darboux:12 f : [a, b] R
[a, b] f (a) < < f (b) f (a) > > f (b). (a, b)
f () = .
[] I f : I R I. f I,
I.

5.3.24. []13 f : [a, b] R [a, b], f (a) = f (b) f (x), f+ (x)

x (a, b). (a, b) f () 0 f+ ()
9
. 4.6.3, 4.6.10 4.6.11.
10
4.6.3 . : f
I I, f Lipschitz- I f
I.
11
.
12
:
, , .
13
Rolle.

183
 f+ () 0 f ().
[]14 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x), f+ (x)
x (a, b). (a, b) f () f (b)f
ba
(a)
f+ () f+ ()
f (b)f (a)
ba f ().

5.3.25. Tn : [1, 1] R :

T0 (x) = 1 Tn (x) = 1
2n1
cos(n arccos x) 1 x 1 n N.

T1 (x) = x 4Tn+2 (x) = 4xTn+1 (x) Tn (x) x [1, 1]

n 1. n 1 Tn [1, 1]
R n 1.
, , Tn .15
T2 , T3 , T4 .
n
Tn (1) = 2n1 1
Tn (1) = (1)
2n1
n 1.
n 1 Tn n : xk =
cos( 2k1
2n ) k = 1, . . . , n. (1, 1).
|Tn (x)| 2n1 1
x [1, 1] n 1.

n 1 Tn n 1 : tk = cos( nk )
k = 1, . . . , n 1. (1, 1). Tn (tk )
k = 1, . . . , n 1.
n 1 Tn Tn
Tn [1, 1].
n 1 P n
1
1 2n1 = max{|Tn (x)| | 1 x 1} max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1}.
P n 1
;16

5.4 .
I . I -
- I - I,
I.
5.6 -
:
, , .
,
- (-) , ().

5.6. I f : I R I
I.
[] f f (x) = 0 x I.
[] f f (x) 0 x I.
[] f f (x) 0 x I.
14
Lagrange.
15
Tn Chebyshev.
16
- :
max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1} P n -
1
1. 2n1 Tn Chebyshev.

184
. [] f , f (x) = 0 x
I ( I, I).
, f (x) = 0 x I. x1 , x2 I
x1 < x2 , x1 , x2 I. f
[x1 , x2 ] f (x) x (x1 , x2 ). (x1 , x2 ) , ,
I,
f (x2 )f (x1 )
x2 x1 = f () = 0.
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). f , f .
[] f , , ,
f (x) 0 x I.
, f (x) 0 x I. x1 , x2 I
x1 < x2 . , (x1 , x2 ) , I,
f (x2 )f (x1 )
x2 x1 = f () 0.

f (x1 ) f (x2 ) , , f .
[] [].

5.6 .
. f I,
, ,
, 0. , ,
. ,
. -
-
- .
. : (-
, ) ,
. -
7
. 5.6
.
5.6. 5.7 ,
()
, ( ).

5.7. I f : I R I
I.
[] f (x) > 0 x I, f .
[] f (x) < 0 x I, f .

. 5.6.

5.6, 5.7 5.8 f (x) 0 f (x) > 0

f (x) = +. , f (x) 0 f (x) < 0
f (x) = .
[], [] 5.7.
f , f
, f (x) 0 x I.
f . , 5.6 5.7
. ,
.

185
 dx3
5.4.1. x3 R dx >0
3 dx3
x R. , dx
dx = 3x > 0 x = 0 dx (0) = 0.
2

5.4.2. f (x) = |x|x

. f (x) = 0 x (, 0)
(0, +), f (, 0) (0, +). 1
(, 0) 1 (0, +).
5.4.3. d(1/x)
dx = x12 < 0 x (, 0) (0, +). x1
(, 0) (0, +). (, 0)
(0, +).

.
5.8. f : A R, (a, b) A, a < < b f
(a, b).
[] f (x) 0 x (a, ) f (x) 0 x (, b),
f .
[] f (x) 0 x (a, ) f (x) 0 x (, b),
f .
. [] f (a, ] [, b), f ()
(a, b).
[] .

, 5.8, f .
.
.
f I, I I
I+ , , I .
I I+ . f
I I+ , f . f
I I+ , f . f ()
I () I+ , f () I. f
() I () I+ , f () I.
( ).
, 5.8.
f 1 , 2 , . . . , n ,
() ,
f . (i) ()
, (ii) k f
(iii) k f
.
5.4.4. 5.3.4 . f : [0, 4] R f (x) = 2x3 9x2 +
12x + 5 [0, 4] f (x) = 6x2 18x + 12 = 6(x 1)(x 2)
x (0, 4). , f (x) > 0 x (0, 1) x (2, 4) f (x) < 0
x (1, 2). f [0, 1], [1, 2]
[2, 4]. , 0, 2 f 1, 4
.


x, 0 x 1
5.4.5. f (x) = 2 x, 1 x 2 f


x 2, 2 x 3
[0, 3] f (x) = 1 x (0, 1) x (2, 3) f (x) = 1 x (1, 2).

186
 f [0, 1], [1, 2]
[2, 3]. , 0, 2 1, 3 .
f (0) = f (2) = 0, f (1) = f (3) = 1 0 f (x) 1 x [0, 3], 0, 2
1, 3 . f 1, 2.
5.6
5.7 R.
5.4.6. n N, n 2. f (x) = (x + 1)n nx 1.
f (x) = n(x + 1)n1 n, f (x) < 0
x [1, 0) f (x) > 0 x (0, +).
[1, 0] [0, +). f (x) > f (0) = 0 , ,

(x + 1)n > nx + 1 x 1, x = 0.

, , Bernoulli. , ,
n 2, [1, 0) (0, +)
x = 0. ( n = 1, , , R.)
5.4.7.

ex > x + 1 x = 0.

f (x) = ex x 1, R f (x) =
ex 1 < 0 x < 0 f (x) = ex 1 > 0 x > 0.
(, 0] [0, +). ex x 1 =
f (x) > f (0) = 0 x = 0. x = 0.
5.4.8. Newton:
( )
(x + y)n = nk=0 nk xk y nk = nk=0 k!(nk)!
n!
xk y nk .

n = 1, (x + y)1 = x + y , , .
n N
(n+1)!
f (x) = (x + y)n+1 n+1 k n+1k
k=0 k!(n+1k)! x y

x. , k = 0
x,

f (x) = (n + 1)(x + y)n (n + 1) n+1 n!
k=1 (k1)!(n+1k)! x
k1 y n+1k .

m = k 1 , , ,

f (x) = (n + 1)(x + y)n (n + 1) nm=0 m!(nm)!
n!
xm y nm = 0.

f , x f (x) = f (0) = y n+1 y n+1 = 0 , ,

n+1 (n+1)!
(x + y)n+1 = k n+1k .
k=0 k!(n+1k)! x y

n + 1 , , n N.

5.4.1. x2
x1, x3 15x2 +72x+7, x4 (x1)4 , x+ x1 , xx2 2x+3 , x , x2 ex , logx x , |x|e|x1| , sin xcos x,
2
+2x+3 x+4
sin(3x)
3 cos x, x + sin x, x + | sin x|, arctan x log(1 + x2 ).

187
5.4.2. (x1)|x| [1, 3], |x2 3x+2|
[3, 10], x + x1 [ 13 , 3], (log x)2 /x [1, 3] ex sin x [0, 2].
cos x+a
5.4.3. a, sin x .

5.4.4. a1 < . . . < an . (x a1 )2 + + (x an )2

|x a1 | + + |x an |.

5.4.5. (1 + x1 )x (0, +).

5.4.6. a > 0 xa e2ax

[0, +) .

5.4.7. a sin x = ax.

5.4.8. a tan x = ax
( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z.

5.4.9. f, g : [0, b] R [0, b] (0, b), f (0) = g(0) = 0

f (x), g (x) > 0 x (0, b). fg (0, b),
f
g (0, b].
(1/2)x2 (1/6)x3
x
sin x , 1cos x , xsin x , (0, 2 ).

5.4.10. 4.6.3 5.1.2. I f : I R M 0, > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x I. > 1, f
I.

5.4.11. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).

f (x) x (a, b).
f (a) + (x a) f (x) f (b) + (x b) x [a, b].
, c (a, b] f (a) + (c a) = f (c), f (a) + (x a) =
f (x) x [a, c].
, , c [a, b) f (c) = f (b) + (c b), f (x) =
f (b) + (x b) x [c, b].
f (x)
x (a, b).

5.4.12. f : [1, 4] R [1, 4], f (1) = 7 f (x) 3

x (1, 4). f (4) 2.
a 2 f f (4) = a.

5.4.13. 17 [] f (x) = arccos x + arcsin x. f (x) = 0

x (1, 1). arccos x + arcsin x = 2 x [1, 1].
[] arctan y + arccot y = 2 x.
[] f (x) = arctan x+arctan x1 . f (x) = 0 x = 0.
arctan x + arctan x1 = 2 x > 0 arctan x + arctan x1 = 2
x < 0.
2x3
5.4.14. log 1+x
1x > 2x + 3 x (0, 1).
2x3 x4
2 x (0, 2 ].
1+x 1
log 1x < 2x + 3 +
ex/(x+1) < 1 + x x > 1.
3
x x3 < arctan x < x x > 0.
17
4.5.7 ( ) .

188
5.4.15. [] sin x < x x > 0 x < sin x x < 0.
2 x < sin x < x x (0, 2 ).
x < sin x < 2 x x ( 2 , 0).
, 0, sin x
x.
[] x < ex 1 x = 0.
x < ex 1 < (e 1) x x (0, 1).
x < ex 1 < e1 e x x (1, 0).
, 0, ex 1
x.
[] log x < x 1 x > 0 x = 1.
1
e1 (x 1) < log x < x 1 x (1, e).
e
e1 (x 1) < log x < x 1 x ( 1e , 1).
, 1, log x
x 1.
y a xa
5.4.16. 0 < x < y. axa1 < yx < ay a1 , a < 0 a > 1,
y a xa
ay a1 < yx < axa1 , 0 < a < 1.
ay ax
x < y, a > 0, a = 1. ax log a < yx < ay log a.
0 < x < y. y1 < yx 1
log xy < x1 .
| arctan x arctan y| < |x y| x, y x = y.
n
x
5.4.17. x > 0 ex > 1 + 1! + + xn! .
n
x < 0 ex > 1 + 1! + + xn! , n , ex <
x
n
x
1 + 1! + + xn! , n .
x2 2m
5.4.18. x = 0 cos x > 1 2! + + (1)m (2m)!
x
, m
x2 2m
, cos x < 1 2! + + (1)m (2m)!
x
, m .
x3 2m1
1! 3! + + (1)m1 (2m1)!
x x
x > 0 sin x < , m
x3 m1 x2m1 ,
, sin x > x
1! 3! + + (1) (2m1)! m . x < 0 ;

5.4.19. (x + 1)a ax + 1 x 1 a 1.
Bernoulli.
.
( ), ,
x a, x = 0 0 < a < b, (1 + xa )a < (1 + xb )b .
5.4.20. [] A > 0 n N.
nA+x

n+1 n
.
(n+1) A x
n a1 , . . . , an 0
[]18
Cauchy - ,
n a a 1 (a + + a ),
1 n n 1 n

a1 = . . . = an .
[] Cauchy : A = a1 ++a n
n
,

18
a1 ++a
n
n
n a1 an , , a1 , . . . , an .
- 5.5.39.
- 5.4.23.

189
 ak
aAk e A 1 k = 1, . . . , n.
a1 = . . . = an .

5.4.21. 19 a, b 0 p, q > 1 1
p + 1
q = 1. Young,

ab p1 ap + 1q bq .

ap = bq .

5.4.22. a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn 0 p, q > 1 1
p + 1
q = 1.
[]20 Hlder,
( )1/p ( q )1/q
a1 b1 + + an bn a1 p + + an p b1 + + bn q .

s, t 0 0
sak p = tbk q k = 1, . . . , n.
21 + 12 = 1, Cauchy,
( )1/2 ( 2 )1/2
a1 b1 + + an bn a1 2 + + an 2 b1 + + bn 2 ,

Hlder.
[] Minkowski,
( )1/p ( )1/p ( p )1/p
(a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p a1 p + + an p + b1 + + bn p .

s, t 0 0
sak = tbk k = 1, . . . , n.

5.4.23. a1 , . . . , an , w1 , . . . , wn > 0 w1 + + wn = 1.
f (p) = (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p R \ {0}.
limp0 (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p = a1 w1 an wn .
p < 0 < p , 21

(w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p a1 w1 an wn (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p .

- 5.4.20 -
.

5.4.24. f : A R, A A f () > 0.
f (), f (x) > f () f (x) < f ()
. f ;
f () < 0;
{
x + 2x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
f (x) = f (0) = 1. -
0, x = 0
a > 0 f (a, a).
5.6 5.7.

5.4.25. 22 f : I R I. I
f , f I.
19
Young 5.5.38 6.4.16.
20
Hlder 5.5.39.
21
5.5.39.
22
4.4
.

190
5.4.26. f : I R I f (x) = 0 x
I. 5.3.9[] f -- I.
f I.
f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0
x I.23
5.4.27. f, g : (a, b) R (a, b), a < 0 < b. , ,
f (x) = g(x), g (x) = f (x) x (a, b) f (0) = 0, g(0) = 1.
;
f (x)2 + g(x)2 = 1 x (a, b).
F, G ( F f G g),
F (x) = f (x) G(x) = g(x) x (a, b).
5.4.28. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b) k > 0
|f (x)| k|f (x) f (a)| x (a, b). f [a, b].
5.4.29. l M = (x0 , y0 ) .
M l M l
dist(M, l).
l x = , dist(M, l) = | x0 |.
l y = x+, dist(M, l) = |x0 + y0 |/(1+2 )1/2 .
ax + by = c, a, b
= 0, dist(M, l) = |ax0 + by0 c|/(a2 + b2 )1/2 .
5.4.30. l -
. -
;
5.4.31.
A1 d1 A2
d2 . () v1
v2
.
A1 A2 .
5.4.32. h r.

;

;
5.4.33. a b c > a + b.
-

.
;

5.5 .
5.8. f : A R B = {x A | f (x) R} A B
B. , f : B R. ,
23
, , -
, , . Darboux
5.3.23[].

191

f , (f ) () = limx f (x)f
x
()
, ,

, f () f . ,
f (x)f ()
f () = limx x .

, , -
, n- (n 1)-
.
f f (1) ()
f (2) (). f (), f (3) ()
f (n) ().
n dn y
Dxn f , ddxnf dx n.

, , n- f
f (n1) (x)f (n1) ()
f (n) () = limx x .

, f () f (0) ().

5.5.1. n N, xn :
dxn d2 xn d3 xn
dx = nxn1 , dx2
= n(n 1)xn2 , dx3
= n(n 1)(n 2)xn3 ,

dn1 xn dn xn
dxn1
= n(n 1) 2x, dxn = n(n 1) 2 1 = n!.
dn xn
dxn , 0. ,
dm xn
dxm = 0 m N, m > n.
dxa
5.5.2. a / N {0}, xa : dx = axa1 ,
2 a
d x
dx2
= a(a 1)xa2 , ,
dn xa
dxn = a(a 1) (a n + 1)xan n N.

xan = 0 , ,
0.
dax d 2 ax
5.5.3. a > 0, ax dx = ax log a, dx2
=
ax (log a)2 , ,
dn ax x
dxn = a (log a)
n n N.
:
d n ex
dxn = ex n N.

5.5.4. sin x : sin(1) x = cos x, sin(2) x = sin x,

sin(3) x = cos x, sin(4) x = sin x. -
: sin x, cos x, sin x, cos x. , ,

d2k sin x d2k1 sin x

dx2k
= (1)k sin x, dx2k1
= (1)k1 cos x k N.

,
d2k cos x d2k1 cos x
dx2k
= (1)k cos x, dx2k1
= (1)k sin x k N.

192
 d y n
dx n , -

, ,
limh0 f (+2h)2fh2(+h)+f () = f (), (5.10)
5.6.9. y = f ( + h), = f () x = h,
y = y = f ( + h) f (). , f ( + h) f ()
+ h , f ( + 2h) f ( + h).
,
(y)() = f ( + h) f ().

(y)( + h) = f ( + 2h) f ( + h)

f ( + 2h) 2f ( + h) + f () = (y)( + h) (y)() = (y).
f ( + 2h) 2f ( + h) + f ()
. f
(y) , , 2 y.
, , (5.10)
2 y
limx0 x2
= f ().

d2 y
dx2
= f (),
y
limx0 x = f () dx
dy
= f ().
.

5.5.1 .
.
5.9. 24 I, f : I R, f
I f () I.
[] f () = 0 f () > 0, f .
[] f () = 0 f () < 0, f .
. []
f (x) f (x)f ()
limx x = limx x = f () > 0,

f (x)
x >0 .
, I , , f (x) < 0
f (x) > 0 . , a, b
a < < b (a, b) I f (x) < 0 x (a, ) f (x) > 0
x (, b). f (a, ] [, b), (a, ]
[, b). f .
[] .
dx2 d2 x2
5.5.5. dx (0) = 0 dx2
(0) = 2. , 0
x2 .
4 2 4
5.5.6. dx d x
dx (0) = 0 dx2 (0) = 0. , 0
4
x . 5.9.
24
5.6.12.

193
5.5.2 .

.
5.9. I f : I R. f I
x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) 0 < t < 1.
, f I.
, f I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) 0 < t < 1.
, , f I.
5.5.7. x + R.
5.5.8. x2 R.
5.5.9. |x| R.
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
( ) .
x1 < x2 .
x = (1 t)x1 + tx2
t [0, 1]
[x1 , x2 ]. ,
xx1
t= x2 x1

x [x1 , x2 ]
[0, 1]. t x -
x
, , 1 t = xx22x 1
, ,
. f : I R I x1 , x2 I
x1 < x2
x2 x
f (x) x2 x1 f (x1 ) + xx1
x2 x1 f (x2 ) x1 < x < x2 .
f I
.
, f I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
x2 x
f (x) x2 x1 f (x1 ) + xx1
x2 x1 f (x2 ) x1 < x < x2 .
f I
.

. ,
x2 x xx1
y= x2 x1 f (x1 ) + x2 x1 f (x2 )

(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )). ,

f () I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f (x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 ))
() . f
() I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
f (x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 ))
() . 28.

194
 5.10. I f : I R I. f
I.
. I, a, b I a < < b. f
I.
a < x < . f (x) x b x
a f (a) + a f () f () bx f (x) + bx f (b).
xa

x x
bx
b f () + b f (b) f (x) a f (a) + xa
a f () a < x < ,

, , limx f (x) = f ().

x x a
< x < b. f (x) bx
b f () + b f (b) f () xa f (a) + xa f (x).
x x
a f (a) + xa
a f () f (x) bx
b f () + b f (b) < x < b,

, , limx+ f (x) = f ().

limx f (x) = f () f .
f I.

5.11. I f : I R.
[] f I, (i) I I
f+ () f+ () f (x)f
x
()
x I x > (ii)
I I f () f (x)f
x
()
f () x I x < .
f I, .
, < f () f+ () < + I.
[] f I, (i) I I
f+ () f+ () f (x)f
x
()
x I x > (ii)
I I f () f (x)f
x
()
f () x I x < .
f I, .
, < f+ () f () < + I.
. [] f I.
I. x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 < .
x2 2 x1
f (x2 ) x1
f (x1 ) + xx 1
f (),

f (x1 )f () f (x2 )f ()
x1 x2 x1 < x2 < .

g(x) = f (x)f
x
()
I ,
, 3.2 , limx g(x) =

195
limx f (x)f
x
()
= f () > , , f () g(x) = f (x)f
x
()

x I x < .
f I, , , g ,
f () > g(x) = f (x)f
x
()
x I x < .
I. x3 , x4 I < x3 < x4 .
x3
f (x3 ) xx44x
f () + x4 f (x4 ) , ,
3

f (x3 )f () f (x4 )f ()
x3 x4 < x3 < x4 .

f (x)f ()
h(x) = x I ,
limx+ h(x) = limx+ f (x)f ()
x = f+ () < + , ,
f+ () h(x) = f (x)f
x
()
x I x > .
f I, , , h ,
f+ () < h(x) = f (x)f
x
()
x I x > .
b a
I. a, b I a < < b. f () ba f (a) + ba f (b)
f (a)f
a
()
f (b)f ()
b , f () = lima f (a)f ()
a limb+ f (b)f
b
()
= f+ ().
[] .

5.11. f
I I, f () R, f -
.
5.11
. f I I,

< f+ () f () < +.
f
(, f ()) , . , -
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 I x1 < x2 < < x3 < x4
f (x1 )f ()
x1 f (x2 )f ()
x2 f () f+ () f (x3 )f ()
x3 f (x4 )f ()
x4 .

f (x)f
x
()
f
(, f ()) (x, f (x))
. , , (x, f (x))
(, f ()),

(, f ()).
f
-
I.

.

5.12. I f : I R I
I.
[] f () I f ()
I.
[] f () I f ()
I.

196
. [] f I. x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 .
5.11,

f (x1 ) f (x2 )f (x1 )

x2 x1 f (x2 ),

f I. f ,
, f .
, f I. x, x1 , x2 I x1 <
x < x2 . 1 , 2 x1 < 1 < x < 2 < x2
f (x)f (x1 )
xx1 = f (1 ), f (x2 )f (x)
x2 x = f (2 ).

f (1 ) f (2 ),
f (x)f (x1 ) f (x2 )f (x)
xx1 x2 x .

x2 x
f (x) xx1
x2 x1 f (x1 ) + x2 x1 f (x2 ),
f I. , f ,
, f .
[] .

5.12
f I
I. f () I
f ()
. , f ()
I f
() . 29.

{ {
2x2 , x 0 4x, x 0
5.5.10. f (x) = f (x) =
x , 0 x
2 2x, 0 x
f R, f R. ,
5.13, f (0).
n
5.5.11. ddx x
= nxn1 R.
, n N , xn1 R, xn
R.
n N , xn1 (, 0)
(0, +), xn (, 0] [0, +).

197
 ,
5.12.
5.13. I f : I R I
I.
[] f I f (x) 0 x I.
f (x) > 0 x I, f I.
[] f I f (x) 0 x I.
f (x) < 0 x I, f I.
. .

5.5.12. f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2). f (x) = 3x2 6x + 2

f (x) = 6x 6 x. f (x) < 0 x (, 1), f
(, 1]. , f (x) > 0 x (1, +), f
[1, +).
d2 xn
5.5.13. dx2
= n(n 1)xn2 R
5.5.11.
2 a
5.5.14. ddxx2 = a(a 1)xa2 x > 0. xa
(0, +), a < 0, [0, +), 0 < a < 1,
[0, +), a > 1.
d2 ax
5.5.15. a > 0, a = 1. ax R dx2
=
ax (log a)2 > 0 x.
d2 log x
5.5.16. a > 0, a = 1. dx2a = log1 a x12 x > 0. loga
(0, +), a > 1, (0, +), 0 < a < 1.
5.5.17. x4 R
4x3 R. ,
R : 12x2 > 0 x = 0, 12 02 = 0.

5.5.3 .
()
.
5.10. f : A R -
A.
f f f (x)
f ()(x ) + f () x f (x) f ()(x ) + f ()
x , , f (x) f ()(x ) + f () x
f (x) f ()(x ) + f () x
.
, -
f .
, f f () = .
, (, f ()) f .
, , (, f ()) f
, , f (, f ()) , ,
,
,
. 30.

198
 5.14. I, f : I R, I f () R.
a, b I a < < b f (a, ] [, b) , ,
(a, ] [, b), f .
,
.

. f (a, ] [, b).
5.11, f (x)f
x
()
f () x (a, ). , f (x)f
x
()
f () x
(, b). f (x) f ()(x ) + f () x (a, ) f (x) f ()(x ) + f ()
x (, b).

5.14 .

5.15. I, f : I R, I f () R.
f (x) 0 f (x) 0
f (x) 0 f (x) 0 ,
f .
, .

. .

5.5.18. 5.5.11 5.5.13, n N ,

0 xn .

5.5.4 .
5.11. f : A R A. l
f (, f ()) l
l. , y = x +
l, f () = + f (x) x+ x A. , , f (x) > x+
x A, x = , .
, l f
(, f ()) l
l. , y = x+ l, f () = + f (x) x+
x A. , , f (x) < x + x A, x = ,
.

31.

199
 f () = + l y = x + f () ,
, y = (x)+f (). l
f (, f ()) y = (x)+f () f (x) (x)+f ()
x A.
, l f (, f ())
y = (x ) + f () f (x) (x ) + f () x A.
, -
.
5.16. I, f : I R I.
[] f () I, y = (x ) + f ()
() f (, f ())
f+ (), I, f () , I,
f () f+ (), I.
[] f () I, y = (x ) + f ()
() f (, f ())
f+ () , I, f (), I,
f+ () f (), I.
[] f I I,
, , f (, f ())
y = f ()(x ) + f (), f
(, f ()).
. [] f I. 5.11, f+ ()
I f ()
I.
y = (x)+f ()
f (, f ()). I, f (x)
(x ) + f () x I, x > , f (x)f
x
()
x
, , f+ () = limx+ f (x)f
x
()
.
, I, f (x) (x ) + f ()
x I, x < , f (x)f
x
()
x ,
, f () = limx f (x)f
x
()
.
. I f ()
f+ (). 5.11, f+ () f (x)f
x
()
x I, x >
f (x)f ()
x f () x I, x < . f (x) f () (x )
x I, x = .

200
 y = (x ) + f ()
f (, f ()).
f I,
.
I f+ (). 5.11,
f+ () f (x)f
x
()
x I, x > . y = (x ) + f ()
f (, f ()). f
I,
.
I.
[] .
[] f I I,
f () = f+ () = f ().
y = (x ) + f () , ,
f (, f ()) = f ().

5.5.19. f (x) = |x| . f (0) = 1 f+ (0) = 1.

f (0, 0)
y = x, 1 1. , f (2) = 1,
f (2, 2) y = (x 2) + 2 = x.
, f (3) = 1, f
(3, 3) y = (x + 3) + 3 = x.
5.5.20. x2 R. , ,
y = 2(x)+ 2 x2
(, 2 ). , . , x2 > 2(x)+ 2
x = . .
5.5.21. ex R. , ex
(0, e0 ) = (0, 1)
y = x + 1. , . , ex > x + 1
x = 0.
5.17
.
5.17. I f : I R.
[] f () I I ()
f (, f ()).
[] f () I I ()
f (, f ()).
. [] f () I, 5.16
I ()
f (, f ()).
, I
f (, f ()). x1 , x2 I, x1 < x2 (x1 , x2 ).
I,
f (, f ()) y = (x ) + f () .
f (x1 ) (x1 ) + f () f (x2 ) (x2 ) + f ().

f ()f
x1
(x1 )
f (xx22)f

()
, , f () xx22x 1
f (x1 ) + xx 1
2 x1
f (x2 ).
f I. ,
, f I.
[] .

201
5.5.5 .
, , .
, , -
.

5.5.22. n N, n 2, xn [0, +),

((1 t)x1 + tx2 )n < (1 t)x1 n + tx2 n 0 x1 < x2 , 0 < t < 1.

x1 n +x2 n
, t = 21 , ( x1 +x2 n
2 ) < 2 0 x1 < x2 .

5.5.23. n N, n 2, x1/n [0, +).

(1 t)x1 1/n + tx2 1/n < ((1 t)x1 + tx2 )1/n 0 x1 < x2 , 0 < t < 1.
1/n 1/n
, t = 21 , x1 +x
2
2
< ( x1 +x
2 )
2 1/n
0 x1 < x2 .

. , ,
x1 = x2 .

5.5.24. ex R.

e(1t)x1 +tx2 < (1 t)ex1 + tex2 x1 < x2 , 0 < t < 1.

x1 +x2
1 ex1 +ex2
, t = 2 e 2 < 2 x1 < x2 .

.
{
xk , x 0
5.5.1. f (x) = k N. n N, f (n) .
xk , x 0
x+2 3
5.5.2. n- , x+1 , x , 1 ,
x2 1 (x1)2 x2 1 x2 +1
sin(5x) sin(7x) n.

dn log x (1)n n! ( n )
5.5.3. dxn ( x ) = xn+1
log x 1
k=1 k n.
d n ex (1)n n!ex n (1)k k
5.5.4. dxn ( x ) = xn+1 k=0 k! x n.
dn tan x
5.5.5. dxn = Pn (tan x) n, Pn n + 1.
x3
, ex , e1/x , e1/x ,
2 2
5.5.6. (x+1)2
, x2 (x 1)2 , x2x+1 , x1 + x1
1 1
+ x2
e1/x e1/x
, 1 ,
e1/x +e1/x log x
sin x + cos x ex sin x. ,
, .
{
x|x| + x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
5.5.7. 0 f (x) =
0, x = 0

5.5.8. n N, I, f : I R. f (n) (x) = 0 x I

f n 1.

5.5.9. n N, n 2, I f : I R f (n1) I
f (n) I. f n + 1 I,
f (n) I.

202
5.5.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
f (a) = f (b) = 0 f (c) > 0 c (a, b), (a, b)
f () < 0.

5.5.11. f : (a, b) R f (x)f (x) 0 x (a, b).

(a, b) f (x)f (x) = 0, f
.

5.5.12. f : [1, 1] R [1, 1], (1, 1)

f (1) = f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1, f (0) = 0. (1, 1) f (3) () = 3.

5.5.13. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).

(a, f (a)) (b, f (b))
f , (a, b)
f () = 0.

5.5.14. I f : I R I.
f (x) 0 x I f (x) = 0 x I,
I f () = 0.

5.5.15. 5.3.11[]. a < b n N,

P (x) = (x a)n (x b)n . P (n) n,
n (a, b).

5.5.16. 25 I, J f : I J f 1 : J I, I = f () J.
f f () = 0, f 1
(f 1 ) () = f ()/(f ())3 .
, f n f () = 0, f 1
n .

5.5.17. [] P (x) = a0 +a1 (x)+ +an (x)n .

P (k) () = k!ak k Z 0 k n P (k) () = 0 k Z k n + 1.
[] y0 , y1 , . . . , yn . P (x) n
P (k) () = yk k Z 0 k n. ;
(n) ()
[] P (x) = P ()+ P 1!() (x)+ + P n! (x)n
P (x) n , x.26

5.5.18. 27 [] n g : (a, ] R h : [, b) R
{ = h () k Z, 0 k n. f : (a, b) R
g (k) () (k)

g(x), a < x
f (x) = n (a, b) f (k) () =
h(x), x < b
g (k) () = h(k) () k Z, 0 k n.
[] n f : [a, b] R. 5.5.17,

P (x), x a
P (x) Q(x) g(x) = f (x), a x b


Q(x), b x
n R.
[] b < c n f : (a, b] R g : [c, d) R. B
25
.
26
5.7.1.
27
. 5.1.4.

203


f (x), a < x b
P (x) h(x) = P (x), b x c n


g(x), c x < d
(a, d). P (x);

5.5.19. [] x1 , . . . , xn y1 , . . . ,xx
yn . k =
1, . . . , n n 1 Qk (x) = 1mn,m=k xk xmm , m
1 n k.
Qk (x) ;
Q(x) = y1 Q1 (x)+ +yn Qn (x) n1
: Q(x1 ) = y1 , . . . , Q(xn ) = yn .
[] x1 , . . . , xn I f : I R.
Q1 (x), . . . , Qn (x) [], 28
Q(x) = f (x1 )Q1 (x) + + f (xn )Qn (x).
f (n1) I f (n) I,
(n)
x I I f (x) Q(x) = f n!() (x x1 ) (x xn ).

5.5.20. Leibniz,
( )
(f g)(n) = nk=0 nk f (k) g (nk) n N.

5.5.21. f (x) = e1/x .

f (n) (x) = x2n Pn (x)e1/x x > 0, Pn (x)
n1. : P1 (x) = 1, P2 (x) = 12x, P3 (x) = 16x+6x2 .
f (n) (x) = x2n Pn (x)e1/x
Pn+1 (x) = x2 Pn (x) + (1 2nx)Pn (x) x > 0.
x2 f (x) = f (x) x > 0 , n
Leibniz 5.5.20, Pn+2 (x) = (12(n+1)x)Pn+1 (x)n(n+1)x2 Pn (x)
x > 0.
xn1 Pn (x) (1)n1 n!.
x2 Pn (x) (2nx 2x 1)Pn (x) + n(n 1)Pn (x) = 0 x > 0.

5.5.22. 29 f (x) = ex .
2

f (n) (x) = (1)n Hn (x)ex x, Hn (x)

2

n. : H1 (x) = 2x, H2 (x) = 4x2 2, H3 (x) = 8x3 12x.

Hn+1 (x) = Hn (x) + 2xHn (x) x.
n f (x) = 2xf (x) Leibniz 5.5.20
Hn+2 (x) = 2xHn+1 (x) 2(n + 1)Hn (x) x.
Hn+1 (x) = 2(n + 1)Hn (x) x.
xn Hn (x) 2n .
Hn (x) 2xHn (x) + 2nHn (x) = 0 x.

5.5.23. f : (a, b) R (a, b) a < < b. f (x) f ()

x (a, b) f (x) f () x (a, b), f .

5.5.24. f f
.
28
Q(x) Lagrange f x1 , . . . , xn .
29
Hn (x) Hermite n (x) =
n 2
(2 n! )1/2 Hn (x)ex /2 Hermite. Hermite
Fourier. 12.4.14.

204
 , f ,
.

5.5.25. 30 , 0, I f, g : I R I. f + g :
I R max{f, g} : I R I.
I, J f : I J I g : J R J. g
J, g f : I R I.
I F , f : I R
I. x I F (x) = sup{f (x) | f F}. F (x) R
x I, F : I R I.
;

5.5.26. 31 I f : I R.
f (x)f ()
f I I x
x I \ {}.
f (b )f (a )
f I b a f (b)f (a)
ba a, a , b, b I,
a a, b b , , a = b a = b .

5.5.27. a, b R a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).

. (i) f (a, b), (ii) f
(a, b), (iii) c (a, b) f (a, c]
[c, b), (iv) c (a, b) f (a, c] [c, b)
(v) c, d (a, b) c d f (a, c],
[c, d] [d, b).

5.5.28. a, b R a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).

limxb f (x), limxa+ f (x).
, , b R f b, f (a, b]
limxb f (x) f (b).
, , a R f a, f [a, b)
limxa+ f (x) f (a).

5.5.29. f I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 .
f (x0 ) = xx22 x x0 x1
x1 f (x1 ) + x2 x1 f (x2 ) x0 (x1 , x2 ),
0

x2 x
f (x) = x2 x1 f (x1 ) + x2 x1 f (x2 ) x (x1 , x2 ).
xx1

5.5.30. f : (a, b) R (a, b). x1 , x2 (a, b) x1 < x2

(x1 , x2 ) f (xx22)f
x1
(x1 )
= f (), f
(a, b). ;

5.5.31. f : (0, b) R (0, b). limx0 f (x) = 0, f (x)

x
f (x)
(0, b). limx0 f (x) < 0, x (0, b).

5.5.32. 32 f : I R I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2
t (0, 1) f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ), f
I.
: f : I R I
f (x1 )+f (x2 )
x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 f ( x1 +x
2 )
2
2 , f I.
30
.
31
:
, .
32
.

205
 {
1, x 0
f (x) = f
0, x > 0
R. f R;
f (x1 )+f (x2 )
f : R R f ( x1 +x
2 )
2
2
x1 , x2 R x1 < x2 f R ;
5.5.33. [] , f R, R.
[] I f : I R I. ,
I f , f I.
5.5.34. a < 0 a > 1.
((1 t)x1 + tx2 )a < (1 t)x1 a + tx2 a 0 < x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.
xa > a a1 (x ) + a x, > 0 x = .
0 < a < 1.
5.5.35. a > 0.
a(1t)x1 +tx2 < (1 t)ax1 + tax2 x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.
ax > a log a (x ) + a x = .
( )
5.5.36. log (1 t)x1 + tx2 > (1 t) log x1 + t log x2 0 < x1 < x2
0 < t < 1.
log x < 1 (x ) + log x, > 0 x = .
5.5.37. ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) log((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) < (1 t)x1 log x1 + tx2 log x2
0 < x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.
5.5.38. Young 5.4.21 : -
log x (0, +) x1/p
[0, +) p > 1.
5.5.39. f : I R I. x1 , . . . , xn I w1 , . . . , wn > 0
w1 + + wn = 1, Jensen,33

f (x1 w1 + + xn wn ) f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn .

, n = 2, Jensen
.
, f I, Jensen
x1 = . . . = xn .
f () I;
a1 , . . . , an > 0. x1/q [0, +)
q q p p
q > 1 x1 = ab11 p , . . . , xn = abnn p w1 = aA1p , . . . , wn = aAnp , A =
(a1 p + + an p )1/p , Hlder 5.4.22[].
.
- 5.4.20
log x (0, +). .
5.4.23 log x
(0, +).
0 < a1 , . . . , an < a = a1 ++a
n
n
, sin a1 sin an (sin a)n .
0 < a1 , . . . , an < a = a1 ++a
n
n
, sina1a1 sinanan ( sina a )n .
33
.
. 6.4.19.

206
 a1 , . . . , an > 0 a = a1 ++a
n
n
, ana a1 a1 an an .
.
5.5.40. f : I R I, f
I.34
5.5.41. f : I R I,
f .
5.5.42. (x, y), (x , y ) (x , y ) xy-
. R
x)2 +(y y)2 )1/2 ((x x )2 +(y y )2 )1/2
((x x) +(y y) )2|(x((x
2 2 1/2
x)(y y)(x x)(y y)| .
xy- x = x(t) y = y(t), -
t I. t I h > 0
(x(t), y(t)), (x(t + h), y(t + h)), (x(t h), y(t h))
Rt,h .
Rt = limh0+ Rt,h , ,
(x(t), y(t)).
((x (t))2 +(y (t))2 )3/2
, Rt = |x (t)y (t)x (t)y (t)| .
Rt , (x(t), y(t))
.
(x(t), y(t)). ;

(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r2 . ;
;

yy0 2
( xx 0 2
a ) + ( b ) = 1. -
; ;
f : I R (x, f (x)),
x I, |f 1(x)| (1 + (f (x))2 )3/2 .

y = x2 y = x1 .
; -
;

5.6 .

00
.
l Hopitl.
l Hopitl 00 .
L HOPITL. f, g : (, b) R (, b),
g(x), g (x) = 0 x (, b) limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0.
(x)
limx+ fg (x) , limx+ fg(x)
(x)
:

f (x) f (x)
limx+ g (x) = limx+ g(x) = .

:
x , x , x + x .
34
5.3.23[].

207
. f , g , f () = g() = 0.
limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0, f, g , , [, b).
R
(x)
limx+ fg (x) = .
> 0. T > 0
 f (x) 
  < (5.11)
g (x)

x (, b) < x < + . Cauchy

x (, b) (, x)
f (x) f (x)f () f ()
g(x) = g(x)g() = g () . (5.12)

, x (, b) < x < + (, b) < < + ,

(5.11)
 f () 
  <
g ()

, , (5.12),  f (x) 
 
g(x) < .
 (x) 
 fg(x)  < x (, b) < x < + , limx+ f (x)
g(x) = .
f (x)
limx+ g (x) = . ,
x x .
x + x 0+.
a > 0, f, g : (a, +) R (a, +) g(x), g (x) = 0
(x)
x (a, +) limx+ f (x) = limx+ g(x) = 0. limx+ fg (x)
. limx+ fg(x)
(x)
.
x t = x , F, G : (0, a1 ) R
1

F (t) = f ( 1t ) = f (x) G(t) = g( 1t ) = g(x)

t (0, a1 ).
G(t) = g(x) = 0 G (t) = t12 g ( 1t ) = x2 g (x) = 0 t (0, a1 ). ,

F (t) x2 f (x) f (x)

limt0+ G (t) = limx+ x2 g (x) = limx+ g (x)

.
f (x) F (t)
limx+ g(x) = limt0+ G(t)

. limx+ fg(x)
(x)
= limx+ fg (x)
(x)
.
, x x 0.
log(1+x)
5.6.1. limx0 ex 1 .
ex 1 = 0, d(edx1) = ex = 0 x (1, 0) (0, +).
x

(1, 0) (0, +), log(1+x)

ex 1 .
, limx0 log(1 + x) = limx0 (ex 1) = 0.
: limx0 1/(1+x) ex = 1.
log(1+x)
, limx0 ex 1 = 1.

208
 sin x
5.6.2. limx0 x .
x = 0 dx dx = 1 = 0 x (, 0) (0, +) limx0 sin x =
limx0 x = 0. limx0 cos1 x = 1 , ,
limx0 sinx x = 1.
, , .
sin x
cos x limx0 sinx x = 1. ,
l Hopitl . -
, , .
/
. , -
, l Hopitl,
-
sin x , ,
sin x. , 10 ,
, -
sin x.
, , . limx0 sinx x
limx0 sin xsin
x0
0
sin x 0.

limx0 sinx x = limx0 sin xsin

x0
0
= d sin x
dx (0) = cos 0 = 1.
,
l Hopitl
( ). ,
, .
l Hopitl

ex 1 log x xa 1
limx0 x , limx1 x1 , limx1 x1 .

.35

l Hopitl
, , .
L HOPITL. f, g : (, b) R (, b)
g(x), g (x) = 0 x (, b). , , limx+ g(x) = +
(x)
. limx+ fg (x) , limx+ fg(x)
(x)

: (x)
limx+ fg (x) = limx+ fg(x) (x)
= .
:
x , x , x + x .

. limx+ fg (x)
(x)
= R.

> 0. > 0
 f (x) 
  <
(5.13)
g (x) 6

x (, b) < x < + . x0 (, b) < x0 < + .

limx+ |g(x)| = +, > 0
{ }
|g(x)| > max |g(x0 )|, 3 |f (x0 )|, 3||
|g(x0 )| (5.14)
35
5.2.2.

209
 x (, b) < x < + .
= min{x0 , }. x (, b) < x < + < x <
x0 < + < x < + . Cauchy,
x (x, x0 )
f (x)f (x0 ) f ()
g(x)g(x0 ) = g () .

(, b) < < + , (5.13),

 f (x)f (x0 )   f () 
   
g(x)g(x0 ) = g () < 6 .

|f (x) f (x0 ) (g(x) g(x0 ))| < 6 |g(x) g(x0 )|,

, ,

|f (x) g(x)| < 6 (|g(x)| + |g(x0 )|) + |f (x0 )| + |||g(x0 )|.

g(x) (5.14),
 f (x)  ( )
  < 1 + |g(x0 )| + |f (x0 )| + || |g(x0 )| < (1 + 1) +
+
= .
g(x) 6 |g(x)| |g(x)| |g(x)| 6 3 3
 (x) 
, , > 0  fg(x)  < x (, b)
f (x)
< x < + . limx+ g(x) = .
(x)
limx+ fg (x)
= x x -
. x x 0
.

l Hopitl -
limx+ f (x) .

l Hopitl, -
.
5.6.3.
ax
limx+ xb
= + a > 1 b > 0.
x
a > 1 b = 1. limx+ ax = +.
limx+ x = + x = 0 dx dx
= 1 = 0
ax log a x
x > 0. limx+ 1 = +. limx+ ax =
+.
1/b x x
a > 1 b > 0. a1/b > 1, limx+ (a x ) = +. limx+ axb =
( 1/b x )b
limx+ (a x ) = +.
.36
ax a > 1 xb .
5.6.4.
xa
limx+ (log x)b
= + a > 0 b > 0.

xa
a > 0 b = 1. limx+ log x = +.
limx+ log x = + log x = 0 d log
dx =
x 1
x = 0
36
2.3.24.

210
 axa1
x > 1. limx+ 1/x = limx+ axa =
xa
+. limx+ log x = +.
a/b xa
a > 0 b > 0. ab > 0, limx+ log
x
x = 0. limx+ (log x)b
=
( xa/b )b
limx+ log x = +. .
xa a > 0 (log x)b .
5.6.5. limx+ xcosx
x
+ +
.
, limx+ x = + , x cos x x 1 x,
limx+ (x cos x) = +.
 cos x
 -
 
l Hopitl : ( x x ) x > 0,
1

limx+ cosx x = 0, limx+ xcos

x
x
= limx+ 1 cosx x = 1 0 = 1.
, , ! limx+ 1+sin 1
x

limx+ sin x.
, , l
Hopitl. ,
.

, , 00 .

l Hopitl. -
, , .
1. limx f (x) = 0 limx g(x) =
limx f (x)g(x), 0().
f (x)
limx f (x)g(x) = limx 1/g(x)

00 . limx f (x)g(x) =
g(x)
limx 1/f (x) , . ,
f .
2. limx f (x) = + limx g(x) =
limx (f (x) + g(x)), (+) + ().
( 1 1
)
limx (f (x) + g(x)) = limx g(x) + f (x) f (x)g(x),

0(), .
3. limx f (x) = 0, f (x) > 0, limx g(x) = 0 -
limx f (x)g(x) , (0+)0 .
limx f (x)g(x) = limx eg(x) log f (x)
0().
4. limx f (x) = + limx g(x) = 0
limx f (x)g(x) , (+)0 .
limx f (x)g(x) = limx eg(x) log f (x)
0(+).
5. , limx f (x) = 1 limx g(x) =
limx f (x)g(x) , 1 .
limx f (x)g(x) = limx eg(x) log f (x) ,
()0.

211
 5.6.6. limx0+ x log x, 0().
limx0+ log x
1/x , limx0+ x = +. x = 0 x2 = 0
1 1 1

1/x
x (0, +). , limx0+ 1/x2
= limx0+ x = 0.
1/x
limx0+ x log x = limx0+ log x
1/x = limx0+ 1/x2 = 0.

5.6.7. limx0+ xx .
xx = ex log x : limx0+ xx = limx0+ ex log x = 1.
( x
)x
5.6.8. limx+ 1 + 1+x 2 .
( x
) x x log(1+ x
) ( x
)
1+ 1+x =e 1+x2 lim
2 x+ x log 1+ 1+x2 ,
(+)0.
( x
) log(1+ 1+x x
2)
x log 1 + 1+x 2 = 1/x 00 .
x1 = 0 x12 = 0 x (0, +)
2 (x2 1) ( ) log(1+ x 2 )
limx+ (1+xx2 )(1+x+x 2 ) = 1. limx+ x log 1 + 1+x2
x
= limx+ 1+x
1/x = 1.
( x
) x x log(1+ x
)
limx+ 1 + 1+x = limx+ e 1+x2 = e.
2

5.6.1. , limx+ (ex x),

x/4

7x ex/2 (log x)4 (1 ) e1/x
2
limx+ ex13 , limx+ (log x) 5 , limx+ x100 ex/4 , limx0+ x5 (log x)
7 , lim .
x0 x5

xa 1 x 1
5.6.2. limx1 xb 1
(b = 0), limx0 abx 1 (a, b > 0, b = 1), limx+ log(log(log x))
log(log x) ,
( 1 ) 1/x
limx1 1x+log

1 2x
x
, limx0 log(1+x)
e2x 1
, limx0 log(1+x) x1 , limx0 e(1+x)
x , limx0 (x+ex )1/x ,
limx1+ log x log(x 1), limx0+ xx 1 , limx+ x(xlog x1) .
x 1/x

5.6.3. 3.3.11 l Hopitl.

( 1 ) ( 1 )
5.6.4. limx0 esin1
x
x , limx0+ sin x log x, limx0 sin x x , limx0 ex 1
1 1
sin x ,
1cos(1cos x) x sin(sin x)(sin x)2
limx0 x4
, limx0 x6
, limx/4 (tan x)tan(2x) , limx0 sin(tan x)tan(sin
x7
x)
,
arcsin xsin x
limx0 tan xarctan x .
( 1cos x )
5.6.5. a, b limx0 x4
+ ax2 + b = 0.
x x

2
5.6.6. limx+ e +e ex , limx+ xx+1
l Hopitl; , -
l Hopitl;
{
1/(log |x|), x = 0
5.6.7. f (x) = 4.1.12 (
0, x = 0
) f Hlder- 0.

5.6.8. 37 f, g : (0, 1) R (0, 1) limx0+ f (x) =

limx0+ g(x) = 0, g(x), g (x) = 0 x (0, 1)
(x)
limx0+ fg(x)
(x)
limx0+ fg (x) .

5.6.9. f : ( , + ) R, a < < b.

f (), limh0+ f (+h)f (h)
2h = f ().
l Hopitl.
37
l Hopitl.

212
 f (), limh0+ f (+h)2f ()+f (h)
h2
= f ().
f (), limh0 f (+2h)2fh2(+h)+f () = f ().
dn y
dxn n- y = f (x).
5.6.10. 0 < k < 1 n N. ex (1 + 1!
n
x
+ + xn! ) k.
n
1 + 1! x
+ + xn! = kex .
xn , (xn ) .38
5.6.11. []39 a < < b f : (a, b) R n 1
(a, b). f (n) (),
( (1) (n1)
)/ (n)
limx f (x) f () f 1!() (x )1 f (n1)!() (x )n1 (x )n = f n!() .

n = 1, f ().
n = 2, n = 3.
.
( 1 )
(i) limx0 x1n 1x 1 x xn1 .
( )
(ii) limx0 x1n ex 1 1!1 x (n1)!
1
xn1 .
( )
(iii) limx0 x1n log 1x1
x 12 x2 n1 1
xn1 .
( n1 )
(iv) limx0 x1n log(1 + x) x + 12 x2 + (1) n1 x
n1 .
( (1)m 2m2 )
(v) limx0 x2m1
cos x 1 + 2!1 x2 + (2m2)! x m 1.
( (1) m )
1
(vi) limx0 x2m+1 sin x 1!1 x + 3!1 x3 + (2m1)! x2m1 m 1.
( m )
1
(vii) limx0 x2m+1 arctan x x + 13 x3 + (1)
2m1 x
2m1 m 1.
n k
n k
k=0 bk (x)
[] limx k=0 bk (x)
(x)n = limx (x)n R. bk = bk
k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
f (k) ()
[] [] , , f (n) () R. Pn (x) = nk=0 k! (x )
k

P (x) n limx f (x)P (x)

(x)n = 0.
[] f : (1, 1) R (1, 1) (
( 0
))x
= ea /2 .
2
f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, limx+ f a/ x
( ( ))x
= ea /2 .
2
, limx+ cos a/ x
5.6.12. 40 5.6.11 .
a < < b f 2m 1 (a, b)
f (2m) (). f (1) () = . . . = f (2m1) () = 0,
f , f (2m) () > 0, f , f (2m) () < 0.
a < < b f 2m (a, b)
f (2m+1) (). f (1) () = . . . = f (2m) () = 0 f (2m+1) () = 0,
f .
5.6.13. 5.2.8 5.3.11.
P .
P k N P () = = P (k1) () = 0 P (k) () = 0.
a < < b, f : (a, b) R f () = 0.
f k N g : (a, b) R g() = 0
f (x) = (x )k g(x) x (a, b). f () = 0,
38
10.2.1.
39
.
40
.

213
 f 0.

.
f , ,
. , f .
a < < b f : (a, b) R . f () = 0.
f 1 f
f () = 0.
k N, k 2, a < < b f : (a, b) R k 1
(a, b). f () = 0. f k
f k f () = = f (k1) () = 0 f (k) () = 0.

5.6.14. f, g : [0, 1) R [0, 1) 0

f (0)g (0) = f (0)g (0). Cauchy,
x (0, 1) (0, x) (f (x) f (0))g () = (g(x) g(0)f (). = (x)
x, limx0 (x) x = 2.
1

5.6.15. f (a, +) limx+ (f (x) + f (x)) = .

limx+ f (x) = limx+ f (x) = 0.

5.6.16. 41 limx0+ xm e1/x = 0 m N.

{
e1/x , x > 0
h(x) = h -
0, x 0
{
P2n (1/x)e1/x , x > 0
R , n, h (x) =
(n) P2n
0, x 0
2n. , h(n) (0) = 0 n.
{
e2/(1x ) , 1 < x < 1
2

g(x) = g
0, |x| 1
R.

5.7 Taylor, .
5.1. n Z, n 0, f : [, c] R, n [, c]
f (n) [, c] (, c). , , p > 0. ,
x (, c] (, x)
n f (k) () f (n+1) ()
f (x) = k=0 k! (x )k + n!p (x )p (x )np+1 .

c < , [c, ].

. F : [, x] R
n f (k) (t)
F (t) = f (x) k=0 k! (x t)k (5.15)

t [, x]. F [, x] (, x) , ,
F (x) = 0.
(n+1) (t)
F (t) = f n! (x t)n (5.16)
41
, , , 7.2.17,
.

214
 t (, x).
h : [, x] R

h(t) = (x )p F (t) F ()(x t)p

t [, x]. h [, x] (, x) h() = h(x) = 0.

Rolle, (, x) h () = 0.

(x )p F () = pF ()(x )p1 , (5.17)

n f (k) () p f (n+1) ()
f (x) k=0 k! (x )k = F () = Fp(x)
()(x)
p1 = n!p (x )p (x )np+1 .

(5.15) t = , (5.17)
(5.16) t = .

5.12. f n ,
n f (k) ()
Pn, (x) = k=0 k! (x )k

Taylor n f .
5.1 Taylor f

f (x) = Pn, (x) + Rn, (x, ),

(n+1)
Rn, (x, ) = f n!p () (x )p (x )np+1 Schlmlich n
p > 0. p = n + 1 p = 1,
f (n+1) () f (n+1) ()
Rn, (x, ) = (n+1)! (x )n+1 Rn, (x, ) = n! (x )n (x ).

Lagrange n -
Cauchy n.

Taylor 7.1.
n f (x)
Pn, (x) Taylor n .
Taylor Rn, (x, ) , ,
f (x) Pn, (x).

5.7.1. P n. P -
R , , 5.1 , x.
P (n+1) () = 0 , Rn, (x, ) = 0,
n P (k) ()
P (x) = Pn, (x) = k=0 k! (x )k

, x. P n -
Taylor n P .

5.7.2. 4 + 105 = 4.00001 < 1017 .

x = 4 + 105 = 4 4 .

f (x) = x [4, 4 + 105 ]

f (k) (x) = 12 ( 12 1) ( 12 k + 1)x 2 k .

1

215
 = 4 : f (k) (4) = 12 ( 12 1) ( 12 k + 1)4 2 k , ,
1

f (4) = 1
4 f (k) (4) = (1)k1 13(2k3)
23k1
k 2.

, |f (n+1) (x)| (4, 4+105 ).

|f (n+1) (x)| = | 12 ( 21 1) ( 12 n)x 2 n1 | 13(2n1) 1 n

1 13(2n1)
2n+1
4 2 = 23n+2
.
, Lagrange

|Rn,4 (4 + 105 , )| 13(2n1)

23n+2 (n+1)!
105(n+1) .

n = 2,
|R2,4 (4 + 105 , )| < 1017
, , Taylor
 
 4 + 105 2 1 105 + 1 5 2  < 1017 .
4 64 (10 )

2 + 14 105 64
1
(105 )2 = 2.0000025000015625

4 + 105 < 1017 .
2.0000025000015625 4 + 105 .

.
1 x 1 1
5.7.1. Taylor 1x , e , log 1x , x2 +1
0.
5.7.2. 5.7.2, Taylor Lagrange
5
[, x] = [4, 4 + 10 ]. n N
f (x) = x
4 + 105 ;
5.7.3. Taylor Lagrange sin(1o )
sin(31o ) .
5.7.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b),
f (a) = f (b) = 0 |f (x)| M x (a, b).
2 +(xb)2
|f (x)| M (xa)
2(ba) x (a, b).
5.7.5. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
2
f (a) = f (b) = 0, (a, b) |f (b) f (a)| (ba)
4 |f ()|.

5.7.6. f : [a, b] R [a, b] 0 < m f (x)

0 < f (x) M x [a, b]. , f (a) < 0 < f (b), (a, b)
f () = 0. .
Newton -
f (x) = 0.
(xn ) x1 (, b], x1 = b,
xn+1 = xn ff(x n)
(xn ) n.
(xn ) xn .

n (, xn ) xn+1 = 2ff (x
()
n)
(xn )2 .
(M )2n1
n 0 < xn 2mM 2m (x1 ) .

x 2 = 0
2

2 [1, 2]. x1 = 2
x2 , x3 , x4 .
2. n
xn 2 ;

216
 f (n+1) ()
5.7.7. Taylor Lagrange (n+1)! (x )n+1 , ,
x. = (x), , f (n+2) ()
= 0, limx+ (x) 1
x = n+2 .

5.7.8. [] f : (a, +) R (a, +). , u0 =

sup{|f (x)| | x > a}, u1 = sup{|f (x)| | x > a}, u2 = sup{|f (x)| | x > a}, u1 2 4u0 u2 .
[] f : R R R. , u0 = sup{|f (x)| | x R},
u1 = sup{|f (x)| | x R}, u2 = sup{|f (x)| | x R}, u1 2 2u0 u2 .
[] f : (0, +) R. f (0, +) limx+ f (x) = 0,
limx+ f (x) = 0.
[] f : (0, +) R (0, +). limx+ xf (x) =
limx+ xf (x) = 0, limx+ xf (x) = 0.
[] f : (a, b) R (a, b). (b x)2 f (x)
(a, b) limxb f (x) = 0, limxb (b x)f (x) = 0.

5.7.9. 42 n Z, n 0, f, g : [, c] R, n [, c] f (n) ,
g (n) [, c] (, c). x (, c]
(, x)
( (k)
) ( (k)
)
f (x) nk=0 f k!() (x )k g (n+1) () = g(x) nk=0 g k!() (x )k f (n+1) ().

c < ;

5.8 , .
5.8.1 .
5.13. f, g : A R R A
(x) 
f (x) = 0 g(x) = 0 . limx  fg(x) = 0, f
g g
 f (x)  f .
, - f , g, limx g(x)  = 0

 
limx  fg(x) 
(x) = +.
 (x) 
, l, u 0 < l  fg(x)  u < + , f ,
g .
 (x) 
= limx  fg(x)  , l
0 < l < ( , l = 2 ) u > ( , u = 2)
 (x) 
l <  fg(x)  < u , f, g .

5.8.1. b > 0, a > 1, xb +

b
ax , limx+ axx = 0.

5.8.2. c > 0, b > 0, (log x)c +

c
xb , limx+ (logxbx) = 0.

5.8.3. an , bn = 0, a0 + a1 x + + an xn
 b0 + b1 x + + bn xn
+, limx+  ab00+a 1 x++an x   an 
n
+b1 x++bn xn = bn > 0.

5.8.4. an , bm = 0 n < m. a0 + a1 x + + an xn
+a1 x++an xn
+ b0 + b1 x + + bm xm . , limx+ ba00+b 1 x++bm x
m = 0.

42
Cauchy: = a, c = x = b n = 0.

217
 5.8.5. a > 1, b > 0, a1/x 0
1/x b
xb , limx0+ a xb = limt+ at t = 0.

5.8.6. 1 cos x x2 0, limx0 1cos x

x2
=
1
2 > 0.
sin x
5.8.7. sin x x 0, limx0 x = 1 > 0.
ex 1 x 0, limx0 e x1 = 1 > 0.
x

log x x 1 1, limx1 log x

x1 = 1 > 0.

5.8.8. c > 0, b > 0, f (x) = (log x1 )c

c c
0 xb , limx0+ (log(1/x))
xb
= limt+ (logtbt) = 0.

5.8.9. limx+ 2x+xx sin x = limx+ (2 + sin x) . ,

2x + x sin x x +. , 1 2x+xx sin x 3
x (0, +).

, , limx+ -
: , +.
5.8.3 n
+.
n , , n
+. 5.8.4,
+ :
. , n xn .
, , n
n
xn +.
a0 +a1 x++an xn
5.8.10. R(x) = an , bm = 0 n >
b0 +b1 x++bm xm ,
  a 
m, nm +, limx+  xR(x)   n  > 0.
nm = b
m

xb
b > 0
xb +. :

5.14. f b > 0 +
xb +.

, ,

b
limx+ xxb21 = limx+ xb21b1 = 0 0 < b1 < b2 .
, , +
+ +. , f b
 f + x b
b > 0, u, l > 0 l  xb  u , , |f (x)| lx
(x)

+. limx+ lxb = +, limx+ |f (x)| = +.

5.15. a > 1, ax +.
+ ax
a > 1.

a,
x ( )x
limx+ aa12 x = limx+ aa12 = 0 1 < a1 < a2 .

218
 5.16. c > 0, (log x)c
+. + (log x)c
c > 0.

c,
(log x)c1 1
limx+ (log x)c2 = limx+ (log x)c2 c1
=0 0 < c1 < c2 .

, -
+ + +.
.
5.8.1 5.8.2 , +, -

.
A , , N -
+. , -
. , (an ), a > 1,
a

(
c
) , (n ), a > 0,
(log n) , c > 0, .
+, N
+ , ,
n +.

5.8.11. ,
.
.

5.8.12. (1 cos n1 ) ( n12 ).

( )
5.8.13. log(1 + n1 ) ( n1 ).

5.8.2 . .
5.17. f, g : A R R A.
g(x) = 0 . limx fg(x)
(x)
= 0,
( )
f (x) = g(x)

: f g .
M 0 |f (x)| M |g(x)| ,
( )
f (x) = g(x)

: f g .
( )
5.8.14. f g , f (x) = g(x)
( ) f (x) = 0
. , , ( ) .
, ((log)x)c = xb xb = a(x ) + a > 1 b, c > 0.
, xb1 = xb2 + xb2 = xb1 0 0 < b1 < b2 .

5.8.15. ( f) g
, f (x) = g(x) .
, sin x = (x) 1 cos x = (x2 ) 0.

219
 5.8.16. f : A R A A. f
f ()

f (x) f () f ()(x ) = (x )
f (x)f ()f ()(x)
, limx x = 0
limx f (x)f
x
()
= f ().

5.18. f, g : A R R A.
g(x) = 0 . limx fg(x)
(x)
= 1,

f (x) g(x)

f g .

limx fg(x)
(x)
= 1 fg(x)
(x)
= 0 , ,
f (x) = 0 . , f (x) g(x) , f (x), g(x) = 0
. , limx fg(x)
(x) = 1, g(x) f (x) .
.
5.8.17. sin x x 1 cos x 21 x2 0.
ex 1
5.8.18. ex 1 x 0, limx0 x = 1.
log x
5.8.19. log x x 1 1, limx1 x1 = 1.

5.8.20. tan x x(/2) 1

2 , limx 2 tan x
1/(x(/2)) = limt0 t tan(t + 2 ) =
limt0 t cot t = limt0 sint t cos t = 1.
:
( )
c = 0. f (x) g(x) = cg(x)
f (x) g(x).
( )
: f (x) g(x) = cg(x) limx f (x)g(x)
cg(x) = 0
( f (x) )
limx g(x) = 0 limx g(x) 1 = 0 limx fg(x)
f (x)g(x) (x)
= 1
f (x) g(x) .
:
5.8.21. sin x x = (x) cos x 1 + 12 x2 = (x2 ) 0.
5.8.22. ex 1 x = (x) 0.
5.8.23. log(1 + x) x = (x) 0.
( 1 )
5.8.24. tan x x(/2)
1
= x(/2) 2 .

5.18. [] g1 , . . . , gn g , g1 +
+ gn g .
[] f = g + g1 + + gn g1 , . . . , gn g ,
f (x) g(x) .
g1 (x)++gn (x)
. [] limx g(x) = limx gg(x)
1 (x)
+ + limx gg(x)
n (x)
= 0 + + 0 = 0.
f (x) ( )
[] limx g(x) = limx 1 + g1 (x)++g
g(x)
n (x)
= 1 + 0 = 1.

5.19. f = g + g1 + + gn g1 , . . . , gn g
, g .

220
 -
.
, f = g + g1 + + gn g
limx g(x), limx f (x) . , ,
f (x) g(x) , limx f (x) = limx fg(x) (x)
g(x) = 1 limx g(x).
: g + g1 + + gn h + h1 + + hm g, h
g(x)+g1 (x)++gn (x) g(x)
, , , h(x)+h 1 (x)++hm (x)
h(x) , ,
g(x) g(x)+g1 (x)++gn (x)
limx h(x) , limx h(x)+h1 (x)++hm (x) .
5.8.25. -
.
xk = (xn ) + k < n, a0 + a1 x + + an xn ,
an = 0, an xn +, a0 + a1 x + + an xn an xn +
, , limx+ (a0 + a1 x + + an xn ) = limx+ an xn .
+a1 x++an xn an x n a0 +a1 x++an xn an x n
, ba00+b m b xm +, limx+ b +b x++b xm = limx+ b xm .
1 x++bm x m 0 1 m m
x
5.8.26. xe2x x2 + 3ex x2 e 2 2e2x + log x x2 ex
x
2x x2 +3ex x2 e 2 2x
+. xe2e2x 2
+log xx e x xe
2e2x
= x2 +,
x
xe2x x2 +3ex x2 e 2 x
limx+ 2e2x +log xx2 ex
= limx+ 2 = +.
, -
, A N +.
.
x ax
5.8.1. a > 1. ax , aa , aa +.
log x, log(log x), log(log(log x)) +.
5.8.2. x, log(ex + x log x), e(1+(1/x)) log x +.
x2 +x3 log x
x, sin x+x2
0.
e x e
3 x 5 x/2
x/5 + x3 ex/6 x, e3 log(2+log x) .
5.8.3. x xex +sin x , e

+ , .
5.8.4. +
+ xb b < 0. ,
+ -
+ ax a (0, 1) (log x)c c < 0, .

+ 0 +.
+ -

.

.
+a1 x++an xn
ba00+b m , an , bm = 0 n < m, -
1 x++bm x
+.
( 1/x 1 )
ex +2ex , log(x+log
2 1
x) , log e + x2 .
+ , .
5.8.5. f (x) (a + bx + cx2 + dx3 ) = (x3 ) 0. f (x) (a +
bx + cx2 ) = (x2 ), f (x) (a + bx) = (x) f (x) a = (1) 0.
a, b, c, d exx1 (a + bx + cx2 + dx3 ) = (x3 ) 0.

221
5.8.6. 5.6.11[]. a < < b f :
(a, b) R n 1 (a, b). f (n) () ,

( f (1) () f (n) () ) ( )
f (x) f () + 1! (x )1 + + n! (x )n = (x )n .

:
1
(i) 1x (1 + x + + xn ) = (xn ) 0.
( )
(ii) ex 1 + 1!1 x + + n!
1 n
x = (xn ) 0.
( )
1
(iii) log 1x x + 12 x2 + + n1 xn = (xn ) 0.
( n1 )
(iv) log(1 + x) x 12 x2 + + (1)n xn = (xn ) 0.
( m )
(v) cos x 1 2!1 x2 + + (1)
(2m)! x
2m = (x2m ) 0 m 0.

( m1 )
(vi) sin x 1!1 x 3!1 x3 + + (1)
(2m1)! x
2m1 = (x2m1 ) 0 m 1.

( m1 )
(vii) arctan x x 13 x3 + + (1)2m1 x
2m1 = (x2m1 ) 0 m 1.

x2
5.8.7. e2x log x x5 ex , x log x log x + x x log(log x), x log x
2

x2 + 3x sin x +;

x2 + x 1
x
3x , 1 + 2x x x, (sin1x)2 + x3 x 1
x
0;

5.8.8. , , f : [1, +) (0, +) , a > 0

f (x) = (eax ) xa = (f (x)) +.
( ) ( )
5.8.9. f (x)
( = o) g(x) (
) , f (x) = ( g(x) ) ( .
)
: g(x) = g(x) . : g(x) = g(x) .
( ) ( ) ( )
, f1 (x) = g(x) ( f2 (x)
) =( g(x)
)
( ,
) f 1 (x) + f2 (x) = g(x) .

( )
( ):
( ) g(x)
( +
) (g(x) )= g(x)
( .)( ) ( :
)
(g(x) + g(x) ) = g(x) , g1 (x) g 2 (x) = g 1 (x)g 2 (x) g1 (x) g2 (x) =
g1 (x)g2 (x) .

222
 .
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 5. Addison-Wesley.
Bartle, R. (1967) The Elements of Real Analysis, Ch V. Wiley.
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 6. Wiley.
Beals, R. (2004) Analysis, an Introduction, Ch 8. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 9. Springer.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 8. Springer.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 3. Dover.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch II-III, V-VII. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 2-6. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 6. Springer.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 4-5. Springer.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 7-8. Wiley.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap V-VI. Springer.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch VI-VII. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 7. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 5-7, 9-11. American Math. Society &
Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch III-IV. Springer.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 5. Mir Publishers.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 4. Springer.
Pugh, C. (2015) Real Mathematical Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Rosenlicht, M. (1986) Introduction to Analysis, Ch V. Dover.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 5. Springer.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 5. McGraw-Hill.
Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch II. Pergammon Press.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 9-12, 20. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 5. Pearson.

.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 3-4. Springer.
Beckenbach, E. & Bellman, R. (1961) Inequalities, Ch 1. Springer.
Boas, R. (1996) A Primer of Real Functions, Ch 2. Math. Association of America.
Dieudonn, J. (1971) Infinitesimal Calculus, Ch III. Hermann.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 7. Harper and Row.
Goffman, C. (1953) Real Functions, Ch 9. Rinehart.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch V. Dover.
Hardy, G., Littlewood, J. & Polya, G. (1952) Inequalities, Ch I-IV. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Mitrinovi, D. (1964) Elementary Inequalities. Noordhoff.
Mitrinovi, D., Peari, J. & Fink, A. (1993) Classical and New Inequalities in Analysis. Springer.
Tikhomirov, V. (1991) Stories about Maxima and Minima. American Math. Society & Math.
Association of America.

223
224
 6

Riemann.

6.1 Darboux.
6.1. [a, b] -
[a, b] a, b. [a, b] ,
,
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn },
n N
a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b.
n + 1 [a, b] x0 , . . . , xn -.
xk k- -. [a, b] n [x0 , x1 ], . . . , [xn1 , xn ],
-. [xk1 , xk ] k- -.
[a, b] = {a = x0 , x1 = b}.
-, [x0 , x1 ] = [a, b]. [a, b]. ,
[a, b]. , x1 (a, b) -
{a = x0 , x1 , x2 = b} . ,
, ...
n + 1 [a, b] n -
. ; -
n ba, ba n . , -
x0 = a, x1 = a + ba n , x2 = a + 2 ba
n : k = 0, . . . , n
k- -
xk = a + k ban .
, [xk1 , xk ]

n ) (a + (k 1) n ) =
xk xk1 = (a + k ba ba ba
n

n- - xn = a + n ba n = b.
, n 2, n + 1 [a, b]
. , {0, 34 , 97 , 13 23
15 , 24 , 1} 6
[0, 1] {0, 5 , 5 , 5 , 5 , 1} 6
1 2 3 4

[0, 1].
6.2. , [a, b].
, , - - , ,
.
6.1.1. = {0, 18 , 72 , 37 , 12 , 35 , 34 , 78 , 1}
= {0, 72 , 37 , 34 , 1} [0, 1].

225
 6.1.2. = {0, 18 , 37 , 12 , 53 , 87 , 1}, = {0, 27 , 73 , 43 , 1} [0, 1]
.

6.3. , [a, b]. =

[a, b] , . , ,
.

6.1.3. 6.1.1 , ,
6.1.2 , = {0, 18 , 27 , 37 , 21 , 35 , 34 , 87 , 1}.

6.1 , [a, b] ,
[a, b] ,
.

6.1. , [a, b]. [a, b]

.

. [a, b] . ,
. , .

6.4. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]. - [xk1 , xk ]

lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk }, uk = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk }.

Darboux f [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) + + ln (xn xn1 )

Darboux f [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = u1 (x1 x0 ) + + un (xn xn1 ).

6.2.1
Darboux - f .
32 .
.

6.1.4. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]. [xk1 , xk ] f f (xk1 ) f (xk ).
lk = f (xk1 ) uk = f (xk ) , ,

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk1 )(xk xk1 ), (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk )(xk xk1 ).

f , lk = f (xk ) uk = f (xk1 ) , ,

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk )(xk xk1 ), (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (xk1 )(xk xk1 ).

6.1.5. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]. , - , [xk1 , xk ]
k k f (k ) f (x) f (k ) x [xk1 , xk ]. lk = f (k )
uk = f (k ),

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ), (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ).

226

, , .
1. f : [c, d] R. {f (x) | c x d}
, l = inf{f (x) | c x d} u = sup{f (x) | c x d}, l u.
, [c , d ] [c, d] l = inf{f (x) | c x d } u = sup{f (x) | c x d }.
x [c , d ] x [c, d], l f (x) u. l u , ,
{f (x) | c x d }, l l u u.
:
, infimum ( )
supremum ( ).

2. (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk
xk1 )

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ).

lk uk k = 1, . . . , n, -
, -. ,
, -
.
3. l = inf{f (x) | c x d} u = sup{f (x) | c x d},
, f (s) f (t) w s, t [c, d].
s [c, d] : f (s) w f (t) t [c, d]. s [c, d]
f (s) w {f (x) | c x d} , , f (s) w l
, , f (s) w + l. , w + l {f (x) | c x d},
u w + l. u l w.
. > 0. x [c, d]
f (x ) > u 2 x [c, d] f (x ) < l + 2 . u l < f (x ) f (x ) w.
u l w < > 0, u l w 0 , , u l w.
, , :
-
, supremum infimum
.
6.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. u l
supremum infimum f [a, b],

l(b a) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) u(b a).

. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}. k = 1, . . . , n [xk1 , xk ] [a, b],

1

l lk uk u

, ,

l(xk xk1 ) lk (xk xk1 ) uk (xk xk1 ) u(xk xk1 ).

n n n n
k=1 l(xk xk1 ) k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) k=1 u(xk xk1 ).
n
n l k=1 (xk xk1 ) = l(b a)

u k=1 (xk xk1 ) = u(b a). (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ).

227
 6.3 . ,
, Darboux ( )
Darboux ( ).
6.3. f : [a, b] R , [a, b].
,

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ).

. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}. - -
. , - [xk1 , xk ] -,
xk1 xk . , , - [xk1 , xk ] -
k
[xk1 , xk ]. ( xk1 xk [xk1 , xk ]
k . k [xk1 , xk ].)
, 0 , . . . , n , k -
[xk1 , xk ] . ,
= nk=1 k .
k - -
[xk1 , xk ]. , , (f ; xk1 , xk ; k )
(f ; a, b; ) -
[xk1 , xk ]. ,

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 (f ; xk1 , xk ; k )
(6.1)
(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 (f ; xk1 , xk ; k ).

6.2 [xk1 , xk ],

lk (xk xk1 ) (f ; xk1 , xk ; k ) (f ; xk1 , xk ; k ) uk (xk xk1 ) (6.2)

k = 1, . . . , n.
k = 1, . . . , n (6.1) .
(6.2) (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ), . (6.2) ,
(6.1), (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ).

6.4 . Darboux
Darboux, Darboux
.
6.4. f : [a, b] R.

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )

, [a, b].
. = .
, 6.3

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ), (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ).

, 6.2 ( )

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ).

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ).

228
 , Darboux
, .

6.1.1. f : [a, b] R.
[a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ), f
[a, b].
, [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ),
f [a, b].

6.1.2. f : [a, b] R. , f [a, b],

[a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = + , f
[a, b], [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = .

6.1.3. f : [c, d] R l = inf{f (x) | c x d} u = sup{f (x) | c x d}.

(f ; c, d) = u l.1
0 (f ; c, d) + (f ; c, d) < + f
[c, d].
(f ; c, d) = sup{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]} = sup{|f (s) f (t)| | s, t [c, d]}.
[c , d ] [c, d], (f ; c , d ) (f ; c, d).

6.2 . Darboux.
6.5. f : [a, b] R. f [a, b]
b
f = sup{(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]} (6.3)
a
f [a, b]
b
af = inf{(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]}. (6.4)

6.1. f : [a, b] R u l supremum infimum f

[a, b].
b b
l(b a) f a f u(b a).
a

. 6.2 (f ; a, b; ) u(b a) -
b
[a, b]. , (6.4), a f (f ; a, b; ) ,
b
a f u(b a).
, 6.2 l(b a) (f ; a, b; ) [a, b] ,
b b
, (6.3), (f ; a, b; ) f , l(b a) f .
a a
, [a, b].
6.4 (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ).
(f ; a, b; ) {(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]},
b
, (6.4), (f ; a, b; ) a f .
b
a f {(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]} , -
b b
, (6.3), f a f .
a
1
(f ; c, d) f [c, d].
3.6.2 4.1.16.

229
 6.6. f : [a, b] R. f , ,
b b
Riemann [a, b] f = a f . f [a, b],
a
b b
f a f , , Riemann
a b
f [a, b] a f . , f [a, b],
b b b
a f= f= a f.
a

Riemann Darboux.
6.5 Riemann
Riemann. b b b
a f , f a f
a
f . ,
b b b
a f (x) dx, f (x) dx,
a a f (x) dx.

, , -
b b b
, a f (t) dt, f (t) dt a f (t) dt, .
a

6.2.1. c [a, b].

= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]. [xk1 , xk ]
, c, lk = uk = c , ,

(c; a, b; ) = nk=1 c(xk xk1 ) = c(ba), (c; a, b; ) = nk=1 c(xk xk1 ) = c(ba).
{ } { }
(c; a, b; )| [a, b] , (c; a, b; )| [a, b]
, c(b a). supremum
c(b a) infimum , , c(b a). ,
b b
c dx = c(b a), a c dx = c(b a)
a

, , c [a, b]
b
a c dx = c(b a).

6.2.2. f : [a, b] R
{
1, x [a, b] Q
f (x) =
0, x [a, b] \ Q

Dirichlet [a, b].

= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]. [xk1 , xk ]
, {f (x) | xk1 x xk } {0, 1}.
lk = 0 uk = 1.

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 0(xk xk1 ) = 0, (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 1(xk xk1 ) = b a.
{ }
(f ; a, b; ){ | [a, b]
} {0}, supremum
0, (f ; a, b; ) | [a, b] {b a},
infimum b a. ,
b b
a
f (x) dx = 0, a f (x) dx = b a > 0.

b b
f (x) dx < a f (x) dx, f [a, b]
b a

a f (x) dx.

230
 , (6.3) (6.4) 6.1, f :
[a, b] R [a, b]
b b
(f ; a, b; ) f (x) dx a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )
a

, f [a, b],
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ).

.
-
.

. f : [a, b] R. f -
[a, b] > 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ) < .

. f [a, b]. > 0. , (6.3)

(6.4), [a, b]
b b
f (x) dx
2 < (f ; a, b; ), (f ; a, b; ) < a f (x) dx + 2 . (6.5)
a

= , (6.5) 6.3

b b
f (x) dx
2 < (f ; a, b; ), (f ; a, b; ) < a f (x) dx + 2 . (6.6)
a

f , (6.6)
b b
a f (x) dx 2 < (f ; a, b; ),

(f ; a, b; ) < a f (x) dx + 2 . (6.7)

(6.7)
(b ) (b )
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < a f (x) dx +
2 a f (x) dx
2 = .

, > 0. [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
b b
(6.3) (6.4) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) a
f (x) dx,

b b
a f (x) dx f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
a

> 0,
b b
a f (x) dx f (x) dx 0
a

b b
, 0, a f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
a
f [a, b].

. .

231
 {
0, x [a, b], x =
6.2.3. [a, b] f (x) =
1, x =
> 0. [a, b], , .
: = a.
x1 (a, b) x1 a < = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 = b}. u1 = 1, l1 = 0
u2 = 0, l2 = 0. , (f ; a, b; ) = u1 (x1 x0 ) + u2 (x2 x1 ) = x1 x0 <
(f ; a, b; ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) + l2 (x2 x1 ) = 0.
: = b.
x1 (a, b) b x1 < = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 = b}. u1 = 0, l1 = 0
u2 = 1, l2 = 0. , (f ; a, b; ) = u1 (x1 x0 ) + u2 (x2 x1 ) = x2 x1 <
(f ; a, b; ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) + l2 (x2 x1 ) = 0.
: a < < b.
x1 (a, ), x2 (, b) x2 x1 < = {a = x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 = b}.
u1 = 0, l1 = 0 u2 = 1, l2 = 0 u3 = 0, l3 = 0. , (f ; a, b; ) =
u1 (x1 x0 ) + u2 (x2 x1 ) + u3 (x3 x2 ) = x2 x1 < (f ; a, b; ) = l1 (x1 x0 ) +
l2 (x2 x1 ) + l3 (x3 x2 ) = 0.
, [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = 0 (f ; a, b; ) <
, , (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . f [a, b].
b
, , 0 = (f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) < . ,
b b
> 0 0 a f (x) dx < , , a f (x) dx = 0.

, -
, 6.2
6.15 .
.

6.2. f : [a, b] R. f [a, b]

(n ) [a, b] (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0.
,
b b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx, (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.

. f [a, b]. -
, n n [a, b]

0 (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) < n1 .

(n ) [a, b] (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0.
, (n ) [a, b]

(f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0. (6.8)

> 0. (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) < ,
, f [a, b].
, b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; n )
b b
(6.8) (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.

. 6.5
, -
. , ,
-
.

232
 6.2.4. x [a, b].
n n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] n -
. ,

xk = a + k ba
n k = 0, . . . , n.

nk=1 k = n(n+1) 2 n .
, .
, x , [xk1 , xk ] lk = xk1 uk = xk .
n ( )
(x; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk1 (xk xk1 ) = ba n k=1 a + (k 1) n
ba
( ba n1
) ba ( )
b a
ba n(n1) 2 2
= ba
n na + n k=1 k = n na + n 2 2 .

,
n ba n
( )
k=1 xk (xk xk1 ) =
ba
(x; a, b; n ) = n k=1 a + k n
( ba n
) ( ba n(n+1)
) b2 a2
= ba
n na + n k=1 k = ba
n na + n 2 2 .

, (x; a, b; n ) (x; a, b; n ) 0, x [a, b]

b b2 a2
a x dx = 2 .

6.2.5. 0 < a < b xp [a, b].

n n = n b/a n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b},

xk = an k k = 0, . . . , n.
p > 0, xp , [xk1 , xk ] lk = xk1 p uk = xk p .
( k )
(xp ; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk1 p (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 xk1 p+1 xxk1 1

= nk=1 (an k1 )p+1 (n 1) = ap+1 (n 1) nk=1 (n p+1 )k1
= ap+1 (n 1) (nn p+1)11 = ap+1 (n 1) (nn p+1 1
p+1 n ) n p+1

1
1 p+1
n 1
= ap+1 (n 1) (b/a)
n p+1 1
= n p+1 1
(bp+1 ap+1 )
bp+1 ap+1
p+1 ,

n 1 limx1 x x11 = dxdx (1) = (p + 1) 1p = p + 1.

p+1 p+1

,
n 1
nk=1 xk1 p (xk xk1 ) = np+1 1
(bp+1 ap+1 ),
n n
(xp ; a, b; n ) = k=1 xk (xk xk1 ) = xk1 )
p p
k=1 (n xk1 ) (xk

= n p nk=1 xk1 p (xk xk1 )
n 1
= n p np+1 1
(bp+1 ap+1 )
bp+1 ap+1
p+1 .

p < 0 p = 1, xp -
(xp ; a, b; n ) (xp ; a, b; n )
. .
, (xp ; a, b; n ) (xp ; a, b; n ) 0, xp [a, b]
b bp+1 ap+1
a xp dx = p+1 p = 1 0 < a < b.

233
 p > 0, xp [0, b] (, [a, b] a = 0)

n = n n n = {0 = x0 , x1 , . . . , xn+1 = b},
xk = nb n k1 k = 1, . . . , n, n + 1.
xp [0, b]
b p bp+1
0 x dx = p+1 p > 0 0 < b.
, p = 1, .

b p p Z, xp x < 0,
bp+1 ap+1
a x dx = p+1 a < b < 0.
7.2.2.
6.2.6. p = 1 .
0 < a < b x1 [a, b].

, n n = n b/a
n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b},
xk = an k k = 0, . . . , n.
1 1 1
x , [xk1 , xk ] lk = xk uk = xk1 .
n n(n 1) 1 n 1
( x1 ; a, b; n ) = 1
k=1 xk (xk xk1 ) = n = n log n log ab log ab ,
log x d log x
n 1 limx1 x1 = dx (1) = 1
1 = 1.
,
n n 1
( x1 ; a, b; n ) = 1
k=1 xk1 (xk xk1 ) = n(n 1) = log n log ab log ab .

, ( x1 ; a, b; n ) ( x1 ; a, b; n ) 0, x1 [a, b]
b 1 b
a x dx = log a 0 < a < b.
6.2.7. > 0, = 1 x [a, b].
n n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] n -
. ,
xk = a + k ba
n k = 0, . . . , n.
> 1, x , [xk1 , xk ] lk = xk1 uk = xk .
n
(x ; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk1 (xk xk1 ) = ban
a
k=1
(k1)(ba)/n

ba a ba 1 (ba)/n b a
= n (ba)/n 1 = (b a ) (ba)/n 1
log ,

1 dx x
n 0 limx0 x = dx (0) = log = log .
ba 0

,
n
(x ; a, b; n ) = nk=1 xk (xk xk1 ) = ba
n
a
k=1
k(ba)/n

ba a (ba)/n ba 1 (ba)/n b a
= n (ba)n 1
= (b a )(ba)/n (ba)/n 1
log .

0 < < 1, x
(x ; a, b; n ) (x ; a, b; n ) .
.
, (x ; a, b; n ) (x ; a, b; n ) 0, x [a, b]
b x b a
a dx = log > 0, = 1 0 < a < b.

234
6.2.1 Riemann.
E(A) A
. , , , ,
. :
(i) E(A) 0 A .
(ii)
- .
(iii) A1 A2 E(A1 ) E(A2 )
, A1 A2
E(A1 A2 ) = E(A1 ) + E(A2 ).
(iv) A1 , A2 E(A1 ) E(A2 ) A1 A2 , E(A1 ) E(A2 ).
f : [a, b] R f (x) 0 x
[a, b]. = {(x, f (x)) | x [a, b]} ,
, x-. , ,
A = {(x, y) | x [a, b], y [0, f (x)]},
(a, 0), (b, 0) (
[a, b] x-), . (a, 0), (a, f (a)),
. (b, 0), (b, f (b)) .
, , , f [a, b] A
E(A)
b
E(A) = a f (x) dx.

> 0. = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn } [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ),
uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ].
, k = 1, . . . , n Bk
[xk1 , xk ] x- lk . (ii),
Bk
E(Bk ) = lk (xk xk1 ).
, k = 1, . . . , n Ck
[xk1 , xk ] x- uk . Ck

E(Ck ) = uk (xk xk1 ).

, B = B1 Bn C = C1 Cn , ,
(iii),

E(B) = nk=1 E(Bk ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ),

E(C) = nk=1 E(Ck ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ).
32.

235
, k = 1, . . . , n, lk f (x) uk x [xk1 , xk ],
A B C. , B A C.
, (iv),

(f ; a, b; ) = E(B) E(A) E(C) = (f ; a, b; ).

b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )

b 
 f (x) dx E(A) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
a
b
, | a f (x) dx E(A)| < , > 0,
b b
| a f (x) dx E(A)| = 0, E(A) = a f (x) dx.

6.2.1. (i), (ii) (iv) -

0;

6.2.2. 0 a < b, x2 x3 [a, b]

b 2 b3 a3
b
a x3 dx = b a
4 4
a x dx = 3 4 , n [a, b] n
2 2
. nk=1 k 2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)
6 nk=1 k 3 = n (n+1)
4 ,
. 6.2.4.
{
x, x [0, 1] Q
6.2.3. f : [0, 1] R f (x) =
0, x [0, 1] \ Q
1 1
f (x) dx = 0 0 f (x) dx = 12 .
0

6.2.4. f : [a, b] R (n ) (n ) [a, b]

(f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0. f [a, b]
b b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.

236
6.2.5. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (r) = 0
b
r [a, b]. a f (x) dx = 0. f (x) = 0
x [a, b].
6.2.6. f, g, h : [a, b] R f (x) g(x) h(x) x [a, b].
b b
f h [a, b] a f (x) dx = a h(x) dx, g
b b b
[a, b] a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx = a h(x) dx.
6.2.7. f : [a, b] R. f [c, b] c
b b
a < c < b, f [a, b] a f (x) dx = limca+ c f (x) dx.
f [a, c]
c a < c < b.
p > 0. 6.2.5, b p
b p bp+1 ap+1 bp+1
a x dx = p+1 0 < a < b. , , 0 x dx = p+1 .
b
6.2.8. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x) dx > 0,
( ) [c, d] [a, b] f (x) > 0 x [c, d].
b
, , f f (x) dx > 0.
a
6.2.9. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
[a1 , b1 ] (a, b) 0 < b1 a1 < 1 sup{f (x) | a1 x
b1 } inf{f (x) | a1 x b1 } < 1.
([an , bn ]) 0 < bn an < n1 , [an+1 , bn+1 ] (an , bn )
sup{f (x) | an x bn } inf{f (x) | an x bn } < n1 n.
(an , bn ) n. f .
[a, b]
f . , f [a, b].

6.3 .
-
.
6.1. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f [a, b].
. > 0. 4.2, > 0
|f (x ) f (x )| <
ba x , x [a, b] |x x | < . (6.9)
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] -
< , ,
xk xk1 < k = 1, . . . , n.
6.1.5. f [xk1 , xk ] k , k
[xk1 , xk ] f (k ) f (x) f (k ) x [xk1 , xk ]. lk = f (k ) uk = f (k ).
, |k k | xk xk1 < , (6.9)
uk lk = f (k ) f (k ) <
ba

, ,
n n
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = k=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) <
k=1 ba (xk xk1 ) = .

> 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

f [a, b].

237
 6.3.1. P (x)
P (x)
R(x) = Q(x)
Q(x).

6.3.2. p > 0, xp [a, b] [0, +) , p < 0,

xp [a, b] (0, +).

6.3.3. ex [a, b].

6.3.4. log x [a, b] (0, +).

6.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f [a, b].

. f [a, b]. > 0 = f (b)f (a)+1 .

= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] -
< ,

xk xk1 < k = 1, . . . , n.

f , lk = f (xk1 ) uk = f (xk ) ( 6.1.4).

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) nk=1 (uk lk )

= nk=1 (f (xk ) f (xk1 )) = (f (b) f (a)) < .

> 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

f [a, b].
f .

6.3.5. [x] ,
.

.

6.3.1. x3 x, 1/(x3 x), x3 x, log(x3 x),
sin x, tan x ;

6.3.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f

[A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b), f 1 : [A, B] [a, b]
[A, B].
b B
a f (x) dx + A f 1 (y) dy = bB aA.

0 a < b 0 A < B, .

6.4 .
6.3. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. T f + g : [a, b] R
[a, b]
b b b
a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.

. f , g , M M |f (x)| M
|g(x)| M x [a, b]. |f (x) + g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| M + M
x [a, b] , , f + g .
f + g .

238
 > 0. , ,
[a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < 2 , (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < 2 . (6.10)

= = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}, (6.10)
6.3

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < 2 , (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < 2 . (6.11)

uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk

g uk lk f + g.
x [xk1 , xk ] lk f (x) uk lk g(x) uk , , lk + lk
f (x) + g(x) uk + uk .

lk + lk lk uk uk + uk ,

n
(f + g; a, b; ) = uk (xk xk1 )
nk=1 (x
n (x
k=1 uk k xk1 ) + k=1 uk k xk1 ) (6.12)
= (f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; )

, ,
n
(f + g; a, b; ) = lk (xk xk1 )
nk=1 (x
n (x
k=1 lk k xk1 ) + k=1 lk k xk1 ) (6.13)
= (f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; ).

(6.12) (6.13) (6.11),

(f + g; a, b; ) (f + g; a, b; ) <
2 +
2 = .

> 0 [a, b] (f +g; a, b; )(f +g; a, b; ) < ,

f + g [a, b].
,
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )
b (6.14)
(g; a, b; ) a g(x) dx (g; a, b; )
b
(f + g; a, b; ) a (f (x) + g(x)) dx (f + g; a, b; ). (6.15)
(6.12), (6.13), (6.15)
b
(f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; ) a (f (x) + g(x)) dx (f ; a, b; ) + (g; a, b; ).

(6.14) (6.11),
b 
 (f (x) + g(x)) dx b f (x) dx b g(x) dx < + = .
a a a 2 2
b b b
> 0, a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.

6.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f : [a, b] R

[a, b]
b b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.

239
. f , M |f (x)| M x [a, b].
|f (x)| ||M x [a, b], f .
= 0, 0f 0, [a, b]
b b b
a 0f (x) dx = a 0 dx = 0 = 0 a f (x) dx.

= 0. > 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
|| . (6.16)

uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk

f .
> 0. x [xk1 , xk ] f (x) uk , f (x) uk , ,
uk uk . , x [xk1 , xk ] f (x) uk , f (x) 1 uk , ,
uk 1 uk . uk = uk , , lk = lk . ,
n n
(f ; a, b; ) = k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = uk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; )
n nk=1 (6.17)
(f ; a, b; ) = k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ).

(6.17) (6.16),
( )
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < = . (6.18)

< 0. x [xk1 , xk ] f (x) uk , uk f (x) , ,

uk lk . , x [xk1 , xk ] lk f (x), f (x) 1 lk , ,
uk 1 lk . lk = uk , , uk = lk . ,

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ),

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ).
(6.16) ( || = ),
( )
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <

= . (6.19)

, (6.18) (6.19) > 0

[a, b]
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < ,
f [a, b].
,
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (6.20)
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ). (6.21)
> 0, (6.20) (6.21)
(6.17) (6.16),
b  ( )
 f (x) dx b f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
a a
b b
> 0, a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
b b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx < 0.

240
 6.3 6.4
b b b
a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.

:
b n n b
a k=1 k fk (x) dx = k=1 k a fk (x) dx,

f1 , . . . , fn [a, b].
6.2.3
, , 6.5.

6.4.1. f : [a, b] R, [a, b]

b
. f [a, b] a f (x) dx = 0.
, 1 , . . . , m [a, b] f x [a, b] \
{1 , . . . , m } f (j ) = cj = 0 j = 1, . . . , m. f
{
0, x [a, b] x = j j = 1, . . . , m
f (x) =
cj , x = j j = 1, . . . , m
{
0, x [a, b], x = j
j = 1, . . . , m fj (x) =
1, x = j
x [a, b] x = j j = 1, . . . , m, f (x) = 0 fj (x) = 0
j = 1, . . . , m. m m
j=1 cj fj (x) = j=1 cj 0 = 0 = f (x).

x {1 , . . . , m }, x = j0 j0 = 1, . . . , m, f (x) = cj0 fj0 (x) = 1

fj (x) = 0 j = 1, . . . , m j = j0 .
m
j=1 cj fj (x) = cj0 = f (x).
m
m j=1 cj fj (x) = f (x) x [a, b] , , f = j=1 cj fj .
b
fj [a, b] a fj (x) dx = 0, f
[a, b]
b m b m
a f (x) dx = j=1 cj a fj (x) dx = j=1 cj 0 = 0.

6.5. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]

. f [a, b], g
b b
[a, b] a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx.

. h = g f : [a, b] R [a, b]

b . 6.4.1, h -
[a, b] a h(x) dx = 0. g = f + h f [a, b], g
[a, b]
b b b b b
a g(x) dx = a (f (x) + h(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a h(x) dx = a f (x) dx.

6.5 :
-
,
.

241
 6.6. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f g -
[a, b].
. f , g , M , M |f (x)| M
|g(x)| M x [a, b]. |f (x)g(x)| = |f (x)||g(x)| M M
x [a, b], f g [a, b].
> 0. , [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
M +M +1 , (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) <
M +M +1 .

= = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b},

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
M +M +1 , (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) <
M +M +1 . (6.22)

uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk

g uk lk f g.
s, t [xk1 , xk ] lk uk f (s)f (t) uk lk , , |f (s)f (t)|
uk lk . , s, t [xk1 , xk ] |g(s) g(t)| uk lk .
s, t [xk1 , xk ]

|f (s)g(s)f (t)g(t)| |f (s)f (t)||g(s)|+|f (t)||g(s)g(t)| M (uk lk )+M (uk lk ).

3 6.2,

uk lk M (uk lk ) + M (uk lk ).

, (6.22),

(f g; a, b; ) (f g; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )

M nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )

+ M nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
( )
= M (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
( )
+ M (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; )
M M +M

+1 + M M +M +1 < .

> 0 [a, b] (f g; a, b; ) (f g; a, b; ) < ,

f g [a, b].

, ,
b
b
b
. , a f (x)g(x) dx = a f (x) dx a g(x) dx
.
b b b b
6.4.2. a 1 1 dx = a 1 dx = b a a 1 dx a 1 dx = (b a)(b a) =
(b a)2 . b a = (b a)2 !
6.7. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. m > 0
|f (x)| m x [a, b], 1/f : [a, b] R [a, b].
 1 
.  f (x)  1 x [a, b], 1/f .
m
> 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < m2 . (6.23)

uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk -

1/f .

242
 s, t [xk1 , xk ] lk uk f (s)f (t) uk lk , |f (s)f (t)| uk lk .
 1  |f (s)f (t)|
s, t [xk1 , xk ]  f (s) 1 
f (t) = |f (s)||f (t)| ukml2 k , ,

uk lk
uk lk m2
.

(6.23),
( ) ( )
1/f ; a, b; 1/f ; a, b; = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )

m12 nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
( )
= m12 (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
( ) ( )
> 0 [a, b] 1/f ; a, b; 1/f ; a, b; < ,
1/f [a, b].

, -

b /(
b ) . ,
a (1/f (x)) dx = 1 a f (x) dx .
b b
6.4.3. a 11 dx = a 1 dx = b a b 1 = ba 1
. b a = ba
1
a 1 dx
!

6.8. a < c < b f : [a, b] R [a, c] [c, b].

f [a, b]
b c b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx.

. f [a, c] [c, b], M M

|f (x)| M x [a, c] |f (x)| M x [c, b]. M =
max{M , M }, |f (x)| M x [a, b] , , f
[a, b].
> 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = c} [a, c] = {c =
x0 , . . . , xm = b} [c, b]

(f ; a, c; ) (f ; a, c; ) < 2 , (f ; c, b; ) (f ; c, b; ) < 2 . (6.24)

= {a = x0 , . . . , xn1 , xn = c = x0 , . . . , xm = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, c; ) + (f ; c, b; )
(6.25)
(f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, c; ) + (f ; c, b; ).

(6.25) (6.24),

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
2 +
2 = . (6.26)

> 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < ,

f [a, b].
,
c
(f ; a, c; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, c; )
b (6.27)
(f ; c, b; ) c f (x) dx (f ; c, b; )
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ). (6.28)

243
 (6.27) (6.25),
c b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ).

(6.28)
b 
 f (x) dx c f (x) dx b f (x) dx (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
a a c
b c b  b
,  a f (x) dx a f (x) dx c f (x) dx < > 0, a f (x) dx =
c b
a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx.

6.9. a c < d b f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f

[c, d].

. f [a, b], [c, d].

> 0. [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
= {c, d}, , ,

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . (6.29)

- [c, d] (
c, d ), [c, d]. Darboux
(f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; )
-
-. , (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
- -. 2
6.2 (6.29),

(f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

> 0 [c, d] (f ; c, d; ) (f ; c, d; ) < ,

, f [c, d].

6.7. f : [a, b] R [a, b]

0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b c1 , . . . , cm f (x) = ck
x (k1 , k ) k = 1, . . . , m. , f
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ). f 0 , . . . , m
.

6.4.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b],

.
[k1 , k ] f ck :
k
k1 , k . ck [k1 , k ] k1 ck dx =
k
ck (k k1 ). f [k1 , k ] k1 f (x) dx = ck (k k1 ).
f [a, b]
b m k m
a f (x) dx = k=1 k1 f (x) dx = k=1 ck (k k1 ).

, , ,
.
.

244
 6.8. f : [a, b] R [a, b]
0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b, f
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ) limxk + f (x) R
k = 0, . . . , m 1 limxk f (x) R k = 1, . . . , m.

6.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b] [a, b].

. f : [a, b] R [a, b], .

f (x), k1 < x < k
k = 1, . . . , m gk (x) = limxk f (x), x = k


limxk1 + f (x), x = k1
gk [k1 , k ] f [k1 , k ]:
k1 , k . gk [k1 , k ], f
[k1 , k ]. f [a, b].

6.9. f : [a, b] R [a, b]

0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b f
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ).

6.11. f : [a, b] R [a, b] -

[a, b].

. f : [a, b] R [a, b], .

f , limxk f (x), limxk1 + f (x) -
.
, gk 6.10. gk -
[k1 , k ] , , [k1 , k ]. f
gk [k1 , k ]: k1 , k . f
[k1 , k ] , , [a, b].

-
, ,
.

6.5. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 0

x [a, b].
b
[] a f (x) dx 0.
b
[] a f (x) dx = 0, f . , f
[a, b], f 0 [a, b].

. [] 0 {f (x) | a x b}. l =
inf{f (x) | a x b}, l 0. 6.1,
b b
a f (x) dx = f (x) dx l(b a) 0.
a
b
[] a f (x) dx = 0 [a, b] f (
) f () > 0.
0 < < f (). f (x) ,
[c, d] [a, b] d c > 0 [c, d] f (x)
d
x [c, d]. , f (x) 0 x [c, d], c (f (x) ) dx 0.
d d
c f (x) dx c dx 0 , ,
d
c f (x) dx (d c) > 0.

245
 . c
a < c < d < b. f (x) 0 x [a, c], a f (x) dx 0.
b
, d f (x) dx 0.
b c d b d
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx 0 + c f (x) dx + 0 > 0.
f (x) dx + c
c
a < c < d = b. , a f (x) dx 0 , ,
b c d d
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx 0 + c f (x) dx > 0.
b
a = c < d < b. , d f (x) dx 0 , ,
b d b d
a f (x) dx = c f (x) dx + d f (x) dx c f (x) dx + 0 > 0.
b d
, c = a d = b, a f (x) dx = c f (x) dx > 0.
b
, a f (x) dx > 0 .

:

.

6.12. f : [a, b] R [a, b].

b
[] f (x) u x [a, b], a f (x) dx u(b a).
b
, , a f (x) dx = u(b a), f (x) = u x f .
b
[] f (x) l x [a, b], a f (x) dx l(b a).
b
, , a f (x) dx = l(b a), f (x) = l x f .
b 
[] |f (x)| M x [a, b],  a f (x) dx M (b a).
b 
, ,  a f (x) dx = M (b a), f (x) = M x
f f (x) = M x f .

. [] 6.5 u f (x).
[] , f (x) l.
[] [], [] M f (x) M x [a, b],
b
M (b a) a f (x) dx M (b a),
b 
 a f (x) dx M (b a).
b  b b
 a f (x) dx = M (b a), a f (x) dx = M (b a) a f (x) dx = M (b a).
, , f (x) = M x f
f (x) = M x f .

6.4.5. f : [1, 4] R f (x) = x
x2 +2
2
( 2)2 +2
=
4 x
4
2
. , 2
1 x +2 dx 4
2
(4 1) = 3 2
4 .

6.13. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) g(x)

x [a, b].
b b
[] a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.
b b
[] a f (x) dx = a g(x) dx, f (x) = g(x) x
f, g. , f , g [a, b], f , g [a, b].

. 6.5 g f .

246
 6.4.6. f : [0, 1] R f (x) = log(1 + x). f
[0, 1], [0, 1].
,
1 ,
1 1 x log 2

log(1 + x) x x [0, 1]. 0 x log 2 dx 0 log(1 + x) dx 0 xdx.
log 2 1
2 0 log(1 + x) dx 2 .
1

6.14. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. |f |

[a, b]
b 
 f (x) dx b |f (x)| dx.
a a
b  b
 
a f (x) dx = a |f (x)| dx, f (x) 0 x f
f (x) 0 x f .

. f [a, b], M |f (x)| M

x [a, b]. , , |f | [a, b].
> 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . (6.30)

uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk -

|f |. s, t [xk1 , xk ] lk uk f (s)f (t) uk lk ,
|f (s) f (t)| uk lk . s, t [xk1 , xk ] ||f (s)| |f (t)||
|f (s) f (t)| uk lk . 3 6.2, -

uk lk uk lk .
, (6.30),

(|f |; a, b; ) (|f |; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
= (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .

> 0 [a, b] (|f |; a, b; ) (|f |; a, b; ) < .

|f | [a, b].
, |f (x)| f (x) |f (x)| x [a, b],
b b b b
a |f (x)| dx = a (|f (x)|) dx a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
b  b
 a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
b  b b b b
 a f (x) dx = a |f (x)| dx, a f (x) dx = a |f (x)| dx a f (x) dx =
b
a |f (x)| dx. , , f (x) = |f (x)| , , f (x) 0
x f f (x) = |f (x)| , , f (x) 0
x f .

6.4.7. x > 0. x x
0 1+t
t
1 t 0, 0 0 t
dt 01 dt = x.
1+t
x t x x2
, 0 t t 0, 0
t
0 1+t dt t dt = 2 .
1+t { 0
x t { x2 } x2 /2, 0 < x 2
0 0 1+t dt min x, 2 =
x, x 2

. f :
[a, b] R [a, b], g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) 0
x [a, b]. [a, b]
b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f () a g(x) dx.

247
. h : [a, b] R
b b
h(t) = f (t) a g(x) dx a f (x)g(x) dx

t [a, b]. , h [a, b]. f ,

, [a, b] f () f (x) f () , ,

f ()g(x) f (x)g(x) f ()g(x)

x [a, b].
b b b b b
f () a g(x) dx = a f ()g(x) dx a f (x)g(x) dx a f ()g(x) dx = f () a g(x) dx.
b
h() 0 h(), [a, b] h() = 0 , , f (x)g(x) dx =
b a
f () a g(x) dx.
b
6.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. 1
ba a f (x) dx -
f [a, b]
1
b
E(f ; a, b) = ba a f (x) dx.

1
b
E(f ; a, b) = ba a f (x) dx .
6.12 6.1 f -
[a, b] [l, u], u l supremum
infimum f [a, b]. , -
g = 1,
f [a, b] [a, b].
{
1, 1 x < 0
6.4.8. f (x) = [1, 1]
1, 0 x 1
1
1
1(1) 1 f (x) dx = 0, [1, 1] 0.
b b
f [a, b] , a f (x) dx = (b a) = a dx.
, f [a, b]
[a, b] f .

.
7/2 5 4
6.4.1. 2 ([x] + x2 ) dx, 1 (2 3x + 4x2 ) dx, 2 (3x 2x ) dx,
3 2
1 (x x + x
2 2 + 3ex ) dx.


1 + 3x, 1 < x < 2
3x, 1 x < 0
f (x) = 0, x = 1 g(x) = 2x, 0 x 2 -



2, x = 2 x + 2, 2 < x 5
2 5
1 f (x) dx, 1 g(x) dx.

6.4.2. 2 f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 0

x [a, b].
d b
0 c f (x) dx a f (x) dx [c, d] [a, b].
, [c1 , d1 ], . . . , [cn , dn ] ( )
d d b
[a, b], c11 f (x) dx + + cnn f (x) dx a f (x) dx.
2
. , ,
f (x) 0 x [a, b].

248
6.4.3. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. max{f, g}, min{f, g} :
b b
[a, b] R [a, b] a max{f (x), g(x)} dx+ a min{f (x), g(x)} dx =
b b
a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
/4 /4
6.4.4. 0 (sin x)n+1 dx 0 (sin x)n dx 0 (tan x)n+1 dx 0 (tan x)n dx
n N, .
2x
6.4.5. , xe2x x et dt xex
2
x > 0 3e2 1/2 xex dx 32 e1 .

6.4.6. 0 1x+x
x
2 3 x [0, 1] 0 1x+x2
4x x 4
3x
x [1, +).
x t 2x2
0 0 1t+t 2 dt 3 x [0, 1].
x t
0 0 1t+t 2 dt 3 + 3 log x x [1, +).
2 4

x+x t 2x 1+t5
1+2x t
6.4.7. limx+ x 1+t2
dt, limx+ x 1+t+t2 +t6
dt, limx0+ 1+t+t2
dt,
1
1+x t 1
x 1+t5 1x
limx0+ 2x 1x 1+t2 dt, limx0+ 2x x 1+t6 dt.
b b
6.4.8. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x) dx = a g(x) dx,
[a, b] f () = g(). , (a, b) f () = g().

6.4.9. [] f : [0, 1] R [0, 1]. [0, 1]

1 2 f ()
0 f (x)x dx = 3 .
[] a > 0 f : [log a, log(a + 1)] R [log a, log(a + 1)].
log(a+1) x
[log a, log(a + 1)] log a e f (x) dx = f ().

6.4.10. 3 x [x] 12 .
k+1 k+(1/2)
k Z. k (x [x] 12 ) dx = 0, k (x [x] 12 ) dx = 18
k+1
k+(1/2) (x [x] 2 ) dx = 8 .
1 1
b
18 a (x [x] 12 ) dx 18 a, b a < b.
n+1
6.4.11. 4 [] p > 0, np n xp dx (n + 1)p n N.
(n+1)p+1 np+1
np p+1 (n + 1)p n N.
p+1
(xn ), xn = nk=1 k p np+1 n, .
n+1 1
p n xp dx np n N.
1 1
[] 0 < p < 1, (n+1)
(n+1)1p n1p
1
(n+1)p 1p n1p n N.
1p
(xn ), xn = nk=1 k1p n1p n,
.

np1 nk=1 k1p 1p 1
.
n+1 1
p n xp dx np n N.
1 1
[] p > 1, (n+1)
( 1 )
p p1 np1 (n+1)p1 n1p n N.
1 1 1
(n+1)
n 1
(xn ), xn = k=1 kp n, .
n+1 1
1
[] n+1 n x dx n n N.
1

3
, 7.3.20,
, Stirling.
4
7.3.20 8.2.1.

249
 1
n+1 log n+1
n n N.
1
n

(xn ), xn = nk=1 k1 log n n,
.5

log1 n nk=1 k1 1.
m 1
n
[] log m+1 k=n k n + log n n, m N n m.
1 m

p N, 6
1
n+1 + 1
n+2 + + 1
pn1 + 1
pn log p.

[] (yn ), yn = 1 12 + 31 + (1)n1 n1 n.
2.5.7 (yn ) . xn = nk=1 k1 log n n,
y2n = x2n xn + log 2 n , , y2n log 2. 7

1 1
2 + 1
3 + (1)n1 n1 log 2.

6.4.12. f : [a, b] R |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x [a, b].8

d 
 c f (x) dx f (d)(d c) M (dc)
2
2 [c, d] [a, b].
 
9  a f (x) dx ba ba  M (ba)2
b n
k=1 f (a + k n ) n , ,
ba n
n 2n
b
k=1 f (a + k n ) a f (x) dx.
ba
n
x
6.4.13. 10 f : [a, b] R [a, b]. : limx+ f (t) dt = 0

[a, b) limx x f (t) dt = 0 (a, b].
6.4.14. 11 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] g : [a + c, b + c] R
g(x) = f (x c) x [a + c, b + c]. g
b+c b
[a + c, b + c] a+c g(x) dx = a f (x) dx , ,
b+c b
a+c f (x c) dx = a f (x) dx.

[] f : R R > 0, f (x + ) = f (x) x.
f [, + ].
f [a, b] a, b a < b.
b b+ a+ b+
a f (x) dx = a+ f (x) dx a f (x) dx = b f (x) dx a, b
a < b.
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0 g : [a, b] R
g(x) = f ( x ) x [a, b]. g [a, b]
b b
a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx , ,
b ( x ) b
a f dx = a f (x) dx > 0.

, < 0, :
a ( x ) b
b f dx = a f (x) dx < 0.
5
Euler . 2.4.6
7.3.20[].
6
6.5.1.
7
10.2.12.
8
4.6.3, f Lipschitz- [a, b].
9
6.5.1 6.15 f
[a, b]. , f ,
.
10
7.2
.
11
: [] [].

250
[] f : [b, b] R [0, b].
f (x) = f (x) x [b, b], f [b, b]
b b
b f (x) dx = 2 0 f (x) dx.
f (x) = f (x) x [b, b], f [b, b]
b
b f (x) dx = 0.
b
6.4.15. 12 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x)g(x) dx = 0
g : [a, b] R [a, b], f
. , f [a, b], f (x) = 0 x [a, b].
b
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x)g(x) dx = 0
g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(a) = g(b) = 0, f
. , f [a, b], f (x) = 0
x [a, b].
6.4.16. 6.3.2. f : [0, +) R
[0, +), f (0) = 0 limx+ f (x) = +. f [0, +)
f 1 : [0, +) [0, +)
[0, +).
a b
ab 0 f (x) dx + 0 f 1 (y) dy a, b > 0
f (a) = b.
xp1 p > 1
Young 5.4.21 ( 5.5.38).
6.4.17. 13 f, g : [a, b] R [a, b].
[]
(b
1 b
) b b b
2 a a (f (s) f (t))(g(s) g(t)) ds dt = (b a) a f (x)g(x) dx a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.

[] f, g [a, b],
b b b
a f (x) dx a g(x) dx (b a) a f (x)g(x) dx, E(f ; a, b)E(g; a, b) E(f g; a, b).
b b
[] f g [a, b], a f (x) dx a g(x) dx
b
(b a) a f (x)g(x) dx, E(f ; a, b)E(g; a, b) E(f g; a, b).
6.4.18. 14 f, g : [a, b] [0, +) [a, b] p, q > 1 p1 + 1
q = 1.
[] Hlder :
b (b )1/p ( b )1/q
a f (x)g(x) dx
p q
a (f (x)) dx a (g(x)) dx .
s, t 0 0
s(f (x))p = t(g(x))q x [a, b].
21 + 12 = 1, Schwarz, Buniakowsky,
b (b )1/2 ( b )1/2
a f (x)g(x) dx
2 2
a (f (x)) dx a (g(x)) dx ,
Hlder.
[] Minkowski :
(b )1/p ( b )1/p ( b )1/p
p
a (f (x) + g(x)) dx a (f (x))p dx + a (g(x))p dx .
s, t 0 0
sf (x) = tg(x) x [a, b].
12
. .
13
.
14
5.4.22.
6.4.27 6.5.5.

251
6.4.19. []15 f : [a, b] [c, d] [a, b] g : [c, d]( R
)
[c, d]. Jensen : g E(f ; a, b) E(g f ; a, b)
, , ( 1 b ) b
a f (x) dx ba a g(f (x)) dx.
1
g ba
g , , [c, d],
f [a, b].
g () () ;
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. :
( 1 b )n b
(i) n N , ba a f (x) dx ba1 n
a (f (x)) dx.
( 1 b ) b
(ii) > 1 f (x) 0 x [a, b], ba a f (x) dx ba
1
a (f (x)) dx.
( 1 b ) b
(iii) 0 < < 1 f (x) 0 x [a, b], ba a f (x) dx ba
1
a (f (x)) dx.
( 1 b ) b
(iv) < 0 f (x) > 0 x [a, b], ba a f (x) dx ba 1
a (f (x)) dx.
1
b b f (x)
(v) e ba a f (x) dx ba
1
a e dx.
( 1 b ) b
(vi) f (x) > 0 x [a, b], log ba a f (x) dx ba a log(f (x)) dx. -
1

,
1
b b
e ba a log(f (x)) dx ba
1
a f (x) dx,
- .16
f
[a, b].
b
[] f : [a, b] R w : [a, b] (0, +) [a, b] a w(x) dx = 1.
b
Ew (f ; a, b) = a f (x)w(x) dx.17
1
b
E(f ; a, b) = ba a f (x) dx w;
Jensen.18 f : [a, b] [c, d]
[a, b] g : [c, d] R [c, d]. , , w : [a, b] (0, +)
b ( )
[a, b] a w(x) dx = 1. g Ew (f ; a, b) Ew (g f ; a, b) ,
, (b ) b
g a f (x)w(x) dx a g(f (x))w(x) dx.
g , , [c, d],
f [a, b].
g () () ;
[] w .
b
[]19 f, w : [a, b] (0, +) [a, b] a w(x) dx = 1.
(b )1/p
a (f (x))p w(x) dx , p, R \ {0}.

(b )1/p b
limp0 a (f (x))p w(x) dx = e a log f (x) w(x) dx .
p < 0 < p ,
(b ) b
p w(x) dx 1/p e a log f (x) w(x) dx
(b p
)1/p
a (f (x)) a (f (x)) w(x) dx .
15
Jensen 5.5.39.
6.4.27 6.5.5.
1 b
16
5.4.20[]. e ba a log(f (x)) dx -
f [a, b].
17
b
Ew (f ; a, b) = a f (x)w(x) dx f w [a, b].
, w .
18
6.4.27 6.5.5.
19
5.4.23.

252
6.4.20. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 0 x [a, b].
(b )1/n
A u = max{f (x) | a x b} a (f (x))n dx u.
x
6.4.21. 20 f : [a, b] R [a, b] |f (x)| a |f (t)| dt
x [a, b]. f 0 [a, b].
6.4.22.
1 f : [0, 1] R [0, 1] 0,
f (x n ) dx f (0).
0
b b
6.4.23. [] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (x) dx + g(x) dx
a a
b b b b
(f (x) + g(x)) dx a (f (x) + g(x)) dx a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
a
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. :
b b b b
(i) > 0, a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
a a
b b b b
(ii) < 0, a f (x) dx = f (x) dx f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
a a
b
[] a < c < b f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x) dx =
c b b c b
a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a c
[] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) g(x)
b b b b
x [a, b]. a f (x) dx a g(x) dx f (x) dx g(x) dx.
a a
6.4.24. f : [a, b] R 0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b
f (k1 , k ) k = 1, . . . , m. f
[a, b]. : k .
{
(1)[1/x] , 0 < x 1
6.4.25. f : [0, 1] R, f (x) = f
0, x = 0
1
[0, 1] 0 f (x) dx.
6.4.26. 21 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]
> 0 g, h : [a, b] R
b b
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b] a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
[] f : [a, b] R . > 0
g, h : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b]
b b
a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0
g, h : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) f (x) h(x)
b b
x [a, b] a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
6.4.27. 22 [] f : [a, b] [c, d] [a, b] g : [c, d] R
[c, d]. g f : [a, b] R [a, b].
[] [], , f : [a, b] R [a, b],
f 2 : [a, b] R [a, b]. , f g = 14 (f + g)2 41 (f g)2
6.3 6.4, 6.6.
[] , {n, An [a, b] Am An = m, n m = n.
1/n, x An n
f (x) = f -
0, x [a, b] x / An n
b
[a, b] a f (x) dx = 0.
20
5.4.28.
21
-
.
22
.

253
[] An = { 2k1 2n | 1 k 2
n1 } n. A [0, 1] n
n
Am An = m, n m = n. c, d [0, 1] c < d
x + +
n=1 An c < x < d. , n=1 An [0, 1].
[] -
.
f : [0, 1] [0, 1]
{ [] An []. -
1, 0 < y 1
g : [0, 1] R g(y) = f , g ,
0, y = 0
g f : [0, 1] R [0, 1].
[] 6.4.18
f , g , , [a, b].
6.4.19 f, w
, , [a, b].

6.4.28. f : [a, b] R |f (x)| M x [a, b].

b 
 f (x) dx f ( a+b )(b a) (ba) M .
2

a 2 4
xk1 +xk
23 xk = a + k ba
n k = 0, . . . , n k = 2 k = f (k ) k = 1, . . . , n,

b 
 f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba  1 (ba)2 M
.
a n 4 n

6.4.29. f : [a, b] R |f (x)| M x [a, b].

b 
 f (x) dx f (a)+f (b) (b a) (ba) M .
3

a 2 12
24 xk = a + k ba
n yk = f (xk ) k = 0, . . . , n,
b ( 
yn ) ba 
 f (x) dx y0 + y1 + + yn1 + 1 (ba)3 M
.
a 2 2 n 12 n2

6.4.30. f : [a, b] R |f (x)| M x [a, b].

b 
 f (x) dx f ( a+b )(b a) (ba) M .
3

a 2 24
x +x
25 xk = a + k ba
n k = 0, . . . , n k = k12 k k = f (k ) k = 1, . . . , n,

b 
 f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba  1 (ba)3 M
.
a n 24 n2

6.4.31. []
b ) ba P 3 a, b
(
a < b, a P (x) dx = P (a) + 4P ( a+b
2 ) + P (b) 6 .
[] f : [a, b] R |f (4) (x)| M x [a, b].
b 
 f (x) dx (f (a) + 4f ( a+b ) + f (b)) ba  (ba) M .
5

a 2 6 2880
xk1 +xk
26 xk = a + k ba n yk = f (xk ) k = 0, . . . , n k = 2 k = f (k )
k = 1, . . . , n,
b ( ) 
 f (x) dx y0 + yn + 2(y1 + + yn1 ) + 4(1 + + n ) ba  1 (ba)5 M
.
a 6n 2880 n4

6.4.32. a < b f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) > 0 x [a, b].

b
a f > 0.
23
.
24
.
25
.
26
Simpson .

254
6.5 . Riemann.
6.11. [a, b] = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b].
= {1 , . . . , n } k [xk1 , xk ] k = 1, . . . , n.
. k
-.

[a, b].
6.12. f : [a, b] R = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]. = {1 , . . . , n } .


(f ; a, b; , ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) = f (1 )(x1 x0 ) + + f (n )(xn xn1 )

Riemann f
.
6.6. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. :
[] (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; , ) (f ; a, b; )
.
{ }
[] (f ; a, b; ) = sup (f ; a, b; , ) | .
{ }
[] (f ; a, b; ) = inf (f ; a, b; , ) | .
. [] = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
= {1 , . . . , n } .
lk uk infimum supremum f [xk1 , xk ]. lk f (k ) uk ,
n n n
k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) k=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) k=1 uk (xk xk1 ).

, (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; , ) (f ; a, b; ).
[], []
{ }
W = (f ; a, b; , ) | .

[] [] (f ; a, b; ) W .
> 0. uk supremum f [xk1 , xk ], k [xk1 , xk ]
f (k ) > uk ba

. = {1 , . . . , n }
:

(f ; a, b; , ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) > nk=1 (uk ba
)(xk xk1 )
n n
= k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) k=1 ba
(xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ) .

> 0 W > (f ; a, b; ) , ,
(f ; a, b; ) W .
[] [] (f ; a, b; ) W .
> 0. lk infimum f [xk1 , xk ], k [xk1 , xk ]
f (k ) < lk + ba
. = {1 , . . . , n }
( []) :

(f ; a, b; , ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) < nk=1 (lk + ba
)(xk xk1 )
n n
= k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) + k=1 ba (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ) + .

> 0 W < (f ; a, b; ) + . ,
(f ; a, b; ) W .

255
 6.13. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b].
-,

w() = max{xk xk1 | 1 k n}.

. 6.3 , , !

6.3. f : [a, b] R.
[] I . > 0 > 0
[a, b] w() <
 
(f ; a, b; , ) I  < . f [a, b] b f (x) dx = I.
a
[] , f [a, b]. > 0 > 0
[a, b] w() <
 b 
(f ; a, b; , ) a f (x) dx < .

. []
{ }
W = (f ; a, b; , ) | ,

6.6.
> 0. , > 0
 [a, b] w() <

(f ; a, b; , ) I  < 4 .
w() < ,

I 4 < (f ; a, b; , ) < I + 4 .
I 4 I + 4 , , W , ,
[], [] 6.6

I
4 (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) I + 4 . (6.31)

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
2 < .
, , > 0 [a, b] (f ; a, b; )
(f ; a, b; ) < , f [a, b].
, (6.31)
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )

b 
 f (x) dx I  < .
a 4
b
> 0, a f (x) dx = I.
[] f [a, b], M |f (x)| M x [a, b].
> 0. , 0 [a, b]

(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ) < 2 . (6.32)

n0 2 0 -.

= 4n0 (M +1) . (6.33)

= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]

w() < (6.34)

256
 lk uk infimum supremum f [xk1 , xk ].
k = 1, . . . , n . A
k [xk1 , xk ] 0 -
. B k,
k [xk1 , xk ] 0 -
. (, , 0 - [xk1 , xk ].)


(f ; a, b; )(f ; a, b; ) = kA (uk lk )(xk xk1 )+ kB (uk lk )(xk xk1 ). (6.35)

A n0 . ,
k A M lk uk M , , uk lk 2M . , (6.33)
(6.34), k A

(uk lk )(xk xk1 ) 2M w() 2M <

2n0 .

kA (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) <
kA 2n0 n0 2n 0 = 2 . (6.36)

= 0 , k B, -
[xk1 , xk ] -. , 2 6.2
0 (6.32),

kB (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; )
(6.37)
(f ; a, b; 0 ) (f ; a, b; 0 ) < 2 .

, , (6.35), (6.36) (6.37)

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
2 +
2 = (6.38)

[a, b] w() < .

, ,
6.6[],

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; , ) (f ; a, b; ). (6.39)

(6.39)
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; )

(6.38),
 
(f ; a, b; , ) b f (x) dx <
a

w() < .

Riemann Riemann.
6.14. f : [a, b] R. f ,
, Riemann [a, b] I :
> 0 > 0
 [a, b]  w() <
(f ; a, b; , ) I  < .
f [a, b], I , ,
Riemann f [a, b]
b
a f (x) dx = I.

257
 6.3
Darboux Riemann . ,
,
.

6.15. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. -

(n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0. n
n n .
b
(f ; a, b; n , n ) a f (x) dx.

. > 0. > 0 [a, b] w() <

 
(f ; a, b; , ) b f (x) dx < .
a

w(n ) 0, w(n ) < , ,

 
(f ; a, b; n , n ) b f (x) dx < .
a
b
(f ; a, b; n , n ) a f (x) dx.

6.15 .
f [a, b], Riemann f
0.
:
b
limw()0 (f ; a, b; , ) = a f (x) dx.

6.15, f : [a, b] R
,
(n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0 , n , n -
. (f ; a, b; n , n ) , , -
b
, (f ; a, b; n , n ) a f (x) dx.
n n (f ; a, b; n , n ).
6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.6 6.2.7
. , ,
6.1, . , ,
(n ) . , n -
n
Riemann (f ; a, b; n , n ). ,
. , n , n .
(f ; a, b; n , n ) Darboux (f ; a, b; n )
(f ; a, b; n , n ) Darboux (f ; a, b; n ).
6.2
Darboux. , , b
limn+ (f ; a, b; n , n ), a f (x) dx.

6.5.1. cos x sin x

b , ,
b
[a, b]. a cos x dx a sin x dx.

n (n+1)q n (n+1)q
sin 2q k=1 cos(kq) = sin nq
2 cos 2 , sin 2q k=1 sin(kq) = sin nq
2 sin 2 . (6.40)

258
 sin 2q cos(kq) = 12 sin(kq + 2q ) 21 sin(kq 2q )
k = 1, . . . , n.
sin 2q sin(kq) = 12 cos(kq + 2q ) + 12 cos(kq 2q ).
n n = {x0 = a, . . . , xn = b}

xk = a + k ba
n k = 0, . . . , n.

, n = {1 , . . . , n }

k = xk k = 0, . . . , n.

n , , w(n ) = ba n , w(n ) 0.

n
(cos x; a, b; n , n ) = nk=1 cos k (xk xk1 ) = ba
n
ba
k=1 cos(a + k n ).

ba
q = n (6.40)
n n
(cos x; a, b; n , n ) = q cos a k=1 cos(kq) q sin a k=1 sin(kq)
(n+1)q
= q
sin 2q
cos a sin 2 cos 2 sin q sin a sin nq
nq q
2 sin (n+1)q
2
2
ba
q (n+1)q (n+1)(ba)
= sin 2q
sin nq
2 cos(a + 2 ) = n
sin ba
sin ba
2 cos(a + 2n )
2n

2 sin ba
2 cos 2 = sin b sin a.
b+a

b b
a cos x dx = sin b sin a. a sin x dx = cos a cos b.
,
b b
a cos x dx = sin b sin a, a sin x dx = cos a cos b.

, 6.15, 6.2,
. 7 -
, . ,
, Riemann
, .
, ,
Riemann
. , , .
,
. b
1
E(f ; a, b) = ba a f (x) dx
.
y1 , . . . , yn , yk
k , ,

1 y1 ++n yn
1 ++n = 1
1 ++n y1 + + n
1 ++n y n = w1 y 1 + + wn y n ,
k
wk = 1 ++ n
yk ,
yk y1 , . . . , yn . , ,
y1 , . . . , yn
y1 , . . . , yn .
, f : [a, b] R [a, b].
= {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b} [a, b] = {1 , . . . , n }

259
 . f (1 ), . . . , f (n ). -
w() , - [xk1 , xk ] ,
x [xk1 , xk ] k ,
f (k ) f (x) x [xk1 , xk ] , ,
f (1 ), . . . , f (n ) . , ,
[xk1 , xk ] [xl1 , xl ], f (k ) -
f (l ). ,
, f (x)
x x
f (k ) wk = k bak1
[xk1 , xk ] b a. ,
f ,

x1 x0 xn xn1
ba f (1 ) + + ba f (n )

f (1 ), . . . , f (n ) -
w() . , ,
,
1
ba (f ; a, b; ; ).
1
b
, , ba a f (x) dx w() .

6.5.1. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. 27

n ( ) b
ba
n k=1 f a + k ba
n a f (x) dx.

, ,
ba n1
( ) b n ( ) b
n k=0 f a + k n
ba
a f (x) dx, ba
n k=1 f a + (k 12 ) ba
n a f (x) dx.

.
28 :
p 1
(i) nk=1 nkp+1 0 xp dx = p+1 1
p > 0.
pn p 1
(ii) k=n+1 k 1 x dx = log p p N, p 2.29
1
1 1
(iii) nk=1 n2 +k
n
2 0 1+x2 dx.
2
2(2 21)
(iv) nk=1 nn+k
n
1 x dx = 3 .
n 1
(v) k=1 n21+k2 0 1+x 1
2
dx.
n 1 2 1
(vi) k=1 n2 n (k 1)2 0 1 x2 dx.

6.5.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (n ) -

[a, b] w(n ) 0.
b b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx, (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.
27
6.4.12.
28
Riemann . , , -
. o Riemann -
, .
. -
. 7.3.6.
29
6.4.11.

260
6.5.3. 30 f : [a, b] R [a, b]
> 0 > 0 1 , 2 [a, b] w(1 ) < ,
w(2 ) < 1 , 2 1 , 2 , ,
|(f ; a, b; 1 ; 1 ) (f ; a, b; 2 ; 2 )| < .
6.5.4. f : [a, b] R. > 0
{ }
(f ; a, b; ) = sup (f ; a, b; ) | [a, b] w() <
{ }
(f ; a, b; ) = inf (f ; a, b; ) | [a, b] w() < .
b
0 < 1 < 2 , a f (x) dx (f ; a, b; 1 ) (f ; a, b; 2 ).
b
0 < 1 < 2 , (f ; a, b; 2 ) (f ; a, b; 1 ) f (x) dx.
a
b b
lim0+ (f ; a, b; ) = a f (x) dx lim0+ (f ; a, b; ) = f (x) dx.
( ) a
lim0+ (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = 0 f
[a, b].
6.5.5. Hlder, Minkowski Jensen , -
6.4.18 6.4.19, [a, b] ( g
Jensen ) ( 6.4.27[]), -
, 5.4.22, 5.4.23
5.5.39.
6.5.6. xy- x = x(t) y = y(t),
t [a, b] x, y : [a, b] R
[a, b]. = {t0 = a, t1 , . . . , tn1 , tn = b}
[a, b] xy-
(xk , yk ) = (x(tk ), y(tk )) k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, n.
, ,

l( ) = nk=1 (xk xk1 )2 + (yk yk1 )2 .
,
{ }
l() = sup l( ) | [a, b] .
1 x = x1 (t) y = y1 (t) [a, b]
2 x = x2 (t) y = y2 (t) [b, c] x1 (b) =
x2 (b), y1 (b) = y2 (b), x = x(t) y = y(t)
[a, c],
{ {
x1 (t), t [a, b] y1 (t), t [a, b]
x(t) = y(t) =
x2 (t), t [b, c] y2 (t), t [b, c]

1 2 1 + 2 .
,

l(1 + 2 ) = l(1 ) + l(2 ).
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. xy-
y = f (x), x [a, b] (,
x = t y = f (t) [a, b]). f : [a, b] R
[a, b],
b
l() = a 1 + (f (x))2 dx.31
30
Cauchy Riemann.
31
7.3.30. -

261
 .
artle, R.& Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 7. Wiley.
Beals, R. (2004) Analysis, an Introduction, Ch 8. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 10-11. Springer.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 9. Springer.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 6. Dover.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch II-III, VII. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 2-6. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 6. Springer.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 6, 8. Springer.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 8. Harper and Row.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 7. Wiley.
Goursat, E. (2006) A Course in Mathematical Analysis, Vol I, Ch IV. Dover.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap VII. Springer.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch VI. Dover.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch VII. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Kestelman, H. (1960) Modern Theories of Integration, Ch I-II. Dover.
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Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 25. American Math. Society & Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch V, X. Springer.
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.
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 6-7. Addison-Wesley.
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Hardy, G., Littlewood, J. & Polya, G. (1952) Inequalities, Ch VI. Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Mitrinovi, D., Peari, J. & Fink, A. (1993) Classical and New Inequalities in Analysis. Springer.
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Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 6. McGraw-Hill.

11.6.30.

262
 7

7.1 , .
7.1.1 .
7.1. I f : I R. F : I R

F (x) = f (x) x I,

F -
f I.
1
7.1.1. p+1 xp+1 xp (i) (, +),
p N, (ii) (, 0) (0, +), p Z p 2, (iii) [0, +), p R \ Z
p > 0 (iv) (0, +), p R \ Z p < 0.
p = 1 p = 0.
x 1 R.
log |x| x1 (, 0) (0, +).
7.1.2. > 0, = 1, 1
x x R.
log
{
0, x = 0
7.1.3. f (x) = R.
1, x = 0
, F : R R F (x) = f (x) x.
F (x) = 0 x (, 0) F (, 0],
c1 F (x) = c1 x (, 0]. , F (x) = 0
x (0, +) F [0, +), c2
F (x) = c2 x [0, +). c1 = F (0) = c2 , c = c1 = c2 ,
F (x) = c x. , F (x) = 0 x
, F (0) = f (0) = 1.
f . F ,
, Darboux 5.3.23[], f = F
. , , : , f (0) = 1, f (1) = 0
(0, 1) f () = 12 .
7.1. I f, F1 , F2 : I R. F2 F1
I F1 , F2 f I,
f I. , F1 , F2 f I, F2 F1
I.
. F2 (x) F1 (x) = c F1 (x) = f (x) x I.

F2 (x) = (F1 + c) (x) = f (x) + 0 = f (x)

263
 x I.
, F1 (x) = f (x) F2 (x) = f (x) x I.
h = F2 F1 : I R

h (x) = F1 (x) F2 (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0

x I. h I.

7.1 .
F f I. f
I F + c, c ,
.
, f I, f
I :
.
2
7.1.4. x R x2 + c,
c .
, 7.1.1 7.1.2
, c .

. g 0
- , g
. , 5.4.2,
5.7. , , 7.1
.

7.1.5. log |x| + c, c , -

x1 (, 0) (0, +)
(, 0){ (0, +). x1 (, 0) (0, +) -
log |x| + c1 , x < 0
F (x) = c1 c2
log |x| + c2 , x > 0
(, 0) (0, +), , .

7.1.2 .
7.2. a < b f : [a, b] R [a, b],
b
a f (x) dx. :
a b
b f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.

, f a, , ,
[a, a] = {a} : a
a f (x) dx = 0.

. ,
b
a f (x) dx a, b f
[a, b], a < b, [b, a], b < a, , , a, a = b.
b c b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx,

a < c < b, a, b, c,
f

264
 . ,
a .
c
a
,a b < c < a,
c
a b f (x) dx = c f (x) dx b f (x) dx
, , b f (x) dx = b f (x) dx + c f(x) dx c .
c
, a = b < c, 0 = a f (x) dx a f (x) dx , ,
. .
. f
[a, b], a < b, [b, a], b < a, |f (x)| M x
, b 
 f (x) dx M |b a|.
a
, a < b, |b a| = b a, . b < a,
b     
 f (x) dx =  a f (x) dx =  a f (x) dx M (a b) = M |b a|. , a = b,
a b b  b
 a f (x) dx M |b a| 0 = 0.
7.3. I f : I R
I. a I, x I
x
x a f (t) dt.
x. , c,
F : I R
x
F (x) = a f (t) dt + c x I.

f I a
.
7.2. I f : I R
I. f I I.
x
. a I, c F (x) = a f (t) dt + c x I.
I I. b I b > . f [, b]
[, b], M |f (x)| M x [, b]. ,
x [, b]
 x ) ( )  x 
|F (x) F ()| = ( a f (t) dt + c a f (t) dt + c  =  f (t) dt M (x ). (7.1)

[, x] [, b], |f (t)| M t [, x].

(7.1) limx+ (F (x) F ()) = 0, limx+ F (x) = F ().
I I. -
. b I b < . f [b, ] [b, ],
M |f (x)| M x [b, ]. x [b, ]
 x ) ( )  
|F (x) F ()| = ( a f (t) dt + c a f (t) dt + c  =  x f (t) dt M ( x). (7.2)

[x, ] [b, ], |f (t)| M t [x, ].

(7.2) limx (F (x) F ()) = 0, limx F (x) = F ().
F I.

a I a I
, :
x x a x
F (x) = a f (t) dt + c = a f (t) dt + a f (t) dt + c = a f (t) dt + c ,
a
c = a f (t) dt + c. , a a
, , c c . -

x a
a f (t) dt .

265
 7.1.6. x x R, a = 0
2 2 2
0 t dt = x2 02 = x2 . -
2
x x2 + c, c .
a , a = 4,
x x 2 2 2
4 t dt 4 t dt = x2 42 = x2 8
c = 8.

7.1 7.3.

7.3. I f, F1 , F2 : I R. f
I. F2 F1 I
F1 , F2 f I,
f I. , F1 , F2 f I, F2 F1
I.
x
. F2 (x) F1 (x) = c x I F1 (x) = a1 f (t) dt + c1
x I, a1 I.
x x
F2 (x) = F1 (x) + c = a1 f (t) dt + (c1 + c) = a2 f (t) dt + c2

x I, a2 = a1, c2 = c1 + c. x
x
, F1 (x) = a1 f (t) dt + c1 F2 (x) = a2 f (t) dt + c2 x I,
a1 , a2 I.
x x a
F2 (x) F1 (x) = a2 f (t) dt + c2 a1 f (t) dt c1 = a21 f (t) dt + c2 c1

x I, F2 F1 I.

.
F f I. -
f I F + c, c
, .
, f I, f
I :
. -
a I, , ,
x
f I a f (t) dt + c, c .
x
7.4. , f (t) dt f (x) dx -
f I. ,
x x x
f (t) dt = a f (t) dt + c f (x) dx = a f (t) dt + c x I
x x
: f (t) dt f (x) dx a f (t) dt + c, c -
. !
x


x x: f (t) dt -
f (x) dx. x f (t) dt,
x
: f (u) du, f (s) ds ...
x x 2 x
7.1.7. t dt = 0 t dt+c = x2 +c , , x dx = 0 t dt+c =
x2
x
2 + c. : t dt x dx x R,
2
x2 + c, c .

266
 7.1.4 7.1.7
x R .
.
.
: ( )
f (x) + g(x) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.

x
x . , F (x) = a f (t) dt

G(x) = a g(t) dt. ,

f (x) dx = F (x) + c1 , g(x) dx = G(x) + c2 ,

c1 , c2 .

f (x) dx + g(x) dx = F (x) + c1 + G(x) + c2
= F (x) + G(x) + (c1 + c2 ) (7.3)
x
= a (f (t) + g(t)) dt + (c1 + c2 ).

c1 , c2 , c1 + c2
x .
, c1 + c2 . , a (f (t) + g(t)) dt
f + g,
x
(f (x) + g(x)) dx = a (f (t) + g(t)) dt + (c1 + c2 ). (7.4)

(7.3) (7.4) f (x) dx + g(x) dx = (f (x) + g(x)) dx.
:

f (x) dx = f (x) dx = 0.
x
, , F (x) = a f (t) dt,

f (x) dx = F (x) + c,

c .
x
f (x) dx = F (x) + c = a f (t) dt + c. (7.5)

c , ( = 0) c
x
. , c . , a f (t) dt
f ,
x
f (x) dx = a f (t) dt + c. (7.6)

(7.5) (7.6) f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
, f (x) dx, g(x) dx
-
. ,
f (x) dx = 0 -
-
.
2 3
7.1.8. (x + x2 ) dx = x dx + x2 dx = x2 + x3 + c
2 3
(x + x2 ) dx = x dx + x2 dx = x2 + c1 + x3 + c2 .

267
 2
7.1.9. 7x dx = 7 x dx = 7 x2 + c
2
7x dx = 7 x dx = 7 x2 + 7c.
2
7.1.10. (x + g(x)) dx = x dx + g(x) dx = x2 + g(x) dx
x2

(x + g(x)) dx = x dx + g(x) dx = 2 + c + g(x) dx
c g(x) dx
.

7.1.11. ! x dx x dx = c = 0. x dx
2 2
x dx = (x x) dx = 0 dx = c , , x dx x dx = x2 + c1 x2 c2 =
c1 c2 = c.

7.1.12.
! 0 f (x) dx = 0f (x) dx. : 0 f (x) dx = 0
0f (x) dx = 0 dx = c.

7.1.1. 2x+3x2 R. 2x+3x2

R 1 2. ;
, I f : I R I. a I
. f I a;
7.1.2. F (x) F (x2 ) = x1 x (0, +)
F (1) = 1. (0, +) (, 0) (0, +);
F (x) F (log x) = 1 x (0, 1] F (log x) = x
x [1, +) F (1) = 1.
{ {
0, x 0 2x sin(1/x) cos(1/x), x = 0
7.1.3. -
1, x > 0 0, x = 0
0
R R.
7.1.4. 1x R.
1 x R 2 1. ;
, I f : I R -
I. a I . f I
a;

7.1.5.
f (x) dx = g(x) dx + x2 3. f (x) dx
g(x) dx ;
7.1.6. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. [a, b]
b
a f (x) dx = f (x) dx.

7.1.7. f (x) = x[x] 21 . 6.4.10.

f R 1.
x
F (x) = 0 f (t) dt R
1 [0, 1). F R -
[x].
x 1
G(x) = 0 (F (t) + 12 ) dt
R 1 [0, 1).
f ; F f ;
f f
F . ;

268
7.1.8. f : R R > 0 [0, ]. -
6.4.14[], f .
x
0 (f (t) ) dt
. ;
7.1.7.

7.1.9. f : R R
f .
f ,
;

7.2 .
. -
: -
.
.

. I
f : I R
x I. a I
F (x) = a f (t) dt x I. f x I,
F x F (x) = f (x). ,
d
x
dx a f (t) dt = f (x) f x.

, f I, F I F (x) = f (x)
x I.

. > 0. f x, > 0 |f (t)

f (x)| < 2 t I |t x| < .
, , y I 0 < |y x| < . t [x, y] t [y, x]
|t x| < ,

|f (t) f (x)| <

2 t x y.

y 
 (f (t) f (x)) dt |y x| < |y x|.
x 2

 F (y)F (x)   
 f (x) = 1 F (y) F (x) (y x)f (x)
yx |yx|
y 
= 1  f (t) dt x f (t) dt f (x)(y x)
|yx| a a
y   
= 1  f (t) dt f (x)(y x) = 1  y f (t) dt y f (x) dt
|yx| x |yx| x x
y 
= 1  (f (t) f (x)) dt < .
|yx| x

> 0 > 0 y I 0 < |y x| <

 F (y)F (x) 
 f (x) < . limyx F (y)F (x) = f (x), F (x) = f (x).
yx yx

, , f
I, , ,
I , , f I.
.

269
 7.4. I f : I R I.
f I I . ,
f I f I.
x
. , F (x) = a f (t) dt
f I I.
7.3, F f I, -
f I F + c, c
I.
, 7.1, F f I, -
f I () F +c, c
I.

7.5 .
7.5. I f : I R I F : I R
f I.
[] f I F + c, c
I.

f (x) dx = F (x) + c x I.

[] f [a, b] I F
[a, b].
b
a f (x) dx = F (b) F (a) a, b I.

. [] f I F + c, c
I, , 7.4,
f I I.
x
[]
x , a f (t) dt
f I. a f (t) dt F (x) I.
x a
a f (t) dt F (x) = a f (t) dt F (a) = F (a)
b
x I , , a f (t) dt F (b) = F (a).

7.6. 1 I F : I R I F : I R
I. ,
b
a F (x) dx = F (b) F (a) a, b I.

. 7.5[] f = F , F , -
, f I.

, -
,
d
dF
dx f (x) dx = f (x), dx dx = F (x) + c.

f -
: .
dFdx :

.
1
7.6 7.2.20.

270
7.2.1 .

7.5.

7.2.1. R a, b R :
b
1 dx = x + c, a 1 dx = b a.

7.2.2. p = 1,
p p+1 b bp+1 ap+1
x dx = xp+1 + c, a xp dx = p+1 .

(i) R, p N, (ii) (, 0) (0, +), p Z

p 2, (iii) [0, +), p R \ Z p > 0, (iv) (0, +), p R \ Z
p < 0. a, b ( )
. , p Z p 2,
a, b < 0 a, b > 0, a < 0 < b b < 0 < a (, ,
a, b 0).

7.2.3. (, 0) (0, +)
a, b < 0 a, b > 0 :
1 b 1
x dx = log |x| + c, a x dx = log |b| log |a| = log a .
b

, a, b , b
a > 0 , , log |b| log |a| =
|b|
log |a| = log | ab | = log ab .

7.2.4. > 0 = 1, R
a, b R :
x x b x b a
dx = log + c, a dx = log .

7.2.5. R
a, b R :
cos x dx = sin x + c, sin x dx = cos x + c,
b b
a cos x dx = sin b sin a, a sin x dx = cos a cos b.

7.2.6. ( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z
a, b ( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z :
b
1
(cos x)2
dx = tan x + c, 1
a (cos x)2 dx = tan b tan a.

7.2.7. (k, + k) k Z
a, b (k, + k) k Z :
b
1
(sin x)2
dx = cot x + c, 1
a (sin x)2 dx = cot a cot b.

7.2.8. (1, 1) a, b (1, 1) :

b
1
1x2
dx = arcsin x + c, a
1
1x2
dx = arcsin b arcsin a.

7.2.9. R a, b R :
1 b 1
1+x2
dx = arctan x + c, a 1+x2 dx = arctan b arctan a.

271
 -
.
-
, f , g [a, b].
[a, b]
b b
f (t)g(t) dt = f () a g(t) dt.
a
x x
F (x) = a f (t)g(t) dt G(x) = a g(t) dt
b b
a f (t)g(t) dt = f () a g(t) dt
b b
g() a f (t)g(t) dt = f ()g() a g(t) dt

G ()(F (b) F (a)) = F ()(G(b) G(a)).
Cauchy.

.

7.2.1. f (x) dx = F (x) + c F (x) = f (x) f
. :

(i) cos(ax) dx = a1 sin(ax) + c sin(ax) dx = a1 cos(ax) + c R.

(ii) log x dx = x log x x + c (0, +).
1
(iii) x log x dx = log(log x) + c (1, +).
1
(iv) x log x log(log x) dx = log(log(log x)) + c (e, +).
n x ( n)
(v) x e dx = n!ex ex 1 x x2! xn! + c R.
2

( n)
(vi) xn ex dx = (1)n1 n!ex ex 1 + x x2! + + (1)n1 xn! + c R.
2

x
7.2.2. f : R R R a a f (t) dt = sin x 23
x. ;
x
x f : R R
R 0 f (t) dt = ex x;
0 f (t) dt = ex 1. ;

7.2.3. I f : I R I. f (x) = 0
b (x)
x I, a ff (x) dx = log ff (a)
(b)
a, b I.
f (x) = 0 x I f I.

7.2.4. f : I R I a, b I.
x
a f (t) dt I, f 0 I.
x b
a f (t) dt = x f (t) dt x I, f 0 I.
x
7.2.5. f : (0, +) R f (x) = 1 + x1 1 f (t) dt
x > 0.
x
f : (0, +) R f (x) = 1 x 1 f (t) dt
x > 0.

7.2.6. I f : I R -
g(x)
I. , g, h : A I F : A R F (x) = h(x) f (t) dt
x A.
g, h x A, F x.
g, h x A f g(x), h(x),

272
 F x F (x) = g (x)f (g(x)) h (x)f (h(x)).
x2 x t2 2t x 2 et 2+x 1+t x t
1 t 2 dt, dt, dt, dt -
e +2t x t 2x t x+ x t1
.
x2 2
f : [0, +) R [0, +) 0 f (t) dt = 1 2x
x R.
2 x x
7.2.7. limx+ ex 0 et dt, limx+ x1 0 etx (2t + 1) dt.
2

1
x t2
a > 0 b, c, d limx0+ ex bcxdx 2 0
dt = 1.
a+t
x
7.2.8. a = b, limx x1 0 sin(at) sin(bt) dt = 0.
a = b ;
7.2.9. [] 6.5[] .
b
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a (f (t))2 dt = 0, f
.
x
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. x f (t) dt 0 x , x [a, b]
x < x , f (x) 0 x f .
7.2.10. f : [0, +) x R [0, +) f (x) = 0
x > 0 (f (x))2 = 2 0 f (t) dt x 0.
f (x) > 0 x > 0.
f (0, +).
f (x) = x x 0.
7.2.11. f : [0, a] R f : [0, a] R [0, a] f (0) = 0.
{
(f (x))2 /x, 0 < x a
g : [0, a] R g(x) =
0, x = 0
[0, a].
x
g(x) 0 (f (t))2 dt.
x
(f (x))2 x 0 (f (t))2 dt x [0, a].
a
(f (a))2 = a 0 (f (t))2 dt, f (x)
x (0, a].
a
(f (a)) = a 0 (f (t)) dt f (0) = 2, f (x) = 2x x [0, a].
2 2

7.2.12. f : [0, +) R f : [0, +) R [0, +)

f (0) = 0.
x
ef (x)/x x1 0 ef (t) dt x > 0.
a
a > 0 ef (a)/a = a1 0 ef (t) dt, c
f (x) = cx x [0, a].
7.2.13. 2 I f : I R x -
I. a I F (x) = a f (t) dt x I.
limyx+ f (y) R, F+ (x) = limyx+ f (y). , f
x, F x F+ (x) = f (x).
limyx f (y) R, F (x) = limyx f (y). , f
x, F x
F (x) = f (x).
7.2.14. p, r : I R I. y(x)

y + p(x)y = r(x) (7.7)
2
.

273
 I y (x) + p(x)y(x) = r(x) x I.
x
p(t) dt
x0 I (x) = e x0 x I, (7.7) I
(x )
y(x) = 1
(x) x0 (t)r(t) dt + c x I
.

7.2.15. 5.3.19. p, q : I R I.
y(x)

y + p(x)y + q(x)y = 0 (7.8)

I y (x) + p(x)y (x) + q(x)y(x) = 0 x I.

. x0 I
y0 , y0 y(x) y + p(x)y + q(x)y = 0 I y(x0 ) = y0
y (x0 ) = y0 .
y1 (x) y2 (x) (7.8) I.
[] y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) (7.8)
I. , (7.8) I .
[] 7.2.14 W (y1 , y2 )(x)
y + p(x)y = 0 I.
[] (i) W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x I (ii) W (y1 , y2 )(x) =
0 x I. (i)
I. (ii)
I, y1 (x) y2 (x)
I . 5.3.19, (ii),
.
[] (ii) []. y(x) (7.8) I
x0 I.

1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = y(x0 )

1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = y (x0 )

1 2 . , W (y, 1 y1 + 2 y2 ) = 0
x I y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) x I. (7.8) I
1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) .
y1 (x) y2 (x) (7.8) I. , ,
, . ,
2.
[] y + ky + ly = 0, p(x) = k q(x) = l
.
t2 + kt + l = 0 () , 1 2 , y1 (x) = e1 x
y2 (x) = e2 x (7.8) R W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x.
t2 + kt + l = 0 , , y1 (x) = ex y2 (x) = xex
(7.8) R W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x.
t2 + kt + l = 0 , + i i > 0,
y1 (x) = ex cos(x) y2 (x) = ex sin(x) (7.8) R
W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x.
, y + ky + ly = 0 R ;
p, q, r : I R I. -

y + p(x)y + q(x)y = r(x) (7.9)

274
 I ys (x) (7.9) I.
[] y(x) (7.9) I

y(x) = yh (x) + ys (x) x I,

yh (x) (7.8) I.
[] y1 (x) y2 (x) (7.8) I W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0
x I. , [], y(x) (7.9) I

y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) + ys (x) x I.

[] [], ys : I R

ys (x) = 1 (x)y1 (x) + 2 (x)y2 (x) x I,

1 (x), 2 (x) I. , 1 (x), 2 (x)

y1 (x)1 (x) + y2 (x)2 (x) = 0

x I,
y1 (x)1 (x) + y2 (x)2 (x) = r(x)

ys (x) = 1 (x)y1 (x) + 2 (x)y2 (x) (7.9) I. ,

x x
1 (x) = x0 Wr(t)y 2 (t)
(y1 ,y2 )(t) dt, 2 (x) = x0 Wr(t)y 1 (t)
(y1 ,y2 )(t) dt x I,

x0 I, .
, , (7.9) I, y1 (x) y2 (x) ;
[] , [], y +
ky + ly = r(x).
7.2.16. [] :
2
(i) 0 sin(kx) dx = 0 k Z.
2
(ii) 0 cos(kx) dx = 0 k Z, k = 0.
2
(iii) 0 sin(nx) cos(mx) dx = 0 n, m Z.
2
(iv) 0 sin(nx) sin(mx) dx = 0 n, m Z, n = m.
2
(v) 0 cos(nx) cos(mx) dx = 0 n, m Z, n = m.
2 2
(vi) 0 (sin(nx))2 dx = 0 (cos(nx))2 dx = n Z, n = 0.

[]3 f (x) = a0 + 2 nk=1 (ak cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)) x,
2 2
0 f (x) cos(kx) dx k 0, 0 f (x) sin(kx) dx k 1.
1 1
ak = 2 bk = 2

f (x) = a0 + 2 nk=1 (ak cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)) g(x) = c0 + 2 nk=1 (ck cos(kx) +
dk sin(kx)) x,
1
2 n
2 0 f (x)g(x) dx = a0 c0 + 2 k=1 (ak ck + bk dk ).

, 4
2 n ( )
2 0 f (x t)g(t) dt = a0 c0 + 2 k=1 (ak ck bk dk ) cos(kx) + (ak dk + bk ck ) sin(kx) .
1

3
f (x) = a0 + 2 n k=1 (ak cos(kx) + bk sin(kx)) -
. an , bn 0, n .
2.
4
, f, g : R R 2 [0, 2],
2
1
2 0
f (x t)g(t) dt, x, f (x) g(x) (f g)(x).
, .

275
7.2.17. 5.6.16.
x
f : R R f (x) = c 1 g(t) dt x.
c f R,
0 (, 1], 1 [1, +) [1, 1].
> 0 : R R (x) = f (3 + 4x )f (3 ) x.
4x

, R, 0 (, ]
[, +), 1 [ 2 , 2 ] [, 2 ] [ 2 , ].

7.2.18. 5 (Pn ) : P0 (x) = 1

x, Pn (x) = nPn1 (x) x n, 0 Pn (x) dx = 0 n.
1

Pn (x) n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Pn (x) n xn .
Pn (0) = Pn (1) n 2.
Pn (x + 1) Pn (x) = nxn1 x n.
m+1
m n
k=1 k = 0 Pn (x) dx = Pn+1 (m+1)P
n+1
n+1 (0)

m m(m+1) m m(m+1)(2m+1) m2 (m+1)2
k=1 k = 2 , k=1 k 2 = 6 m 3
k=1 k = 4 .
Pn (1 x) = (1) Pn (x) x n.
n

P2n+1 (0) = 0 P2n1 ( 21 ) = 0 n.

x
7.2.19. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. fn (x) = (n1)! 1
a (x t)
n1 f (t) dt

x [a, b] n.
f1 (x) = f (x) fn+1 (x) = fn (x) x [a, b] n.
fn (n) (x) = f (x) x [a, b] n.
x
fn+1 (x) = a fn (t) dt x [a, b] n.
6 f [a, b]

(n + 1)- (f (b), f1 (b), . . . , fn (b)).

7 f [a, b]
( b b )
(n + 1)- f (a), a f (t) dt, . . . , a (t a)n1 f (t) dt .

7.2.20. 8 I F : I R I F : I R
b I.

a F (x) dx = F (b) F (a) a, b I.

7.2.21. , f I, x I
f (x) f+ (x), f (x) f+ (x).
f I, .
[] I f : I R I. g : I R
x I g(x) f+ (x) f (x). g
b
I a g(x) dx = f (b) f (a)
a, b I.
b b
, a f (x) dx = f (b) f (a) a f+ (x) dx = f (b) f (a) a, b I.
[] I f : I R I. f I,
7.2.20 [], a f (x) dx = f (b) f (a)
b

5
Pn (x) Bernoulli.
6
Fekete.
7
Fejer.
8
7.6. , :
-
. ,
.

276
 a, b I.
[]9 I f : I R. f I
, , I.

7.3 .
7.3.1 .
7.7. I, J. : I J : I R
I f : J R J.
x (x) b (b)
f ((t)) (t) dt = f (s) ds,
a f ((x)) (x) dx = (a) f (y) dy, (7.10)

x I a, b I.
. (f ) I.
F : J R f J.
y
f (s) ds = F (y) + c
y J, c .
(x)
f (s) ds = F ((x)) + c (7.11)
x I, c I.
,
(F ) (x) = F ((x)) (x) = f ((x)) (x)
x I, F : I R f ((x)) (x) I.
x
f ((t)) (t) dt = F ((x)) + c (7.12)
x I, c I.
x (x)
(7.11) (7.12) f ((t)) (t) dt = f (s) ds x I.
(7.10) (7.11) (7.12) -
(x) x
(a) f (s) ds a f ((t)) (t) dt -
I. 0 x = a,
I.
x
(x)
a f ((t)) (t) dt = (a) f (s) ds

x I x = b (7.10).

(7.10)


f ((x)) (x) dx = f (y) dy  . (7.13)
y=(x)

, , (7.13) . f ((x)) (x) dx

f ((x)) (x), , ,
x I. f (y) dy f (y),
y J. (7.13) y
(x).
(7.13) (7.10),
x y = (x)
(x) dx dy. dx
dy
= (x)

dy = (x) dx x y.
9
.

277

7.3.1. n N, (sin x)n cos x dx.
x y = sin x
 ( n+1 )
(sin x)n cos x dx = y n dy y=sin x = yn+1 + c y=sin x = (sin x)n+1
n+1 + c.

7.3.2. x22x+1 dx x
y = x2 + 1,
2x 1  
2 dx = dy  2 = (log |y| + c) 2 = log(x2 + 1) + c.
x +1 y y=x +1 y=x +1
b 1
7.3.3. a x log x dx
x y = log x
b 1 log b 1  log b 
 
a x log x dx = log a y dy = log log a .

a, b log x,
a, b, -
y1 , (, 0) (0, +). log x
log a, log b. log a, log b > 0 , , a, b > 1,
log a, log b < 0 , , 0 < a, b < 1. , log a, log b ,
b 1 log b
a x log x dx = log log a .

7.3.2 .
7.8. 10 I f, g : I R f , g : I R
I.
x x
f (t)g (t) dt = f (x)g(x) f (t)g(t) dt,
b
b (7.14)
a f (x)g (x) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) a f (x)g(x) dx,

x I a, b I.
. F : I R f g I.
x
f (t)g(t) dt = F (x) c

x I, c . G = f g F : I R.

G (x) = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x) F (x) = f (x)g (x)
x I, G f g I.
x x
f (t)g (t) dt = G(x) + c = f (x)g(x) F (x) + c = f (x)g(x) f (t)g(t) dt

x I.

x ,
f (t)g (t) dt f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) x f (t)g(t) dt -
a a
I. 0 x = a,
I.
x
x
a f (t)g (t) dt = f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f (t)g(t) dt

x I x = b .
10
f g , , 7.3.25.
7.3.26.

278
 7.8

f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) f (x)g(x) dx.

7.3.4. x > 0
dx 1
log x dx = dx log x dx = x log x x d log x
dx dx = x log x x x dx

= x log x 1 dx = x log x x + c.

7.3.5.
2 x 2 dex 2 2
0 xe dx = 0 x dx dx = 2e 0e 0 = 2e2
2 0 dx x
dx e dx 0 ex dx
= 2e2 (e2 e0 ) = e2 + 1.

7.3.6.
d cos x
0 x sin x dx = 0 x dx dx = cos + 0 cos 0 + 0
dx
dx cos x dx

= + 0 cos x dx = + (sin sin 0) = .

7.3.7. a = 0,
ax
e sin(bx) dx = a1 eax sin(bx) ab eax cos(bx) dx.

, -

ax 2
e sin(bx) dx = a1 eax sin(bx) ab2 eax cos(bx) ab 2 eax sin(bx) dx.

( ) ( )
b2
1+ a2
eax sin(bx) dx = 1 ax
a2
e a sin(bx) b cos(bx) + c,
c , ,
ax ( a )
2 sin(bx) a2 +b2 cos(bx) + c.
b
e sin(bx) dx = eax a2 +b

a = 0, b = 0,
sin(bx) dx = 1b cos(bx) + c. a2 + b2 = 0,
a, b .
,
ax ( a b
)
e cos(bx) dx = eax a2 +b 2 cos(bx) + a2 +b2 sin(bx) + c.

7.3.3 .

am xm +am1 xm1 ++a1 x+a0
R(x) dx = bn xn +bn1 xn1 ++b1 x+b0
dx,

am xm +am1 xm1 ++a1 x+a0

R(x) = bn xn +bn1 xn1 ++b1 x+b0
.
.
. m < n , . m n,
P (x), Q(x) Q(x) < n

am xm + + a0 = P (x)(bn xn + + b0 ) + Q(x)

279
 x.
Q(x)
R(x) = P (x) + bn xn +bn1 xn1 ++b1 x+b0
.

P (x) dx , m < n.
. -
. - -
. -
, , .
bn xn + bn1 xn1 + + b1 x + b0

bn xn + + b0 = bn (x ) (x ) ((x )2 + 2 ) ((x )2 + 2 ) ,

, . . . , , , . . . , + + + 2 + + 2 = n
, . . . , > 0.
, x , . . . , x
, . . . , -
, . . . , . ,
(x )2 + 2 , . . . , (x )2 + 2
i, . . . , i -
, . . . , .
.
, . . . , -
: , . . . ,
.
. :
( A1 ) ( 1 )
R(x) = x + + (x)
A
+ + x + + (x)


( 1 (x)+N1 M (x)+N ) ( 1 (x)+1 E (x)+ )
+ M(x) 2 + 2 + + ((x) 2 + 2 ) + + E(x) 2 + 2 + + ((x)2 + 2 ) .

x
1 ( )
. . -
(x )2 + 2 -
1 ( i)
. .
A1 , A2 , . . . , E , , ,
. ,
, bn xn + + b1 x + b0 . -
, n
n A1 , A2 , . . . , E , .
. , ,
:
x
1
(x)k
dx, ((x)2 + 2 )k
dx, 1
((x)2 + 2 )k
dx k N.
.
1
(i) (x) k dx, (, ) (, +),
1 
y = x (x) 1
k dx = yk
dy y=x .
( )
(x) 1
k dx = (k1)y1 
k1 + c y=x = (k1)(x)k1 + c k 2.
1
1 
, xdx = (log |y| + c) y=x
= log |x | + c k = 1.

280
, {
1
(k1)(x)
1
k1 + c, k 2
(x)k
dx =
log |x | + c, k = 1
x
(ii) dx y = (x )2 + 2
((x)2+ 2 )k 1 
((x) x
2 + 2 )k dx = 2
1
dy  .
y k y=(x)2 + 2
( )
, ((x)2 + 2 )k dx = 2(k1)yk1 + c y=(x)2 + 2 = 2(k1)((x)
x 1 1
2 + 2 )k1 + c

k 2.

(x) x 
2 + 2 dx = ( 2 log |y| + c) y=(x)2 + 2 = 2 log((x ) + ) + c k = 1.
1 1 2 2

{
x 2(k1)((x) 1
2 + 2 )k1 + c, k 2
2
((x) + )2 k dx =
2 log((x ) + ) + c,
1 2 2 k = 1

(iii) , ((x)12 + 2 )k dx y = x ,

1 1 1
((x)2 + 2 )k dx = 2k1 (y2 +1)k dy y=(x)/ .


Ik = (y2 +1) 1
k dy k N.

.
, k = 1,
I1 = y21+1 dy = arctan y + c.
k > 1, , ,
y2 +1 2
1
Ik = (y2 +1) k dy = (y 2 +1)k
dy (y2y+1)k dy = (y2 +1) 1
k1 dy
y
y (y2 +1)k dy

y y
1
= Ik1 + 2(k1) (y 2 +1)k1
2(k1)
1 1
(y 2 +1)k1
1
dy = 2k2 (y 2 +1)k1
+ 2k3
2k2 Ik1 .

1 y
Ik = 2k2 (y 2 +1)k1
+ 2k3
2k2 Ik1 , -
Ik Ik1 , , I1 . , k 2 :
1 y 2k3
Ik = 2k2 (y 2 +1)k1 + 2k2 Ik1
1 y 2k3 y (2k3)(2k5)
= 2k2 (y 2 +1)k1 + (2k2)(2k4) (y 2 +1)k2 + (2k2)(2k4) Ik2
y y (2k3)(2k5)3 y
= 1
2k2 (y 2 +1)k1 + 2k3
(2k2)(2k4) (y 2 +1)k2 + + (2k2)(2k4)2 y 2 +1
(2k3)(2k5)1
+ (2k2)(2k4)2 arctan y + c.

2 + +
A1 A2 A
x + (x) (x)
R(x)

A1 log |x | A2
x A
(k1)(x)1
M1 (x) M2 (x) M (x)
R(x) dx, (x)2 + 2
+ ((x)2 + 2 )2
+ + ((x)2 + 2 )
-

M
M1
2 log((x )2 + 2 ) M2
2((x)2 + 2 )
2(1)((x)2 + 2 )1

N
2 + 2 + ((x)2 + 2 )2 + + ((x)2 + 2 )
N1 N2
, , (x)

N2 (x) N (x)
N1 arctan x + (x)2 + 2 + + ((x)2 + 2 )1 ,

N1 , . . . , N N1 , . . . , N .

281
 7.3.8. (, 3) (3, +)
2
x3 dx = 2 log |x 3| + c.

7.3.9. (, 2) (2, +)
5 5
(x+2)3
dx = 2(x+2) 2 + c.

7.3.10. (, +)

1
(x+1)2 +9
dx = 13 y21+1 dy y=(x+1)/3 = 1
3 arctan x+1
3 + c.

7.3.11. (, +)
x2 1 
dx = 1  1
log((x 2)2 + 4) + c.
2
(x2) +4 2 y dy y=(x2)2 +4 = 2

7.3.12. (, +)

x2
((x2)2 +4)4
dx = 21 y14 dy y=(x2)2 +4 = 6((x2)
1
2 +4)3 + c.

x3 2x2 +2
7.3.13. x2 3x+2
dx.
x3 2x2 + 2 x2 3x + 2

x3 2x2 + 2 = (x2 3x + 2)(x + 1) + x.

x3 2x2 +2 x
dx = (x + 1) dx + x2 3x+2
x2 3x+2
dx = 21 x2 + x + x2 3x+2
x
dx.
x x
x2 3x+2 dx x2 3x+2 .
x 3x + 2 1 2, x 3x + 2 = (x 1)(x 2).
2 2

x a b
x2 3x+2
= x1 + x2 ,

a, b .
(x 1)(x 2) x = a(x 2) + b(x 1) , ,

x = (a + b)x + (2a b).

-

a + b = 1 2a b = 0.
a = 1, b = 2.
x
x2 3x+2
= x1
1
+ 2
x2 .

,

x
x2 3x+2
dx = 1
x1 dx + 2 1
x2 dx = log |x 1| + 2 log |x 2| + c

, , x3 2x2 +2
x2 3x+2
dx = 21 x2 + x log |x 1| + 2 log |x 2| + c
(, 1), (1, 2) (2, +).

282
 2x2 +1
7.3.14. x3 +x2 x1
dx.
x3 + x2 x 1 :

x3 + x2 x 1 = x2 (x + 1) (x + 1) = (x2 1)(x + 1) = (x 1)(x + 1)2 .

, x3 + x2 x 1 1 1.
2x2 +1 a b c
x3 +x2 x1
= x1 + x+1 + (x+1)2
,

a, b, c. . -
(x 1)(x + 1)2
. x
a = 43 , b = 54 , c = 32 .

2x2 +1
x3 +x2 x1
= 43 x1
1
+ 54 x+1
1
23 (x+1)
1
2.

2x2 +1
x3 +x2 x1
dx = 3
4 log |x 1| + 54 log |x + 1| + 3 1
2 x+1 +c
(, 1), (1, 1) (1, +).

7.3.15. x4 x2x2x+2 dx.
:

x4 x2 2x + 2 = (x 1)2 (x2 + 2x + 2) = (x 1)2 ((x + 1)2 + 1).

, x4 x2 2x + 2 1 .
x a b c(x+1)+d
x4 x2 2x+2
= x1 + (x1)2
+ (x+1)2 +1
.

, a = 1
25 , b = 15 , c = 25
1
, d = 25
7
.
x
x4 x2 2x+2
= 1 1
25 x1 + 1 1
5 (x1)2 1 x+1
25 (x+1)2 +1 7 1
25 (x+1)2 +1 .

,
x
x4 x2 2x+2
dx = 1
25 log |x 1| 1 1
5 x1 1
50 log((x + 1)2 + 1) 7
25 arctan(x + 1) + c

(, 1) (1, +).
x7 +6x6 x
7.3.16. x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx.
,
x7 +6x6 x 7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
= x2 + 7x + 5 + x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
.

x7 +6x6 x 7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx = 31 x3 + 72 x2 + 5x + x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx.
:

x5 x4 + 2x3 2x2 + x 1 = (x2 + 1)2 (x 1).

x5 x4 + 2x3 2x2 + x 1 1 ,
7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5 a bx+c dx+e
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
= x1 + x2 +1
+ (x2 +1)2
.

283
 a = 32 , b = 172 , c = 2 , d = 4 e = 2 , ,
11

7x4 +3x3 +4x2 +x+5

x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx = 32 log |x 1| 17
4 log(x + 1) 2 arctan x x2 +1 + 2
2 11 2 1
(x2 +1)2
dx.

:
2 +1 x2
2 dx dx = x21+1 dx x (x2 +1)
1
(x2 +1)2
dx = (xx2 +1) (x2 +1)2
x
2 dx

= arctan x + 2(x2x+1) 12 x21+1 dx = 12 arctan x + 2(x2x+1) + c.

:
x7 +6x6 x
x5 x4 +2x3 2x2 +x1
dx = 31 x3 + 27 x2 + 5x + x2
x2 +1
+ 32 log |x 1| 17
4 log(x2 + 1)
92 arctan x + c

(, 1) (1, +).

7.3.4 .
,

f (x) dx = r(cos x, sin x) dx,

r(s, t) s, t. , f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) = ff21 (x)

(x)
n
f1 (x), f2 (x) j=1 aj (cos x)kj (sin x)lj ,
aj R kj , lj Z, kj , lj 0 j = 1, . . . , n.
7.3.17.
sin x+(cos x)3 (sin x)2 cos x
sin x+(cos x)2
dx
x) (sin x) cos x
3 2
f (x) = sin x+(cossin x+(cos x)2
= ff12 (x)
(x) , f1 (x) =
(cos x) cos x(sin x) + sin x, f2 (x) = (cos x) + sin x
3 2 2

r(s, t) = s st
3 2 +t
s2 +t
.
f1 f2 R, f
f2 0 , ,
f , f . f
2.
.
1. H f (, +).
. , f . , ,
f + k2 k Z.
, f 2, f , -
(, ) 2.
, f (, ), (, ),
(, ),
(, ). f (, )

u = tan x2

x = 2 arctan u.

u = tan x2 (, )
(, +). x = 2 arctan u

284
 (, +) (, ). , x
(, ), u (, +) .
,
1(tan(x/2))2 1u2 2 tan(x/2) 2u
cos x = 1+(tan(x/2))2
= 1+u2
, sin x = 1+(tan(x/2))2
= 1+u2
,

f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, )

( 2 )
R(u) = r 1u , 2u
1+u2 1+u2

(, +). u.
x) (sin x) cos x
3 2
7.3.18. f (x) = sin x+(cos
sin x+(cos x)2
(, ) -
, u = tan x2 ,
2 2
2u
+( 1u2 )3 ( 2u 2 )2 1u2
1+u2 1+u 1+u 1+u 1+2u+u2 +4u3 u4 +2u5 u6
R(u) = 2 = 1+2uu2 +4u3 u4 +2u5 +u6
2u
+( 1u2 )2
1+u2 1+u

(, +).

f (x) = R(u) = R(tan x2 ), R(u) = f (x) = f (2 arctan u)

, , f (x) R(u)
. , f (x) x (, ), R(u)
u (, +) . , f (x)
x (, ), R(u) u (, +) -
. f (x) (, )
R(u) (, +), -
. R(u) , , (, +), f (x)
(, ). R(u) u1 , . . . , un , u1 < < un ,
(, u1 ), (u1 , u2 ), . . . , (un1 , un ), (un , +), f (x)
x1 , . . . , xn , < x1 < < xn <
(, x1 ), (x1 , x2 ), . . . , (xn1 , xn ), (xn , ). xi ui -
ui = tan x2i xi = 2 arctanui .
, r(sin x, cos x) dx = f (x)dx
(, ),

r(cos x, sin x)dx = f (x)dx = R(u) 1+u 2 
2 du u=tan(x/2) . (7.15)

f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, )

u
R.
, ,
2
R(u) 1+u 2 du = G(u) + c, (7.16)

G(u) u, -
2 , R. ,
2
R(u) 1+u

F (x) = G(tan x2 ),
(7.15) (7.16)

r(cos x, sin x) dx = f (x) dx = G(tan x2 ) + c = F (x) + c

285
 (, ). , F (x) -
f (x) (, ).
, f (x) 2, F (x) = G(tan x2 ) , ,
F (x) 2. ,

F (x + 2) = G(tan x+2 x
2 ) = G(tan 2 ) = F (x).

, F (x) f (x) -
(, ), f (x)
( + k2, + k2) k Z. ,
f (x) dx = F (x) + c (a, b) (, ) f (x) -
. , , F (x) = f (x) . -
(a + k2, b + k2) ( + k2, + k2),
x (a + k2, b + k2) x k2 (a, b) , ,

F (x) = F (x k2) = f (x k2) = f (x).

f (x) dx = F (x) + c (a + k2,
b + k2).
, , r(cos x, sin x) dx
( + k2, + k2) f (x) = r(cos x, sin x)
. , , G(u).

7.3.19. sin1 x dx.
1 sin1 x
. (, ).
u = tan x2 sin1 x (, )
2 1+u2
1+u 2u (, +). 2u u = 0 (, +) sin x
1

x = 0 (, ). , (, 0) (0, )
 
1 1+u2 2  1 
sin x dx = 2u 1+u2 du u=tan(x/2) = u du u=tan(x/2)
 
= (log |u| + c)|u=tan(x/2) = log  tan x2  + c.

-
,  
G(u) = log |u|, F (x) = log  tan x2 .
  1
1  x
 x  sin x log tan 2 2, sin x dx =

log  tan 2  + c ( + k2, k2) (k2, + k2) -

( + k2, + k2) k Z.
, :
1  
 x
(k, + k) k Z.
sin x dx = log tan 2 + c

. , , , f
x0 , = . f x0 +2 x0 +k2
k Z.

z = x x0

x- x0 + k2 z- + k2.

f (z) = f (z + x0 + ) = f (x).

286
 f (x) x- x0 + k2, f (z)
z- + k2. ,
 
f (x) dx = f (z + x0 + ) dz z=xx0 = f (z) dz z=xx0 ,

f (z) dz,
.

7.3.20. (cos1x)2 dx. -
.
(cos1x)2 2 ( ).
z = x ( 2 ) = x
2 1
(cos x)2
1
(cos(z+(/2)))2
=
1

(sin z)2 
1
(cos x)2
dx = 1
(sin z)2
dz z=x(/2) .

1
(sin z)2
(, ).
u = tan z2 1
(sin z)2
(, ) -
(1+u2 )2 (1+u2 )2
4u2
(, +). 0 (, +) (sin1z)2
4u2
0 (, ). , (, 0) (0, ),
1  
duu=tan(z/2) = 1+u duu=tan(z/2)
2 )2 2
(sin z)2
dz = (1+u
4u2 1+u2
2
2u2
( )
= 2u1
+ u2 u=tan(z/2) + c = 21 cot z2 + 12 tan z2 + c = cot z + c

z (, 0) (0, ), x = z + 2 -
( 2 , 2 ) ( 2 , 3
2 ).
1 
1
2 dx = 2 dz  = cot(x 2 ) + c = tan x + c.
(cos x) (sin z) z=x(/2)

1
1
(cos x)2
tan x 2, (cos x)2
dx = tan x+c
( 2 + k2, 2 + k2) ( 2 + k2, 3
2 + k2)
2 + k2) k Z.
( 2 + k2, 3
, :
1
(cos x)2
dx = tan x + c ( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z.

2. f (, +).

, , f (, +). f (x) dx
(, +),

f (x) dx = F (x) + c x,

F (x) = f (x) x.

, , F .
1, , , (, )
u = tan x2 x = 2 arctan u.
( 1u2 2u )
f (x) = r(cos x, sin x) (, ) R(u) = r 1+u 2 , 1+u2

R. , R(u) 1+u 2
2 du = G(u)+c, G(u)
2 x
R(u) 1+u 2 . G(tan 2 )

f (x) dx = G(tan x2 ) + c x (, ),

287
 G(tan x2 ) f (, ). F ,
f (, +), c

F (x) = G(tan x2 ) + c x (, ).

, , F c f (, +), -
F

F (x) = G(tan x2 ) x (, ). (7.17)

, F . F
(, +) F (x) = f (x) x. , (7.17) F
(, ), G . F
.

F () = limx+ F (x) = limx+ G(tan x2 ),

F () = limx F (x) = limx G(tan x2 ).

A = limx+ G(tan x2 ) = F (), B = limx G(tan x2 ) = F (),

F () F (), .
G(tan x2 ) (, +) + k2
k Z. , 2. ,
k Z, + k2 A
B. , k Z, G(tan x2 ) + k2,
A . , ,
{
G(tan x2 ), x = + k2 k Z
F (x) = (7.18)
A, x = + k2 k Z

F (, +), 2,
( + k2, + k2) k Z A + k2
k Z. F
B.
: F F
(, +) , (7.17) (7.18),

F (x) = F (x) x [, ). (7.19)

f ,

F (x + 2) F (x) = f (x + 2) f (x) = 0 x,

F (x + 2) F (x) (, +).

F (x + 2) F (x) = F () F () = B A = x, (7.20)

= B A,
[ ]
h(x) = F (x) x+
2 x. (7.21)

(7.21) h (7.20)
[ ] [ ] [ x+ ]
h(x + 2) = F (x + 2) (x+2)+
2 = F (x) + x+
2 + 1 = F (x) 2 = h(x)

288
 ] x , , h 2. , x [, )

[ x+
2 = 0, (7.19) (7.21)

h(x) = F (x) = F (x) x [, ).

h F 2 [, ). ,
[ x+ ] -
(, +). , (7.21) F (x) = F (x) 2 x,
F (, +). ,
[ ]
f (x) dx = F (x) + c = F (x) + x+
2 +c x.
1
7.3.21. 2+sin x dx.

x R. (, )
1
2+sin
x
u = tan 2 ,
1 
2+sin x dx =
1
u2 +u+1
duu=tan(x/2) x (, ).

,
1
1
du = du = 2 arctan 2u+1
+c u.
u2 +u+1 (u+(1/2))2 +( 3/2)2 3 3

, G(u)

G(u) = 2 arctan 2u+1

u
3 3

, ,
( )
G(tan x2 ) = 2
3
arctan 2
3
tan x2 + 1
3
x (, ).

, ,
1 ( )
2+sin x dx = 2 arctan 2 tan x +
3 3 2
1
3
+c x (, ).

1
2+sin x (, +),
A = limx+ G(tan 2 ) = 3 B = limx G(tan x2 ) = 3 = B A =
x 2
3
.
,
{ 2 ( )
arctan 2 tan x + 1 , x = + k2 k Z
3 3 2 3
F (x) =
3 , x = + k2 k Z

:
1 2 x+
[ ]

2+sin x dx = F (x) + c = F (x) + 3 2
+c x.

7.3.5 .
,
( ) ( ) ( )
r x, 1 x2 dx, r x, x2 1 dx, r x, x2 + 1 dx.

r(s, t) s, t.
(i) [1, 1] -
x = sin t t [ 2 , 2 ]. 1 x2 = cos t
r(sin t, cos t) cos t dt, , ,
u = tan 2t . x u

289
 u = 1+x1x2 . , ,

u = 1+x1x2 .

[1, 1] , ,
[1, 1].
2u
x= 1+u2
.

,
1u2
1 x2 = 1+u2

, ,
( 2u 1u2 ) 2(1u2 ) 
r(x, 1 x2 ) dx = r 1+u 
2 , 1+u2 (1+u2 )2 dy u=x/(1+ 1x2 ) .

u [1, 1].
, r(x, 1 x2 ) -
x [1, 1]. , ,
.

7.3.22. x+11x2 dx.


[1, 1/ 2) (1/ 2, 1] [1, 1],
x + 1 x2 = 0 x = 1/ 2.

u= x
1+ 1x2

[1, 1 2) (1 2, 1], ,

1
x+ 1x2
dx = 2 1u2
(1+2uu2 )(1+u2 )
duu=x/(1+1x2 ) .


log |1+2uu |2
1u2 1
2 (1+2uu2 )(1+u2 )
du = 2 1+u2
+ arctan u + c

u (, 1 2), (1 2, 1 + 2) (1 + 2, +).

1
x+ 1x2
dx = 12 log |x + 1 x2 | + arctan 1+x1x2 + c

x [1, 1 2) (1 2, 1].

(ii) [1, +) (, 1].

[1, +) x = sin1 t t

sin t r( sin t , sin t ) (sin t)2 dt,
(0, 2 ]. x2 1 = cos t 1 cos t cos t

, , u = tan 2t . -

x u u = x + x2 1,
t. ,
,
u = x + x2 1.

[1, +). limx+ (x + x2 1) =
+ [1, +). -

2
x = u 2u+1

290
, ,
u2 1
x2 1 = 2u .

( 2 ) 2 
r(x, x2 1) dx = r u 2u+1 , u 2u1 u2u1
2

2 du u=x+ x2 1

u [1, +).
(, 1],
2
u = x x2 1 , x = u 2u+1
u (, 1]. -
.
, (, 1] [1, +), -
r(x, x2 1).

7.3.23. x+1x2 1 dx [1, +).

, x + x2 1 = 0 [1, +).
x [1, +)
1 
1 dx = ( 1 
3 ) du u=x+ x2 1 .
x+ x 1
2 2u 2u

, u (, 0) (0, +)
1
( 2u 2u1 3 ) du = 1
2 log |u| + 1
4u2
+ c,

, x [1, +),

1
x+

x2 1
dx = 1
2 log(x + x2 1) + 1
4(x+ x2 1)2
+ c.

(iii) R 1 x =
t (0, ). x2 + 1 = sin t
cot tcos
r( sin tt , sin1 t ) (sin1t)2 dt, , , -
u = tan 2t . ,

u = x + x2 + 1,

. u = x + x2 + 1
2 2
. limx (x+ x + 1) = 0 limx+ (x+ x + 1) = +,
u = x + x2 + 1 (0, +).

x = u 2u1 .
2

,
u2 +1
x2 + 1 = 2u .

( 2 ) 2 
r(x, x2 + 1) dx = r u 2u1 , u 2u+1 u2u+1
2

2 du u=x+ x2 +1

u (0, +).

7.3.24. xx12 +1 dx (, 0) (0, +).

x , u = x+ x2 + 1
, , (0, 1) (1, +).

1
x x2 +1
dx = 2 u211 duu=x+x2 +1

291

2 u211 du (0, 1) (1, +)
log |u 1| log(u + 1) + c.
, x (, 0) (0, +),

1
x x2 +1
dx = log 1+|x|
x2 +1
+ c.

, -
( )
r x, x2 + x + dx,
, , = 0 r(s, t) s, t. ,

( 2 42 ) ( )
x2 + x + = (x + 2 ) + 42
= (x + a)2 + b

42
a = 2 b = 42
,
( ) ( ( )
r x, x + x + dx = r x, (x + a)2 + b ) dx
2

.
1. > 0 b > 0.
u = 1b (x + a)
( )
b r b u a, b u2 + 1 du = r (u, u2 + 1) du,

r (s, t) s, t.
2. > 0 b < 0.
u = 1b (x + a)
( )
b r b u a, b u2 1 du = r (u, u2 1) du,

r (s, t) s, t.
3. < 0 b < 0.
u = 1b (x + a)
( )
b r b u a, b 1 u2 du = r (u, 1 u2 ) du,

r (s, t) s, t.
< 0 b > 0
x2 + x + . , b 0,
.

7.5. r(x, x2 + x + ) dx, = 0, -
r(x, (x)) dx, (x) -
( ) x. -
Abel . -
(x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + , -
, = 0, ,
.11
11
7.3.30.

292
 .
, , , .

n x -
. , ,
-
2
, , x + 3 x +1+
4
x1
x
.
.
7.6. P0 (x)+P1 (x)y+ +Pn (x)y n = 0
y, n 1 P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) Pn (x)
. , , I (
), I,
P0 (x) + P1 (x)(x) + + Pn (x)(x)n = 0 x I.
I.
7.3.25. P (x) R.
, P (x) P (x) + 1y = 0, P (x),
1 .
P (x)
7.3.26. Q(x) , P (x), Q(x) ,
P (x)
. Q(x)
P (x) + Q(x)y = 0, P (x), Q(x) .

P (x)
7.3.27. n Q(x) , n N P (x), Q(x) ,
.
P (x) + Q(x)y n = 0,
P (x), Q(x)
.
, x2 + x + (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + -
.
. -
, , ,

.
.
1
7.3.1. x cos(x2 ) dx, (cos x)2 sin x dx, tan x dx, 1+e x dx,
sin x x ex

x
dx, x x 1 dx, x+1 dx, 1+e2x dx, 4x2 dx, (x+1)2 +2 dx, x(x4 +16) dx,
3 1 1 1
arctan x x5 1 x2 arcsin x
(sin x)3 dx, (1+x) dx, 2 +4)4 dx, 3 dx, (sin x)4 dx, 1x dx, dx,
1
1
x (x (sin x) 6 1x2
2+(cos x)2
dx, 1+cos x dx.
2
7.3.2. (x + 3x) sin xdx,
3 x2 x+1 2 4

x e dx, e dx, x (log x) dx, arcsin x dx, arctan x dx, log(x + 1 + x2 ) dx,
2 x)
(sin x)4 dx, (cosxx)2 dx, (x2x+1)2 dx, arctan(e ex dx, (sin x)3 sin(5x) dx.
x+2 3x2 +1
7.3.3. x25x+3 dx, dx, dx,
1 x 4x+4 x3 1
2
2x2 +5x1 x2 +1 1 1
+2x1
8x3 +7
dx, (x1)3 dx, x4 1 dx, (x2 4x+4)(x2 x+1) dx, x4 +1 dx, x4 +2x3 2x1 dx,
x +xx4 2x
3 2
1
1
x4 +5x2 +4
dx, (x1)2 (x+2) 3 (x2 +1)2 dx, x5 +1
dx, x61+1 dx, x4 +x1 2 +1 dx.

7.3.4. sin x, cos x : (sin1x)4 dx, 1+21sin x dx,
1
(sin x)2
2+cos x dx, 1+(sin x)2
x
dx, 1+sinsinx+cos x dx.

293

7.3.5. 1 x2 dx, x2 x2
1
dx, 1
dx, 1
dx, x
dx,
1
1
x2 +x+1 x2 3x+2 x2 +x+1
dx, 5x1+3 dx.
(x+1) 1+2xx2 x+1
n
7.3.6. 6.5.1, n

4,
n n 1 2 k=1 n2 +k2

k=1 n2 +k2 log( 2 + 1), n (k 1)2 4 .

1
k=1 n2

7.3.7. [] f (sin x) [0, 2 ], f (cos x)

/2 /2
[0, 2 ] 0 f (sin x) dx = 0 f (cos x) dx.
/2
, 0 (sin x)2 dx.
[] f (sin x, cos x) [0, 2 ], f (cos x, sin x)
/2 /2
[0, 2 ] 0 f (sin x, cos x) dx = 0 f (cos x, sin x) dx.
/2 sin x
, 0 sin x+cos x dx.
2 +2bx+c
7.3.8. a, b, c, A, B, C (Axax2 +2Bx+C) 2 dx -

x.

7.3.9. [] In (x) = xn ex dx n Z, n 0.
In+1 (x) = xn+1 ex (n + 1)In (x), In (x) 7.2.1.

[]
m [],
xn sin x dx, xn cos x dx,
n
x (log x)n dx, (tan x)n dx, xn a2 x2 dx, (a+b cos 1
x)n dx,
x
ax2 +bx+c
dx.

7.3.10. Jn (x) = (cos x)n dx In (x) = (sin x)n dx n Z, n 0.
sin x(cos x)n+1 n+1
Jn+2 (x) = n+2 + n+2 Jn (x) In+2 (x) =
cos x(sin x)n+1
n+2 + n+1
n+2 In (x) Jn (x), In (x).
/2
7.3.11. 12 In = 0 (sin x)n dx n Z, n 0.
In+2 = n+1
n+2 In .
(2n1)(2n3)31
I0 = 2 I1 = 1. I2n = 2n(2n2)42 2 I2n+1 =
2n(2n2)42
(2n+1)(2n1)53 n 1.
(246(2n)) 2
2 = (35(2n1)) 2 (2n+1) I
I2n
2n+1
n 1 (n + 1)In In+1 = 2
n 0.
I2n+1 I2n I2n1 = 2n+1 2n I2n+1 1 I2n+1 1 + 2n n 1
I2n 1

, , I2n
I2n+1 1.
Wallis,
( 246(2n2)2n )2
1
2n+1 135(2n3)(2n1) 2 .
(2n) n
(2n)! n
n 4n = (n!) 4n
2 1 .


7.3.12. n N , xn ex dx = Pn1 (x)ex + c, Pn1 (x)
2 2

n 1.
x2
n N , xn ex dx = Pn1 (x)ex + 2n1n!
2 2
(n/2)!
e dx,
Pn1 (x) n 1.
1
7.3.13. 0 xm1 (1 x)n1 dx = (m1)!(n1)!
(m+n1)! m, n N -
. 13

12
7.3.20 Stirling.
13
12.5.8.

294
7.3.14. m,n = (m1)(m3)(1 2)(n1)(n3)(1 2)
(m+n)(m+n2)(1 2) m, n N, m, n 2. -
/2
Am,n = 0 (cos x)m (sin x)n dx m, n Z, m, n 0.
, Am,n = 2 m,n , m, n 2
, Am,n = m,n , m, n 2 .
7.3.15. f [0, ] f [0, ],
( ) n1 f ()
0 f (x) + n12 f (x) sin(nx) dx = f (0)+(1)
n n N.
7.3.16. : 14 f :
[a, b] R [a, b] g : [a, b] R
[a, b], [a, b]
b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx.

[a, b]
b 
m > 0 (x) m x [a, b].  a sin((x)) dx m
4
.
b 
 sin(x2 ) dx a, b 0 < a < b.
a
2
a

7.3.17. a < b Qn (x) = (x a)n (x b)n n.15

1 (n) (x) n.
P0 (x) = 1 Pn (x) = n!(ba) n Qn

Pn (x) n.
b
a P (x)Pn (x) dx = 0 P (x) < n.
b b
a Pn (x)Pm (x) dx = 0, m = n, a (Pn (x))2 dx = 2n+1 ba
.

n P (x) n c0 , . . . , cn P (x) =
k=0ck Pk (x) x , , c0 , . . . , cn ck =
2k+1 b
ba a P (x)Pk (x) dx.
b
P (x) n : a Q(x)P (x) dx = 0
Q(x) < n. c P (x) = cPn (x) x.
b
7.3.18. f [a, b] f (a) = f (b) = 0 a (f (x))2 dx = 1.
b
a xf (x)f (x) dx = 21 16
b b
x2 (f (x))2 dx a (f (x))2 dx > 41 .
a
n n
7.3.19. 1 log x dx nk=2 log k 2 log x dx + log n n 2.

n
17 n
n!
1e .
7.3.20. 18 [] m, n Z m n am , . . . , an . -
[x]
A : [m, n] R A(x) = k=m ak x [m, n].
A. A ;
f : [m, n] R [m, n]. x [m, n]
[x] x
k=m ak f (k) = A(x)f (x) m A(t)f (t) dt.
1
[] [] m = 1, ak = 1 k f (x) = xp ,
n
nk=1 k1p = np1
1
+ p 1 x[x]
p+1 dx n p.

14
7.3.27.
15
5.5.15.
16
Heisenberg.
17
2.4.4.
18
.
6.4.11 , , 8.2.1.

295

[] xn = nk=1 k1p n, , [], (xn ) -
, p > 1, +, p 1.
1p n
[] [], nk=1 k1p = n1p 1pp
p 1 x[x]
xp+1
dx, n
p = 1.
1p
xn = nk=1 k1p n1p n 0 < p < 1, (xn )
.
n
[] [], nk=1 k1 = log n + 1 1 x[x] dx n.
n 1 x2
xn = k=1 k log n n, (xn ) -
.19
[] m, n Z m n f : [m, n] R [m, n].
[], Euler,20
n n n f (m)+f (n)
k=m f (k) = m f (x) dx + m f (x)(x [x] 2 ) dx +
1
2 .
[] m, n Z m n f : [m, n] R [m, n].
x
(x) = m (t [t] 21 ) dt x [m, n]. , [],
n n n f (m)+f (n)
k=m f (k) = m f (x) dx m f (x)(x) dx + 2 .
x
[] (x) = 1 (t [t] 12 ) dt x [1, +). [] m = 1
n
f (x) = log x, log(n!) = (n + 21 ) log n n + 1 + 1 (x) x2
dx n.
[] 6.4.10 (x) [],[].
xn = en nn!n+(1/2) n, , [], (xn )

.21
xn 2 246(2n2)(2n) 2 1/2
x2n =
135(2n3)(2n1) ( n ) n , Wallis
2
7.3.11, xxn2n 2.
, Stirling,22
n!
2 en nn+(1/2)
1.

7.3.21. [] n N Pn (x) = n! x (1 x)n .

1 n

0 Pn (x) 4n1n! x [0, 1].

, k, Pn (k) (0) Pn (k) (1) .
[] , = ml m, l N.

Qn (x) = l2n nk=0 (1)k Pn (2k) (x) 2n2k .
Qn (0) Qn (1) .
( )
2 m2n Pn (x) sin(x) = dx d
Qn (x) sin(x) Qn (x) cos(x) x.
1
Qn (1) + Qn (0) = m2n 0 Pn (x) sin(x) dx.
, n , 0 < Qn (0) + Qn (1) < 1
. .
7.3.22. 23 [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0, lim a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.
19
Euler 2.4.6 6.4.11[].
20
.
21
.
22
5.18, Stirling n!
2en nn+(1/2) + , , n! 2 en nn+(1/2) +.
23
Riemann - Lebesgue.
eit = cos t i sin t cos t = 21 eit + 12 eit sin t = 2i
1 it 1 it
e 2i e Euler,
b ix
[] lim a f (x)e dx = 0.

296
[] [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].
[] 6.4.26 []
f : [a, b] R [a, b].

7.3.23. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f [a, b].

M 0
b  b 
 f (x) cos(x) dx M min{1, 1/||},  f (x) sin(x) dx M min{1, 1/||}.
a a

f [a, b].24
, , f (a) = f (b) = 0,
b b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0, lim a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.

, f [a, b].
[] f : [a, b] R m [a, b] f (m)
[a, b]. M 0
b  b 
 f (x) cos(x) dx M min{1, 1/||m },  f (x) sin(x) dx M min{1, 1/||m }.
a a

, , f (k) (a) = f (k) (b) = 0 k = 0, 1, . . . , m 1,

b b
lim m a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0, lim m a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.

7.3.24. [] f : [a, a] R [a, a] 0 : R R

(x) 0
x,
lim+ (x) dx = 1.

1
a x
lim0+ a ( )f (x) dx = f (0).

[]25 f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b) : R R

(x) 0
x,
lim+ (x) dx = 1.
b
lim0+ 1
a ( x
)f (x) dx = f ().

[] [], f ,
b b
lim0+ 1


a (x)2 +2 f (x) dx = f () lim0+ 1
2 a e|x|/ f (x) dx = f ()
b
e(x)
1 2 /2
lim0+ f (x) dx = f ()
a

lim+ ex dx = ,
2

12.4.1.
[]26 f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b)
f (+) = limx+ f (x) f () = limx f (x). : R R
(x) 0 x, 0

lim+ 0 (x) dx = a+ lim+ (x) dx = a , a + a+ = 1.
b
lim0+ 1 a ( x
)f (x) dx = a f () + a+ f (+).
24
7.3.25.
25
[].
26
[].

297
7.3.25. 27 I f, g : I R I f , g : I R
I.
b
b
a f (x)g (x) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) a f (x)g(x) dx a, b I.
x
7.3.26. [] v, w : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) = a v(t) dt, g(x) =
x b
a w(t) dt x [a, b]. a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b).
[] I v, w : I R -
28

I f, g : I R v, w, , I.
b
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) a, b I.

7.3.27. []29 a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn R b1 bn 0. sk = a1 + + ak
k = 1, . . . , n,

b1 min{sk | 1 k n} b1 a1 + + bn an b1 max{sk | 1 k n}.

[]30 f : [a, b] R [a, b] g : [a, b] R [a, b].

[a, b]
b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx.

7.3.28. g 4.5.9, 4.5.10 4.5.11

.

7.3.29. ex , log x, xa a
.

7.3.30. 6.5.6 .
y = ax2 .
y = cosh x.
x2 + y 2 = 1.
2 2
xa2 + yb2 = 1 .
y = xa .

7.4 Taylor, .
Taylor.
5.1. Taylor .

7.1. n Z, n 0, f : [, c] R n + 1
[, c] f (n+1) [, c]. , x (, c]
n f (k) () x
f (x) = k=0 k! (x )k + 1
n! f (n+1) (t)(x t)n dt.

c < , [c, ].
27
7.8 .
28
7.8 7.3.25.
29
-
. Diriclet Abel
.
30
7.3.16
.

298
. g : [, x] R

g(t) = nk=0 k! f (t)(x t)k
1 (k)

t [, x].
g (t) = 1 (n+1)
n! f (t)(x t)n
t [, x], g [, x].
x
1 x (n+1)
n! f (t)(x t)n dt = g (t) dt = g(x) g() = f (x) nk=0 1 (k)
k! f ()(x )k .

n f (k) () x
f (x) = k=0 k! (x )k + 1
n! f (n+1) (t)(x t)n dt.

7.7. 7.1 Taylor f

f (x) = Pn, (x) + Rn, (x),

Pn, Taylor n f

1 x (n+1)
Rn, (x) = n! f (t)(x t)n dt

n.

7.4.1. P n, P (n+1) (t) = 0

(k)
t, P (x) = Pn, (x) = nk=0 P k!() (x )k
, x.

7.4.1. , f (n+1) [, c], 7.1

5.1.

299
 .
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 7. Wiley.
Beals, R. (2004) Analysis, an Introduction, Ch 8. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 10. Springer.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 9. Springer.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 6. Dover.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch II-VII. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 2-6. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 6. Springer.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 6-7. Springer.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 8. Harper and Row.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 7-8. Wiley.
Goursat, E. (2006) A Course in Mathematical Analysis, Vol I, Ch IV-V. Dover.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap VII. Springer.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch VI. Dover.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch VI. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 8. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 21-24. American Math. Society & Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch V, X. Springer.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 8. Mir Publishers.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 5. Springer.
Pugh, C. (2015) Real Mathematical Analysis, Ch 3. Springer.
Rosenlicht, M. (1986) Introduction to Analysis, Ch VI. Dover.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 6. Springer.
Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch III, VI. Pergammon Press.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 14-21. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 6. Pearson.

.
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 6-7. Addison-Wesley.
Hardy, G. (1966) The Integration of Functions of a Single Variable. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 6. McGraw-Hill.

300
 8

8.1 .
8.1. (xn ).
+
n=1 xn x1 + x2 + + xn + .

, , + n=1 xn
( ) .
s1 = x1 , s2 = x1 + x2 , s3 = x1 + x2 + x3 , ,

sn = x1 + + xn n.

sn n- + n=1 xn (sn )
.
(sn ) , sn s R, + n=1 xn
s
+
n=1 xn = s x1 + x2 + + xn + = s.

, s R, s , s = + s = ,
+ , .
(sn ) , + n=1 xn
.
xn n- + n=1 xn .

, + n=1 xn ,
, . , ,
. : + n=1 xn xn
. , ,
. , ,
. + +
: +n=1 xn , k=1 xk , j=1 xj -
.

8.1.1. + n=1 1 1+1+1+ +1+ .
s1 = 1, s2 = 1 + 1 = 2, s3 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 , , sn = 1 + + 1 = n
n. sn = n +, +
+
n=1 1 = +.

301

8.1.2. + n=1 0 0 + 0 + 0 + + 0 + .
. s1 = 0, s2 = 0 + 0 = 0,
s3 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 , , sn = 0 + + 0 = 0 n. sn = 0 0,
0
+
n=1 0 = 0.

8.1.3. a + n=1 a
n1 1 + a + a2 + +

a n1 + . s1 = 1, s2 = 1 + a, s3 = 1 + a + a2 ,
, sn = 1 + a + + an1 n.
a0 -
1. a = 0, a = 0,
00 . , , a0 = 1 a,
a = 0, a0 ,
. ,
a0 + a1 x + + aN xN N n
n=0 an x ,
x0 = 1 x, x = 0.
2.3.20 ,
(1 + a + + an1 ), , , . ,
:

= +, a 1
+ n1
n=1 a = 1/(1 a), 1 < a < 1


, a 1
+
n=1 (1)n1 1 + (1) + 1 + (1) + 1 + (1) + .
.

8.1.4. + n=1 np 1 + 2p + 3p + + np +
1 1 1 1

sn = 1 + 21p + + n1p n.

p = 1 + 1
n=1 n , .
sn = 1 + 2 + + n1 n 2.4.41
1

sn +. + 1
n=1 n = +.

, p = 2 + 1
n=1 n2 sn = 1 + 22 +
1

+ n12 n. 2.4.5 2.6.1 (sn ) ,

. ,
+ 1
n=1 n2 .
+ 1
n=1 np .2

8.1.5. + n=1 n! sn = 1! + 2! + + n! n.
1 1 1 1

2.4.2 2.4.3 sn e 1,
e 1 , ,
1 + + 1
n=1 n! = e.
(1)n1
8.1.6. + n=1 n sn = 1 12 + 31 14 + +
(1)n1
n n. 2.5.73 (sn ) .
. ,
+ (1)n1
n=1 n .
1
2.5.4 2.6.2. .
2
, 6.4.11 7.3.20.
3
2.6.3. , 6.4.11 .
10.2.12.

302
 +
8.1. n=1 xn , xn 0.

.
sn = x1 + + xn .
+ n=1 n = s R, sn s. xn = sn sn1 n n 2,
x
xn s s = 0.

8.1.7. + n=1 n+1 n+1 1 = 0.
n n

8.1.8. + n=1 n . , n 0.
1 1

8.1.

, + n=1 xn -
xn 0. , .
, .

8.2. (xn ) (yn )

. + x
n=1 n +
n=1 yn ,
, .

. k0 , m0 xk0 +l = ym0 +l l.
sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 + + yn .
l

sk0 +l sk0 = xk0 +1 + + xk0 +l = ym0 +1 + + ym0 +l = tm0 +l tm0 .

(sn sk0 ) (tn tm0 ) .

+
n=1 xn = s R.

sn s, sn sk0 ssk0 . tn tm0 ssk0 , , tn ssk0 +tm0 .

+
n=1 yn = s sk0 + tm0 .

sR s = + s = ,
, ,

s sk0 + tm0 R s sk0 + tm0 = + s sk0 + tm0 = .

8.1.9. m Z.
+
n=m xn xm + xm+1 + + xm+n1 +

: t1 = xm , t2 = xm + xm+1 , ,

tn = xm + + xm+n1 n.
+
8.2 +
n=m xn n=1 xn ,
+ +
n=m nx x
n=1 n , , -
. ,
.
m 2,
sn = x1 + + xn ,

303


tn = xm + +xm+n1 = (x1 + +xm+n1 )(x1 + +xm1 ) = sm+n1 (x1 + +xm1 )

n. +
n=1 xn = s R,
sn s, tn s (x1 + + xm1 ) , ,
+
n=m xn = s (x1 + + xm1 ).

+ +
n=1 xn = x1 + + xm1 + n=m xn m 2. (8.1)
m 0,

tn = xm + + xm+n1 = (xm + + x0 ) + (x1 + + xm+n1 ) = (xm + + x0 ) + sm+n1

n 2 m. +
n=1 xn = s R,
sn s, tn xm + + x0 + s , ,
+
n=m xn = xm + + x0 + s.

+ +
n=m xn = xm + + x0 + n=1 xn m 0. (8.2)
(8.1) (8.2), , m, k Z m < k,
+ +
n=m xn = xm + + xk1 + n=k xn m < k. (8.3)

. -
, + n=m xn . k = n m + 1 ,
n m, m + 1, m + 2, . . . , k 1, 2, 3, . . . .
+ +
n=m xn = k=1 xk+m1 .

, xm + xm+1 + xm+2 + .
+
8.3. + n=1 xn rn = m=n xm n.
rn 0.

. sn = x1 + + xn . + n=1 xn = s R,
sn s. (8.1), (8.3),

s = sn1 + rn

n, rn = s sn1 s s = 0.
+ + +
8.4. + n=1 xn y+
n=1 n n=1 xn + n=1 yn
, n=1 (xn + yn )
+ + +
n=1 (xn + yn ) = n=1 xn + n=1 yn .

304
 +
. + n=1 xn = s R n=1 yn = t R.
sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 +
+ yn .
+ n=1 (xn + yn )

un = (x1 + y1 ) + + (xn + yn ) = (x1 + + xn ) + (y1 + + yn ) = sn + tn .

,
un = sn + tn s + t.
+ +
n=1 (xn + yn ) = s + t = n=1 xn + + n=1 yn .
+ +
8.5. + n=1 xn n=1 xn
, n=1 xn
+ +
n=1 xn = n=1 xn .

. + n=1 xn = s R.
sn = x1 + + xn .
+ n=1 xn

wn = x1 + + xn = (x1 + + xn ) = sn .

wn = sn s
+ +
, , n=1 xn = s = n=1 xn .

:
+ + +
n=1 (xn + yn ) = n=1 xn + n=1 yn .

8.6. xn yn n.
+ + +
[] +
n=1 xn n=1 yn , n=1 xn yn .
+ +n=1
, ,
n0 xn0 < yn0
+ n=1 xn n=1 yn ,
+ + +
x
n=1 n < y
n=1 n . , n=1 nx = n=1 yn ,
xn = yn n.
+
[] + n=1 xn = +, n=1 yn = +.
+ +
[] n=1 yn = , n=1 xn = .
+
. [] + n=1 xn = s R n=1 yn = t R.
sn = x1 + + xn tn = y1 + + yn . sn s
tn t

sn = x1 + + xn y1 + + yn = tn

n, s t.
, , xn0 < yn0 s, t R. n n0

tn sn = (yn xn ) + + (y1 x1 ) yn0 xn0 ,

- yn0 xn0
. t s yn0 xn0 > 0.
[] , sn tn n. , sn +, tn +.
[] [].

305
 .
1 + + + ( 1 )
8.1.1. + n=1 ( 2 ),
n
n=1 (1) , n=1 n, n=1
1 ,
+ 2 + n1
+ n1 2
n n+1
n=1 n , n=1 (1) n, n=1 (1) n ( ).
+ n n +
8.1.2. + n
n=1 2n+1 , n=1 ( n+1 ) ,
n
n, + 1
n=1 n sin n ,
+ 1 + 2n +3n
n=1
n=1 n log(1 + n ), n=1 2n+1 +3n+1 .

8.1.3. , + 2 n+2
n=1 ( 3 ) ,
+ 4 n3 +
, n=1 2 +36n 6
+ + + + n1 n+1 n/2
n=1 ( 3 ) , n=1 (1)n4 , n=3 ( 23 )n , n=4 (3)n , n=1 3n1 2

( ).
+ x2n + 1x2n
8.1.4. x + x
n=1 (1+x)n1 , n=1 (1+x2 )n1 , n=1 1+x2n ;

8.1.5. 4 + n=1 (bn bn+1 ) , -
, limn+ bn
limn+ bn .
limn+ bn :
+
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) = b1 limn+ bn .
+ 1 + n +
n=1 n(n+1) , + 1
n=1 (2n1)(2n+1) , n=1 log n+1 ,
1
n=1 n(n+1)(n+2) ,

+ n+1 n +
2n+1
n=1

n2 +n
, n=1 (1)n1 n(n+1) .

8.1.6. , , + n=1 xn , x2k1 = k x2k = k
1 1

k.
+ +
8.1.7. x = y.
+ k=1 (a 2k + xa 2k1 ) k=1 (a2k + ya2k1 ) ,
n=1 an .
{
+ x2n1 x/(1 x), |x| < 1
8.1.8. n=1 1x2n =
1/(1 x), |x| > 1
+ 2n1 1
x > 1 n=1 2n1 = x1 .
x +1
{
1
2, n = k
8.1.9. k N xn = n k +
2
n=1 xn .
0, n = k
8.1.10. :
s. ,
,
12 . , ( ) -
, 48
. ,
.
8.1.11.
v. , d,
vd . , , -
:
, ,
. , , -
. . ,
+
4
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) .

306
, ( )
, .

.
8.1.12. . , -
,
.

8.2 - .
8.1 2.1.
2.1 (
), 8.1
- (
). , , 8.1
2.1.

8.1. xn 0 n, + n=1 xn
+
0 +. , 0 n=1 xn +.
, sn = x1 + +xn . ,
(sn ) , +, (sn ) .
.
sn+1 = x1 + + xn + xn+1 = sn + xn+1 sn
n. (sn )
+, , +.
sn s R {+}. n=1 xn = s.

sn = x1 + + xn 0
n, s 0.
(sn ) , s R, , (sn ) ,
s = +.

+ n=1 xn -
+ -
0 +. , n=1 xn -+
+ n=1 x n < + n=1 xn = +.
+
8.7. [] + 0 xn yn n.+ 0 n=1 xn + n=1 yn .
, , n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
[] xn 0 yn > 0 n ( xynn ) ,
+
, . + n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
+ +
. [] 8.1, n=1 xn n=1 yn ,
8.6
+
0 + n=1 xn n=1 yn . (8.4)
+ + +
n=1 yn ,
n=1 yn < +. (8.4) n=1 xn < +
, , + x
n=1 n .
[] ( yn ) , u xynn u , ,
xn

xn uyn (8.5)
+ +
n. n=1 yn ,
n=1 uyn .
, (8.5) [], +
n=1 xn .

307

8.7[] +, , : + n=1 xn
+, n=1 yn +.
8.7[] . xn , yn > 0
n xynn , , 0 < < +, -
+
+ n=1 xn n=1 yn :
+. , xynn , -
+
, + n=1 yn , n=1 x
n+.
yn
1
1
, , n=1 xn ,
xn


+

n=1 yn .
xn , yn > 0 n xynn 0, ,
+
8.7[], + n=1 yn , n=1 xn . ,
, .
2 + 1 + 1
8.2.1. 1/n 1/n 0, n=1 n2 < + n=1 n = +.

, xn , yn > 0 n xynn +, +
n=1 xn
+ yn
, n=1 yn . xn 0
8.7[].
-
8.7. ,

.

. -

.
2n +3
8.2.2. + n=1 3n1 +n .
2 +3 n
3n1 +n
2n 3n1 ,
.
2n +3 2n 1+32n
3n1 +n
= 3n1 1+n3n+1
1+32n
n, 1+n3n+1
1 , ,
n n
2 +3
( 3n1 +n
2
)/( 3n1 ) 1.
2n + 2 n1
+ n=1 3n1 = 2 n=1 ( 3 ) .
, .
2n3 +3n+5
8.2.3. + n=1 n4 +5n2 +n+7 .
2n3 +3n+5
, n4 +5n2 +n+7
2n3 n4 ,
.

2n3 +3n+5 2n3 1+(3/2)n2 +(5/2)n3

n4 +5n2 +n+7
= n4 1+5n2 +n3 +7n4
,

1+(3/2)n2 +(5/2)n3
1+5n2 +n3 +7n4
1 , ,
3 3
( n42n +3n+5
+5n2 +n+7
)/( 2n
n4
) 1.
+ 2n3 + 1 + 2n3 +3n+5
1 > 0 n=1 n4 =2 n=1 n = +, n=1 n4 +5n2 +n+7 = +.

308
 + 1
8.2.4. n=1 sin n .

sin x
= 1.
limx0 x

+ 1
n=1 n .
sin(1/n)
1/n 1,
+
1 > 0 1
n=1 n= +, + 1
n=1 sin n = +.
n3
8.2.5. + n=1 2n .
a 1 < a < 2. (an )
3 n
(n3 ) 2n , ann 0 a2n = ( a2 )n 0.
( n3 )/( an ) n3
2n 2n = an 0.
+ an + a n
, n=1 2n = n=1 ( 2 ) ,
+ n3
n=1 2n .

8.2.6. xn 0 n, x1 + +xm + n=1 xn
m.

: + n=1 xn = s R. sn = x1 + + xn
, sn s. (sn ) , sm s m.

: + n=1 an ,
{
xn , 1 n m
an =
0, n m + 1

0 an xn n,
+ +
n=1 an n=1 xn .

,
+ + +
n=1 an = a1 + + am + n=m+1 an = x1 + + xm + n=m+1 0 = x1 + + xm .
.
8.8. e .
.
+ 1
e=1+ n=1 n! (8.6)

8.1.5.
( ) e Q , , e = kl , l, k N.
(8.6)
+
(k 1)! l = k! e = k! + k!
1! + + k! + k!
k! 1
n=k+1 n! .

(k 1)! l, k!, k!
. . . , k!
1! , k! ,
+
A = k! n=k+1 n! 1
= + k!
n=k+1 n!

. ,
+ +
0 < A = + 1
n=k+1 (k+1)n < n=k+1
1
(k+1)nk
= 1
n=1 (k+1)n = 1 1
k+1 1(1/(k+1)) = 1
k 1

309
8.2.1 - .
-
.
. 5 (xn ) xn 0
t R [1, +) f (n) = xn
n. f : [1, +)
n. limt+ 1 f (u) du, 0 +
t
(i) +n=1 xn < + limt+ 1 f (u) du < +,
+ t
(ii) n=1 xn = + limt+ 1 f (u) du = +.
,
n+1 n
1 f (u) du x1 + + xn x1 + 1 f (u) du n
t + t
limt+ 1 f (u) du n=1 xn x1 + limt+ 1 f (u) du.
33.

. + n=1 xn - , , -
+. +
n=1 xn = s,

0 s +.
sn = x1 + + xn ,
sn s. (8.7)
f ,
[1, +),
t
F (t) = 1 f (u) du t [1, +).
5
, 6.4.11 7.3.20.

310
 t 1 n t. f , f (t) f (n) = xn 0.

f (t) 0 t 1. (8.8)
t
, 1 t < t , , (8.8), t f (u) du 0 , ,
t t t t
F (t ) = 1 f (u) du = 1 f (u) du + t f (u) du 1 f (u) du = F (t ).

F [1, +),
t
l = limt+ F (t) = limt+ 1 f (u) du (8.9)
t
+. (8.8) F (t) = 1 f (u) du 0
t 1, l 0.
0 l +.
k N

f (k + 1) f (u) f (k) k u k + 1,

k+1 k+1 k+1

f (k + 1) = k f (k + 1) du k f (u) du k f (k) du = f (k)
, f (k) = xk f (k + 1) = xk+1 ,
k+1
xk+1 k f (u) du xk . (8.10)

(8.10) k = 1, . . . , n 1
(8.10) k = 1, . . . , n
n n+1
x2 + + xn 1 f (u) du 1 f (u) du x1 + + xn ,

. sn = x1 + x2 + + xn ,
n+1 n
1 f (u) du sn x1 + 1 f (u) du.

, (8.7) (8.9)

l s x1 + l.

(i), (ii) .

-
: + t
1 f (u) du = limt+ 1 f (u) du.
, , 12. ,

+ +
1 f (u) du +
n=1 xn x1 + 1 f (u) du

: + n=1 xn
+
1 f (u) du .

k 1.
. .
(xn ) xn 0 n k. f :

311
[k, +) t R [k, +) f (n) = xn n k.
limt+ k f (u) du, 0 +
t
(i) +n=k xn < + limt+ k f (u) du < +,
+ t
(ii) n=k xn = + limt+ k f (u) du = +.
,
n+1 n
k f (u) du xk + + xn xk + k f (u) du n k
t + t
limt+ k f (u) du n=k xn xk + limt+ k f (u) du.

+ + +
k f (u) du n=k x n x k + k f (u) du.

8.2.7. + 1
n=1 np .
.6

+ 1
n=1 np - , -
+.
+
p 0, n1p 1 n, + n=1 np
1
n=1 1 = +.
1
p > 0. ( np ) .
u1p , [1, +) , ,

+ 1
n=1 np .
, t 1 t 1
t1p 1
1 u p du = 1p p
= 1 1 u du = log t.
, {
t 1 1/(p 1) < +, p > 1
limt+ 1 up du =
+, 0 < p 1
, p 0,
{
+ 1 < +, p > 1
n=1 np
= +, p 1

, , + 1
n=1 n +
+ 1
n=1 n2 .
,
+ 1
p1 n=1 np 1 + p1
1 1
p > 1,

log(n + 1) 1 + 1
2 + + 1
n 1 + log n n,
(n+1)1p 1 n1p 1
1p 1+ 1
2p + + 1
np 1+ n 0 p < 1.
1p

, 8.1, p 0 < p 1, + 1
n=1 np
+
n=1 xn xn 0.

n+1
8.2.8. + n=1 2n2 +3 ,

n+1 1 1+n1/2
2n2 +3
= n3/2 2+3n2
,
( n+1 )/( )
2n2 +3 n3/2
1
12 .
+ +
1 n+1
n=1 n3/2 , n=1 2n2 +3 .
6
6.4.11 7.3.20.

312

8.2.9. + 1
n=1 log(1 + n ).
+ 1
n=1 +, ,
n

log(1+(1/ n))

1/ n
1,

log(1+x) +
limx0 = 1, + 1 )
x n=1 log(1 n
+.

CAUCHY. (xn )
xn 0 n.
+ k
(i) +n=1 xn < + 2 x2k < +,
+ k=0
+ k
(ii) n=1 xn = + k=0 2 x2k = +.
+ k
. + n=1 xn k=0 2 x2k , -
. + + k
n=1 xn = s, k=0 2 x2k = t.

sn = x1 + + xn tk = x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k1 x2k1

.
sn s, tk t (8.11)
, ,
sn s, tk t (8.12)
n k.
n N. k0 Z, k0 0 2k0 n < 2k0 +1 . (xn )
(8.12),

sn = x1 + + xn
= x1 + (x2 + x3 ) + (x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 ) +
+ (x2k0 1 + + x2k0 1 ) + (x2k0 + + xn )
x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k0 1 x2k0 1 + 2k0 x2k0 = tk0 +1 t.

n sn t, (8.11), s t.
, (xn ) (8.12),

tk = x1 + 2x2 + 4x4 + + 2k1 x2k1

2x1 + 2x2 + 2(x3 + x4 ) + + 2(x2k2 +1 + + x2k1 )
= 2(x1 + x2 + + x2k1 ) = 2s2k1 2s.

k N tk 2s, (8.11), t 2s.

s t 2s, s t +.

8.2.10. + 1
n=1 np .
+ 1 +
p 0, n=1 np n=1 1 = +.
p > 0, ( n1p ) - .
+ k 1 + 1 k
k=0 2 (2k )p = k=0 ( 2p1 ) .
1 1
2p1 , , 2p1 < 1,
1
+, 2p1 1.

+n=1 np , p > 1, +, p 1.
1

313
8.2.2 p- .
p N, p 2. 2.4.6 x [0, 1)
(xn ) p- x . xn
0, 1, . . . p1 (xn ) p1 ,

sn = x1
p + x2
p2
+ + xn
pn , tn = x1
p + x2
p2
+ + xn
pn + 1
pn

n,

sn x < tn n, sn x, tn x.

sn -
+ xn
n=1 pn .

, sn x , ,
+ xn
n=1 pn = x.

8.2. , x, (xn ) -
p- xn 0, 1, . . . p1
(xn ) p 1.

8.9. p N, p 2.

[] p- (xn ). + xn
n=1 pn
[0, 1).

[] x [0, 1) p- (xn ) + xn
n=1 pn = x.
+ xn
. [] n=1 pn - , .
+ xn
x= n=1 pn .

0 xn p 1 n , ,
xn < p 1 n, 8.6[]
+ p1
0 x = + xn
n=1 pn < n=1 pn = 1.

, :
+ p1 p1 + 1 n1
n=1 pn = p n=1 ( p ) = p1 1
p 1(1/p) = 1.

[] 0 x < 1.
+ , 2.4.6, p-
xn
(xn ) n=1 pn = x. .
(xn ) x1 = [px]

xn+1 = [pn+1 x pn x1 pxn ] n.

, p- (yn )
+ yn
n=1 pn = x. (8.13)

(8.13) + yn
px = y1 + n=2 pn1 . (8.14)

314
 0 yn p 1 n 2 , ,
yn < p 1 n 2, 8.6[]
+ p1
0 + yn
n=2 pn1 < n=2 pn1 = 1. (8.15)

(8.14) (8.15)

y1 px < y1 + 1

, y1 , y1 = [px].
, m N. (8.13)
+
x = m+1 yn
n=1 pn + n=m+2
yn
pn

, pm+1 ,
+ yn
pm+1 x = pm y1 + + pym + ym+1 + n=m+2 pnm1

, , + yn
pm+1 x pm y1 pym = ym+1 + n=m+2 pnm1 . (8.16)
, 0 yn p 1 n m + 2
yn < p 1 n m + 2, 8.6[]
+
0 + yn
n=m+2 pnm1 <
p1
n=m+2 pnm1 = 1. (8.17)

(8.16) (8.17)

ym+1 pm+1 x pm y1 pym < ym+1 + 1

, ym+1 ,

ym+1 = [pm+1 x pm y1 pym ].

, , m n, +
: p- (yn ) n=1 pynn = x
y1 = [px]

yn+1 = [pn+1 x pn y1 pyn ] n.

-
(xn ).
, , (xn ) (yn ), -
: y1 = x1 = [px] ,
() ,
, , n- n.
p- (xn ) 2.4.6 -
p- (xn ) + xn
n=1 pn = x.

+ xn 8.3. (xn ) p- x [0, 1),

n=1 pn p- x
0.x1 x2 x3 . . . p ,

x = 0.x1 x2 x3 . . . p .

p = 10 , , x = 0.x1 x2 x3 . . .
x = 0.x1 x2 x3 . . . 10 .

315
 8.9
[0, 1) p- , ,
[0, 1) p- 0.x1 x2 x3 . . . p .
8.4. p- 0.x1 x2 x3 . . . p
m0 , k0 xn+k0 = xn n m0 .
xm0 xm0 +1 . . . xm0 +k0 1 p-
. , p-

0.x1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 . . . p .

0.x1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 p .

8.10 p = 10, ,
- , !
, [0, 1), p-
. .7
8.10. p N, p 2 x [0, 1). x
p- .
. x = 0, x1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 p .

xm0 1 ( xm xm0 +k0 1 )( )

x = xp1 + + pm 0 1
+ pm 0 + + pm0 +k0 1
0
1 + pk10 + 1
p2k0
+
xm0 1 ( xm xm0 +k0 1 )
= xp1 + + pm 0 1
+ pm 0 + + pm0 +k0 1 1(1/pk0 )
0 1

x1 pm0 2 ++xm0 1 xm0 pk0 1 ++xm0 +k0 1

= pm0 1
+ pm0 1 (pk0 1)
,

x .
, x [0, 1) , x = ab , a, b Z, 0 a < b.
p = p1 n1 pr nr , p1 , . . . , pr p n1 , . . . , nr
N. , b = p1 l1 pr lr b , l1 , . . . , lr Z, l1 , . . . , lr 0 ( pj
b, lj 0) b N
p.
m0 N (m0 1)nj lj j = 1, . . . , r.
vj = (m0 1)nj lj , vj Z, vj 0.
a a ap1 v1 pr vr a
x= b = p1 l1 pr lr b
= (p1 n1 pr nr )m0 1 b
= pm0 1 b
,

a Z, a 0.
, p, p2 , p3 , . . . b . ,
0, . . . , b 1, ,
b . , t, s N, t < s
pt = qt b + z ps = qs b + z, qt , qs Z z {0, . . . , b 1}.
pt (pst 1) = ps pt = (qs qt )b , b pt (pst 1). b , p
, b pst 1, b N b b = pst 1.
k0 = s t N b b = pk0 1 , ,
a b a
x= pm0 1 b b
= pm0 1 (pk0 1)
,

a = a b Z 0 a < pm0 1 (pk0 1). 0 x < 1.

, a pk0 1,

a = w(pk0 1) + u,
7
8.2.30.

316
 w Z, 0 w < pm0 1 u {0, . . . , pk0 2}.
, p- ( 8.2.30) w, u

w = x1 pm0 2 + + xm0 1 , u = xm0 pk0 1 + + xm0 +k0 1

xm0 , . . . , xm0 +k0 1 p 1,

u = (p 1)pk0 1 + + (p 1)p + (p 1) = pk0 1.

w(pk0 1)+u x1 pm0 2 ++xm0 1 xm0 pk0 1 ++xm0 +k0 1

x= pm0 1 (pk0 1)
= pmw0 1 + pm0 1 (p
u
k0 1) = pm0 1
+ pm0 1 (pk0 1)
xm0 1 ( xm0 xm0 +k0 1 )
p + + pm0 1 + pm0 + + pm0 +k0 1 1 k1
x1 1
=
p 0
xm0 1 ( xm xm0 +k0 1 )( )
= x1
p + + pm0 1
+ 0
pm0 + + pm0 +k0 1
1 + 1
pk0
+ 1
p2k0
+
= x1 . . . xm0 1 xm0 . . . xm0 +k0 1 p .

x p- .

.
+ 1
8.2.1. n=1 n(n+1) 8.1.5,
+ 1
n=1 n2 .
n2 +3n+1
8.2.2. , + n=1 n4 n2 +4 ,

+ n n+2n+1 + 1 +
n=1 2n2 +1
, n=1 n n n, n=1
1
, +
n=1 log(1 + n12 ), + n=1 ( 1 + n2 n),
n(n+1)(n+2)
+ n+1n + 1 1 + 1/n + 1 +
( )
n=1 , n=1 sin , n=1 (e 1), n=1 n(1 cos ), n=1 n log 2n+1
1 ,
+ (n+1)nn n n n 2n1

n=1 nn+1 .
( )
8.2.3. a + n=1 n
a 1 1
+ a n n+1
n=1 n ( n + 1 2 n + n 1) .

a, b a > b > 0, + 1
n=2 na nb
+ 1
n=1 an bn .
an
a, b, c > 0 +n=1 bn +cn .
+ 135(2n1)
8.2.4. n=1 258(3n1) .
+ n +
8.2.5. + 1
n=1 n2 +1 , n=1 n2 +1 ,
1
n=1 (n+1)( n+1) ,
+ + en + 1 + +
n=1
1 , + n=1 ne
n ,
n=1 1+e2n , n=2 n log n ,
1
n=2 n(log n)2 ,
1
n=3 n log n log(log n) ,
n(n+1)
+ 1
n=3 n log n(log(log n))2 . .
+ . , -
.
+
8.2.6. + 1
n=2 n(log n)p ,
1
n=3 n log n(log(log n))p , p > 1,
+, p 1.

8.2.7. + 1
n=2 na (log n)b a = 1, b > 1 a > 1
+ .

a > 0. + 1
n=1 an nb a = 1, b > 1 a > 1
+ .

a > 0. + 1
n=2 an (log n)b a > 1
+ .

317
8.2.8. , -
pk p 3, 2k 2.

8.2.9. p > 1.
+ 1
p1 n=k np kp + (p1)kp1 k.
1 1 1
(p1)k

k p1 + n=k np p1 ( k +).
1 1

limp1+ (p 1) + 1
n=k np = 1 k.
+ x
8.2.10. x > 0. 2 arctan x1 n=1 n2 +x2
1+x
x
2 +

2 arctan x1 .
+ x
limx+ n=1 n2 +x2 = 2 .

limx+ +
n=1 fn (x) =
+
n=1 lim x+ nf (x) ;

xn >0 n a 1. +
8.2.11. n=1 xn ,
a
+
n=1 xn
a, + xn
n=1 1+xn a .

8.2.12. xn 0 n.
+ xn
+ x n , n=1 n .
n=1
n=1 xn , +
+
n=1 xn xn+1 . , -
, (xn ) ,
+ .
n=1 xn + + n=1 xn xn+1
.

8.2.13. 8 [] xn , yn > 0 n xxn+1 yn+1

yn .
+ + n
n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
[] xn > 0 n.
0 < a < 1 xxn+1 a, + xn .
xn+1
n + n=1
a > 1 xn a, n=1 xn .
[] xn > 0 n.
a > 1 xxn+1 (1 n+1 ) , +
1 a
xn .
xn+1
n n=1
+
a 1 xn (1 n+1 ) , n=1 xn .
1 a

8.2.14. [] (xn ) xn 0 n. + n=1 xn < +,
nxn 0.

+ n=1 np = + 0 p 1.
1

xn +xn+2
[] 8.1.5. (xn ) xn+1 n
2
xn 0. + n=1 n(xn 2xn+1 + xn+2 ) = x1 .

xn
8.2.15. 0+
n. (xnk ) (xn ),
+ x
k=1 nk n=1 xn .
+
yn zn n. +
8.2.16. xn n=1 xn n=1 zn ,
+ y
n=1 n .

8.2.17. m1 , m2 , m3 , . . .
3 . + 1
n=1 mn .

8.2.18. xn > 0 n + n=1 xn .
rn = + x
k=n k n.
p 1, rxm+1m+1
p + + r p r
xn
n
1
m+1
p1 r
rn+1
m+1
p m, n m < n

8
8.3.28.

318
 + xn
n=1 rn p .
0 < p < 1, rxnnp 1p
1
rn+1 1p ) n
(rn 1p
+ xn
n=1 rn p .

+
n=1 rn p p 0.
xn

+
8.2.19. xn > 0 n n=1 xn .
sn = nk=1 xk n.

+ xn
n=1 1+xn .
p 1, sxm+1 p + + s p s p1 s p m, n m < n
m+1 xn 1 sm
+ xn n n n
n=1 sn p .
( 1 )
p > 1, sxnnp p1
1
p1 1
p1 n 2
+ xn sn1 sn
n=1 sn p .

8.2.20. [] xn > 0 n +n=1 xn .
(yn ) yn + + x y
n=1 n n .
+
[] xn > 0 n + n=1 xn .
(yn ) yn 0 n=1 xn yn .
[] (yn ) yn +. (x n )
xn > 0 n + n=1 x n +
n=1 xn yn
.
[] (yn ) yn 0. (xn )
xn > 0 n + n=1 xn
+
n=1 xn yn
.

8.2.21. 9 an , bn 0 n p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+ q
[] + p
n=1 an < + n=1 bn < +, Hlder ,
+ ( + ) ( + q )1/q
p 1/p
n=1 an bn n=1 an n=1 bn .

s, t 0 0

+ san p = tbn q
n.
n=1 an 2 < + + 2 1 1
n=1 bn < +, 2 + 2 = 1,
Cauchy,
+ ( + 2 )1/2 ( + 2 )1/2
n=1 an bn n=1 an n=1 bn ,
Hlder.
+ p
[] + p
n=1 an < + n=1 bn < +, Minkowski
,
( + )
p 1/p
( + p )1/p ( + p )1/p
n=1 (an + bn ) n=1 an + n=1 bn .
s, t 0 0
san = tbn n.

8.2.22. f : [1, +) [0, +) [1, +) + n=1 f (n) = +
t
limt+ 1 f (u) du .

f : [1, +) [0, +) [1, +) + n=1 f (n) < +
t
limt+ 1 f (u) du = +.
9
5.4.22 . 8.3.23.

319
8.2.23. 8.1 -
- .
8.1.12, , , - -
-
.
7 31
8.2.24. , 16 , 32 .

2 1.
8.2.25. p N, p 2 x, y [0, 1). n n- p-
x, y , |x y| < p1n .
8.2.26. p N, p 2 x [0, 1). sn n- p- x,
p- x sn , pn (x sn );
8.2.27. p N, p 2 x, y [0, 1).
x + y < 1, x + y
x, y n- p- < p2n .
xy < 2
pn 1
p2n
.
8.2.28. p N, p 2 p- k ( 0 k
p1). [0, 1) n- p-
k pn1 [a, b).
; ;
8.2.29. p N, p 2 x [0, 1). p- x 0
x = mn , m Z, n N, 0 m < n, gcd(m, n) = 1
n p.
8.2.30. p N, p 2. x N n0 Z, n0 0
x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 Z 0 x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 p 1 xn0 1 x = xn0 pn0 + +
x1 p + x0 .10
2, 16, 354, 10385 p = 10, 2, 3, 16.
8.2.31. 0.34239239239239 . . . 10 , 0.101101101101101 . . . 2
0.01201120112011201 . . . 3 . .
13
, 150 .
.
8.2.32. 11 (pn ) N pn 2 n.
(an ) Z 0 an pn 1 n
an = pn 1. + an
n=1 p1 pn
[0, 1).
x [0, 1) (an ) Z + 0
an pn 1 n, an = pn 1 x = n=1 p1ap n
n
.
(an ).

8.3 .

CAUCHY.
 +n=1 xn > 0
n0  nk=m+1 xk  = |xm+1 + + xn | < m, n n > m n0 .
10
xn0 pn0 + + x1 p + x0 p- x xn0 . . . x1 x0 p .
x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 p- x.
11
p- .

320
 sn = x1 + + xn .
.
+ n=1 xn (sn ) , ,
(sn ) Cauchy. (sn ) Cauchy
> 0 n0
|sn sm | <
n, m n > m n0 .

|xm+1 + + xn | = |(x1 + + xn ) (x1 + + xm )| = |sn sm |

n, m n > m.

Cauchy : + n=1 xn

limm,n+ nk=m+1 xk = 0.

8.3.1. 12 + 1
n=1 n .
+ 1
n=1 n . ( = 21 ) n0

| m+1
1
+ + n1 | < 1
2

m, n n > m n0 . , n = 2m,

| m+1
1
+ + 2m |
1
< 1
2

m n0 . ,

| m+1
1
+ + 2m |
1
= 1
m+1 + + 1
2m 1
2m + + 1
2m = 2mm
2m = 1
2

+ .
n=1 n1 , , - , +.

8.3.1 .
+

+8.5. n=1 xn
+ ( -
) n=1 |xn | , , n=1 |xn | < +.

8.6. x x+ = |x|+x
2 x =
|x|x
2 . x+ -

x x - x.

, 3+ = 3 3 = 0, (3)+ = 0 (3) = 3 0+ = 0
0 = 0.
:

x+ + x = |x|, x+ x = x,
0 x+ |x|, 0 x |x|. (8.18)

. + n=1 xn , -
 +  +
 
n=1 xn n=1 |xn |.

. + n=1 |xn | > 0.
Cauchy, n0 |xm+1 | + + |xn | < ,
,
|xm+1 + + xn | |xm+1 | + + |xn | <
12

2.4.4, 2.5.4 2.6.2.

321
 m, n n > m n0 .
, Cauchy, + n=1 xn .
, |xn | xn |xn | n,
+ +
+ n=1 |xn | n=1 xn n=1 |xn |
  +
, ,  + 
n=1 xn n=1 |xn |.

. + n=1 |xn | .

+ +8.7[] (8.18) xn
x +
n=1 n n=1 xn .
xn = xn + xn n, + n=1 xn
+ +
+ +
n=1 (xn xn ) = n=1 xn
+ +
n=1 xn = n=1 xn .

,
 +   + + +   + +   + 
    + 
n=1 xn = n=1 xn n=1 xn n=1 xn n=1 xn
+ + + +
= n=1 xn + n=1 xn = n=1 (xn + + xn ) = +n=1 |xn |,

|xn | = xn + + xn n.
  +
 + n=1 x n

n=1 |xn | |x1 + x2 | |x1 | + |x2 |,
|x1 + x2 + x3 | |x1 | + |x2 | + |x3 | ...,
.
(1)n1
8.3.2. + .
+  (1)n1  n+ 1
n=1 2

, n=1 n2
= n=1 n2 .
8.3.3. .
+  (1)n1 
, + (1)n1
,  =
+ 1 n=1 n n=1 n
n=1 n = +.

8.11. [] |xn | yn n +
n=1 yn ,

+
x , , . ,  +
x  +
n=1 n n=1 n n=1 yn .
( |xn | )
[] yn > 0 n yn , ,
+
. + n=1 yn , n=1 xn ,
, .
+
. [] + n=1 yn ,

 n=1 |xn | ,
+ x n  + xn  + |xn | + yn .
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
[] 8.7 .

8.7 , -
+n=1 |xn |
+
+
n=1 xn . ,
n=1 xn .
(2)n
8.3.4. + n=1 3n +2n
 (2)n 
 n n = 2n 1
= ( 32 )n 1+(2/3)n,
3 +2 3n +2n

n
| 3(2)
n +2n |/( 3 ) 1.
2 n

+ 2 n + (2)n
n=1 ( 3 ) , n=1 3n +2n , -
, .

322
 , -
, - : , ,
, . ,
( ),
. -
, 13
.
D ALEMBERT. xn = 0 n.
 
(i) lim  xxn+1  < 1, + xn .
n=1
 xn+1 
n
+
 
(ii) lim xn > 1, n=1 xn .
   
(iii) lim  xxn+1n
 1 lim  xn+1 , + xn .
xn n=1
 xn+1 
. (i) a lim  xn  < a < 1.
 
n0  xxn+1 n
 a n n0 . n n0 + 1
    xn +1 
|xn | =  xxn1n  xn1   0 |xn | aa a|xn | = ann0 |xn | = |xnn0 | an = can ,
xn2 xn
0
0 0 0 a 0

|x |
c = ann00 . 0 a < 1, + an , +
n=n0 +1 |xn |
+ n=n 0 +1
. n=1 |xn | .
 
(ii) n0  xxn+1
n
 1 n n0 . ,

|xn | |xn1 | |xn0 | > 0

n n0 + 1. xn 0 , , + n=1 xn .
+ 1 + 1  1/(n+1)   1/(n+1)2 
(iii) n=1 n n=1 n2  1/n  1  1/n2  1. H
.

CAUCHY. (i) lim n |xn | < 1, + n=1 xn
.

(ii) lim n |xn | > 1, +
n=1 xn .

(iii) lim |xn | = 1, +
n
n=1 xn .

. (i)
a lim n |xn | < a < 1.
n0 |xn | a , ,
n

|xn | an

n n0 . 0 a < 1, + an , + n=n0 |xn |
+ n=n 0
. n=1 |xn | .

(ii) n |xn | 1 , ,
|xn | 1

n. xn 0, + n=1 xn .
+ 1 + 1
(iii) n=1 n n=1 n2 n |1/n| 1 n |1/n2 | 1.
.

+ n=1 xn , -

 
limn+  xxn+1
n
, limn+ n |xn |.
, ( (iii) -
) lim = lim = lim.
13
, Dirichlet, Abel .

323
 an
8.3.5. + n=1 n .
. a = 0, , , . a = 0,
 an+1 /(n+1) 
  = |a| n |a|.
an /n n+1

, 0 < |a| < 1, , |a| > 1, .

.

n
|an /n| = |a|/ n n |a|.

, |a| < 1, , |a| > 1, .

|a| = 1, ,
a = 1 .
a = 1, + 1
n=1 n , .
(1)n
a = 1, + n , ( ).
+ an n=1
, n=1 n 1 a < 1
1 < a < 1.
an
8.3.6. + n=1 n2 .
. a = 0, , , . a = 0,
 an+1 /(n+1)2 
  = |a| n2 2 |a|.
an /n2 (n+1)

, 0 < |a| < 1, , |a| > 1 .

.

n
|an /n2 | = |a|/( n n)2 |a|.

, |a| < 1, , |a| > 1, .

|a| = 1, .
a = 1, + 1
n=1 n2 , .
(1)n
a = 1, + , , , .
+ an n=1 n2
n=1 n2 |a| 1 |a| > 1.
an
8.3.7. + n=0 n! .
a = 0, . a = 0,
 an+1 /(n+1)! 
  = |a| 0 < 1.
an /n! n+1

a.
.

n
|an /n!| = |a|/ n n!

14
n! +.
n

n ,

n! = 1 n2 ( n2 + 1) n ( n2 + 1) n ( n2 + 1)n/2 ( n+1
2 )
n/2 .

n ,

n! = 1 n1
2 2 n
n+1 n+1
2 n ( n+1
2 )
(n+1)/2 ( n+1 )n/2 .
2
14
2.4.4. .

324

n
n! ( n+1
2 )
1/2 n, n n! +. ,

n
|an /n!| 0 < 1,
an
+ n! .
+ an n=0
n=0 n! 8.5.2 ,
, 10.2.13 10.3.3. a = 1
e.

+ , ,
n=1 xn xn = 0 n.
. ,
, 15 -

. , , ,
.

8.3.2 .
+
8.7. n=1 xn -
.
+ (1)n1
8.3.8. , 8.3.3, n=1 n -
. , .
.
, - .
. -
,
() :
-
. 8.1 ,
, 0. , 0
. , + 1
n=1 n2
+ 1
n=1 n 0, . -

2
. : 1/n1/n 0. ,

.
8.7. ,
, .
-
: - .
-
. , , 0 ,
, . ,
(1)n1
. , + n=1 n + 1
n=1 n .
. , -
, .

.
15
8.3.25.

325
 .
( )
, ,
. , :
,
, ,
.
-
,
. , -
8.7 -
8.11 ,
.
- -
(, , - ). -
, , :
Dirichlet Abel , , .

ABEL. (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + +an

. n, m n > m
n n
k=m+1 ak bk = k=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1 .

.
n n n n
k=m+1 ak bk = k=m+1 (sk sk1 )bk = k=m+1 sk bk k=m+1 sk1 bk
n n1
= sk bk k=m sk bk+1
k=m+1
n n
= k=m+1 sk bk k=m+1 sk bk+1 + sn bn+1 sm bm+1
n
= k=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1 .

Abel
nk=m+1 ak bk nk=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1 . ak
sk bk
bk bk+1 . sn bn+1 sm bm+1 .

DIRICHLET. (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + + an

. (bn ) , bn 0 (sn ) ,

+
n=1 an bn .

. M |sn | M n. , (bn )
0, bn 0 n.
> 0. n0 bn 2M+1 n n0 .
Abel, n, m n > m n0
 n   n 
   
k=m+1 ak bk = k=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1
n
k=m+1 |sk |(bk bk+1 ) + |sn |bn+1 + |sm |bm+1

M nk=m+1 (bk bk+1 ) + M bn+1 + M bm+1
= M (bm+1 bn+1 ) + M bn+1 + M bm+1 = 2M bm+1 2M
2M +1 < .
+
Cauchy n=1 an bn .

326
 ABEL. (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + + a n -
+
.
+ (bn ) n=1 an ,
n=1 an bn .
. (bn ) , bn b.
Dirichlet, + n=1 an (bn b) .
, an bn = an (bn b) + an b n,
+ + + + +
n=1 an bn = n=1 an (bn b) + n=1 an b = n=1 an (bn b) + b n=1 an ,
+
n=1 an bn .

. (bn )
bn 0, +n=1 (1) n1 b = b b + b b + .
n 1 2 3 4
{
0, n
. nk=1 (1)k1 = , Dirichlet,
1, n

+n=1 (1)
n1 b .
n
(1)n1
8.3.9. + n=1 np , 0 < p 1.
.
(1)n1 (1)n1
+ n=1 n = 1 12 + 31 14 + +n=1

n
=
1 1
2
+ 1
3
1
4
+ . .

.
+ n! + 3n + n!
8.3.1. : + 3
n=1 n , 3n , n=1 n! , n=1 nn ,
+ 3n n! + en (n+1)! + 258(3n1) + (n!)2 + n=1 4n (n!)2 + 10n n!(3n)!
n=1 nn , n=1 nn , n=1 159(4n3) , n=1 (2n)! , n=1 (2n)! , n=1 (4n)! .
+ n+1 n + n1 2n
8.3.2. : + 3
n=1 n , ( 2n1 ) , n=1 ( n+1 ) ,
+ 3 n + 2n + + + n=1 n + n n n2
n=1 ( n 1) ,
n n n n2
n=1 n 2 , n=1 nn , n=1 ( n n+1)n , n=1 ( n n+1)n , n=1 e ( n+1 ) .

8.3.3. 12 + 13 + 212 + 312 + 213 + 313 + 214 + 314 + 21 + 1 +

1
23
+ 212 + 215 + 214 + 217 + 216 + , .
(1)n + (1)n
8.3.4. + n=2 n log n , n=2 n(log n)2 ,
+ (1)n(n1)/2 + (1)n(n1)/2 +
n=1 2n , n=1 n , n=1 (1)n1 n1 log(1 + n1 ), +n=1 (1)
n1 log(1 + 1 ),
n
+ log n + (1) n1 n 2 + +
n=1 (1)
n1
n , n=1 3n , n=1 (1) n1 1
sin n , n=1 (1) n1 n(1 cos n ).
1

+ (1)n1 + (1)n1
8.3.5. n=1 3n+(1)n n , n=1 3n+6(1)n n
.
( ) + n1 (
(1)n1
8.3.6. + n=1 (1)
n1 e (1 + 1 )n ,
n n=1 (1)
n
n 1), +
n=1 n n n
.

8.3.7. + n=1 1+xn |x| > 1.
1

+ +
8.3.8. [] + n=1 |xn | < +, n=1 xn cos(nx), n=1 xn sin(nx) -
.
[] 0 r < 1,
1r2
1 + 2 + n
n=1 r cos(nx) = 12r cos x+r2 , 2 + n 2r sin x
n=1 r sin(nx) = 12r cos x+r2 .

[] (xn ) +xn 0, + n=1 xn cos(nx) x =
m2 m Z n=1 xn sin(nx) x.
sin(nx) + log n + 1 sin(nx)
+ n=1 n log n , n=1 n sin(nx), n=1 (1 + 2 + + n ) n
1

x.

327
 n+1 1
8.3.9. 12 + 14 + + 2n1
1 2x dx = log n + 1 n. ,
1 + x ex , 21 34 65 2n1
2n n+1 n.
1
n1 135(2n1) .16
+ n=1 (1) 246(2n)
n 1
1 + 13 + + 2n1
1
1 + 1 2x1 dx = 1 + log 2n 1 n. ,
1 + x ex , 135(2n1)
246(2n) e 2n1 n.
1
n1 135(2n1) .
+ n=1 (1) 246(2n)
+ ( )2 + ( )3
n=1 (1)n1 135(2n1)
246(2n) , n=1 (1)n1 135(2n1)
246(2n)
;
+
+ n=1 an (bn ) ,
8.3.10.
n=1 an bn .

8.3.11. (bn ) bn 0. s = + n=1 (1)
n1 b
n
sn = b1 b2 + + (1)n1 bn . 0 (1)n (s sn ) bn+1 n.
+ an
8.3.12. 17 [] + an
n=1 np . n=1 np , p > p,
, p > p + 1.

[] + an
n=1 np0 . p1 , p2 p1 p0

p2 p2 p1 1 + an
n=1 np , p < p1 , ,
p1 < p < p2 , , p > p2 .

8.3.13. un u > 0 |x| < 1. + n=1 x
u1 ++un .

8.3.14. 18 (bn ) bn l. sn = nk=1 (1)k1 bk
n, lim sn lim sn = |l|.
 
8.3.15. m N m 2. xn = 0 n lim  xn+m  < 1.
+ 19
x n
n=1 xn .
+
8.3.16. yn > 0 n + n=1 xn n=1 yn
. lim xynn 0 lim xynn .

+
8.3.17. (bn ) bn > 0 n, bn 0
n1
n=1 (1) bn .
+
8.3.18. n=1 an (bn ) bn 0,
bn 0 n + n=1 an bn .
+ 2
8.3.19. + n=1 xn n=1 xn .

8.3.20. (an ) . , p an+p = an

n. , , (bn ) bn 0.

a1 + + ap = 0, + n=1 an bn .
+
a1 + + ap = 0, n=1 an bn + n=1 bn .
p q p q p q
1 2 + 3 4 + 5 6 + p = q.
p1 2q + 3r + p4 5q + 6r + p + r = q.
16
, 10.2.16 10.3.7, ,
Newton, 1 12 .

17
. + an
n=1 np
p. Dirichlet
. 10.1.25. , 10.1.26
, - Riemann.
18
.
19
m = 1 .

328
8.3.21. (xn ) yn = n(xn xn+1 ) n.
+
nxn a a = 0, + n=1 xn n=1 yn .
+ + +
n=1 xn n=1 yn , nxn 0 + n=1 xn = n=1 yn .
+ 1 +
n=1 n2 = 2 n=1 n(n+1)2 . 1

8.3.22. + n=1 xn > 0 n0
|xn1 + + xnk | < k () n1 , . . . , nk
n1 , . . . , n k n0 .
8.3.23. 20 p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+ +
[] n=1 |an |p < + + n=1 |bn | < +,
q
n=1 an bn -
Hlder ,
 +  ( + ) ( + )
  p 1/p q 1/q .
n=1 an bn n=1 |an | n=1 |bn |

s, t 0 0

+ s|an |p = t|bn |q
n an bn 0 n an bn 0 n.
n=1 |an |2 < + + |b
n=1 n |2 < +, 1 + 1 = 1,
2 2
Cauchy,
 +  ( + ) ( + )
  2 1/2 2 1/2 ,
n=1 an bn n=1 |an | n=1 |bn |
Hlder.
+
[] n=1 |an |p < + + n=1 |bn | < +, Minkowski
p

,
( + )
p 1/p
( + )
p 1/p +
( + )
p 1/p .
n=1 |an + bn | n=1 |an | n=1 |bn |
s, t 0 0
s|an | = t|bn | n an bn 0 n an bn 0 n.

8.3.24. wn > 0 n + n=1 wn = 1. f : I R
+
I an I n n=1 an wn ,
Jensen , ( + ) +
f n=1 an wn n=1 f (an )wn .
f I, .
, , f () I,
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . .
8.3.25. 2.7.13, , -
, .
+
+f : N N N. n=1 xn
8.3.26. 21
n=1 yn : y1 = x1 + + xf (1) yn = xf (n1)+1 + + xf (n)
n 2.
+
, + n=1 xn , n=1 yn .

+ f : N N f (k) = 2k
n1 .
n=1 (1)
M f (k+1)f + (k) M k xn 0.
, +n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
, , y1 = |x1 | + + |xf (1) | yn = |xf (n1)+1 | + + |xf (n) | n 2.

+
, yn 0 + n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
20
8.2.21.

21

+ . +
n=1 yn
+

+ n=1 x n n=1 x n

n=1 yn .

329

8.3.27. 22 [] (bn ) + n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +.
[] (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + + an .
+
+ n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +, bn 0 (sn ) , n=1 an bn
.
+ +
+ n=1 |bn bn+1 | < + n=1 an , n=1 an bn .

(bn )
[]
+ n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +.
 
8.3.28. 23 [] yn > 0 xn = 0 n  xxn+1 
yn+1 + +
n

yn . n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
(  )
[] xn = 0 n n  xxn+1
24  1 + 0.
n n
+ n=1 xn , ( > 1, , < 1.
 )
= 1 n log n  xxn+1 1+ 1 +
n log n 0.
n n
+ n=1 xn , > 1, , < 1.
n1 nn .
+ n=1 (1) en n!

+ |xn,m | yn
8.3.29. 25 n, m limm+ xn,m= xn n.
n=1 yn < +, m + n=1 xn,m ,
+
n=1 xn ,
, , ,
+ +
limm+ + n=1 xn,m = n=1 xn = n=1 limm+ xn,m .
+
8.3.30. + n=1 xn , n=1 nxn .

8.4 .
8.8. x : N N R. , (m, n)
x x(m, n). x
, , xm,n x(m, n).

xm,n = x(m, n).

x

(xm,n ) (xm,n )+
m,n=1 .

. -
, .
. ,
-
. ,
, .

8.9.
+
m,n=1 xm,n (m,n)NN xm,n .

(bn ) + n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +. []
22

Dedekind DuBois-Reymond. Dedekind

Dirichlet DuBois-Reymond
Abel.
23
8.2.13.
24
Gauss. d Alembert .
25
.

330
 8.10.
.
+ m N, ,
sm = n=1 xm,n , , , , +
m=1 sm ,
+ ( + )
m=1 n=1 xm,n .

a + ,
a + , ,
.

.
n N, , tn = + m=1 xm,n ,
+
, , , n=1 tn ,
+ ( + )
n=1 m=1 xm,n .

a + ,
a + , ,
.
.
k

+ k N uk = l=1 xkl+1,l , ,
, , k=1 uk ,
+ ( k )
k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l .

a + ,
a + , ,
.

, , ,
. x1,1 , x1,2 , x1,3 , . . .
. x2,1 , x2,2 , x2,3 , . . . ,
x3,1 , x3,2 , x3,3 , . . . .
x1,1
. xm,n m-
n- .
. , :
M ( N ) N ( M )
m=1 n=1 xm,n = n=1 m=1 xm,n

. , , .


1, m n = 1
8.4.1. xm,n = 1, m n = 1


0, m n = 1
1
1
+ . +( ) 0.

, + x = 1 x = 0 m 2, m=1 (
+
n=1 m,n )= 1.
x

n=1 1,n
+ n=1 m,n
+ + +
, m=1 xm,1 = 1 m=1 xm,n = 0 n 2, n=1 m=1 xm,n = 1.
k + ( k )
, l=1 xkl+1,l = 0 k, k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l = 0.
, .

- , xm,n 0
m, n.

331

, m, sm = + n=1 xm,n 0 +.
, sm m. , ,
+ m=1 sm 0 +.
m0 sm0 = +.
+ m=1 sm ,
,
[0, +]. , , k m0 s1 + + sk = +
sm0 . , +,
+

+ m=1 sm
+
( +.)
+
s , x
n=1 m,n 0 +.
m=1 m m=1 + ( + )
n=1 m=1 xm,n ,
0 +.

.
+ ( k
)
k k
x
l=1 kl+1,l , , 0, k=1 x
l=1 kl+1,l
0 +.
, , .
8.2.
8.2. xm,n 0 m, n.
+ ( + ) + ( + ) + ( k )
m=1 n=1 xm,n = n=1 m=1 xm,n = k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l .

, - ,
0 +.
. m
+ +
s1 + + sm = +
n=1 x1,n + + n=1 xm,n = n=1 (x1,n + + xm,n )
+ ( + )
n=1 m=1 xm,n .
+ ( + )
n=1 m=1 xm,n s1 +
+ sm m,
+ ( + ) + + ( + )
m=1 n=1 xm,n = m=1 sm n=1 m=1 xm,n .

+ ( + ) + ( + )
n=1 m=1 xm,n m=1 n=1 xm,n
( + ) + ( + )
+ m=1 n=1 x m,n = n=1 m=1 x m,n .
,
{
xm,nm+1 , m n
ym,n =
0, m > n
ym,n 0 m, n,
+ m,n=1 ym,n . ,
+ ( + ) + ( + )
m=1 n=1 ym,n = n=1 m=1 ym,n . (8.19)
, , (8.19)
+ ( + ) + ( + )
m=1 n=1 ym,n = m=1 n=1 xm,n

+ ( + ) ( k )
n=1 = +
m=1 ym,n k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l .
( + ) + ( k )
(8.19) +
m=1 n=1 xm,n = k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l .

332
 +
8.11. m,n=1 xm,n
+ ( + ) + ( + ) + ( k )
m=1 n=1 |xm,n | = n=1 m=1 |xm,n | = k=1 l=1 |xkl+1,l | < +.

+ xm,n -
+ ( +
m,n=1 )
, m=1 |xm,n | ,
+ ( + ) + ( k ) n=1
n=1 m=1 |xm,n | k=1 l=1 |xkl+1,l | ( +),
, 8.2, .

8.3. + m,n=1 xm,n ,
+ ( + ) + ( + ) + ( k )
m=1 n=1 xm,n = n=1 m=1 xm,n = k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l

.
( + )
. + |xm,n | < + , , m
+ m=1 +
n=1 +
n=1 |xm,n | < +, n=1 xm,n sm = n=1 xm,n
. , n + m=1 xm,n tn =
+
m=1 xm,n
.  
, m |sm | =  + xm,n  + |xm,n | , , +m=1 |sm |
+ ( + ) +
n=1 n=1
m=1 n=1 |xm,n | < +. m=1 sm
+ ( + )
s = + m=1 sm = m=1 n=1 xm,n

.
, n +
n=1 tn
+ ( + )
t = +n=1 tn = n=1 m=1 xm,n

.

+ ( + s = t. ) + ( + )
> 0. m=1 n=1 |xm,n | < + n=1 m=1 |xm,n | < +, -
m0 , n0 , ,
+ ( + ) + ( + )
m=m0 +1 n=1 |xm,n | < 4 , n=n0 +1 m=1 |xm,n | < 4 . (8.20)

0 ( n0 ) + ( + ) m0 ( n0 )
s m m=1 n=1 xm,n = m=1 n=1 xm,n m=1 n=1 xm,n
0 ( + ) + ( + )
= m m=1 n=1 xm,n + m=m0 +1 n=1 xm,n
0 ( n0 )
m m=1 n=1 xm,n
0 ( + n0 ) + ( + )
= m m=1 n=1 xm,n n=1 xm,n + m=m0 +1 n=1 xm,n
0 ( + ) + ( + )
= m m=1 n=n0 +1 xm,n + m=m0 +1 n=1 xm,n
( m0 ) + ( + )
= +n=n0 +1 m=1 xm,n + m=m0 +1 n=1 xm,n ,

(8.20)
 ( ) ( m0 ) + ( + )
s m0 n0 xm,n  +
m=1 n=1 n=n0 +1 m=1 |xm,n | + m=m0 +1 n=1 |xm,n |
( + ) + ( + )
+n=n0 +1 m=1 |xm,n | + m=m0 +1 n=1 |xm,n | (8.21)

< 4 + 4 = 2 .

 ( m0 )
t n0 < .
n=1 m=1 xm,n 2 (8.22)

333

m0 ( n0 ) n0 ( m0 )
m=1 n=1 xm,n = n=1 m=1 xm,n . (8.23)

(8.21), (8.22) (8.23)

 0 ( n0 )  n0 ( m0 )
|s t| s m m=1
 
n=1 xm,n + t n=1 m=1 xm,n
<
2 +
2 = .

|s t| < > 0, s = t. {
xm,nm+1 , m n
, 8.2, ym,n =
0, m > n
+ ( + )
, m=1 |ym,n | =
+ ( + ) n=1
|xm,n | < +.
m=1
n=1
+m,n=1 ym,n . ,
+ ( + ) + ( + )
m=1 n=1 ym,n = n=1 m=1 ym,n .

8.2,
+ ( + ) + ( + )
m=1 n=1 ym,n = m=1 n=1 xm,n

+ ( + ) + ( k )
n=1 m=1 ym,n = k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l .
+ ( + ) + ( k )
m=1 n=1 xm,n = k=1 l=1 xkl+1,l .

.

8.4.1. 0 xm,n ym,n m, n. + m,n=1 ym,n -
(, , ) ,
+
m,n=1 xm,n . sx -
+
m,n=1 xm,n sy
+
m,n=1 ym,n , sx sy .
+ 1
8.4.2. m,n=1 (m+n)! .
+ 1
8.4.3. m,n=1 mp nq p, q > 1.
+ 1
8.4.4. m,n=1 (m+n)p p > 2.

8.4.5.

+ 1
m,n=1 xm,n , xm,n = m+1 m n
( m+1 ) m+2
1
( m+1 n
m+2 ) m, n.
+ xk
8.4.6. k=1 1+x2k

+ xk + (1)k1 x2k1
k=1 1+x2k = k=1 1x2k1
x (1, 1).
+ mn , , x |x|
8.4.7. m,n=1 mx < 1,
+ xm + xn
m=1 m 1xm = n=1 (1xn )2 .

+ +
m=1 bm x x (R, R).
n m
+f (x) =n n=1
8.4.8. a+
n x g(x) =
n=1 an g(x ) = m=1 bm f (x ) x (R1 , R1 ), R1 = min{R, 1}.
m

334
8.5 Cauchy .
+ +

+ 8.12. m=0 a m n=0 bn .

k=0 ck : c0 = a0 b0 , c1 = a1 b0 + a0 b1 , c2 = a2 b0 + a1 b1 + a0 b2 , ,
k
ck = l=0 akl bl = ak b0 + ak1 b1 + + a1 bk1 + a0 bk k 0.

+ + ( k )
k=0 ck = k=0 l=0 akl bl
+ +
o Cauchy m=0 am n=0 bn .

,
+ a
m=0 m x m . 10.2. -
+
+ m
m=0 am x
n
n=0 bn x ,
x, + k
k=0 ck x ,
cn .
26
+ +
+8.4. m=0 am n=0 bn ,
Cauchy k=0 ck
+ + +
k=0 ck = m=0 am n=0 bn .

. + m,n=0 xm,n , xm,n = am bn m, n 0.

+ ( + ) + ( + ) + +
m=0 n=0 |xm,n | = m=0 |am | n=0 |bn | = m=0 |am | n=0 |bn | < +.

8.3
+ ( k ) + ( + )
k=0 l=0 xkl,l = m=0 n=0 xm,n .

+ + ( k ) + +
k=0 ck = k=0 l=0 akl bl = m=0 am n=0 bn .

, 8.2 +m,n=0 |xm,n | -
, :
+ +  k  + ( k ) + +
 
k=0 |ck | = k=0 l=0 akl bl k=0 l=0 |akl ||bl | = m=0 |am | n=0 |bn |
< +,
+
k=0 ck .

8.5.1. Cauchy + n
n=0 a .
1 1 = 1
ak 1 + ak1 a + + aak1 + 1ak = (k + 1)ak

k. Cauchy + n
n=0 a
+ k
k=0 (k + 1)a .
+ n +
|a| < 1, n=0 a , , k=0 (k + 1)a k

+ + m + n
k
k=0 (k + 1)a = m=0 a
1
n=0 a = (1a)2 |a| < 1.
26 +
+
8.5.4 , ,
+ k=0 ck =
+ +
m=0 am n=0 b n , , : m=0 am , n=0 bn
, , .
, , , Cauchy .
10.2.21.

335
 am + bn
8.5.2. + m=0 m! n=0 n!
a, b.
1 1 = 1 , Newton,
ak ak1 b1 a1 bk1 k (a+b)k
k! 1 + (k1)! 1! + + 1! (k1)! + 1 bk! = k!

+ am + bn + (a+b)k
k. Cauchy m=0 m! n=0 n! k=0 k! ,
+ (a+b)k + am + bn
k=0 k! = m=0 m! n=0 n! .

-
. 8.5.3. 10.2.13
10.3.3.

.
+ (k+1)(k+2) k
8.5.1. k=0 2 a = 1
(1a)3
a (1, 1).
+ (1)n
8.5.2. x1 + + 1
k=1 x(x+1)(x+k) = e n=0 n!(x+n) x = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
5.2.14.
xn
8.5.3. x f (x) = + n=0 n! . 8.5.2 a, b
f (a + b) = f (a)f (b). , f (0) = 1 f (1) = e.
f : R R 0.

+ 4.2.12[], f (x) = ex x,
xn x
n=0 n! = e x. 10.2.13 10.3.3.
+ +
8.5.4. Mertens: + m=0 am n=0 bn -

+
, Cauchy k=0 ck
+ +
k=0 ck = m=0 am n=0 bn .
+ (1)n1
n=1 n . Cauchy
.
(1)n1
+ n=1 n . Cauchy
+
k=1 (1)k1 zk , zk = k+1 2
(1 + 12 + + k1 ) k,
.
(1)n1
+ n=1 n + 1
m=0 4m ,
Mertens, Cauchy .

8.6 .
8.13. -- : N N.
(1), (2), (3), . . . ,
, .
, (xn ). xn = x(n) (xn ) -

+
(xn ). , +n=1 xn n=1 xn .

n
sn = k=1 xk sn = nk=1 xk ,

+
n, + n=1 xn n=1 xn ,

sn sn . sn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
sn x(1) , x(2) , . . . , x(n) . , (, ,

336
 +
) limn+ sn = limn+ sn , , + n=1 xn = n=1 xn .

.
(1)n1
8.6.1. + n=1 n = 1 12 + 13 41 + .
, 1 + 31 12 + 15 + 17 14 + 19 + 11
1
16 + .
,
.
sn ,
( ) ( ) ( 1 )
s3n = 1 + 13 21 + 15 + 17 14 + + 4n3 1
+ 4n1 2n1
.

s3(n+1) s3n = 1
4n+1 + 1
4n+3 1
2n+2 >0
, , (s3n ) . ,
( ) ( 1 )
s3n = 1 + 13 21 15 17 2n2 4n3
1
1
4n1 1
2n <1+ 1
3 = 43 ,

. (s3n ) , -
, s. ,

s3n+1 = s3n + 1
4n+1 s + 0 = s s3n+2 = s3n + 1
4n+1 + 1
4n+3 s + 0 + 0 = s.

sn s , ,

1+ 1
3 1
2 + 1
5 + 1
7 1
4 + 1
9 + 1
11 1
6 + = s.

( ) (1 )
s3n 1 + 1
3 1
2 + 5 + 1
7 1
4 = 5
6 + 13
140
n 2, s 5
6 + 13
140 .
, ,
t=1 1
2 + 1
3 1
4 +
. tn ,
( ) ( 1 )
t2n1 = 1 12 + 2n2
1 1
+ 2n1 = 1 12 + 13 41 51 2n2 1
2n1
1 1
2 + 1
3 = 5
6

n. t 5
, , t < s.
6


8.5. + n=1 xn
.
+
+ + +
x
n=1 n x
n=1 n , , x
n=1 n = n=1 xn .

. : N N -- -
. , xn = x(n) n.
{
xn = x(m) = xm , n = (m)
xm,n =
0, n = (m)
+
m, n. m,n=1 xm,n , ,
+ ( + ) +
n=1 m=1 |xm,n | = n=1 |xn | < +.

8.3
+ ( + ) + ( + )
m=1 n=1 xm,n = n=1 m=1 xm,n ,

337

+
+m=1 xm = n=1 xn .
+

+: S =+ n=1 |xn |, 0 S < +.

n=1 xn n=1 xn = s. sn = nk=1 xk ,
sn s.
nk=1 |xk | S n, |x1 |, . . . , |xn |,
|x |, . . . , |x(n) |, |x1 |, |x2 |, . . . ( ).
+ (1)
n=1 |xn | . n

+ sn = k=1 xk sn s,

n=1 xn = s, .
> 0. + n=1 |xn | sn s, n0
+
n=n0 +1 |xn | < 2 |sn s| < 2 n n0 .

(8.24)

n1 (1), . . . , (n1 ) 1, 2, . . . , n0 .
n1 n0 . n n1 ( n0 ), sn sn
x1 , . . . , xn0 , sn sn . -
, n n1 , (8.24)

|sn sn | +
n=n0 +1 |xn | < 2 .

(8.24) n n1

|sn s| |sn sn | + |sn s| <

2 +
2 = .

sn s.

8.6.1
. Riemann .
. Riemann
6.3!

RIEMANN. + n=1 xn .
+
a, b R a b n=1 xn , sn = x1 + + xn
,

lim sn = a, lim sn = b.
+ +
. + n=1 xn n=1 |xn | = +. s = n=1 xn .
sn = x1 + + xn Sn = |x1 | + + |xn |.
xn y1 0, y2 0,
y3 0 . , xn z1
< 0, z2 < 0, z3 < 0
.
+ +
n=1 yn = +, n=1 zn = .
tn = y1 + + yn un = z1 + + zn .
k|
sn +S 2
n
= nk=1 xk +|x 2 -
x1 , . . . , xn , , 2 tn . sn +S
sn +Sn n
s+ 2 = +, tn +.
+ 2
n=1 yn = +.

, sn S n
= k=1 xk |x k|
x1 , . . . , xn ,
2 2 +
sn S 2
n
u n . sn Sn
2 s 2 = , un . n=1 zn = .
(an ), (bn )

an a, bn b

338
 . an = a, a R, an = n, a = , an = n, a = +.
+ b. an bn .

1. n=1 yn = +, n1 y1 + + yn1 > b1 n1
, y1 + + yn1 1 b1 . ,

b1 < y1 + + yn1 b1 + yn1 .

+
n=1 zn = , n1 z1 + + zn1 < a1 (y1 + + yn1 )
n1 , z1 + + zn1 1 a1 (y1 + + yn1 ).
,
a1 + zn1 y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 < a1 .
+
2. n=n1 +1 yn = +, n2 > n1 yn1 +1 + + yn2 > b2 (y1 +
+ yn1 + z1 + + zn1 ) n2 ,
yn1 +1 + + yn2 1 b2 (y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 ). ,

b2 < y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 b2 + yn2 .

+ n=n1 +1 zn = , n2 > n1 zn1 +1 + +zn2 < a1 (y1 + +yn1 +
z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 ) n2 ,
zn1 +1 + + zn2 1 a1 (y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 ).
,

a2 + zn2 y1 + + yn1 + z1 + + zn1 + yn1 +1 + + yn2 + zn1 +1 + + zn2 < a2 .

, y1 , . . . , yn1 , z1 , . . . , zn1 , yn1 +1 , . . . , yn2 ,

zn1 +1 , . . . , zn2 , . . . , ,
xn . , , sn .
, b1 < sn1 b1 + yn1 , a1 + zn1
sn1 +n1 < a1 , b2 < sn1 +n1 +n2 b2 + yn2 , a2 + zn2 sn1 +n1 +n2 +n2 < a2 , ,

bk < sn1 +n1 ++nk bk + ynk , ak + znk sn1 +n1 ++nk +nk < ak . (8.25)
+
n=1 xn , xn 0 , , (yn ) (zn )
(xn ), ynk 0 znk 0. (8.25)

sn1 +n1 ++nk +nk a, sn1 +n1 ++nk b

, ,
lim sn a, b lim sn . (8.26)
n n1 k n1 + n1 + + nk n <
n1 + n1 + + nk + nk n1 + n1 + + nk + nk n < n1 + n1 + + nk + nk + nk+1 .
,

sn1 +n1 ++nk +nk sn sn1 +n1 ++nk

sn1 +n1 ++nk +nk sn sn1 +n1 ++nk +nk +nk+1 ,

(8.25) , ,

ak + znk sn bk + ynk ak + znk sn bk+1 + ynk+1 .

a = limk+ (ak + znk ) lim sn , lim sn limk+ (bk + ynk ) = b. (8.27)

(8.26) (8.27) lim sn = a lim sn = b.

339
 .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8.6.1. 1 + 2 + 23
+ 22
+ 26
+ 25
+ 24
+ 210
+ 29
+ 28
+
1
27
+ 2115 + 2114 + 2113 + 2112 + 2111 + .

8.6.2. 1 12 + 13 14 + 15 61 + .
1 21 + 13 14 + 15 + 17 16 + 19 + 11
1 1
+ 13 1
+ 15 18 + 17
1 1
+ 19 1
+ 21 1
+ 23 1
+ 25 1
+ 27 1
+ 29 1
+ 31 10
1
+ .
+.

8.6.3. + n=1 xn . s
(n ) n = 1 n + n=1 n xn = s.
(1)n1
8.6.4. 0 < p < +. + n=1 n
:
(i)
,
(ii) n kn ln
( kn + ln = n), klnn p.
1
2 log(4p).

8.6.5. 27 fk : N N k. k fk -

-, fk (N) fk (N) = k, k k = k + k=1 fk (N) = N.
+
n=1 xn :

(i) k + m=1 xfk (m) .
+
(ii) sk = m=1 xfk (m) , + k=1 sk .
+ +
(iii) s = n=1 xn , k=1 sk = s. ,
+ ( + ) +
k=1 m=1 xfk (m) = n=1 xn .

27
.

340
 .
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 8. Addison-Wesley.
Bartle, R. (1967) The Elements of Real Analysis, Ch VII. Wiley.
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 3, 9. Wiley.
Beals, R. (2004) Analysis, an Introduction, Ch 4. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 5, 11. Springer.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 10. Springer.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 2. Dover.
Bromwich, T. (1991) An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series, Ch I-V. American Math.
Society & Chelsea.
Buck, R. & Buck, E. (2003) Advanced Calculus, Ch 5. Waveland Press.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch VIII. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 7. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 3. Springer.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 9. Springer.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 3. Harper and Row.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 3. Wiley.
Goursat, E. (2006) A Course in Mathematical Analysis, Vol I, Ch VIII. Dover.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap III. Springer.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch IV, VIII. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Knopp, K. (1990) Theory and Application of Infinite Series, Ch I-IV, VIII-X. Dover.
Knopp, K. (1956) Infinite Sequences and Series, Ch I-III, V. Dover.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 4. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 12. American Math. Society & Chelsea.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 11. Mir Publishers.
Osgood, W. (1897) Introduction to Infinite Series, Ch I. Harvard University.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 8. Springer.
Rosenlicht, M. (1986) Introduction to Analysis, Ch VII. Dover.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 2. Springer.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 3. McGraw-Hill.
Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch IV. Pergammon Press.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 23. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 7. Pearson.
Whittaker, E. & Watson, G. (1996) A Course of Modern Analysis, Ch II. Cambridge Univ. Press.

.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 3-4. Springer.
Gleason, A. (1991) Fundamentals of Abstract Analysis, Ch 13. Taylor and Francis.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch VII. Dover.
Hardy, G., Littlewood, J. & Polya, G. (1952) Inequalities, Ch V. Cambridge Univ. Press.

341
342
 9

9.1 .
f : A R fn : A R n. fn
(fn ).
9.1. (fn ) f A
.. ..
fn f A limn+ fn = f A

x A (fn (x)) f (x),

..
x A fn (x) f (x). , fn f A x A > 0
n0 |fn (x) f (x)| n n0 .
, , (fn ) f ,
A, (fn )
f A, x A , x,
fn (x) f (x) ( n +). (fn )
f . f (fn )
f A. . x A
, x, (fn (x)) . ,
f (x) = limn+ fn (x). x A x A
f (x), f : A R. ,
f fn (x) f (x) x A , ,
(fn ) f A.
,
.
: f fn n
n.
9.1.1. f, fn : A R fn (x) = f (x) + n1 x A.
..
fn (x) = f (x) + n1 f (x) x A. fn f A.
9.1.2. fn : [0, ) R fn (x) = x
1+nx x 0.
..
fn (0) = 0 0. x > 0, fn (x) = x
1+nx 0. fn 0 [0, ), 0
0.
{
1/(nx), 1/n < x 1
9.1.3. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) =
nx, 0 x 1/n
, fn (0) = 0 0. 0 < x 1, n < x, fn (x) =
1
..
nx , , fn (x) 0. fn 0 [0, 1].
1

343
 9.1.4. fn : (0, 1] R fn (x) = 1
1+nx x (0, 1].
..
x (0, 1] fn (x) 0. , fn 0 (0, 1].

9.1.5. fn : R R fn (x) = x
n x.
..
fn (x) 0 x. fn 0 R.

9.1.6. fn : (1, +) R fn (x) = x

x+n x > 1.
..
fn (x) 0 x > 1. fn 0 (1, +).

9.1.7. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = n

x+n2
x 0.
..
fn (x) 0 x 0 , , fn 0 [0, +).

9.1.8. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = xn x [0, 1].

..
fn (1) = 1 1 , 0 x < 1, fn (x) { = x 0. fn f [0, 1],
n

0, 0 x < 1
f : [0, 1] R f (x) =
1, x = 1
{
1/(nx2 ), 1/n < x 1
9.1.9. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) =
n2 x, 0 x 1/n
fn (0) = 0 0. , 0 < x 1, n < x,
1
..
fn (x) = nx1 2 , , fn (x) 0. fn 0 [0, 1].
{
1/x, 1/n < x 1
9.1.10. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) =
n2 x, 0 x 1/n
fn (0) = 0 0. 0 < x 1, n1 < x, fn (x) = x1
..
{fn (x) x . fn f [0, 1], f : [0, 1] R
1
, ,
1/x, 0 < x 1
f (x) =
0, x = 0

9.1.11. fn : [0, 2] R fn (x) = sin(nx)n x [0, 2].

..
x [0, 2] |fn (x)| n n, fn (x) 0. fn 0 [0, 2].
1

9.1.12. fn : [0, 2] R fn (x) = cos(nx) x [0, 2].

fn () = (1)n , (fn ()) . (fn ) -
[0, 2].
.. ..
9.1. , fn f gn g A. :
..
[] fn + gn f + g A.
..
[] fn gn f g A.
fn .. f
[] g(x), gn (x) = 0 x A n, gn g A.

. [] x A fn (x) f (x) gn (x) g(x), fn (x) + gn (x)

..
f (x) + g(x). fn + gn f + g A.
[], [] .

.
..
E 1: fn f A fn A. f
;
: .
9.1.8, fn 1 f 1.

344
 ..
E 2: fn f [a, b] fn [a, b].
b b
f [a, b] , , a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx ;
: . 1 1
1
9.1.9 0 fn (x) dx = 23 n1 32 . , 0 f (x) dx = 0 0 = 0.
, 9.1.10 fn , , [0, 1]
f [0, 1] [0, 1].
..
E 3: fn f A n fn A.
..
f A , , fn f A ;
: .
..
9.1.2, fn 0 [0, +). H 0 .
fn (x) = (1+nx)
1
2 x [0, +), fn (0) = 1 1 , x > 0, fn (x) 0.
{
.. 0, x > 0
, fn g [0, +), g : [0, +) R g(x) =
1, x = 0
..
fn 0 = 0 [0, +).
9.1.8, fn 1 f .
9.1.11 fn (x) = cos(nx) x [0, 2] ,
9.1.12, (fn ) [0, 2].

,
.
, , .

.
nx n x 2
9.1.1. fn (x) = 1+n 2 x2 gn (x) = 1+n2 x2 x. (fn ), (gn ) -
f , g R. f , g.

9.1.2. fn (x) = nx [ nx ] x = 0. (fn ) f

R \ {0}. f .
..
9.1.3. fn (x) = nx [ nx ] x > 0. fn 0 (0, +).
{
min{nx, 1}, x 0
9.1.4. fn (x) = n. (fn )
max{nx, 1}, x 0
f R. f .
{
1, x [a, b] Q
9.1.5. 1 f : [a, b] R f (x) = -
0, x [a, b] \ Q
. [a, b]Q = {rn{ | n N} [a, b]Q
1, x {r1 , . . . , rn }
n fn : [a, b] R fn (x) =
0, x [a, b] \ {r1 , . . . , rn }
..
fn f [a, b]. fn [a, b] ;

9.2 .
9.2. f, g : A R. f , g A,
f gA ,

f gA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}.

1
6.2.2.

345
 {|f (x) g(x)| | x A} -. ,
f gA , , , f gA = +. ,
f gA 0 |f (x) g(x)| 0 x A.

0 f gA +.

9.2.1. f, g : [0, 1] R f (x) = x g(x) = x2 x [0, 1].

|f (x) g(x)| = |x x2 | = x x2 x [0, 1]
x x2 [0, 1] 41 . f g[0,1] = sup{x x2 | x [0, 1]} = 41 .
x2
9.2.2. f, g : R R f (x) = 1+x2
g(x) = 0 x,
x2
|f (x) g(x)| = 1+x2
x.
x2 2
, 1+x2
< 1 x, 1 { 1+x
x
2 | x R}.
x2 x2
limx 1+x2
= 1, , u < 1, 1+x2
> u .
x2
u < 1 { 1+x 2 | x R}.
x2
f gR = sup{ 1+x 2 | x R} = 1.

9.2.3. f, g : R R f (x) = x g(x) = 1 x

|f (x) g(x)| = |x 1| x.
limx |x 1| = +, , u, |x 1| > u .
u {|x 1| | x R}.
f gR = sup{|x 1| | x R} = +.

.
1: xn x , ,
|xn x| < |xn x| .
, xn x. , > 0 n0 |xn x| <
n n0 . > 0 n0 |xn x| n n0 .
, > 0 n0 |xn x| n n0 .
> 0 n0 |xn x| 2 n n0 .
> 0 n0 |xn x| < n n0 , , xn x.
2: sup B u b u b B.2
, sup B u. u B, b u
b B. , b u b B. u
B , sup B B, sup B u.
f : A R
0 : A R,

f A = sup{|f (x)| | x A}.

9.2. f, g : A R R. :
[] f A = 0 f A.
[] f + gA f A + gA .
[] f A = ||f A .
[] f gA f A gA .

. [] f = 0 A, |f (x)| = 0 x A, f A = 0.
, f A = 0. |f (x)| 0 , , f (x) = 0 x A.
2
1.2.11.

346
[] x A

|f (x) + g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| f A + gA .

f + gA f A + gA .
[] = 0, , [], f A = ||f A 0. ,
, = 0.
x A
|f (x)| = |||f (x)| ||f A .
f A ||f A .
, x A

|f (x)| = || |f (x)|
1
|| f A .
1

f A ||1
f A , , ||f A f A .
f A ||f A ||f A f A f A = ||f A .
[] x A

|f (x)g(x)| = |f (x)||g(x)| f A gA .

f gA f A gA .

9.2 f gA = 0 f, g -
A. ,

f gA f hA + h gA , f gA = ||f gA

f, g, h : A R, R.

9.3. fn : A R n f : A R. (fn ) f


fn f A lim fn = f A
n+

fn f A 0. , fn f A > 0 n0
sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x A} = fn f A n n0 .

sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x A} |fn (x)

f (x)| x A, : fn f A
> 0 n0 |fn (x) f (x)| x A n n0 .
-

. (i) fn f A > 0 n0 ,
, |fn (x) f (x)| x A n n0 .
..
(ii) fn f A > 0 x A n0 ,
x, |fn (x) f (x)| n n0 .
n0 > 0 -
x A : > 0 , , n0 x A. ,
, > 0, x A -
n0 .

9.2.4. 9.1.4, fn (x) = 1

1+nx x (0, 1]
..
fn 0 (0, 1]. fn 0 (0, 1].

( ) fn 0 (0, 1]. 0 < < 1.

347
n0 1+nx 1
= | 1+nx
1
0| x (0, 1] n n0 .
1+n0 x x (0, 1] , , 1 = limx0+ 1+n0 x ,
1 1

.
, fn 0(0,1] = fn (0,1] .
x (0, 1] | 1+nx 1
| = 1+nx1
< 1 , , 1
{| 1+nx | | x (0, 1]}. limx0+ 1+nx = 1, u < 1 1+nx
1 1 1
>u
0. u < 1 {| 1+nx | | x (0, 1]}.
1

fn (0,1] = sup{| 1+nx1

| | x (0, 1]} = 1 , , fn (0,1] 0.
f gA |f (x) g(x)| x A
g(x) f (x) g(x)+ x A
f g g + , ,
g

2. fn f A > 0 fn
n 2
f . 34.

..
9.2.5. 9.1.4 9.2.4, fn 0 (0, 1]. -
fn , 35, , > 0, -
0 < < 1,

2 0. fn 0
(0, 1].
.

9.1.1. fn f A = 1
n n. fn f A.

9.1.2. fn [0,+) = 1
n n. fn 0 [0, +).

9.1.3. fn [0,1] = 1 n. fn 0 [0, 1].

9.1.4. fn (0,1] = 1 n. fn 0 (0, 1].

9.1.5. fn R = + n. fn 0 R.

9.1.6. fn (1,+) = 1 n. fn 0 (1, +).

9.1.7. fn [0,+) = 1
n n. fn 0 [0, +).

9.1.8. fn f [0,1] = 1 n. fn f [0, 1].

348

9.1.9. fn [0,1] = n n. fn
0 [0, 1].

9.1.10. fn [0,1] = n n. fn
0 [0, 1].

9.1.11. fn [0,2] = 1
n n. fn 0 [0, 2].
9.1.12. 9.3 , (fn ) -
R.
..
9.3. fn f A, fn f A. ,
.

. x A |fn (x) f (x)| fn f A n. x A

fn (x) f (x).

9.3, -
, , (fn ) A.
..
f fn f A. , x A
(fn (x)). , , x A ,
, (fn (x)), f (x)

f A. fn f A,
fn f A n.

9.4. fn : A R n. (fn )
A M fn A M n , ,
M |fn (x)| M x A n.

9.4. , fn f gn g A.

[] B A, fn f B.

[] fn + gn f + g A.

[] (fn ), (gn ) A, fn gn f g A.
( )
[] (fn ), g1n A, fgnn fg A.

. []

fn f B = sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x B} sup{|fn (x) f (x)| | x A} = fn f A

, , fn f B 0.
[] 9.2, n

(fn + gn ) (f + g)A ||fn f A + ||gn gA .

(fn + gn ) (f + g)A 0.
[] M fn A , gn A M n. |fn (x)|, |gn (x)| M
x A n. 9.3 fn (x) f (x) gn (x) g(x)
, , |f (x)|, |g(x)| M x A. f A , gA M .
, n fn gn f g = (fn f )(gn g) + f (gn g) + g(fn f ) ,
9.2,

fn gn f gA fn f A gn gA + f A gn gA + gA fn f A
fn f A gn gA + M gn gA + M fn f A .

, , fn gn f gA 0.
 
[] []. . M  gn1(x)  M

349
 n x A. , , gn (x) = 0 n x A ,
, fgnn : A R. , |gn (x)| M 1
> 0
n x A gn (x) g(x) x A, |g(x)| M 1
>0
f
x A. g : A R.

CAUCHY. (fn ) A
> 0 n0 fn fm A n, m n0 .

. fn f A. > 0. n0

fn f A
2 n n0 .

, ( )

fm f A
2 m n0 .

fn fm A fn f A + fm f A
2 +
2 = n, m n0 .

, > 0 n0 fn fm A
n, m n0 .
x A. > 0 n0

|fn (x) fm (x)| fn fm A n, m n0 .

(fn (x)) Cauchy , ,

.
f (x) = limn+ fn (x) x A, f : A R
..
: fn f A.
> 0 n0

|fn (x) fm (x)| x A n, m n0 . (9.1)

limm+ (9.1), > 0 n0

|fn (x) f (x)| x A n n0 .

> 0 n0

fn f A n n0 .

fn f A.

9.1 -
.

9.1. fn f A A. fn , f
. , fn A, f A.
. > 0. n0 fn f A < 3 n n0 ,
, fn0 f A < 3 . fn0 , > 0
|fn0 (x) fn0 ()| < 3 x A |x | < . x A |x | <

|f (x) f ()| |f (x) fn0 (x)| + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + |fn0 () f ()|
fn0 f A + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + fn0 f A <
3 +
3 +
3 = .
f .

350
 9.2.6. 9.1.8, fn f [0,1] ,

fn f [0, 1], fn 1 f
1.

9.2. fn f [a, b]. fn [a, b], f
[a, b]
b b
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.
. > 0.
= 1+2(ba)

> 0, n0 fn f [a,b] n n0
, ,
fn0 f [a,b] . (9.2)
fn0 [a, b], = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]
(fn0 ; a, b; ) (fn0 ; a, b; ) < . (9.3)
uk lk supremum infimum f [xk1 , xk ] uk lk -
fn0 .
x [xk1 , xk ] , (9.2),
f (x) |f (x) fn0 (x)| + fn0 (x) fn0 f [a,b] + uk + uk ,
uk + uk . ,
f (x) |f (x) fn0 (x)| + fn0 (x) fn0 f [a,b] + lk + lk
, , lk + lk .
uk lk uk lk + 2 . (9.4)
(9.3) (9.4)
n
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
k=1
n
n
k=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) +
k=1 2 (xk xk1 )
= (fn0 ; a, b; ) (fn0 ; a, b; ) + 2 (b a)
< (1 + 2(b a)) = .
f [a, b].
n
b   
 fn (x) dx b f (x) dx =  b (fn (x) f (x)) dx
a a a
b
a |fn (x) f (x)| dx fn f [a,b] (b a)
b b 
, ,  a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx 0.
9.2
b b
limn+ a fn (x) dx = a limn+ fn (x) dx.
b
limn+ a -
[a, b].
, 9.2, f -
[a, b]. , fn [a, b], ,
9.1, f [a, b]. f
[a, b].
, b 9.2 (
a f (x) dx)
b b
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.

351
 1 1
9.2.7. 9.1.9 0 fn (x) dx 3
2 0 f (x) dx = 0. ,

fn f [0,1] , fn f [0, 1].
9.1.11 9.1.12,

. , fn f A fn f A. ,
, .
9.3. I g : I R fn : I R

fn I. fn g I (fn ()) I,
(fn ) f I
I, f I f (x) = g(x) x I.
.
fn () l R. (9.5)

fn I fn g I, g I. g
I,
x
f (x) = g(t) dt + l x I. (9.6)
,
x
fn (x) = fn (t) dt + fn () x I n. (9.7)

fn g I , , [, x] [x, ],
x x
fn (t) dt g(t) dt x I. (9.8)
..
(9.5) (9.8) fn (x) f (x) x I. fn f I.
(9.6) g I, f (x) = g(x) x I.
, (fn ) f [a, b] I.
(9.6) (9.7) n x [a, b]

|fn (x) f (x)| |(fn (x) f (x)) (fn (a) f (a))| + |fn (a) f (a)|
x x
= | a fn (t) dt a g(t) dt| + |fn (a) f (a)|
x
a |fn (t) g(t)| dt + |fn (a) f (a)|
fn g[a,x] (x a) + |fn (a) f (a)|
fn gI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.
n
fn f [a,b] fn gI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.
fn f [a,b] 0, (fn ) f [a, b].

9.3 , , -
:
( )
limn+ fn = limn+ fn limn+ dx d d
fn (x) = dx limn+ fn (x).
, , . 9.4
9.3 9.4 fn -
I. , 9.3
fn I.
9.4 ,
.

352
 9.4. I g : I R fn : I R

I. fn g I (fn ()) I, (fn )
f I I, f
I f (x) = g(x) x I.

. x I. > 0. Cauchy ( ),
n0

fn fm I
2|x|+1 , |fn () fm ()|
2 n, m n0 . (9.9)

, Lagrange, n, m n0
x,

|fn (x) fm (x)| |(fn (x) fm (x)) (fn () fm ())| + |fn () fm ()|
= |fn () fm ()||x | + |fn () fm ()|
fn fm I |x | + |fn () fm ()| 2|x|+1 |x

| +
2 < ,

(9.9). (fn (x)) Cauchy

, , .
, x I f (x) = limn+ fn (x) f : I R
..
fn f I.
x I. f (x) = g(x).
> 0. n0

fn gI
4 n n0 . (9.10)

fn fn0 I fn gI + fn0 gI
4 +
4 =
2 n n0 . (9.11)

, > 0
 fn (y)fn (x) 
 0 0
fn0 (x)
y I 0 < |y x| < . (9.12)
yx 4

,
 fn (y)fn (x)   (f (y)fn (y))(fn (x)fn (x))   fn (y)fn (x) 
 g(x)  n 0 0 + 0 0
fn0 (x)
yx yx yx
(9.13)
+ |fn0 (x) g(x)| n y I, y = x.

, (9.10)

|fn0 (x) g(x)| fn0 gI 4 . (9.14)

, Lagrange, y I, y = x
x, y
 (fn (y)fn (y))(fn (x)fn (x)) 
 0 0  = |fn () fn ()| fn fn I
yx 0 0

, , (9.11),
 (fn (y)fn (y))(fn (x)fn (x)) 
 0 0 
n n0 y I, y = x. (9.15)
yx 2

(9.13), (9.12), (9.14) (9.15),

 fn (y)fn (x) 
 g(x) 2 + 4 + 4 = n n0 y I 0 < |y x| < .
yx

353
 n +,
 f (y)f (x) 
 g(x) y I 0 < |y x| < 0 .
yx

limyx f (y)f
yx
(x)
= g(x) , , f (x) = g(x).
, (fn ) f [a, b] I.
n x [a, b] x, a
|fn (x) f (x)| |(fn (x) f (x)) (fn (a) f (a))| + |fn (a) f (a)|
= |fn () f ()||x a| + |fn (a) f (a)|
fn gI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.
n

fn f [a,b] fn gI (b a) + |fn (a) f (a)|.

, fn f [a,b] 0, (fn ) f [a, b].

9.3 9.4 (fn )

(fn ). , (fn )
.
.
9.2.1. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = xenx x 0. (fn )
f [0, +). f ;
.
fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = x2 enx x 0.

fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = (1)n n xenx x 0.
9.2.2. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = xn (1 xn ) x [0, 1]. (fn )
0 , , [0, 1].
.
9.2.3. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = 1+nx
1
x 0. (fn ) -
f , , [0, +). f ;

, a > 0, fn f [a, +). -
.
nx
fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = 1+nx 2 x 0.

fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = enx x 0.

fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = nxenx x 0.
n
9.2.4. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = 1+x x
n x 0. (fn )

f [0, +). f ;
(fn ) f [0, +). (0, 1] (fn )
f [0, 1 ], [1 + , +).
.
9.2.5. fn : (0, +) R fn (x) = sinnxnx x > 0. (fn ) -
0 , , (0, +).
a > 0 (fn ) 0 [a, +).
.
9.2.6. f, g, fn , gn : (0, +) R fn (x) = 1
x + n1 , gn (x) = 1
n, f (x) = 1
x

g(x) = 0 x > 0. fn f , gn g fn gn
f g (0, +).
.

354
 {
0, x < 1/(n + 1) 1/n < x
9.2.7. fn : R R fn (x) = . -
(sin(/x)) , 1/(n + 1) x 1/n
2

(fn ) f R f R.

f ; fn f R; .

9.2.8. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = np x(1 x2 )n x [0, 1].

(fn ) f
1 [0, 1]. p ;
1
p 0 fn (x) dx 0 f (x) dx ; .
fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = 1+n 2 xp x [0, 1].
nx

9.2.9. fn : R R fn (x) = 1+nx x

2 x. (fn )
f R. f R fn (x) f (x),
x = 0, fn (0) f (0). (fn ) g
R. (fn ) g R.
.
1 n2 x2
9.2.10. fn : R R fn (x) = ne x. fn 0
..
fn 0 R. , a >
0, fn 0 (, a], [a, +)
[a, a]. .

9.2.11. fn : [1, 1] R fn (x) = |x| n |x| x [1, 1].
(fn ) f [1, 1]. f ; fn
0 f 0.
.

9.2.12. fn : [0, 2] R fn (x) = n 1 + xn x [0, 2].
(fn ) f [0, 2]. f ; fn
[0, 2] f 1. (fn )
g [0, 2]. (fn ) g
[0, 2]. .

9.2.13. A = B C fn f B C. fn f A.

9.2.14. fn f A g : A R A, fn g f g
A. 9.4[];

9.2.15. fn : A [a, b] fn f A. f : A [a, b]. , ,

g : [a, b] R [a, b], g fn g f A.

9.2.16. fn f A fn A, (fn ) -
A.

9.2.17. fn f A. fn A, f
A.

9.2.18. f : R R fn : R R fn (x) = f (x + n1 ) x. ,

f R, fn f R.

9.2.19. f : R R R f R.
( )
gn (x) = n f (x + n1 ) f (x) x, gn f R.

9.2.20. fn f A, (xn ) A, A xn . f
, fn (xn ) f ().

355

9.2.21. 3 [] fn f A, A yn = limx fn (x).
(yn ) limx f (x) = limn+ yn . ,
limx limn+ fn (x) = limn+ limx fn (x).
[] A A fn : A R

fn f A \ {}. (fn ()) , f () =
limn+ fn (), f : A R .
9.2.22. g : [0, 1] R [0, 1] fn (x) = xn g(x) x [0, 1].

fn 0 [0, 1] g(1) = 0.

9.2.23. Pn f R. Pn , f
. Pn f ;

Pn f A, A
- R;
Weierstrass, -
9.3.
..
9.2.24. fn : [a, b] R fn f [a, b].
fn [a, b], f [a, b].

, , f [a, b], fn f [a, b].
9.2.25. Dini: fn : [a, b] R [a, b]
..
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. fn f [a, b] fn+1 (x) fn (x)

x [a, b] n, fn f [a, b].

9.3 Weierstrass.
( )
9.1. [] nk=0 nk xk (1 x)nk = 1.
( )
[] nk=0 k nk xk (1 x)nk = nx.
( )
[] nk=0 k 2 nk xk (1 x)nk = (n2 n)x2 + nx.
( )
. nk=0 nk tk snk = (t + s)n .
[] t = x s = 1 x.
[] t,
t t = x s = 1 x.
[] t, t
t = x s = 1 x.

.
WEIERSTRASS. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. > 0
P (x) |P (x) f (x)| x [a, b] , ,
P f [a,b] .
. 4 [0, 1].
f : [0, 1] R [0, 1]. > 0. f [0, 1],
> 0
|f (x ) f (x )| <
2 x , x [0, 1] |x x | < . (9.16)
3
. , , limn+ limx .
4
Weierstrass. S. Bernstein.
9.3.4.

356
, f [0, 1], M

|f (x)| M x [0, 1]. (9.17)

n max{ 14 , ( M )2 } (9.18)
n ( )
n
P (x) = k=0 k f ( nk )xk (1 x)nk .
|P (x) f (x)| x [0, 1].
x [0, 1]. 9.1,
( ) ( )
f (x) = f (x) 1 = f (x) nk=0 nk xk (1 x)nk = nk=0 nk f (x)xk (1 x)nk ,

n ( )( )
n
P (x) f (x) = k=0 k f ( nk ) f (x) xk (1 x)nk . (9.19)
0, 1, . . . , n . A
k = 0, 1, . . . , n : |x nk | < 1
4 n . B

k = 0, 1, . . . , n, : |x nk | 1
4 n.
 
k A, (9.18) |x nk | < , (9.16), f ( nk ) f (x) < 2 .
, 9.1 ( )
(n) k  k (n ) k
 
kA k f ( n ) f (x) x (1 x)
nk
kA k x (1 x)
nk
2
( ) (9.20)
2 nk=0 nk xk (1 x)nk = 2 .
k B, (9.17) k B
 k   
f ( ) f (x) f ( k ) + |f (x)| 2M 2M n( k x)2 ,
n n n

, 9.1 ( ) (9.18) (
)
(n) k  k nk 2M n
( )
 
kB k f ( n ) f (x) x (1 x) kB ( n x) k x (1 x)
k 2 n k nk
( )
2M n nk=0 ( nk x)2 nk xk (1 x)nk (9.21)
2M x(1x)
=
n
M

2 n
2 .

, (9.19), (9.20) (9.21),

( ) 
|P (x) f (x)| nk=0 nk f ( nk ) f (x)xk (1 x)nk
( ) 
= kA nk f ( nk ) f (x)xk (1 x)nk
( ) 
+ kB nk f ( nk ) f (x)xk (1 x)nk

2 +
2 = .
|P (x) f (x)| x [0, 1].
, , [a, b].
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. : [0, 1] [a, b] (t) = (ba)t+a
: [a, b] [0, 1] (x) = xaba . ,
g = f : [0, 1] R g(t) = f ((b a)t + a). g, ,
[0, 1].
Q(t) |Q(t) g(t)| t [0, 1].
, P = Q : [a, b] R P (x) = Q( xa ba ). Q(t)
, P (x) , , Q.
g = f f = g . , |P (x) f (x)| = |Q((x)) g((x))|
x [a, b].

357

9.3.1. f : [0, 1] R f (x) = x.
Weierstrass, -

P (x) | x P (x)| 104 x [0, 1].


| x x | 21 104 x , x [0, 1] |x x | 41 108 .

| x x | |x x |. ,

0 x1 x [0, 1].
, (9.18),

n max{44 1032 , 108 } = 44 1032 .

44 1032 (44 1032 ) 4 1032 k
P (x) = k=0 k
k
44 1032
xk (1 x)4 .

44 1032 , , !

Weierstrass n Pn (x)

Pn f [a,b] n1 . (Pn ) Pn f [a, b]. -

, (Pn ) Pn f [a, b] , ,
Pn f [a,b] 0. > 0 n Pn f [a,b] .
Weierstrass :
f : [a, b] R [a, b], (Pn )

Pn f [a, b].

.
 
9.3.1. P (x) P (x) |x| 1001
x [100, 100].
P (x) P (0) = 0 |P (x) sin x| 100 1

x [100, 100].
b
9.3.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b] : a xn f (x) dx = 0 n Z,
n 0. f = 0.

9.3.3. [] f : [1, +) R [1, +) limx+ f (x)

. > 0 P (x) |P ( x1 )f (x)|
x 1.
[] f : [0, +) R [0, +) limx+ f (x) .
> 0 P (x) |P (ex ) f (x)|
x 0.
[] f : R R R limx f (x) .
> 0 P (x) |P ( 1+e
1
x ) f (x)| x.

9.3.4. 5 , n Z, n 0, Wn : R R :
( )
W0 (x) = 0, Wn+1 (x) = Wn (x) + 21 x2 (Wn (x))2

x n 0. n Wn (x)

2n Wn (x) |x| [1, 1].
5
Weierstrass.

358
 {
0, a x
[a, b] (x) = , -
x , x b

, (Tn ) Tn [a, b].
g : [a, b] R 0 , . . . , m
a = 0 < < m = b g
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ).
g : [a, b] R [a, b]
g [k1 , k ] g(x) = k (x k1 ) + g(k1 ). , 1 = 1
k = k k1 k = 2, . . . , m.
g(x) = g(a) + 1 0 (x) + + m m1 (x) x [a, b].

(Pn ) Pn g [a, b].
f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0. g : [a, b] R
[a, b] |g(x) f (x)| x [a, b].
Weierstrass.

359
 .
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 9. Addison-Wesley.
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 8. Wiley.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 10. Dover.
Buck, R. & Buck, E. (2003) Advanced Calculus, Ch 6. Waveland Press.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch VIII. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 7. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 8, 10. Springer.
Dieudonn, J. (1971) Infinitesimal Calculus, Ch V. Hermann.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 9-10. Wiley.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap IV-VII. Springer.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch VII. Dover.
Hayes Jr, C. (1964) Concepts of Real Analysis, Ch 7. Wiley.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 9. Chapman and Hall.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 11. Mir Publishers.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 8. Springer.
Pugh, C. (2015) Real Mathematical Analysis, Ch 4. Springer.
Rosenlicht, M. (1986) Introduction to Analysis, Ch IV, VII. Dover.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 4-5. Springer.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 7. McGraw-Hill.
Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch IV. Pergammon Press.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 24. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 8. Pearson.

.
Bartle, R. (1967) The Elements of Real Analysis, Ch III-VI. Wiley.
Boas, R. (1996) A Primer of Real Functions, Ch 2. Math. Association of America.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 6, 8. Harper and Row.
Goffman, C. (1953) Real Functions, Ch 8. Rinehart.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch VIII, X-XI. Springer.

360
 10

10.1 . .
10.1. fn : A R n. ,
s1 = f1 : A R, s2 = f1 + f2 : A R , , sn = f1 + f2 + + fn :
A R n. , sn (x) = f1 (x) + + fn (x) x A n.
..
s : A R sn s A, + n=1 fn
s A
+ ..
n=1 fn = s A.

A sn s A, + n=1 fn s -
A
+
n=1 fn = s A.

sn n- + n=1 fn . -
s
+ , ,
n=1 fn A.

,
.. .. + +
: s = f1 + f2 + s = k=0 fk s = n=m fn ...
+ ..
k=1 fk = s A x A sn (x) s(x)
x A + n=1 fn (x) s(x).
,
+ .. +
n=1 fn = s A n=1 fn (x) = s(x) x A.
+ ..
10.1. k=1 fk = s A, k=1 fk = s A.

. sn = f1 + + fn
9.3.

10.1.1. + n
n=0 x .
+ n
n=0 x = 1x 1
x (1, 1). (1, 1)
n .. 1
s : (1, 1) R s(x) = 1x
1
. , +n=0 x = 1x (1, 1).
(1, 1).
n
x (1, 1) n sn (x) = 1 + x + x2 + + xn1 = 1x1x ,
|x|n |x| n
|sn (x) s(x)| = 1x . limx1 1x = +, sn s(1,1) = +.
+ n 1
n=0 x 1x (1, 1).

361
 +
10.2. , + n=1 fn = s A n=1 gn = t A.
+
n=1 (fn + gn ) = s + t A. .

. sn = f1 + + fn tn = g1 + + gn
9.1 ( ) 9.4 ( -
).

CAUCHY. + n=1 fn A
> 0 n0 |fm+1 (x) + + fn (x)| x A
n > m n0 .

. sn = f1 + + fn Cauchy
9.2.

-
.

WEIERSTRASS. fn : A R fn A Mn n ,
x A n. +
, |fn (x)| Mn n=1 Mn ,
+ f
n=1 n A.

. > 0. n0 Mm+1 + + Mn <

n > m n0 .

|fm+1 (x) + + fn (x)| |fm+1 (x)| + + |fn (x)| Mm+1 + + Mn <

x A n > m n0 . , Cauchy, + n=1 fn
A.
+ . x A. |fn (x)| Mn n,

n=1 fn (x)
, , .
s(x) = + n=1 fn (x). x A, s : A R
..
, , + n=1 fn = s A.
, sn = f1 + + fn
  + +
|sn (x) s(x)| =  + 
k=n+1 fn (x) k=n+1 |fk (x)| k=n+1 Mk

x A. +
sn sA k=n+1 Mk

n. 8.3 sn sA 0, + n=1 fn = s A.
 xn 
10.1.2. + xn
.  2  12
+
n=1 n 2 n n
x [1, 1] n n=1 n2 ,
1
+ xn
n=1 n2 [1, 1].
 
10.1.3. + sin(nx)
.  sin(nx)  12
+ 1
n=1 n 2 n 2 n
x n n=1 n2 ,
+ sin(nx)
n=1 n2 R.

[] 10.1 -
Dirichlet []
Abel. ,
, Abel 8.3.2.

362
 10.1. fn , gn : A R sn = f1 + + fn .

[] (gn (x))
+ x A, gn 0 (sn )
A. n=1 fn gn A.
n (x)) x A, (gn )
[] (g
A + n=1 fn A. +
n=1 fn gn
A.
. [] M |sn (x)| M x A n. ,
x A (gn (x)) 0, gn (x) 0
x A n.
> 0. n0 gn (x) 2M+1 x A n n0 .
Abel, x A n, m
n > m n0
 n   n
  
k=m+1 fk (x)gk (x) = k=m+1 sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ sn (x)gn+1 (x) sm (x)gm+1 (x)

nk=m+1 |sk (x)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x))
+ |sn (x)|gn+1 (x) + |sm (x)|gm+1 (x)
n
k=m+1 M (gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + M gn+1 (x) + M gm+1 (x)
= 2M gm+1 (x) 2M 2M
+1 < .
+
Cauchy, n=1 fn gn
A.

[] s : A R + n=1 fn = s A , , sn s A.
M |gn (x)| M x A n.
> 0. n0 |sn (x) s(x)| 4M+1 x A
n n0 . , x A n, m n > m n0
 n   n
  
k=m+1 fk (x)gk (x) = k=m+1 sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ sn (x)gn+1 (x) sm (x)gm+1 (x)

=  nk=m+1 (sk (x) s(x))(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ (sn (x) s(x))gn+1 (x) (sm (x) s(x))gm+1 (x)

nk=m+1 |sk (x) s(x)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x))
+ |sn (x) s(x)||gn+1 (x)| + |sm (x) s(x)||gm+1 (x)|
n
k=m+1 4M+1 (gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ 4M +1 M + 4M +1 M
=
4M +1 (gm+1 (x) gn+1 (x)) + 2
4M +1 M 4
4M +1 M < .
+
Cauchy, n=1 fn gn -
A.
(1)n1
10.1.4. + n=1 nx (0, +).
fn (x) = (1)n1 gn (x) = n1x x > 0.
fn . , , sn = f1 + + fn .
x > 0, (sn (x)) , sn (x)
( 1=) 1+
(1) + + (1) n1 = 1 0 n. , (gn (x)) = nx
gn (x) = n1x 0. , Dirichlet ,
(1)n1 (1)n1
x > 0 + n=1 nx . , +n=1 nx ,
, , s, (0, +) :
+ (1)n1 ..
n=1 nx = s(x) (0, +).

363
 a > 0 s -
[a, +).
(sn ) [a, +),
sn (x) = 1 + (1) + + (1)n1 = 1 0 x (a
) n. ,
, x [a, +) (gn (x)) = nx . ,
1

gn 0 [a, +), gn [a,+) = sup{| n1x | | x [a, +)} = n1a 0.
+ (1)n1
n=1 nx [a, +).
,
s , s
(0, +) , , [a, +).
+ (1)n1
a > 0 : n=1 nx = s(x) [a, +).

10.2. + n=1 fn = s A A. fn ,
s . , fn A, s A.

. 9.1 sn = f1 + + fn .

10.3. + n=1 fn = s [a, b]. fn [a, b],
b b
s [a, b] +n=1 a fn (x) dx = a s(x) dx.

. 9.2 sn = f1 + + fn .
b b +
+
n=1 a fn (x) dx = a s(x) dx n=1 fn = s ,
:
+ b b +
n=1 a fn (x) dx = a n=1 fn (x) dx.

10.4. I t : I R fn : I R


fn I. + n=1 fn = t I + n=1 fn ()
I, + n=1 fn
s I I, s
I s (x) = t(x) x I.

. 9.3 sn = f1 + + fn .

10.4
( + ) + d + + d
n=1 fn = n=1 fn dx n=1 fn (x) = n=1 dx fn (x)

.
, 9.4.

10.5. I t : I R fn : I R


I. + n=1 fn = t I
+ +
n=1 fn ()
I, n=1 fn s I
I, s I
s (x) = t(x) x I.

. 9.4 sn = f1 + + fn .

10.1.5. + enx .
+ nx + n=1
, x 0, n=1 e n=1 1 = +,

364
 x 0. , x > 0
ex . +
n=1 e
nx s(x) (0, +) :

+ nx ..
n=1 e =s(x) (0, +).

a > 0, sup{|enx | | x [a, +)} = ena + n=1 e
na < +.
+ nx
Weirstrass, n=1 e s [a, +) :
+
nx =
a > 0 : n=1 e s(x) [a, +).

s(x) (0, +). , n enx

[a, +), , , s(x)
[a, +). , , a > 0. , (0, +),
a 0 < a < , s(x) [a, +),
.
, + nx . (
n=1 ne
, ) x > 0,
t(x) (0, +) :
+ nx ..
n=1 ne = t(x) (0, +).

, a > 0, sup{| nenx |
| x [a, +)} = nena + n=1 ne
na < +.
+
, Weierstrass, n=1 ne nx t(x)
[a, +) :

nx =
a > 0 : + n=1 ne t(x) [a, +).
10.4 s(x) [a, +)
[a, +) t(x). s(x)
(0, +). , (0, +), a 0 <
a < , s(x) [a, +),
, , s () = t(). s (x) = t(x) x (0,
+). 2 nx
+ n=1 n e .
t(x) (0, +), s(x)
(0, +). , s(x)
(0, +).
,

s(x) = 1
ex 1 x (0, +).

.
x sin(n2 x)
10.1.1. + n=1 n2
.
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.
sin(nx)
10.1.2. [] p > 2. + n=1 np .
s(x) R.
s(x) R s (x) R.

[] + x
n=1 (nx+1)2 .
s(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, s(x) [a, +).

365
 s(x) (0, +).
s(x) 0 limx+ s(x) = 0 limx0+ s(x) = 1.
, s [0, +).

+ 1
n=1 1+n2 x2 ;
+ x
10.1.3. p > 0 n=1 np (1+nx2 ) .
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x)
(, a] [a, +).
s(x) R \ {0}.
limx s(x) = 0.
p > 12 . A s(x) R s(x)
0.
m N. , p > m+1 2 , s(x) m 0.
1
0 < p < 2 , limx0+ s(x) = +. p = 12 , limx0+ s(x)
s(x) R, 0.

10.1.4. + 1
n=1 n2 +x2 .
s(x) R.
s(x) R.
s(x);
limx s(x) = 0.

10.1.5. + n=1 (1 cos n ).
x

s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.
n1 x2 +n .
10.1.6. + n=1 (1) n2
x.
s(x) R. -
s(x);
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
+ (1)n1
10.1.7. n=1

n
sin(1 + nx ).
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.

10.1.8. + x
n=1 1+na x2 .
a > 1, s(x) R
s(x) R \ {0}.
a > 2, s(x) R.
a > 1, s(x) 0.

10.1.9. + 1
n=1 1+n2 x . , , x = 0.
s(x) (0, +).
a > 0, s(x) [a, +).
s(x) (0, +). s(x)

366
 (0, +).
limx0+ s(x) = +, s(x) (0, +).
limx+ s(x) = 0.
s(x) (0, +).
nx
+ n=1 n e .
+ xa
10.1.10. n=1 1+n2 x2 .
[0, 1] a > 1.
[0, +) 1 < a 2.
1 nx
10.1.11. [] + n=1 n2 e .
s(x) [0, +).
s(x) [0, +) (0, +).
s(x) [0, +).
s (0) = .

[] + x
n=1 1+n2 x .
s(x) [0, +).
s(x) [0, +) (0, +).
s(x) [0, +).
s (0) = +.
(1)n1
10.1.12. + n=1 n+x .
x [0, +).
t(x) [0, +).
t(x) [0, +).
limx0+ t(x) = log 2 limx+ t(x) = 0.
t(x) [0, +).

10.1.13. + n=1 (1)
n1 log(1 + x ).
n
s(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, s(x) [0, a].
s(x) [0, +).
s(x) t(x) 10.1.12;
(1x)xn
10.1.14. 1 [] fn (x) = x [0, 1] n. Mn =
log(n+1)

fn [0,1] n + n=1 fn
+
[0, 1] n=1 Mn .


0, 0 x 1/(2n + 1) 1/(2n 1) x 1
[] fn (x) = (4n + 2)x 2, 1/(2n + 1) x 1/(2n)


2 (4n 2)x, 1/(2n) x 1/(2n 1)

n. Mn = fn [0,1] n + n=1 fn
+
[0, 1] n=1 Mn .

10.1.15. (xn ) + 1
n=1 xn ,
+ 1
xn +. n=1 xn x .
s(x) A = R \
{xn | n N}.
1
Weierstrass.

367
 , a, s(x) A (, a].
n limxxn s(x) = + limxxn + s(x) = . , -
limx s(x) = 0.
s(x) (, x1 ) (xn , xn+1 ).
, s(x) .
+
10.1.16. + n=1 xn cos(nx) n=1 xn sin(nx).
+
[] n=1 |xn | < +. -
c(x) s(x) R. c(x) s(x) R
2.
cos(nx) sin(nx)
+ + p > 1
+ n + n n=1 np n=1 np
n=1 r cos(nx) n=1 r sin(nx) 0 r < 1.
[] (xn ) , xn 0, xn 0 n,
+
n=1 xn = +.

+ n=1 xn cos(nx) c(x) -
(m2, (m + 1)2) m Z + n=1 xn sin(nx) -
s(x) R.2
+
, (0, ], + n=1 xn cos(nx) n=1 xn sin(nx)
c(x) s(x) [m2 + , (m + 1)2 ] m Z. c(x)
s(x) (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z.

+ n=1 xn sin(nx) R nxn 0.
, [],
( n1 ) ( n log
1
n ).
rn + rn
[] 0 r < 1. + n=1 n cos(nx) n=1 n sin(nx) -
R.
8.3.8[],
+ rn 1 1 + rn r sin x
n=1 n cos(nx) = 2 log 12r cos x+r2 , n=1 n sin(nx) = arctan 1r cos x .
rn + rn
[] + n=1 n cos(nx) n=1 n sin(nx)
r [0, 1],
+ 1
n=1 n cos(nx) = log(sin 2 ), x (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z
x

{
+ 1 ( x)/2, x (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z
n=1 n sin(nx) =
0, x = m2 m Z
.

10.1.17. + 1
n=1 n sin(x ).
n

s(x) [0, 1].

, a [0, 1), s(x) [0, a].
s(x) [0, 1).
(1)n1 + sin(n2 x) sin(nx) (1)n1 arctan(nx2 )
10.1.18. +
n=1 n+1+cos x , n=1 n+x2
+
n=1 n+x2
. -
R.
nx cos nx.
10.1.19. + n=1 e
s(x) (0, +).
, a > 0, s(x) [a, +).
s(x) (0, +).
s(x) (0, +).
2
, , 8.3.8[].

368
10.1.20. fn : A R n |fn (x) fn+1 (x)| Mn x A
n. , +
n=1 Mn < +, (fn )
A.
+
10.1.21. 3 []
+ A, n=1 fn = s A yn = limx fn (x).
n=1 yn limx + f
n=1 n (x) = +
n=1 yn . ,
+
limx +n=1 fn (x) = n=1 limx fn (x).

[] A A fn : A R
+ +
+n=1 fn = s A \ {}. n=1 fn () , s() =
n=1 fn (), s : A R .

10.1.22. Q ={{rn | n N} Q. n fn : R R
0, x = rn
fn (x) = + 1
n=1 1+n2 fn (x) .
1, x = rn
R
(a, b).
{
0, x 0
10.1.23. I : R R, I(x) = (xn )
1, x > 0

xn = xm n, m n = m cn = 0 n + n=1 |cn | < +.
+
n=1 cn I(x xn ) s(x)
R.
s(x) x, x = xn n.
, n, s(x) xn cn xn .
s(x) cn = 21n n (i) xn = n
n (ii) xn = 1 n1 n.
nx[nx]
10.1.24. + n=1 n2
.
A s(x) R.
s(x) 1.
A s(x).
s(x).
x x = kl , k Z, l N gcd(k, l) = 1,

s(x) x la2 , a = + 1
m=1 m2 .
1
A s(x) [0, 1] 0 s(x) dx = a2 .
+ an
10.1.25. 4 + an
n=1 nx0 . n=1 nx .
s(x) [x0 , +).
+ an
limxx0 + + an
n=1 nx = n=1 nx0 .

s(x) (x0 , +).

10.1.26. + 1
n=1 nx .
x > 1 + x 1.
3 +
, , limx n=1 .
9.2.21.
4
8.3.12.

369
 : (1, +) R - Riemann
:
(x) = + 1
n=1 nx x (1, +).
.5
, a > 1, (x) [a, +).
(x) (1, +)
+ (log n)m
(m) (x) = (1)m n=1 nx x (1, +) m N.

limx1+ (x) = + limx+ (x) = 1.

(x) (1, +).

10.1.27. 6 Dini: fn : [a, b] R [a, b]

..
s : [a, b] R [a, b]. +
n=1 fn = s [a, b] fn (x) 0

x [a, b] n, + n=1 fn = s [a, b].

10.1.28. 7 fn , gn : A R sn = f1 + + fn .

[] n=1 |gn gn+1 | + A, gn 0
A (sn ) A. n=1 fn gn
A.

[] n=1 |gn gn+1 | A, g1 -

+ A + n=1 fn A.
n=1 fn gn A.

10.2 .
10.2.
+
n=0 an (x ) = a0 + a1 (x ) + a2 (x ) + + an (x ) +
n 2 n

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . .
a0 () an (x )n n.

10.2.1. + n=0 0(x ) 0 -
n

+ x 0.
, + n=0 0(x ) n =
n=0 0 = 0 x.

10.2.2. + n=0 1(x )
n

1 1 < x < 1 , , 1 < x < + 1

1
1(x) . ,
+
n=0 (x )n = 1
1(x) x ( 1, + 1).
+
10.3.
{ n=0 a n (x )n . = lim n |a |, 0 +,
n
1/, 0 < +
R = .
+, = 0

, [0, ].
5
- 12.3.7, 12.4.2 12.5.4.
6
9.2.25.
7
8.3.27.

370

10.6. + n=0 an (x ) R . -
n

x ( R, + R) x / [ R, + R].
, x = R , , R = 0,
x = .
. 0 < R + , , 0 < +. |x | < R,

lim n |an (x )n | = |x | lim n |an | = |x | < 1,

, , +n=0 an (x ) .
n

0 R < + , , 0 < +. |x | > R,

lim n |an (x )n | = |x | lim n |an | = |x | > 1,
.

+
n=0 (x ) n n |1| 1, = 1 R = 1. x = 1,
+
+ n
n=0 1 (1)n .
+ (x)n
n=0
n=1 n2 n |1/n2 | 1, = 1 R = 1. x = 1,
+ (1)n
+ 1
n=1 n2 .
+ (x)n
n=1 n2
n=1 n |1/n| 1, = 1 R = 1. x = + 1,
n

+ (1)n
+ n=1 n , x = 1,
1
n=1 n
.
n
n (x) n |(1)n /n| 1, = 1 R = 1.
+ n=1 (1)

n
(1)n
x = + 1, + , x = 1,
+ 1 n=1 n
n=1 n .

, , + n=0 an (x ) -
n

R [0, +] : (i) R = +,
x (, +), (ii) R = 0,
x = x = (iii) 0 < R < +,
x ( R, + R) x / [ R, + R].
(iii) :
x I, I ( R, + R)
R. , I = ( R, + R) I = ( R, + R] I = [ R, + R) I =
[R, +R], . I = (, ++) (i)
I = {} (ii), n=0 an (x )n
x I.
10.4. x I

s(x) = + n=0 an (x )
n

, , s : I R.
s : I R s : I R , ,
s I. I
.

10.2.3. + n=0 (x )
n

I = ( 1, + 1). s : ( 1, + 1) R
1
s(x) = 1(x) .
, s
I . , ,
f : A R, I A, I = A, f (x) = s(x) x I.
, f : R \ { + 1} R f (x) = 1(x) 1

s. , s f ,
( 1, + 1) R \ { + 1}.

371
 + (x)n
10.2.4. n=1 n2
I = [ 1, + 1].
+ (x)n
10.2.5. n=1 n I = [ 1, + 1).
n
n (x) I = ( 1, + 1].
10.2.6. + n=1 (1) n

10.2.7. + n=1 n (x )
n n n
|nn | = n +,
R = + = 0 {}.
1

10.2.8. + n=1 nn (x )
1 n n
|1/nn | = n1 0,
R = + (, +).
 
10.5. + n=0 an (x) an = 0
n n. 1 = lim  an+1 
{ an
  1/1 , 0 < 1 +
2 = lim  an+1 
an , 0 1 2 +, R1 =
+, 1 = 0
{
1/2 , 0 < 2 +
R2 =
+, 2 = 0

10.3. + n=0 an (x ) an = 0 n, R
n

R1 , R2 . R2 R R1 .

. ( ) R < R2 . R2 > 0, 2 < +.

x R < |x | < R2 .
 (x)n+1   
lim  an+1
an (x)n = |x | lim  an+1
an
 = |x | 2 < 1,

, , +
n=0 an (x ) . .
n

( ) R1 < R. R1 < +, 0 < 1 .

x R1 < |x | < R.
 (x)n+1   an+1 
lim  an+1
an (x)n = |x | lim 
an
 = |x | 1 > 1,

. .

10.3 -
 
: , limn+  an+1
an ,

R1 = R2 , R = R1 = R2 .
10.7 10.6.

10.7. + n=0 an (x ) s
n

I. s
I.

. 8 a, b I, a b.
, , |a | |b |.

|x | |b | x [a, b]. (10.1)

8
-
10.1[], Abel. ,
10.1[]. , ,
10.1, 10.1 .

372

sn (x) = nk=0 ak (x )k . , sn (x) s(x)
x [a, b] , , sn (b) s(b).
> 0. n0

|sn (b) s(b)|

5 n n0 . (10.2)

( x )n
gn (x) = b , (10.3)
(10.1)

|gn (x)| 1 x [a, b] n. (10.4)

Abel 8.3.2 (10.2), (10.3) (10.4)

x [a, b] n, m n > m n0
 n   n 
 k  
k=m+1 ak (x ) = k=m+1 ak (b ) gk (x)
k
 n
=  k=m+1 sk (b)(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ sn (b)gn+1 (x) sm (b)gm+1 (x)

=  nk=m+1 (sk (b) s(b))(gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ (sn (b) s(b))gn+1 (x) (sm (b) s(b))gm+1 (x)

nk=m+1 |sk (b) s(b)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x))
+ |sn (b) s(b)||gn+1 (x)| + |sm (b) s(b)||gm+1 (x)|
n
k=m+1 5 (gk (x) gk+1 (x))

+ 5 + 5
= 5 (gm+1 (x) gn+1 (x)) + 2
5 4
5 < .

, Cauchy, + n=0 an (x ) s
n

[a, b].
, |b | |a |, .

10.7 -
, I. , ,
I.

10.2.9. + n 1
n=0 x 1x
(1, 1). , -
1
1x [a, b] 1 < a b < 1.
xn
10.2.10. + n=1 n s
, [1, 1). , s
[a, b] 1 a b < 1.

, -
10.7, s
I. 10.7 -
10.2.9,
(1, 1) . ,
10.2.10. [1, 1)
10.7
[1, b], 1 b < 1
[a, b], 1 < a b < 1.
10.7.

373
 10.7 Abel
, ,
( ).
, , ,
10.7, :

+ n=0 an (x ) s
n

I. s
I.
, , [a, b] I.
x1 I |a | < |x1 | |b | < |x1 |. , , r =
max{|a |, |b |},

|x | r < |x1 | x [a, b]. (10.5)

x1 I, +n=0 an (x1 ) , an (x1 ) 0 , ,
n n

|an (x1 )n | M n. (10.6)

Weierstrass, , (10.5) (10.6),

 n ( r )n
|an (x )n | = |an (x1 )n | xx
1
 M
|x1 |

+ ( r )n + ( )n
r
n=0 M |x1 | =M n=0 |x1 | < +
0 r
|x1 | < 1.

+ )n [a, b] .
n=0 an (x

.

10.8. + n=0 an (x ) I.
n

s I I.

. I. a, b I a < < b.
s [a, b] , , an (x)n
[a, b], s [a, b]. [a, b], s
. : [a, b], s
.
I I. s
[, ] , an (x )n [, ], s
[, ] , , . ,
I I, s .
s I.

10.9. + n=0 an (x ) I. s
n

I, a, b I
b + an ( )
n=0 n+1 (b )
n+1 (a )n+1 .
a s(x) dx =

. a, b I, a < b, s [a, b],

10.3.
a = b b < a a < b.

374
 10.9
b ( + ) + b
n=0 an (x ) n=0 an a (x ) dx.
n dx = n
a

.
+
10.10. + n=0 an (x )
n
n=1 nan (x )
n1 .

[] , R.
[] I, I , , , I I.
[], [] I
I.
[] R > 0, s I
I I
. ,

s (x) = + n=1 nan (x )
n1 x I .

. [] = lim n |an | = lim n |nan |.
= +, , , . 0 < +. x > ,

, y < y < x. |an | < y , , n n 1,
n

n n < xy . n |an | < y n n < xy , ,

n
|nan | = n n n |an | < xy y = x. x. x > ,
. .
= +, , , . 0 < +. x > .

n |nan | < x , n n > 1, n |an | < x. x.
x > , .
.
= , +
n=1 nan (x )
n
+
n=0 an (x )
n , R.

+ + n=1 nan (x )
n1 x , -

n=1 nan (x ) . x,
n

, R.
[,] R = 0, , , I = I = {}. R > 0.
R, I,
I .
I , , I. a, b
I I a < < b. + n=1 nan (x )
n1
+
[a, b] n=0 an (x ) s -
n

[a, b]. n1 10.4, s [a, b]

s (x) = + n=1 na n (x ) x [a, b]. [a, b],
s s () = + n=1 nan ( )
n1 . :

[a, b], s .
I I .
+
+
n=1 nan (x)
n1

[, ] n=0 an (x )n
x = . 10.4, + n=0 an (x )
n

[, ]. , + x = , -
, I. n=0 an (x )n s
[, ]., , 10.4, s [, ]
s (x) = + +
n=1 nan (x )n1 x [, ]. , s

s () = n=1 nan ( )n1 .
I .

375
 I, I 10.10
: I , I
, I ,
I , .
s (x) = + n=1 nan (x )
n1

d + +
n=0 an (x ) = n=1 an dx (x )
n d n
dx

10.2.1 .
, , .

10.2.11. : + n
n=0 x .
(1, 1), ,
10.8, s(x) (1, 1) (1, 1).
, s(x) = 1x1
x (1, 1).
(1, 1) 10.10.

+ n=1 nx
n1 10.10. -

, , R = 1 , , (1, 1). ,

1
(1x)2
= s (x) = +n=1 nx
n1

x (1, 1).9 ,
,

m!
(1x)m+1
= +n=m n(n 1) (n m + 1)x
nm x (1, 1) m N.

10.9,
+ 1 n
log(1 x) = + 1
n=0 n+1 x
n+1 =
n=1 n x x (1, 1)

, ,
+ (1)n1
log x = n=1 n (x 1)n x (0, 2).
(1)n1
10.2.12. : + n=1 n (x 1)n .
, -
,
.
|(1)n1 /n| =
n
n n 1, R = 1 = 1
1 1

1 1 = 0 1 + 1 = 2. x = 0 + 1
n=1 n
+ (1)n1
. x = 2 n=1 n .
(0, 2].
+ (1)n1
s(x) = n=1 n (x 1)n x (0, 2]

. s(x) (0, 2].

+ (1)n1 +
n=1 n n (x 1)n1 = n=1 (1)
n1 (x 1)n1

10.10.
R = 1
(0, 2) (0, 2]. x = 2 +
n=1 (1)n1

9
8.5.1, Cauchy .

376
, (0, 2). s(x)
(0, 2)

s (x) = +
n=1 (1)
n1 (x 1)n1 = 1 1
1(1x) = x = log x

x (0, 2), s(x) log x (0, 2).

s(x) log x = s(1) log 1 = 0 , , s(x) = log x x (0, 2).
s(x) (0, 2],
+ (1)n1
n=1 n = s(2) = limx2 s(x) = limx2 log x = log 2.

,
+ (1)n1
log x = n=1 n (x 1)n x (0, 2]. (10.7)
, ,
x = 2.
+ (1)n1
log 2 = n=1 n =1 1
2 + 1
3 1
4 + 1
5 ,

.10
(10.7) . x
x + 1,
+ (1)n1 n
log(1 + x) = n=1 n x x (1, 1]

, x x,

1
log 1x = + 1 n
n=1 n x x [1, 1)

10.2.13. : + 1 n
n=0 n! x .

n 1/n! = n
1
n!
0, R = +
(, +).

s(x) = + 1 n
n=0 n! x x

. s(x) R

s (x) = + 1 n1
n=1 n n! x = + 1 n
n=0 n! x = s(x)

x. f (x) = ex s(x)

f (x) = ex s(x) + ex s (x) = 0

x. ex s(x) R, ex s(x) = e0 s(0) = 1 ,

, s(x) = ex x. ,

ex = + 1 n
n=0 n! x x.

, , 8.5.3 .
(1)k 2k
10.2.14. , + k=0 (2k)! x , ,
+ (1)k1 2k1
k=1 (2k1)! x .
: a2k1 = 0 a2k =
10
6.4.11.

377
(1)k
(2k)! . 2k1
|a2k1 | = 0 0 2k
|a2k | = 1
2k
0 , , n
|an | 0,
(2k)!
R = + R.
. , ,
(1)k 2k (1)k1 2k1
c(x) = + k=0 (2k)! x , s(x) = + k=1 (2k1)! x x
. c(x), s(x) R

(1)k 2k1 (1)k1 2k2

c (x) = +
k=0 2k (2k)! x = s(x), s (x) = + k=1 (2k 1) (2k1)! x = c(x)
x.
f (x) = (c(x) cos x)2 + (s(x) sin x)2

f (x) = 2(c(x) cos x)(s(x) + sin x) + 2(s(x) sin x)(c(x) cos x) = 0

x. f (x) R, (c(x) cos x)2 + (s(x) sin x)2 =
(c(0) cos 0)2 + (s(0) sin 0)2 = 0 x. c(x) = cos x s(x) = sin x
x. ,
(1)k 2k (1)k1 2k1
cos x = +k=0 (2k)! x , sin x = +k=1 (2k1)! x x.
+ (1)k1 2k1
10.2.15. : k=1 2k1 x .
k1
: a2k1 = (1)
2k1 a2k = 0. ,

2k1
|a2k1 | = 2k11
1 2k
|a2k | = 0 0. lim |an | = 1,
n
2k1
R = 11 = 1 1 1. x = 1 -
(1)k1 + (1)k1
+ k=1 2k1 . x = 1 k=1 2k1
. [1, 1].
(1)k1 2k1
s(x) = + k=1 2k1 x x [1, 1]
. s(x) [1, 1].

+ (1)k1 2k2
k=1 (2k 1) 2k1 x = + k 2k
k=0 (1) x

10.10. , , R =
1. x = 1 + k=0 (1) k . -

(1, 1). s(x) (1, 1)

+
s (x) = + k 2k =
k=0 (1) x
2 k 1
k=0 (x ) = 1+x2 = arctan x

x (1, 1). , s(x)arctan x (1, 1),

s(x) arctan x = s(0) arctan 0 = 0 x (1, 1). s(x) =
arctan x x (1, 1) , s(x) [1, 1],
s(1) = lim s(x) = lim arctan x = arctan 1,
x1 x1

s(1) = lim s(x) = lim arctan x = arctan(1).

x1+ x1+
,
+ (1)k1 2k1
arctan x = k=1 2k1 x x [1, 1].
:
+ (1)k1

4 = k=1 2k1 =1 1
3 + 1
5 1
7 + .

378
 () n ()
10.2.16. : + n=0 n x , n

( ) () (1)(n+1)
0 = 1, n = n! n N.
()

( ) n -
m n , n, m Z, 0 n m. ( )
, - , n = 0 n + 1,

( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ()
1 + 1 x + 2 x2 + + 1 x + x = (1 + x) Z, 0, x R,
Newton. , - , -
x (, +).
( ) ()
- ,  n+1 / n  = | n
n+1 |
1, 1. : (1, 1),
(1, 1], [1, 1), [1, 1].
(i) 1, (1, 1), (ii) 1 < <
0, (1, 1] (iii) 0 -
, [1, 1].
10.1.11
10.1. , > 1, c1 , c2 > 0,
, ,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
c1 n (+1)(+2)(+n) c2 n n N.

. 1 + x ex ,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n) = (1 + +1 )(1 + +2 ) (1 + +n )
1 1 1
(10.8)
e +1 + +2 ++ +n = e()( +1 + +2 ++ +n ) .
, , (10.8)
1
n 1
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n) e()( +1 + 1 +x dx)
= e +1 ( +n
+1 )

, + n ( + 2)n,

(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n) e +1 ( +2
+1 )
n . (10.9)

, (10.8)
n+1 1
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n) e() 1 +x
dx
= ( +n+1
+1 )

, + n + 1 n,
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(+1)(+2)(+n) 1
(+1)
n . (10.10)
(+1)(+2)(+n)
(10.9) (10.10) (+1)(+2)(+n) c2 n ,

c2 e ( +2
+1 )
+1 1
(+1)
1 <
1 < , . c2 ,
n.
, , . ,
, c1 = c12 .
11
6.4.11 7.3.20.
, , 8.3.9,
.

379
 ( ) n
+ n=0 n x x = 1.
()
(i) x = 1, + n=0 n .
( )
(ia ) < 0, n = (1)n ||(||+1)(||+n1)
n! n -
.
( )
1, | n | 1 n, .
1 < < 0, ||(||+1)(||+n1)
n! n , 10.1,
||(||+1)(||+n1)
c2 n1|| n, ||(||+1)(||+n1)
1
0. ,
n!
( ) n!
||(||+1)(||+n1)
. , 10.1, | n | = n! c1 n1||
1

n, .
(ib ) 0, - , m < < m + 1,
m = [] - . n m + 2, 10.1,
( )
| n | = (m)(m+1)(n1)
n! = (m)
1(m+1)
(m+1)(n1)
(m+2)n c2 (m) 1
1(m+1) n1+ .

.
: 1 I, > 1, I, 1.
( )
(ii) x = 1, + n
n=0 n (1) .
( )
(iia ) < 0, , 10.1, n (1)n = ||(||+1)(||+n1)
n! c1 n1||
1

n, .
(iib ) 0, m < < m + 1, m = [] - .
n m + 1, 10.1,
( )
| n (1)n | = (m)(m+1)(n1)
n! = (m)
1(m+1)
(m+1)(n1)
(m+2)n c2 (m) 1
1(m+1) n1+ ,

.
: 1 I, 0, I, < 0.
s(x) I.
s(x) I .
+ () n1 (1) n
n=1 n n x = + n=0 n x

10.10.
(1, 1), s(x) (1, 1)
(1) n
s (x) = +
n=0 n x

x (1, 1). ,

(1 + x)s (x) = s(x)

x (1, 1).

f (x) = (1 + x) s(x)

(1, 1)

f (x) = (1 + x)1 s(x) + (1 + x) s (x) = 0

x (1, 1). f (x) (1, 1) , ,

(1 + x) s(x) = (1 + 0) s(0) = 1. s(x) = (1 + x) x (1, 1).
I 1. > 1, 1 I
, s(x) I,

s(1) = lim s(x) = lim (1 + x) = 2 .

x1 x1

380
 0 - , 1 I , ,

s(1) = lim s(x) = lim (1 + x) = 0.

x1+ x1+

: + ()
(1 + x) = n=0 n xn (10.11)
(i) x (1, 1), 1, (ii) x (1, 1], 1 < < 0, (iii)
x [1, 1], 0 - .
(10.11) Newton.
:
n1 13(2n1) xn
1 + x = 1 + +
n=1 (1) 24(2n) 2n1 x [1, 1].
+ n 13(2n1) xn
1
1+x
=1+ n=1 (1) 24(2n) x (1, 1].

10.2.1. 5.6.10 xn +.

10.2.2. + n
n=0 (1x)x
, [0, 1]. ;
+

+ + n=0 (1 x) x ,
2 n
n=0 (1) (1 x)x
n n

n=0 x (1 x ) [0, 1];

n n

+ 2 n + 3 n
10.2.3. + n
n=1 nx , n=1 n x , n=1 n x .

10.2.4.
+
+ 1 .
+
+
( n 3n )
n n
. n=0 2 x , n=0 2n x , n=0 n!x , n=1 2 + n xn ,
n n
+ 1 n + (1)n1 n + 1 n + nn nn + 1 2n
n=1 n2n x , n=1

n+1
x , n=1 nn x , n=1 (n+1)n xn , + n
n=1 (n+1)n+1 x , n=1 n x ,
+ 1 2n1 + 1 n n2 2
n=1 n x , n=0 2n +3n xn , + 2 3n
n=1 n+3 x ,
+ 3
n=1 n x ,
n + 1 n
n=0 2 n x ,
+ a n
n=1 (sin n )x ,
{
+ sin an n + n 1/n, n
n=1 n x , n=1 an x an = n
2 /n, n

10.2.5. + n
n=0 an (x) (an )
1
; ( an ) ;

+ n=0 an (an ) ,
+
n=0 an (x )n 1.
+
n=0 an , + n=0 an (x )
n

1.

10.2.6. (an ) , a0 > 0 an 0 n.

+ a xn 1.
 n
n=0

x (1, 1) a0 (1 x) + an xn  < a0 .
+ n=0
n=0 an x = 0 x (1, 1).
n

10.2.7. [] R > 0 + n=0 an (x ) s(x)
n

( R, + R).
(n)
s(m) (x) = m! + n=m m an (x )
nm x ( R, + R), m Z, m 0

s(m) () = m!am m Z, m 0.

381

[] R1 > 0 + n
n=0 an,1 (x) s1 (x)
+ ( R1 , + R1 ). , , R2 > 0
n=0 an,2 (x )n s2 (x)
( R2 , + R2 ). s1 (x) s2 (x)
(, +) > 0, ,
an,1 = an,2 n.

10.2.8. R > 0 s(x) = + n=0 an x x (R, R).
n

s(x) (R, R) an = 0
n N.
s(x) (R, R) an = 0
n Z, n 0.
+ n R ,
+
10.2.9. n=0 a n (x ) n=0 an (x )
n

R n=0 (an + an )(x )n R.

+

, R = R , R = min{R , R } , R = R , R R = R .
R = R
R > R = R .

10.2.10. 12 R > 0 s(x) = + n=0 an (x ) x ( R, + R).
n

s(x), s() = 0 , , a0 = 0.
s(x) = 0 x ( R, + R) r 0 < r R
s(x) = 0 x ( r, + r) x = . ,
s(x) ;

10.2.11. p, + p n
n=1 n x , s(x)
,
s .
13(2n1) n + 13(2n1) n
10.2.12. + n=1 14(3n2) x , n=1 24(2n) x ,
+ ( 13(2n1) )2 n + ( 13(2n1) )3 n
n=1 24(2n) x , n=1 24(2n) x .

10.2.13. 13
a(a+1)b(b+1) 2 a(a+1)(a+2)b(b+1)(b+2) 3
1+ ab
1c x + 12c(c+1) x + 123c(c+1)(c+2) x +

a, b, c. -
10.1.
x 1 + k1 x2k1 x (1, 1),
10.2.14. 0 1+t 2 dt = k=1 (1) 2k1
1
1+t 2 . , x = 1.
x + 135(2k1)
10.2.15. 0
1
1t2
dt = k=1 2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2 x2k1 x (1, 1).

+ 135(2k1)
arcsin x = k=1 2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2 x2k1 1 x 1.

10.2.16. Newton a = 21 x2
x,
( ) 135(2k1)
arcsinh x = log x + 1 + x2 = + k=1 (1)
k1
2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2
x2k1 1 x 1.
12
5.2.8, 5.3.11 5.6.13.
13

F (a, b, c; x).

382
 + k
10.2.17. k N. + n=0 an (x )
n
n=0 n an (x )
n

.

10.2.18. + an (x )
n=0 {
n . R > 0 ,
}
P = r 0  +
n=0 |an |r < + [0, R] [0, R).
n

10.2.19. + n=0 an x = s(x) x (1, 1). bn = a0 + a1 +
n
s(x)
+ an n Z, n 0, + n=0 bn x = 1x x (1, 1).
n
() n
Newton (1 + x) = + n=0 n x -
, .

10.2.20. p, q, 0, + n
n=0 an x .
an+2 = pan+1 + qan n Z, n 0. x
+(a1 pa0 )x
a01pxqx 2 ( ,
) p, q.
+
10.2.21. 14 + m=0 am n=0bn+
+
+ Cauchy + k=0 ck
, k=0 ck = m=0 am n=0 nb .
+
10.2.22. 15 n=0 an (x )n R 0 < R +
( R, + R), | | < R. m (Z,)m 0
+ ( n ) +
n=m m n a ( )nm , b =
m
n
n=m m an ( )
nm

(i) + m=0 bm (x ) R | |
m

(ii) x |x | < R | | :
+ +
n=0 an (x ) = m=0 bm (x ) .
n m

10.2.23. 16 + n (x ) R 0 < R +
n=0 a
n

a0 = 0. m=0 bm (x )m R 0 < R +
+

+ +
m=0 bm (x ) n=0 an (x ) = 1
m n

x |x | < min{R, R }.

10.2.24. 17 , + n=0 an x R, n0 N
n

an = 0 n n0 (, ).
xn+1
10.2.25. [] + n=1 n(n+1) .
,
.
x2n1
[]18 1+ + n=1 135(2n1) s(x)
y xy = 1
. s(x).
x3n
[] + n=0 (3n)! s(x) -
y + y + y = ex
. s(x).
2n x (1, 1). M
10.2.26. s(x) = + n=0 x
|s (x)| 1|x|
M
x (1, 1).
14
8.4 Mertens 8.5.4.
15
.
16
.
17
9.2.23.
18
7.2.14 7.2.15.

383

10.2.27. 19 Tauber: + n
n=0 an x
(1, 1). nan 0
1 s(x)
limx1 s(x) = p, + n=0 an = p.

10.2.28. + n
n=0 an x 1 s(x)
(1, 1). an 0 n N,

+n=0 an limx1 s(x) .

10.2.29.
+ + n=0 an (x x0 )
n R. m N,
n=0 an (x x0 ) , n=0 an (x x0 )mn +
m n +
n=0 amn (x x0 ) .
n

10.3 Taylor.

+ n=0 an (x ) -
n

,
. .

10.6. f : A R A. I A ,
, f I,
f (n) ()
+ n=0 n! (x ) Taylor f .
n

10.7. f : A R A. I A ,
f (n) ()
, f (x) = +
n=0 n! (x ) x I,
n

f ( I) Taylor .

10.3.1. 1x 1
(, 1) (1, +).
(1, 1) 0
dn 1
(1, 1). dx n 1x (0) = n! n Z, n 0. ,
+ n 1 + n 1
n=0 x Taylor 1x 0. , n=0 x = 1x
x (1, 1) 1x1
(1, 1) Taylor 0.

. ,
f + n
n=0 an (x)
I
, f (x) = +n=0 n (x )
a n

x I. 10.2.7 (
(n)
10.10) an = f n!()
n Z, n 0. ,
f I Taylor f .

10.11. f : A R, A, I A ,
, f I. x I
n
f () f (n) ()
f (x) = f () + 1! (x ) + + n! (x )n + Rn, (x, ) Rn, (x),

Rn, (x, ) Schlmlich n Rn, (x)

n. Schlmlich n Lagrange
Cauchy n.
x I limn+ Rn, (x, ) = 0 limn+ Rn, (x) = 0, f -
I Taylor . ,
+ f (n) ()
f (x) = n=0 n! (x )n x I.
19
. Tauber .

384
. 5.1 7.1.
: limn+ Rn, (x, ) 0 x I,
( f () f (n) () )
limn+ f () + 1! (x ) + + n! (x )n = f (x)
+ f (n) ()
, , n=0 n! (x )n = f (x) x I.

10.3.1 .
Taylor .
10.2.1,
.
, , , ,
Taylor .20

10.3.2. P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + am xm
m .
x n m P (n+1) (x) = 0. Lagrange
(n+1)
Rn, (x, ) = P (n+1)!() (x )n+1 = 0, limn+ Rn, (x, ) = 0. Taylor
P
+ P (n) () P () P (m) ()
n=0 n! (x )n = P () + 1! (x ) + + m! (x )m

P () P (m) ()
P (x) = P () + 1! (x ) + + m! (x )m x.

x . ,
(m)
= 0, x P (x) = P (0) + P 1!(0) x + + P m!(0) xm .
n x
10.3.3. ex R ddxen = ex n.
n x
, ddxen (0) = 1 n, Taylor ex 0 + 1 n
n=0 n! x .
Lagrange n ex 0
e
Rn,0 (x, ) = (n+1)! x
n+1 [0, x] [x, 0].

x 0,
e ex
|Rn,0 (x, )| = (n+1)! |x|
n+1 (n+1)! |x|
n+1 0
, x 0,
e
|Rn,0 (x; )| = (n+1)! |x|
n+1 (n+1)! |x|
1 n+1 0.
n
an! 0 2.3.25.
ex (, +) Taylor 0. ,

ex = + 1 n
n=0 n! x x.
n
10.3.4. cos x R d dxcos
n
x
= cos x
n
sin x n. , dxn (0) = 1 0 1 0 , , n = 4k
d cos x

4k + 1 4k + 2 4k + 3 k Z, k 0. Taylor cos x 0
20
10.3.7 10.3.8.

385
 (1)k 2k
+k=0 (2k)! x .
Lagrange n cos x 0
cos n+1 sin n+1
Rn,0 (x, ) = (n+1)! x (n+1)! x , [0, x] [x, 0].

|x|n+1
|Rn,0 (x, )| (n+1)! 0.
, cos x (, +) Taylor 0. ,
+ (1)k 2k
cos x = k=0 (2k)! x x.

sin x (, +) Taylor
0:
(1)k1 2k1
sin x = +
k=1 (2k1)! x x.

10.3.5. log(1 + x) (1, +)

dn log(1+x) n1 n
dxn = (1)(1+x)(n1)!
n n. d log(1+x)
dxn (0) = (1)n1 (n 1)! n
, , Taylor log(1 + x) (1, 1) (1, 1] 0
(1)n1 (n1)! n (1)n1 n
+ n=1 n! x = + n=1 n x . 1
1.
Lagrange 0
(1)n n! (1)n
Rn,0 (x, ) = (1+)n+1 (n+1)!
xn+1 = (1+)n+1 (n+1)
xn+1 , [0, x] [x, 0].

0 < x 1,
xn+1
|Rn,0 (x, )| = (1+)n+1 (n+1)
1
n+1 0.
Lagrange 1 < x 0,
0.
x (1)n n! x (xt)n
Rn,0 (x) = 1
n! 0 (1+t)n+1 (x t)n dt = (1)n 0 (1+t)n+1 dt.

1 < x 0,
 0  0
|Rn,0 (x)| =  x (tx)n
(1+t)n+1
dt = x (tx)n
(1+t)n+1
dt.

1+t ) |x| t [x, 0],

( tx n n

0
|Rn,0 (x)| |x|n 1
x 1+t dt = |x|n log 1+x
1
0.

log(1 + x) (1, 1]. ,

+ (1)n1 n
log(1 + x) = n=1 n x x (1, 1].

,
+ (1)n1
log x = n=1 n (x 1)n x (0, 2]

.
log(1 + x) (1, 1] Taylor
0 , 10.11.
, 10.11.

386
 1(t)n
1+t = 1 + (t) + + (t)n1 ,
t = 1,
n
1
1+t = 1 t + + (1)n1 tn1 + (1)n 1+t
t
.

,
x x x x x tn
1
0 1+t dt = 0 1 dt 0 t dt + + (1)n1 0 tn1 dt + (1)n 0 1+t dt

x > 1,
(1)n1 n x tn
log(1 + x) = x 12 x2 + + n x + (1)n 0 1+t dt (10.12)

x > 1.
0 x 1,
  x x
(1)n x tn
dt = 0 tn
dt tn dt = xn+1
1
0.
0 1+t 1+t 0 n+1 n+1

1 < x 0,
  0
(1)n x tn dt = 0 |t|n
dt 1
|t|n dt = |x|n+1
1
0.
0 1+t x 1+t 1+x x (n+1)(1+x) (n+1)(1+x)
x tn
(1)n 0 1+t dt 0, (10.12)
(1)n1 n
x 12 x2 + + n x log(1 + x)

x (1, 1].
+ (1)n1 n
log(1 + x) = n=1 n x x (1, 1].
(1)n1 2n1
10.3.6. Taylor arctan x 0 + n=1 2n1 x
[1, 1] arctan x [1, 1] Taylor
. ,
(1)n1 2n1
arctan x = + n=1 2n1 x x [1, 1]. (10.13)
arctan x x21+1
10.11.
.
2 )n
1(t
1+t2
= 1 t2 + + (1)n1 t2n2 ,
2n
1
1+t2
= 1 t2 + + (1)n1 t2n2 + (1)n 1+t
t
2

t. ,
x 1 x x 2
n1 x t2n2 dt + (1)n x t2n
0 1+t2 dt = 0 1 dt 0 t dt + + (1) 0 0 1+t2
dt.

(1)n1 2n1 x t2n
arctan x = x 13 x3 + + 2n1 x + (1)n 0 1+t2 dt.

|x| 1,
  |x| |x|
(1)n x t2n
dt = 0 t2n
dt t2n dt = |x|2n+1
1
0.
0 1+t2 1+t2 0 2n+1 2n+1

(1)n1 2n1
x 31 x3 + 15 x5 + 2n1 x arctan x
(10.13).

387
 n
10.3.7. (1 + x) d (1+x) dxn = ( 1) ( n + 1)(1 + x)n
n
n. , 0 d (1+x) (0) = ( 1) ( n + 1) n.

+ (1)(n+1) n + () n
dxn
Taylor (1 + x) 0 n=0 n! x = n=0 n x .
- , (1 + x) -

(
) (
) 1
( ) , ,
1 + 1 x + + 1

x + x .
( ) ( ) ( )
(1 + x) = 1 + 1 x + +
1 x1 + x , Z, 0

Newton , , (1 + x)
(, +) Taylor 0.
- , (1+x) (1, 1)
(1, 1] [1, 1] Taylor 0. ,
( ) n
(1 + x) = + n=0 n x

(i) x (1, 1), 1, (ii) x (1, 1], 1 < < 0, (iii)

x [1, 1], 0 - .
Lagrange
(1)(n)(1+)n1 n+1 (
)
Rn,0 (x, ) = (n+1)! x = n+1 (1+)n1 xn+1 [0, x] [x, 0].

(i) x [0, 1], x 1 1 + 2 , ,

( )
|Rn,0 (x, )| =  n+1 (1 + ) ( x )n+1 .
1+

(ia ) , a > 0, 10.1, n > []

( )
|Rn,0 (x, )| c2 []+1 (n [])1 2 0.

(ib ) 1 < < 0, , 10.1,

|Rn,0 (x, )| c2 (n + 1)1 0.

(ic ) x [0, 1) 1,
( ) n+1
|Rn,0 (x, )| 
n+1
x c2 (n + 1)1 xn+1 0.

(ii) x (1, 0],

(1)(n) x
Rn,0 (x) = n! 0 (1 + t)n1 (x t)n dt,

 0  
|Rn,0 (x)| =  (1)(n)
n!
 (1 + t)n1 (t x)n dt  (1)(n) |x|n 0 (1 + t)1 dt
x n! x
 (1)(n)  n 1(1+x) ( ) n 1(1+x)
=   |x|  
= (n + 1) n+1 |x| .
n!

(iia ) > 0 n > [],

( )
|Rn,0 (x)| c2 (n + 1) []+1 (n [])1 |x|n 1(1+x)
0.

(iib ) < 0,
1
|Rn,0 (x)| c2 (n + 1) |x|n (1+x)
|| 0.

388
 ( ) n
: (1 + x) = + n=0 n x .
x = 1 > 0. , , -
10.11, .
x (1, 0] (iia )
 ( ) ( )  ( )
(1 + x) 1 x xn  = |Rn,0 (x)| c2 (n + 1) (n [])1 |x|n 1(1+x) .

1 n []+1

x 1+
 ( ) ( )  ( )
0 1 (1) (1)n  c2 (n + 1) (n [])1 1 0
1 n []+1
+ ()
n=0 n xn = (1 + x) .

10.3.1. Taylor -
( ) + 1 2n1 + 1 2n + n1 n + (1)n 2n
+ n=1 1 (2) x ,
n n
n=1 2n1 x , n=1 2n x , n=1 n! x , n=0 n! x ,
+ (n+1)2 n + 1 2n1 ,
+ 1 2n
+ (log a)n n + 1 x1 2n1
n=1 n! x , n=1 (2n1)! x n=1 (2n)! x , n=0 n! x , n=1 2n1 ( x+1 ) ,
+ (1)n1 x1 2n1 + (2n)! n + n 147(3n2) n + (1)n1 22n1 2n
n=1 2n1 ( x+1 ) , n=1 2n (n!)2 x , n=1 (1) 369(3n) x , n=1 (2n)! x .

10.3.2. Taylor sin x cos x ,

sin x = sin cos(x ) + cos sin(x ), cos x = cos cos(x ) sin sin(x ),

.
ex +ex ex ex
10.3.3. Taylor 0 cosh x = 2 sinh x = 2 .
1
10.3.4. Taylor 0 tan x, cos x , arcsin x, arccos x.

10.3.5. Taylor 0 sin(x3 ), (sin x)3 , sin x sin(3x), (sin x)

6 + (cos x)6 ,
x
2 , 1x , x arctan x 2 log(1 + x ), x arcsin x + 1 x2 .
1+x 1 e 1
log 1x , log(1 + x + x2 ), 15x+6x 2

+ (1)n1 + (1)n1
10.3.6. n=1 (2n)2 1 , n=1 (2n+1)2 1 .
{
e1/x , x > 0
10.3.7. 5.6.16 h(x) =
0, x 0
R h(n) (0) = 0 n. 0
h(n) (0) n
0 Taylor + n=0 n! x 0 h;
;
{
e1/x , x = 0
2

h(x) =
0, x = 0
k cos(k 2 x) R
10.3.8. f (x) = + k=1 e
+ f (n) (0) n
Taylor n=0 n! x x = 0.

10.3.9. f : I R I. f -
- I I r > 0 ( r, + r) I
f (n) ()
f (x) = + n=0 n! (x ) x ( r, + r). , f
n

- I I f
Taylor .
f : I R I. f
- I I J I

389
 J M 0, > 0 |f (n) (x)| M n!n x J
n Z, n 0.
Bernstein: f : I R
I f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0. f
- I.
f : I R I
(1)n f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0. f -
I.
10.3.7 - (, 0)
(0, +) - -
0. 10.3.8;
x
10.3.10. [] = 0 k N. ((x)2 + 2 )k
((x)12 + 2 )k 0
Taylor 0 Taylor.
[] Taylor
.
(1)k1 xk
10.3.11. x 1, + k=1 k = .
+ (1)k1 xk
x > 1, k=1 k .
10.3.12. - .
( ) k
+k=0 k x = + (i) < 0 x 1 (ii) > 0, []
x < 1.
( ) k
+k=0 k x = > 0, [] x < 1.
( ) k
+k=0 k x (i) x > 1 (ii) x = 1 1.

10.3.13. [] : R R (x) = min{x [x], [x] + 1 x}.

(x) x .
(x + 1) = (x) 0 (x) 12 x.
x [0, 1) 0.x1 x2 x3 . . . () x. ,
x = + xn
n=1 10n , xn 0, 1, . . . 9 (xn )
9.{
0.xn+1 xn+2 . . . , 0 0.xn+1 xn+2 . . . 12
(10n x) = n.
1 0.xn+1 xn+2 . . . , 12 0.xn+1 xn+2 . . . < 1
{
10m , xm = 4 xm = 9
(hm ) hm = m
10 , xm = 4 xm = 9
{
10nm , 1 n m 1
(10n (x + hm )) (10n x) =
0, m n
n
(10 x)
[]21 + n=1 10n .
f : R R R.
f R f (x + 1) = f (x) x.
x [0, 1) (hm ). f (x+hhmm)f (x) =
m1
n=1 1, 1 (
).
( )
f (x+hhmm)f (x) -
1 .
21
x x.

390
 f x.
, f x R.

10.4 .
10.4.1 .
-
.
3.1.8, ,
, -
.

+ k x2k
+ k1 x2k1 ,
k=0 (1) (2k)! , k=1 (1) (2k1)!

10.2.14 R. ,
,
cos x -
sin x. , , cos x, sin x
, .

10.8. cos : R R
sin : R R
. , :
+ k x2k
+ k1 x2k1
cos x = k=0 (1) (2k)! , sin x = k=1 (1) (2k1)! x R. (10.14)

10.4. cos x sin x R

d cos x
dx = sin x, d sin x
dx = cos x.

. 10.10 cos x, sin x R

(10.14)
+ +
cos x = k=1 (1)
k 2k x2k1
(2k)! = k x2k1
k=1 (1) (2k1)! = sin x

+ +
sin x =
2k2
k1 (2k 1) (2k1)!
x k x2k
k=1 (1) = k=0 (1) (2k)! = cos x
x R.

10.5. cos x , sin x cos 0 = 1 sin 0 = 0.

. (10.14).

10.6. [] x, y

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y, sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y. (10.15)

[] x
(sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1.
[] x
| sin x| 1, | cos x| 1.

391
. [] 22 y,

f (x) = cos(y x) cos x sin(y x) sin x,

f (x) = sin(y x) cos x cos(y x) sin x + cos(y x) sin x sin(y x) cos x = 0

x. f R,

cos(y x) cos x sin(y x) sin x = cos(y 0) cos 0 sin(y 0) sin 0 = cos y.

x, y, y y + x
(10.15). (10.15)
x.
[] y = x (10.15) 10.5.
[] [].

, , cos x, sin x , ,
.
10.7. cos x = 0.
k 22k
. cos 0 = 1. , cos 2 = +
k=0 (1) (2k)! ,

k m 22m
m=0 (1) (2m)! cos 2 k +.

k 4,
k m 22m 22 24
( 26 28
) ( 22k2 22k
) 22 24
m=0 (1) (2m)! = 1 2! + 4! 6! 8! (2k2)! (2k)! <1 2! + 4! = 13 ,

. cos 2 13 < 0.
cos x cos 2 < 0 < cos 0, (0, 2)
cos = 0. , 4.2.10,
cos x = 0.

10.9.
cos x = 0.
10.8. [] x
( ) ( )
cos x + 2 = sin x, cos(x + ) = cos x, cos x + 3
2 = sin x, cos(x + 2) = cos x.
(10.16)
, cos x sin x 2.
[] cos x [0, 2 ), ( 2 , 3
2 )
( 2 , 2]. , cos 0 = cos(2) = 1, cos() = 1 cos( 2 ) = cos( 3
3
2 ) = 0.
[] sin x (0, ) (, 2). , sin 0 =
2 ) = 1.
sin = sin(2) = 0, sin( 2 ) = 1 sin( 3
[] cos x [0, ] [1, 1]
[, 2] [1, 1].
[] sin x [0, 2 ] [0, 1],
[ 2 , 3 3
2 ] [1, 1] [ 2 , 2]
[1, 0].
22
Cauchy ,
.

392
. cos x [0, 2 ) ,
[0, 2 ) , cos 0 = 1,

cos 2 = 0 cos x > 0 x [0, 2 ).

sin x = cos x > 0 x [0, 2 ) sin x

[0, 2 ]. ,

sin 0 = 0 sin x > 0 x (0, 2 ].

(sin 2 )2 + (cos 2 )2 = 1 sin 2 = 1 , sin 2 > 0,

sin 2 = 1. sin x , [0, 2 ]
[sin 0, sin 2 ] = [0, 1]. , cos x = sin x < 0 x (0, 2 ]
cos x [0, 2 ]. cos x ,
[0, 2 ] [cos 2 , cos 0] = [0, 1].
, (10.15) cos 0 = sin 2 = 1 cos 2 = sin 0 = 0
cos x sin x , 3 2 2 (10.16).
cos x sin x [0, 2 ],
cos x sin x [ 2 , ], [, 3 3
2 ] [ 2 , 2],
[0, 2].

10.9. a, b a2 + b2 = 1 x [0, 2) cos x = a

sin x = b.

. a, b 0 a2 + b2 = 1. , 0 a, b 1.
cos x [0, 2 ] [0, 1],
x [0, 2 ] cos x = a. (sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1 sin x = b ,
sin x 0, sin x = b. x ( 2 , 2) cos x = a sin x = b,
x ( 2 , 2) cos x sin x .
: a 0, b < 0 a < 0, b 0 a < 0, b < 0.
.

. 4 5 -

. , (10.17), , ,
, , . , , -

( ),
. .

10.10.

| sin x| |x| x |x| | tan x| |x| < 2 . (10.17)

. f (x) = x sin x, R.
f (x) = 1 cos x 0 x, f . , x sin x =
f (x) f (0) = 0 x 0 x sin x = f (x) f (0) = 0 x 0.
| sin x| |x| x.
g(x) = x cos x sin x 2 < x < 2 . g (x) =
x sin x 0 x ( 2 , 2 ), g ( 2 , 2 ). x cos x
sin x = g(x) g(0) = 0 x [0, 2 ) x cos x sin x = g(x) g(0) = 0
x ( 2 , 0]. |x| | tan x| x ( 2 , 2 ).

393
 cos x sin x : ,
.
. -
tan x cot x cos x sin x
cos x sin x. -
.
.

. , , ,
. , ,
. , -
, .
, sin x, cos x, -
: cos x = sin x, sin x = cos x x R cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0.

10.11. f1 , g1 : R R f2 , g2 : R R :
(i) f1 = g1 g1 = f1 ,
(ii) f2 = g2 g2 = f2
(iii) f1 (0) = f2 (0) g1 (0) = g2 (0).
. , f1 = f2 g1 = g2 .

f (x) = ((f1 (x) f2 (x))2 + (g1 (x) g2 (x))2

f (x) = 2(f1 (x) f2 (x))(g1 (x) + g2 (x)) + 2(g1 (x) g2 (x))(f1 (x) f2 (x)) = 0

x. f R,

(f1 (x) f2 (x))2 + (g1 (x) g2 (x))2 = (f1 (0) f2 (0))2 + (g1 (0) g2 (0))2 = 0

x. f1 (x) = f2 (x) g1 (x) = g2 (x) x.

10.4.2 .

. : -
arctan y, , tan x, , sin x cos x.
.

10.10.
y 1
arctan y = 0 1+s2 ds y.

, arctan : R R
1
1+y 2
R. 1+y
1
2 R, arctan y R

arctan y = 1
1+y 2
.

, arctan 0 = 0 , , arctan y -
R. arctan y R. ,
y 1 y
2 ds = 0 1+(s)2 ds = arctan y
1
arctan(y) = 0 1+s

394
 y R.
y 1
y 1 1 y 1 y
arctan y = 0 1+s 2 ds = 0
1
1+s2
ds + 1
1 1+s2 ds 0 1 ds + 1
1 s2 ds = 1 + 1 1
y 2.

arctan y R , , limy+ arctan y

.

10.11.
= 2 limy+ arctan y.

arctan y ,

limy arctan y = limy+ arctan(y) = limy+ arctan y = 2 .

arctan y ( 2 , 2 ).

10.12. ,

tan : ( 2 , 2 ) R

tan : ( 2 , 2 ) R ( 2 , 2 )
R.

limx 2 + tan x = , limx 2 tan x = +.

, k Z, k = 0. x ( 2 + k, 2 + k) x k ( 2 , 2 ),
tan(xk). , tan x = tan(xk).
tan x ( 2 +k, 2 +k) k Z.
x ( 2 +k, 2 +k), xk ( 2 , 2 )
tan x ( 2 , 2 ) ( 2 + k, 2 + k).
, tan x ( 2 + k, 2 + k)
R :
tan : ( 2 + k, 2 + k) R
, limx( 2 +k)+ tan x = limx( 2 +k) tan x = +.
, , tan x kZ ( 2 + k, 2 + k) , ,
R \ { 2 + k | k Z} tan x
.
,
tan x ( 2 , 2 ). x ( 2 , 2 ) y = tan x R

tan x = 1
arctan y = 1
1/(1+y 2 )
= 1 + y 2 = 1 + (tan x)2 .

, ( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z. ,

tan x = 1 + (tan x)2 , x =

2 + k k Z.

10.13. , cos, sin : R R :

(1)k 1 , 2 + k < x < 2 + k k Z
1+(tan x) 2
cos x =
0, x = 2 + k k Z

(1)k tan x
, 2 + k < x <
+ k k Z
1+(tan x)2 2
sin x =
(1)k , x =
+ k k Z
2

395
 , , cos x, sin x. ,
(cos x)2 + (sin x)2 = 1 x, cos x, sin x
( 2 + k, 2 + k) k Z cos x = sin x
sin x = cos x . , ,
2 + k k Z cos x = sin x
sin x = cos x , , R.
.

10.4.1. cos x sin x -

,
.

10.4.2. (, ) -
6 , 4 3 .

10.4.3. :
(i) cos y = cos x y = x + k2 y = x + k2 k Z.
(ii) sin y = sin x y = x + k2 y = x + k2 k Z.
(iii) tan y = tan x y = x + k k Z.
(iv) cot y = cot x y = x + k k Z.

10.4.4. |a cos x + b sin x| a2 + b2 x.

10.4.5. a, b 0. p > 0
q a cos x + b sin x = p cos(x q) x.

396
 .
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 9. Addison-Wesley.
Bartle, R. (1967) The Elements of Real Analysis, Ch VII. Wiley.
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 8, 9. Wiley.
Beardon, A. (1997) Limits: a New Approach to Real Analysis, Ch 6, 8-10. Springer.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 10. Dover.
Bromwich, T. (1991) An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series, Ch VII-IX. American Math.
Society & Chelsea.
Buck, R. & Buck, E. (2003) Advanced Calculus, Ch 6. Waveland Press.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch VIII. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 7. Springer.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 8. Springer.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 9. Wiley.
Goursat, E. (2006) A Course in Mathematical Analysis, Vol I, Ch VIII-IX. Dover.
Grauert, H. & Lieb, I. (1967) Differential- und Integralrechnung, Band I, Kap IV-VII. Springer.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch VII. Dover.
Knopp, K. (1990) Theory and Application of Infinite Series, Ch V-VI, XI. Dover.
Knopp, K. (1956) Infinite Sequences and Series, Ch IV, VI. Dover.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 9-10. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 13-16, 19, 27. American Math. Society
& Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch IX. Springer.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 11. Mir Publishers.
Osgood, W. (1897) Introduction to Infinite Series, Ch II-V. Harvard University.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 8. Springer.
Pugh, C. (2015) Real Mathematical Analysis, Ch 4. Springer.
Rosenlicht, M. (1986) Introduction to Analysis, Ch VII. Dover.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 4-5. Springer.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 7-8. McGraw-Hill.
Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch IV. Pergammon Press.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 24. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 8. Pearson.
Titchmarsh, E. (1976) The Theory of Functions, Ch I. Oxford Univ. Press.
Whittaker, E. & Watson, G. (1996) A Course of Modern Analysis, Ch III. Cambridge Univ. Press.

.
Beals, R. (2004) Analysis, an Introduction, Ch 5, 9. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 3. Dover.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 6, 8-9. Harper and Row.
Goursat, E. (2006) A Course in Mathematical Analysis, Vol I, Ch III. Dover.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch IX. Cambridge Univ. Press.

397
398
 11

11.1 . .
11.1.1. d N, d 2. Rd = R R d
d- :
{ }
Rd = R R = (x1 , . . . , xd ) | x1 , . . . , xd R .

, R2
R3
.
d = 1, R1 = R, R1
.
x, y R,

|x y|.
x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) R2 ,


(x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2 .

, x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) R3 ,


(x1 y1 )2 + (x2 y2 )2 + (x3 y3 )2 .

x, y
[x, y] , -
.
. ,
. ,
0 . , -
.
. ,
. -
, , ,

. ,
. ,
Rd .

399
 11.1. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd x
Rd
x2 = (x1 2 + + xd 2 )1/2 .
, x = (x1 , . . . , xd ), y = (y1 , . . . , yd ) Rd
x, y Rd

x, y = x1 y1 + + xd yd .

CAUCHY. x, y Rd

|x, y| x2 y2 .

. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) y = (y1 , . . . , yd ), t R

tx + y2 2 = (tx1 + y1 )2 + + (txd + yd )2
= t2 (x1 2 + + xd 2 ) + 2t(x1 y1 + + xd yd ) + (y1 2 + + yd 2 ) (11.1)
= t x2 + 2tx, y + y2 .
2 2 2

,
t2 x2 2 + 2tx, y + y2 2 0 (11.2)
t R, (11.2) 0.
, 4x, y2 4x2 2 y2 2 0 , , |x, y| x2 y2 .

. x, y Rd

x + y2 x2 + y2 .

. (11.1) t = 1

x + y2 2 = x2 2 + 2x, y + y2 2 .

Cauchy
( )2
x + y2 2 x2 2 + 2x2 y2 + y2 2 = x2 + y2 .

x + y2 x2 + y2 .

11.2. x, y Rd

d2 (x, y) = x y2

d2 (x, y) = x y2 d -
1, 2 3 .

11.1. x, y, z Rd :
[] 0 d2 (x, y) < +.
[] d2 (x, y) = 0 x = y.
[] d2 (x, y) = d2 (y, x).
[] d2 (x, y) d2 (x, z) + d2 (z, y).

. [], [], [] .
[] x + y2 x2 + y2 , x
x z y z y.

400
 [] 11.1 [] -
.

11.3. X - . X -
d X X

d:X X R

:
(i) d(x, y) 0 x, y X.
(ii) x, y X : d(x, y) = 0 x = y.
(iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) x, y X.
(iv) d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) x, y, z X.
(X, d) X
d , , X d. , d(x, y)
(x, y) x, y.

, - X -
. ,
R, R2 R3 , ,
. ,
R, R2 R3 -
. . : -
X d : X X R. , , X
X
d X.

11.1.2. d2 : Rd Rd R d2 (x, y) = x y2
Rd . 11.1
d2 Rd . (Rd , d2 ) d-
. Rd Rd
.
, Rd , R, R2 , R3 ,
Rd , Rd .
Rd .
Rd , .

11.1.3. - X d : X X R
: {
0, x = y
d (x, y) =
1, x = y
d . (i), (ii), (iii)
. d (x, y) = 0, d (x, y) d (x, z) + d (z, y) , d (x, z)
0 d (z, y) 0. d (x, y) = 1, x = y, x, y
z , , d (x, z), d (z, y) 1
( 0). d (x, y) = 1 d (x, z) + d (z, y).
d X.

11.1.4. - A B(A)
f : A R. ,

B(A) = {f | f : A R }.

401
 9.2

f gA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}

f, g : A R. f, g B(A), f, g
A, 0 f gA < +. , M, N R |f (x)| M
|g(x)| N x A,

|f (x) g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| M + N

x A , , f gA M + N < +.

dA : B(A) B(A) R

dA (f, g) = f gA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}.
dA B(A).
, 9.2,

f gA f hA + h gA

f, g, h B(A). dA B(A). dA
B(A) 1 A.

11.1.1. -
R, R2 , R3 .
11.1.2. [] x, y R d d(x, y) = (x y)2 ,
|xy|
d(x, y) = |x y|1/2 , d(x, y) = |x2 y 2 |, d(x, y) = |x 2y| d(x, y) = 1+|xy| .
d R;
( )1/2
[] x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1 , y2 ) R2 d(x, y) = (x1 y1 )2 + 4(x2 y2 )2 .
d R ;2

[] d(x, y) = |x1 y1 | x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) R3 . d

R3 ;
11.1.3. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd p- x Rd
{
(|x1 |p + + |xd |p )1/p , 1 p < +
xp =
max{|x1 |, . . . , |xd |}, p = +

2- .
1 < p, q < + p1 + 1q = 1, 2 |x, y| xp yq x, y Rd .
p = 1, q = + p = +, q = 1.
p- .3
dp : Rd Rd R dp (x, y) = x yp x, y Rd .
dp Rd . dp p- dp (x, y)
p- x, y.
p- () x Rd p [1, +];
p- () x, y Rd p
[1, +];
1
11.4.3.
2
Hlder 5.4.22 5.5.39.
3
Minkowski 5.4.22.

402
11.1.4. C([a, b]) f : [a, b] R. ,
C([a.b]) = {f | f : [a, b] R }.
f C([a, b]) p- f C([a, b])
{( )1/p
b
|f (x)|p dx , 1 p < +
f p = a
max{|f (x)| | x [a, b]}, p = +
f = f [a,b] .
, f, g C([a, b])
b
f, g = a f (x)g(x) dx.
1 < p, q < + p1 + 1q = 1, 4 |f, g| f p gq f, g
C([a, b]). p = 1, q = + p = +, q = 1.
p- .5
dp : C([a, b])C([a, b]) R dp (f, g) = f gp f, g C([a, b]).
dp C([a, b]). dp p-
dp (f, g) p- f, g.

1 pp < +. lp x = (xn )
11.1.5.
+n=1 |xn | < +. ,

lp = {(xn ) | +
n=1 |xn | < +}.
p

p = +, l x = (xn ),
sup{|xn | | n N} < +. ,
l = {(xn ) | sup{|xn | | n N} < +}.
x = (xn ) lp p- x lp
{( )1/p
+
|xn |p , 1 p < +
xp = n=1
sup{|xn | | n N}, p = +
1 1
1 < p, q < + p + q = 1 p = 1, q = + p = +, q = 1
6 +
x, y = n=1 xn yn
x = (xn ) lp y = (yn ) lq . x, y
|x, y| xp yq x lp y lq .
p- .7
dp : lp lp R dp (x, y) = x yp x, y lp .
dp lp . dp p- dp (x, y)
p- x, y.
11.1.6. (X, d) - W X. -
d : X X R W W . , x, y W d(x, y)
d : W W R d(x, y) d : X X R.
d : W W R W .
d : W W R W (W, d)
(X, d).
4
Hlder 6.4.18.
5
Minkowski 6.4.18.
6
Hlder 6.4.18.
7
Minkowski 8.3.23.

403
11.2 , , .
11.4. (X, d) . x X r > 0, r-
x x r Nx (r)

Nx (r) = {y X | d(y, x) < r}.

N x (r) = {y X | d(y, x) r}.

r- .
11.2.1. R . , x R r > 0,
Nx (r) x
r, (x r, x + r). , N x (r)
[x r, x + r].
R2 x R2 r > 0
x r, x
r .
x r .
R3 x R3 r > 0
x r, x
r . x
r .
R2 R3 , ,
.
, Rd (d-) -
x r Nx (r).
11.2.2. - X d . d
0 1. x X Nx (r) = {x}, 0 < r 1, Nx (r) = X, r > 1.
, N x (r) = {x}, 0 < r < 1, N x (r) = X, r 1.

.
11.1. (X, d) X.
(, ,
) .
. x, y X x = y. d(x, y) > 0
1
r= 2 d(x, y) > 0.

Nx (r) Ny (r) = .
( ) z Nx (r) Ny (r). d(z, x) < r d(z, y) < r
, ,

2r = d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) = d(z, x) + d(z, y) < r + r = 2r,

A X, A X X \ A Ac .
Ac , X \ A
( ) X A.

404
 11.5. (X, d) , A X x X.
x A r > 0 Nx (r) A.
x A r > 0 Nx (r) Ac .
x A r > 0 Nx (r) A =
Nx (r) Ac = .
x A r > 0 Nx (r) A = .
x A r > 0 (Nx (r) \ {x}) A = .
, 1 - 7 .
1. A A A Ac .
2. A A , ,
X : ,
, A. X :
, A.
3. A Ac .
A Ac . A
Ac .
4. A A A Ac ,
A.
A: ( , , )
A ( , , ) Ac .
5. A A.
A A.
6. A A A
A A.
7. x A A \ {x}.
(Nx (r) \ {x}) A = Nx (r) (A \ {x}).
11.6. (X, d) A X.
A = {x X | x A}, A = {x X | x A},
A = {x X | x A}, A = {x X | x A}.
A A, A A, A -
A A A.
11.2.3. R .
A (a, b), (a, b], [a, b), [a, b], A = (a, b), A = {a, b}
A = A = [a, b].
A [a, +) (a, +), A = (a, +), A = {a} A = A = [a, +).
A (, b] (, b), A = (, b), A = {b} A = A = (, b].
A = {a}, A = , A = {a}, A = {a} A = .
A = (a, b) (b, c), A = (a, b) (b, c), A = {a, b, c} A = A = [a, c].
A = {a} (b, c), a < b < c, A = (b, c), A = {a, b, c}, A = {a} [b, c]
A = [b, c].
Q ,
. , Q , ,
. Q = . , Q
, Q ,
, Q = Q = R. , Q Qc .
, Q, Q = R.
(Qc ) = , Qc = (Qc ) = R (Qc ) = R.

405
 11.2.4. a Rd , a = 0 a R.
= {x Rd | x, a = a}
Rd Rd . d = 1 R
, d = 2 R2 d = 3
R3 .
x, a = x1 a1 + + xd ad = a
.
A1 = {x Rd | x, a > a}, A2 = {x Rd | x, a < a}
Rd .
A1 = {x Rd | x, a a}, A2 = {x Rd | x, a a}
Rd .
x A1 , x, a > a.
= x, a a > 0 r=
a2 > 0.
y Nx (r) y x2 < r,
|y x, a| y x2 a2 < ra2 =
, ,
y, a = y x, a + x, a > + x, a = a.
y Nx (r) y A1 Nx (r) A1 .
A1 A1 .
, A2 A2 . ( ,
A2 A1 a a
a a, x, a < a A2
x, a > a.) , A2 A1 .
, A1 A2 .
, x , x, a = a r > 0
x 2a
r
2
a, Nx (r) A1 Nx (r) A2 .
r
, x + 2a 2
a
( )
x + r a x = r a2 < r, x + r
a, a = x, a + 2a
r
a, a = a + 2r a2 > a,
2a2 2 2a2 2a2 2

Nx (r) A1 . , x 2a r
2
a Nx (r) A2 .
, r > 0 Nx (r) A1 = Nx (r) A2 = .
A1 = A1 , A1 = A1 = A1 .
, (A1 ) = A1 , (A1 ) = A1 = A1 .
A2 A2 .
, = , = = .
11.2.5. R2
: A1 -
, A2
. (
11.2.4) ( -
, ).
A A1 . A = A1 , A = A1
A = .
A = . A = , A = A = .
, A , A = .

406
 11.2.6. R3
: A1 ,
A2 .
( 11.2.4), ,
.
A A1 , A = A1 , A = A1
A = .
, A = , A = , A = A = .
A , A = .
11.2.7. - X d A X.
x A, Nx (1) = {x} A. x A A.
, x Ac A. , x X
A. , x A, Nx (1) \ {x} = ,
Nx (1) \ {x} A. A X
A = A = A A = A = .
11.2. (X, d) A X.
[] A = (Ac ).
[] A = A \ A.
[] A = A A.
[] A = A A .
[] (A)c = (Ac ) .
. [] A Ac .
[] x X A, A
A. A A \ A. , x A
A, A. A \ A A .
[] x X A, A (
A) A. A A A. , x A
A, A
A, A. A A A.
[] x X A, A A ,
, A. A A A . ,
x A A,
A. A A A.
[] x X A A
Ac .
11.7. (X, d) A X.
A .
A .
11.2.8. R : (a, b), [a, b], [a, b), (a, b],
(a, +), [a, +), (, b), (, b], (, +).
R : (a, b), (a, +), (, b),
(, +). : [a, b], [a, +), (, b], (, +).

.
[a, b), (a, b] .
-
. ,
.

407
 11.2.9. 11.2.4 A1 A2
Rd A1 A2
Rd .
11.2.10. 11.2.5 A1 A2
A1 , A2 .
11.2.11. 11.2.6 A1 A2
A1 , A2 .
11.2.12. - X d .
11.2.7, A X .
11.3. (X, d).
[] X .
[] X .
[] r- .
[] r- .
[] X .
. [] x X r > 0 Nx (r) X. x X
X, X .
, x . ,
, x . .
[] X , , , .
X .
x X , r > 0 Nx (r) = ,
. x X . ,
. ,
.
[] x X r > 0. y Nx (r). s > 0
Ny (s) Nx (r).
y Nx (r), d(y, x) < r
s = r d(y, x) > 0.
w Ny (s), d(w, y) < s,
d(w, x) d(w, y) + d(y, x) < s + d(y, x) = r
, , w Nx (r). Ny (s) Nx (r).
, , y Nx (r) y Nx (r).
y Nx (r) Nx (r), Nx (r) .
[] x X r > 0 y N x (r).
> 0 z N x (r) Ny ().
d(y, x) d(y, z) + d(z, x) < + r
, > 0, d(y, x) r , , y N x (r).
N x (r) , .
[] A = {x1 , . . . , xn } X. x Ac , d(x, x1 ) > 0, . . . , d(x, xn ) > 0.

r = min{d(x, x1 ), . . . , d(x, xn )} > 0.
x1 , . . . , xn Nx (r) , , Nx (r) Ac . x Ac
A. , A
.

408
 11.4. (X, d) A X.
[] A A A = .
[] A A A.

. [] A -
. A
.
[] A ,
A, . A
.

11.5. (X, d) A X. A
Ac .

. . A A
A Ac
A Ac A Ac
Ac Ac .

, :
A Ac .

11.6. (X, d) A X.
[] A A.
[] A A.
[] A A = A.
[] A A = A.

. [] , A A.
, A .
x A r > 0. x
A, y A Nx (r). , Nx (r) ,
s > 0 Ny (s) Nx (r). , y A,
w A Ny (s) , , Nx (r).
r > 0 w A Nx (r). x
A, x A.
A A, A .
, A A.
B A B.
x A, A. r > 0 Nx (r) A = ,
, A B, Nx (r) B = . x B ,
B , x B.
x A x B, A B.
[] , A A.
A .
x A , A. r > 0 Nx (r) A.
y Nx (r) s > 0 Ny (s) Nx (r) , , Ny (s) A , ,
y A. y Nx (r) A,
y A . Nx (r) A , x A .
x A A , A .
, A A.
B B A.

409
 x B. B , x B,
r > 0 Nx (r) B , , Nx (r) A. x A,
x A .
x B x A , B A .
[] [] [] [], .

. / A A
{A | A }. , x A A x A A .

/ A A {A | A }.
, x A A x A A .
(, , -
) .
A . = {A | }. , A

A = A . ,

A A A A , , A
{A | }
A {A | }, . ,
= {1,
. . . , n} n, -
nk=1 Ak A1 An nk=1 Ak A1 An .
+
+ N, k=1 Ak A1 An

k=1 Ak A1 A2 .

11.1. (X, d).

[] X
M , M = A A. M .
[] A1 , . . . , An X M ,
M = A1 An . M .
[] X M
, M = A A. M .
[] A1 , . . . , An X ,
M = A1 An . M .

. [] x M . A x A. A ,
Nx (r) x Nx (r) A. , Nx (r) M , x
M .
[] x M , x A1 , . . . , x An . Ak ,
Nx (r1 ) A1 , . . . , Nx (rn ) An .

r = min{r1 , . . . , rn },

Nx (r) Nx (r1 ) A1 , . . . , Nx (r) Nx (rn ) An . Nx (r) A1 An = M ,

x M .

[] M c = A Ac , A Ac .
M .
[] M c = A1 c An c , A1 c , . . . , An c . M
.

11.2.13. -
R.

11.2.14. -
R.

410
 11.2.15. R A = {1, 12 , 13 , . . .}.

Ac = (, 0] (1, +) + n=1 ( n+1 , n ). 0 A
1 1 c
c c
0 A . A , ,
A .
, 0 A , , 0
A. , 0 A, A .
11.2.16. R B = {0, 1, 12 , 13 , . . .}. , B c = (, 0)

(1, +) + 1 1
n=1 ( n+1 , n ), , , . B
.
11.2.17. ,
.
, R, An = (0, 1) n, +
n=1 An
= (0, 1),
. , An = (1 1/n, 1 + 1/n) n, + n=1 An = [1, 1],
.

+ .
, R, An = [1, 1] n, n=1 An = [1, 1],
, , An = [1 + 1/n, 1 1/n] n, + n=1 An = (1, 1),
o.
11.2.18.
(a1 , b1 ) (ad , bd ) = {(x1 , . . . , xd ) | ak < xk < bk k = 1, . . . , d}
Rd
. k = 1, . . . , d ek Rd -
0 k- 1,
2d
: d ( )
k=1 {x R | x, ek > ak } {x R | x, ek < bk } .
d d

, -
Rd .
,
[a1 , b1 ] [ad , bd ] = {(x1 , . . . , xd ) | ak xk bk k = 1, . . . , d}
Rd
. , 2d
d ( )
k=1 {x R d | x, e a } {x Rd | x, e b } ,
k k k k

Rd .

11.2.1. - R
. R
.
11.2.2. R;
A R \ A, ( A
) R, N, Q, R \ Q,
R \ {1/n | n N}, R \ {0} {1/n | n N} , [0, 1) {1 + 1/n | n N}.
, ,
.

411
11.2.3. R2 ;
A R2 \ A, A R2 , {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 > 0},
{(x1 , (x2 ) | x1 x2 > 1}, {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 x2 1},
) R2 \ {(n, 0) | n N}, R2 \ {(1/n, 0) | n N},
R2 \ {(0, 0)} {(1/n, 1/m) | n, m N} , {(x1 , 0) | a x1 b}, ({(x1 , 0) | a < x1 < b}, )
R2 \{(x
( 1 , 0) | a x1 b}, R \{(x1 ,)0) | a < x1 < b}, Q , R \Q , R \ [0, 1]){1/n | n N} ,
2 2 2 2 2

R2 \ [0, 1] ({0} {1/n | n N}) .

, ,
.

11.2.4. R3 ;
A R3 \ A, A R3 , {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 +
x2 + (x3 > 1}, {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2)2 < x3 }, {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 > 0}, R3 \ {(n, 0, 1) | n N},
R3 \ {(0, 0, 0)} {( n1 , 0, 0) | n N} , {(x1 , 0, 0) | a < x1 < b}, R3 \ {(x1 , 0, 0) | a x1 b},
Q3 , R3 \ Q3 , R3 \ {(x1 , x2 , 0) | a x1 b, c x2 d}.
, ,
.

11.2.5. Rd p- dp 1 p +.
d = 1 dp .
d = 2
p 1 +. ,
p = 1, p = 2 p = +.
d = 3.

11.2.6. A - R, sup A A.
, A - , inf A A.

11.2.7. R R2
.

11.2.8. [] I0 = [0, 1]. I1 = [0, 31 ][ 23 , 1].

, , , 13
I0 . I1 . , I2 =
[0, 91 ] [ 29 , 13 ] [ 23 , 79 ] [ 89 , 1]. , I3 , I4 , . . . . , ,
In ,
: , , 13

. C = + n=1 In . To C Cantor.
In
;
C .
C , , C = .
R \ C .
C .
[] ( 1
) (Cantor R2): ) I(0 = [0, 1] [0,
( ) 1],
I1 = [0, 3 ] [0, 3 ] [0, 3 ] [ 23 , 1] [ 23 , 1] [0, 31 ] [ 23 , 1] [ 32 , 1]
1 1

I2 , I3 , . . . .
In .
; In
;

C = + n=1 In C R .
2

C , C = .

412

11.2.9. (X, d). r>0 Nx (r) = X r>0 Nx (r) = {x}
x X.

11.2.10. (X, d), A X x X. : x

A x A.

11.2.11. (X, d), x X r > 0. Nx (r) N x (r).

Rd Nx (r) = N x (r).
Nx (r) = N x (r); , , - X -
d Nx (1) N x (1).

11.2.12. (X, d), A X B X.

A \ B B \ A .

11.2.13. (X, d) A X. A = A X \ A A =
A \ A .

11.2.14. (X, d) A, B, A1 , . . . , An X -
X.
[] A B, A B A B.
[] (A ) = A (A) = A.
[] (A1 An ) = A1 An A1 An = A1 An .

( A A) A A A A A A.

R ( A A) = A A . -

R A A = A A.

[] ( A A) A A A A A A.
A, B R (A B) = A B . A, B
R A B = A B.
[] A (A) (A ) A.
A R A = (A) . A R (A ) = A.

11.2.15. (X, d) A X. : A
A A.

11.2.16. (X, d) A, B X.
[] A .
[] A = (A) . , A A .
[] A B, A B .
[] (A ) A .
A R (A ) = A .

11.2.17. (X, d) A, B X.
A = B = A , (A B) = .
A B R A = B = (A B) = R.

11.2.18. (X, d) A, B X.
[] A , (A) = .
A R (A) = R.
[] (A B) A B.
A B = , (A B) = A B.
A, B R (A B) = A B.

413
11.2.19. (X, d), - A X x X.
x A d(x, A) = inf{d(x, y) | y A}.
d(x, A) = 0 x A.

11.2.20. (X, d), - A X r > 0. r- A

NA (r) = {x X | y A d(y, x) < r} = {x X | Nx (r) A = }.

NA (r) = xA Nx (r).
, R NA (r) r > 0 A : {1}, [0, 1],
(0, 1), {0, 1}, N, Q { n1 | n N};
NA (r) A NA (r).

A , A = + 1
n=1 NA ( n ). -
.
( )
11.2.21.
( ) B [0, 1] f
B [0, 1] f (x) = x2 x [0, 1].
f r > 0.
( )
11.2.22. { B [0, 1] f
( ) 0, 0 x 1/3
B [0, 1] f (x) =
1, 1/3 < x 1
f r 21 [0, 1] 13 . ,
, f r > 21
[0, 1].

11.2.23. - A Rd , x, y A
t (0, 1) tx + (1 t)y A. R2
R3 ;
R .
d- ( ) , d- ( )
, ( )
Rd .
A Rd , A ( -)
A Rd .

11.2.24. [] (X, d) A X. A , A = X.
A Nx (r) x X -
A.
Q R; Q2 R2 ; Qd Rd ;
- X d .
[] (X, d) ,
X.
R ; Rd ;
- X d , X -
.
[] (X, d) A X x X. x -
A, r > 0 Nx (r)
A.
A , A .

414
 A P A,
P = P A \ P .
[] (X, d) P X. P , P = P .
R.
(X, d) A X ,
P Z A = P Z P Z = .

11.2.25. [] - X d1 d2 X.
A X (X, d1 )
(X, d2 ) , , A X (X, d2 )
(X, d1 ).
d1 d2 A X
(X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) , , A X
(X, d2 ) (X, d1 ).
X - .
X .
Nxd1 (r) Nxd2 (r) x X (X, d1 )
(X, d2 ), . (i), (ii) .
(i) d1 d2 .
(ii) x X > 0 > 0 Nxd1 () Nxd2 () , ,
x X > 0 > 0 Nxd2 () Nxd1 ().
[] (X, d). d : X X R d (x, y) = d(x,y)+1 d(x,y)

x, y X.
d X d.
[] 11.1.3. p1 , p2 [1, +] p1 - p2 -
Rd .

11.2.26. 11.1.6. (X, d) - W X.

[] x W NxX (r) r- x (X, d) NxW (r)
r- x (W, d), NxW (r) = NxX (r) W .
[] A = (0, 1] W = (0, 1] R.
A0 = (0, 1], A = (0, 1] A = .
[] A W . A (W, d)
B (X, d) A = B W . A
(W, d) B (X, d) A = B W .
[] A W . A,X A (X, d) A,W
A (W, d), A,X A,W .
X W
[] A W . A A (X, d) A
W X
A (W, d), A = A W .
[] A W . X A A (X, d) W A
A (W, d), W A X A W .

11.3 .
11.8. (X, d) A X x0 X A.
( ) x A,
x0 r > 0 x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r ,
, x (Nx0 (r) \ {x0 }) A.

415
 :
x A x0
, , x0 , x0 .
, r1 > 0 x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r1
r2 > 0 x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r2 .

r = min{r1 , r2 } > 0
x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r 0 < d(x, x0 ) < r1 0 < d(x, x0 ) <
r2 , , .

11.9. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, f : A Y , x0 X

A y0 Y . y0 f x0 ,

y0 = limxx0 f (x),

> 0 > 0 f (x) Ny0 () x (Nx0 () \ {x0 }) A

, , > 0 > 0 (f (x), y0 ) < x A
0 < d(x, x0 ) < , , > 0 (f (x), y0 ) < x0 .

3.2 (X, d) (Y, ) R.

11.3.1. - X
d . X ,
X .

11.7. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, f : A Y x0 X

A. Y f x0 , .

. y0 = limxx0 f (x) y0 = limxx0 f (x), y0 y0

Y , ( ) y0 = y0 .
11.1, > 0 Ny0 () Ny0 () = .
f (x) Ny0 () x0 , , f (x) Ny0 () x0 .
f (x) Ny0 () f (x) Ny0 () x0 .

11.7, -
.

4.1 (X, d) (Y, ) R.

11.10. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, f : A Y x0 A.

f x0 > 0 > 0 f (x)
Nf (x0 ) () x Nx0 () A , , > 0 > 0
(f (x), f (x0 )) < x A d(x, x0 ) < .

x0 A A (
A), 8 ,
R, f x0 . , x0 A
A, f x0 limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ).

11.11. (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y . f

A A.
8
11.3.2.

416
 11.2. 9 (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y .
:
(i) f A.
(ii) W Y U X f 1 (W ) = U A.
(iii) F Y G X f 1 (F ) = G A.

. [i ii]. W Y x f 1 (W ), f (x) W .
W , x > 0

Nf (x) (x ) W.

, f x, x > 0

f (x ) Nf (x) (x ) x Nx (x ) A.

f (x ) W , , x f 1 (W ) x Nx (x ) A.

Nx (x ) A f 1 (W ) x f 1 (W ). (11.3)

U= xf 1 (W ) Nx (x ). (11.4)
U X, ,
X.
(11.3) (11.4)
( )
U A = xf 1 (W ) Nx (x ) A f 1 (W ). (11.5)

, x f 1 (W ) , , x A. ,
(11.4), x f 1 (W ) x U .

f 1 (W ) U A. (11.6)

(11.5) (11.6) f 1 (W ) = U A.
[ii i]. x A f x.
> 0. Nf (x) () Y , U X
( )
f 1 Nf (x) () = U A. (11.7)
( )
f (x) Nf (x) (), x f 1 Nf (x) () = U A , , x U . U
X, > 0 Nx () U . (11.7)
( )
Nx () A f 1 Nf (x) () .
( )
x Nx () A x f 1 Nf (x) () , , f (x ) Nf (x) ().
f x.
[ii iii]. F Y . W = Y \ F Y ,
U X f 1 (W ) = U A. G = X \ U
X

f 1 (F ) = f 1 (Y \ W ) = A \ f 1 (W ) = A \ (U A) = (X \ U ) A = G A.
9
. 11.1.6
11.2.26 ( []). (ii) : W (Y, ) f 1 (W )
(A, d). (iii) : W (Y, ) f 1 (W )
(A, d).

417
[iii ii]. W Y . F = Y \ W Y ,
G X f 1 (F ) = G A. U = X \ G X

f 1 (W ) = f 1 (Y \ F ) = A \ f 1 (F ) = A \ (G A) = (X \ G) A = U A.

11.3.2.
. R.
A (X, d), f : A R A a, b R.
A f X,

{x A | a < f (x)} = f 1 ((a, +)), {x A | f (x) < b} = f 1 ((, b)),

{x A | a < f (x) < b} = f 1 ((a, b))

X.
, (a, +) R, U X
f 1 ((a, +)) = U A. A X,
f 1 ((a, +)) = U A X.
.
A f X,

{x A | a f (x)} = f 1 ([a, +)), {x A | f (x) b} = f 1 ((, b]),

{x A | a f (x) b} = f 1 ([a, b])

X.
, ,
R.
, ,
f : A R A .
.

11.8. (X, d), (Y, ) (Z, ) , A X, B Y , x0 A,

f : A B g : B Z. f x0 g y0 = f (x0 ),
g f : A Z x0 .

. > 0. > 0

(g(y), g(y0 )) < y B (y, y0 ) < . (11.8)

, > 0

(f (x), y0 ) = (f (x), f (x0 )) < x A d(x, x0 ) < . (11.9)

(11.9) (11.8) y = f (x) x A d(x, x0 ) <

(g(f (x)), g(f (x0 ))) < . g f : A Z x0 .

11.9. (X, d), A X, x0 A f, g : A R

x0 . :
[] f + g : A R x0 , R.
[] f g : A R x0 .
[] B = {x A | g(x) = 0} g(x0 ) = 0, g1 : B R x0 .

418
. x0 A, -
x0 . x0 A.
[] > 0. |f (x) f (x0 )| < 2(||+1)

|g(x) g(x0 )| < 2(||+1)


x0 .
 
(f (x) + g(x)) (f (x0 ) + g(x0 )) |||f (x) f (x0 )| + |||g(x) g(x0 )|
|| 2(||+1)

+ || 2(||+1)

<
2 +
2 =
x0 , f + g : A R x0 .
[] > 0
{ }
1 = min ( 3 )1/2 , 3(|f (x0 )|+1) , 3(|g(x0 )|+1) > 0.
|f (x) f (x0 )| < 1 |g(x) g(x0 )| < 1 x0 .
|f (x)g(x) f (x0 )g(x0 )| |f (x) f (x0 )||g(x) g(x0 )| + |f (x0 )||g(x) g(x0 )|
+ |g(x0 )||f (x) f (x0 )|
1 2 + |f (x0 )|1 + |g(x0 )|1 <
3 +
3 +
3 =
x0 , f g : A R x0 .
|g(x0 )| |g(x0 )|
[] 2 > 0, |g(x) g(x0 )| < 2 x0 .
|g(x0 ) |g(x0 )|
|g(x)| = |g(x0 ) + (g(x) g(x0 ))| |g(x0 )| |g(x) g(x0 )| > |g(x0 )| 2 = 2

x0 .
g(x0 )2
> 0. |g(x) g(x0 )| < 2 x0 .
|g(x0 )| g(x0 )2
|g(x)| > 2 |g(x) g(x0 )| < 2 x0 , ,
 
 1  |g(x)g(x0 )| 2|g(x)g(x0 )|
g(x) g(x0 ) = |g(x)||g(x0 )|
1
g(x0 )2
<

x0 . 1
g : B R x0 .
, ,
, .
11.3.3. Rd k 1 k d k-
k : Rd R

k (x) = xk x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd .
k ,
( )1/2
|k (x) k (y)| = |xk yk | (x1 y1 )2 + + (xd yd )2 = x y2
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) y = (y1 , . . . , yd ) Rd .
, g : R R , f : Rd R
f (x) = g(xk ) x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd
, f = g k .
p : Rd R,
p(x1 , . . . , xd ) = Ax1 a1 xd ad + Bx1 b1 xd bd + ,
,
, . , -
, (
) , -
... .

419
 11.3.4. (X, d) - A X.
BC(A) , f : A R. ,

BC(A) = {f | f : A R }.

BC(A) , , B(A). B(A) -

A A (X, d) -
A BC(A).
f, g BC(A)

dA (f, g) = f gA = sup{|f (x) g(x)| | x A}

B(A).

dA : BC(A) BC(A) R

BC(A) .
, 11.1.4 dA (i) (iv)
f, g, h B(A), , BC(A) B(A), -
dA (i) (iv) f, g, h BC(A).

11.3.1. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0 X A

f : A Y x0 , y0 Y r > 0
f (x) = y0 x Nx0 (r) A. limxx0 f (x) = y0 .

11.3.2. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0 A f : A Y .

x0 A, f x0 .
x0 A, f x0
limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ).

11.3.3. f A
(X, d ), d , A.

11.3.4. (X, d) (Y, ), B A X A B, y0 Y f : A Y

A. f (x) = y0 x B, f (x) = y0 x A.

11.3.5. {x R | 2 < x3 x < 4} {x R | sin2 x < ex < sin x}

R. {x [0, 1] | 14 < x2 < 4} R;
{x R2 \ {0} | ex2 + sin x2 > 0} R2 .
{x R2 \ {0} | x2 x2 3 3} R2 ;

11.3.6. (X, d) (Y, ) f : X Y .

:
(i) f X.
( )
(ii) f 1 (B ) f 1 (B) B Y .
(iii) f (B) f (B) B X.

11.3.7. (X, d), A X, x0 A, f, g : A R

limxx0 f (x) = l limxx0 g(x) = m.
limxx0 (f + g)(x) = l + m limxx0 (f g)(x) = lm.
, , m = 0, B = {x A | g(x) = 0} x0
B g1 : B R limxx0 g(x)
1
=m 1
.

420
11.3.8. [] (X, d), - A X d( , A) : X R
11.2.19. |d(x, A) d(y, A)| d(x, y)
x, y X d( , A) : X R .
[] (X, d) - A B X A B = .
d(x,A)
f : X R f (x) = d(x,A)+d(x,B) x X.
f .
f (x) = 1 x B f (x) = 0
x A.
( ) ( )
O K = f 1 (, 12 ) L = f 1 ( 21 , +) . K L
X, K L = A K B L.

11.4 .
2.2
R.

11.12. (X, d), x X (xn ) X.

(xn ) x (X, d) x (xn ) (X, d),

xn x limn+ xn = x,

> 0 n0 xn Nx () n n0 , ,
> 0 n0 d(xn , x) < n n0 , ,
> 0 d(xn , x) < .

11.10. (X, d) (xn ) X.

(xn ), .

. xn x xn x ( )
x = x .
> 0 Nx () Nx () = . xn Nx ()
xn Nx () , , .

11.10, .

11.4.1. (X, d), x X (xn ) X

x. xn x.
, n0 xn = x n n0 .
> 0 n n0 d(xn , x) = 0 < . xn x.

Rd
.

11.11. xn = (xn,1 , . . . , xn,d ) Rd n x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd .

.
(i) xn x Rd .
(ii) xn,k xk R k = 1, . . . , d.

. [i ii]. xn x Rd . > 0
xn x2 < . , k = 1, . . . , d
( )1/2
0 |xn,k xk | (xn,1 x1 )2 + + (xn,d xd )2 = xn x2 < .

k = 1, . . . , d xn,k xk R.

421
[ii i]. xn,k xk R k = 1, . . . , d. > 0
|xn,k x| < / d k = 1, . . . , d.
( )1/2 2
xn x2 = (xn,1 x1 )2 + + (xn,d xd )2 < (d d )1/2 = .

xn x Rd .

11.4.2. - X d Nx () = {x},
0 < 1, Nx () = X, 1 < .
(xn ) x, = 12 n0 xn Nx ( 12 ) =
{x} , , xn = x n n0 , (xn ) . ,
11.4.1, .
(X, d )
.

11.4.3. 11.1.4, (B(A), dA ),

A - B(A) f :
A R. f, g B(A)

dA (f, g) = f gA = sup{|f (x) g(x) | x A}.

(fn ) B(A), (fn ) -

f B(A) (B(A), dA ) > 0
fn f A = dA (fn , f ) < ,

fn f A 0.

, , , 9.3, -
(fn ) f A. , ,
(B(A), dA )
A. dA , -
B(A), A.
(BC(A), dA ) -
11.3.4 A - , BC(A)
f : A R dA
BC(A). (BC(A), dA ) -
A.
.

, ,
:
, (, , )
, , .

11.12. (X, d), A X x X.

[] x A (xn ) A xn x.
[] x A (xn ) A \ {x}
xn x.

.
(1) [] x A n N.
Nx n A xn . ,
xn A d(xn , x) < n1 n , , > 0 d(xn , x) <
(xn ) A xn x.
, (xn ) A xn x. > 0,

422
 xn Nx () , , Nx () x
A. x A.
[] [], x A
A \ {x}.

11.4.4. (X, d) A X. x A
A, (x) A x.

11.4.5. a < b [a, b] R.

x [a, b] [a, b]. ,
( x [a,
) b]
[a, b]. , a x < b, x + bx [a, b] \ {x}
( ) n
x , x = b, b n [a, b] \ {b} b.
ba

, , a < b < c [a, b] {c} R. x [a, b] {c}

[a, b] {c}. , , x [a, b]
[a, b] {c}. , ( c
) [a, b] {c},
(xn ) [a, b] {c} \ {c} = [a, b] c.

11.13. (X, d) A X. .
(i) A .
(ii) x, A, A.

. [i ii]. x (xn ) A xn x.
11.12, x A, , A , x A.
[ii i]. x A. , 11.12,
A x , , x A. A ,
.

11.4.6. [a, b] R x
(xn ) [a, b]. , a xn b n xn x.
n +, a x b, , x [a, b]. [a, b]
.
, [a, +), (, b], (, +) .
(a, b) x, x = a x = b,
(a, b), (a + (b a)/2n) (b (b a)/2n), ,
(a, b). (a, b) .
(a, +), (, b), [a, b), (a, b] .

11.14 11.15 3.1 4.1, ,

R.

11.14. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0

A, y0 Y f : A Y . .
(i) limxx0 f (x) = y0 .
(ii) (xn ) A \ {x0 } xn x0 f (xn ) y0 .

. [i ii]. (xn ) A \ {x0 } xn x0 . > 0,

> 0

d(f (x), y0 ) < x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < . (11.10)

, n0

d(xn , x0 ) < n n0 . (11.11)

423
 xn = x0 n, (11.11) (11.10) x = xn -
n n0 d(f (xn ), y0 ) < . f (xn ) y0 .
[ii i]. limxx0 f (x) = y0 . > 0 > 0
x A 0 < d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), y0 ) . n N

xn A 0 < d(xn , x0 ) < 1

n (f (xn ), y0 ) .

(xn ) A\{x0 } xn x0 f (xn ) y0 .

, limxx0 f (x) = y0 .

11.15 -
11.14.
11.15. (X, d) (Y, ), A X, x0 A f : A Y .
.
(i) H f x0 .
(ii) (xn ) A xn x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ).
. [i ii]. (xn ) A xn x0 . > 0,
> 0

d(f (x), f (x0 )) < x A d(x, x0 ) < . (11.12)

, n0

d(xn , x0 ) < n n0 . (11.13)

(11.13) (11.12) x = xn n n0
d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < . f (xn ) f (x0 ).
[ii i]. f x0 . > 0 > 0
x A d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), f (x0 )) . n N

xn A d(xn , x0 ) < 1
n (f (xn ), f (x0 )) .

(xn ) A xn x0 f (xn ) f (x0 ).

f x0 .

11.4.1. xn x (X, d) (xnk ). xnk x

(X, d).
11.4.2. xn x yn y (X, d). d(xn , yn ) d(x, y) R.
11.4.3. (X, d), A X x X. x
A (xn ) A (xn ) Ac xn x xn x.
11.4.4. (xn ) (yn ) Rd (n ) R. xn x,
yn y Rd n R, xn + yn x + y n xn x Rd
xn , yn x, y R.
11.4.5. , { n1 | n N}
R {0} { n1 | n N} R.
11.4.6. , , ,
Rd
Rd .

424
11.4.7. - X d . , -
A X .
11.4.8. (BC([a, b]), dA ) -
[a, b] I : BC([a, b]) R
b
I(f ) = a f (x) dx f BC([a, b]).

I .
11.4.9. (X, d) (xn ) X.
(xn ) X .

11.5 .
11.13 11.16 2.18
2.17 R.
11.13. (X, d) (xn ) X. (xn )
Cauchy > 0 n0 d(xn , xm ) < n, m
n0 .
11.16. (X, d) (xn ) X. (xn ) ,
Cauchy.
. xn x > 0. n0 d(xn , x) < 2
n n0 . , d(xm , x) < 2 m n0 .
n, m n0

d(xn , xm ) d(xn , x) + d(x, xm )

2 +
2 = .

(xn ) Cauchy.

11.14. (X, d) A X. A
(xn ) A, Cauchy, A.
(X, d) X ,
(xn ) X, Cauchy, X.
11.5.1. 2.6, R
.
11.5.2. - X d Cauchy
(xn ). = 1 n0 d (xn , xm ) < 1 n, m n0 .
xn = xm n, m n0 , , (xn ) , .
(X, d ) .
11.3. Rd .
. (xn ) Cauchy Rd . > 0,
n0 xn xm 2 < n, m n0 . xn = (xn,1 , . . . , xn,d ),
k = 1, . . . , d

|xn,k xm,k | xn xm 2 <

n, m n0 , , k = 1, . . . , d (xn,k ) Cauchy
R. , R , k = 1, . . . , d xk R xn,k xk
R. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) xn x Rd .

425
 11.4. (B(A), dA ) .

. Cauchy (fn ) (B(A), dA ). > 0 n0

fn fm A n, m n0 .
x A. > 0 n0

|fn (x) fm (x)| fn fm A n, m n0 .

(fn (x)) Cauchy , ,

.
f (x) = limn+ fn (x) x A, f : A R.
> 0 n0

|fn (x) fm (x)| x A n, m n0 . (11.14)

limm+ (11.14), > 0 n0

|fn (x) f (x)| x A n n0 . (11.15)
f A,
B(A). , (11.15) n = n0 fn0
A, M |fn0 (x)| M x A,

|f (x)| |fn0 (x) f (x)| + |fn0 (x)| + M x A.

, (11.15) > 0 n0

fn f A n n0 .

(fn ) f (B(A), dA ).

11.5. (X, d) A X. (BC(A), dA )

.

. Cauchy (fn ) (BC(A), dA ). BC(A)

B(A), (fn ) B(A). , dA -
BC(A) dA
B(A), (fn ) Cauchy (B(A), dA ). ,
11.4, f B(A) (fn ) f (B(A), dA ). -
f A f BC(A).
A > 0. n0 fn f A < 3 n n0 ,
, fn0 f A < 3 . fn0 , > 0
|fn0 (x) fn0 ()| < 3 x N () A. x N () A

|f (x) f ()| |f (x) fn0 (x)| + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + |fn0 () f ()|
fn0 f A + |fn0 (x) fn0 ()| + fn0 f A <
3 +
3 +
3 = .

f .

11.17. (X, d) A X. A , A
.

. x A. (xn ) A xn x. (xn )
, Cauchy. A , (xn )
A. , A x.
A , .

426
 11.18. (X, d) A B X. B A
, A .

. (xn ) A, Cauchy. (xn ) B

, B , (xn ) , x, B. (xn )
A, x A , A , x A.
(xn ) A, Cauchy, A,
A .

11.15. (X, d) - M X.
M , diam M ,

diam M = sup{d(x, y) | x, y M }.

{d(x, y) | x, y M } -, M - , x M ,
d(x, x) = 0 . , R
- . , supremum
0 , , supremum
+. , M

0 diam M +.

11.5.3. Rd
d- .

11.5.4. (X, d) x X r > 0

diam N x (r) 2r. , y, z N x (r)

d(y, z) d(y, x) + d(x, z) r + r = 2r.

11.19. (X, d) F1 , F2 . . . . - -
X Fn+1 Fn n diam Fn 0.
Fn , , +
n=1 Fn .

. xn Fn (xn ).
> 0. n0 diam Fn0 < . n, m n0 xn Fn
Fn0 xm Fm Fn0 , ,

d(xn , xm ) diam Fn0 < .

(xn ) Cauchy , F1
F1 , (xn ) F1 . , x F1
xn x. , , m (xn )
Fm , , x Fm . , Fm ,
x. x
,
Fm , +
m=1 Fm .
+m=1 mF , x, y, m x, y Fm ,

0 d(x, y) diam Fm 0.

d(x, y) = 0, y = x. +n=1 Fn .

11.16. (X, d) A X. A A =
X.

11.5.5. Q R.

427
 BAIRE. (X, d). n Un
X, +
n=1 Un X.

. x X r > 0.
U1 , U1 = X, x U1 ,
U1 Nx (r) - ( ).
x1 X r1 > 0
N x1 (r1 ) U1 Nx (r).
, , r1 , , ,

0 < r1 < 1.

U2 , U2 = X, x1 U2 ,
U2 Nx1 (r1 ) - . x2 X r2 > 0

N x2 (r2 ) U2 Nx1 (r1 ).

, , r2 , , ,

0 < r2 < 21 .

( ,
) ,
Nxn (rn )

N xn+1 (rn+1 ) Un+1 Nxn (rn ), 0 < rn < 1

n n.

, N xn (rn ) , , X. ,

0 diam N xn (rn ) 2rn < 2

n 0.

, 11.19, () y N xn (rn ).
, y N x1 (r1 ) , ,
+ Nx (r). ,
N xn (rn ) Un
+n, y n=1 Un .
,
+ , n=1 Un
+ x, x
n=1 Un . x X, n=1 Un .

11.5.1. (X, d) A X. A A
.
, X
+ n Fn
X, n=1 Fn .
11.5.2. . (X, d)
F f : X R x X Mx
|f (x)| Mx f F . - U X
M |f (x)| M f F x U .
11.5.3. 11.1.4 11.1.5.
1 p +, (lp , dp ) .
( )
1 p < +, C([a, b]), dp .
11.5.4. 10 (X, d). F1 , F2 . . . . -

+ X, Fn+1 Fn n diam Fn 0,
n=1 F n -, .
10
, 11.19.

428
11.5.5. 11 (X, d) A X. 0 M < 1 f : A A
d(f (x), f (y)) M d(x, y) x, y A, f A
A f () = .

11.6 .
11.17. - X M X X.
, A X.

M M A A. , , ,
M .
M . ,
.
(X, d) M X. M A
, M .
, M
M , M . , , ,
M N M , N .
( )
11.6.1. R [0, 1], Ax = x 100 1 1
, x + 100
= {Ax | x R}.
, , [0, 1].( )
Axk = xk 100 1
, xk + 1001 k
, xk = 100 k =

0, . . . , 100, = {Axk | k = 0, . . . , 100}
[0, 1] .
[0, 1] [0, 1]
.
( )
11.6.2. R R, Ax = x 100 1 1
, x + 100
= {Ax | x R},
R. R
.
( 1 . ,
)
(
)
Ax1 = x1 100 1
, x1 + 100 , . . . , Axn = xn 100 1
, xn + 100 1
=
{Axk | k = 1, . . . , n},

( R. , ) l = min{x1 , . . . , xn }
u = max{x1 , . . . , xn }, A A l 100 , u + 100
1 1
.
R
R .
11.6.3. R R, (n, +) (, n)
= {(n, +), (, n) | n N}.
, R = {(1, +), (, 1)} , ,
R , , .
R R -
.
11.6.4. R ( 1 )(0, 1) = {Ax | x R}
11.6.1, Ax = x 100 1
, x+ 100 . (0, 1). =
{Axk | k = 0, . . . , 100}, xk = 100
k
, , 11.6.1,
(0, 1) .
(0, 1) (0, 1)
.
11
4.3.5.

429
 11.6.5. R (0, 1), An = ( n1 , 1)
= {An | n = 2, 3, . . . }.
(0, 1), x (0, 1) ( n1 , 1),
n n1 < x < 1.
( 1 )
( 1 )
, An1 = n1 , 1 , . . . , AnN = nN , 1 ,
= {Ank | k = 1, . . . , N
}, 1 (0, 1). ,
m = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, A A = ( m , 1).
(0, 1)
(0, 1) .

, R :
(i) M = (0, 1) M = R
M M
M M
.
(ii) M = [0, 1] M
M
[0, 1] M .
[0, 1]
M ; !
[0, 1], , , -
R :
(X, d) M X, -
M M ;
,
. -
, .

11.18. (X, d) M X. M
M M
.

11.6.6. 11.6.2 11.6.5, R (0, 1)

R.

11.6.7. (X, d) M X. , M =
{x1 , . . . , xn } x1 , . . . , xn X. M .
M . xk M Ak
. , , M = {x1 , . . . , xn } A1 An , , =
{A1 , . . . , An } M . M .

11.6.8. - X d M X.
M .
, M , ,
, .
, M . x M Ax = {x},
, = {Ax | x M } M . M
, M .
= {Ax1 , . . . , Axn } x1 , . . . , xn M M Ax1 Axn = {x1 }
{xn } = {x1 , . . . , xn }. , , x1 , . . . , xn M , M = {x1 , . . . , xn } ,
, M .

430
 11.19. (X, d) M X. M
x0 X R M Nx0 (R) , ,
d(x, x0 ) < R x M .

, M N M , N .

11.6.9. R M
(a, b). , Rd M
.
, M Rd , R < + x0 = (x0,1 , . . . , x0,d )

( )1/2
(x1 x0,1 )2 + + (xd x0,d )2 = x x0 2 < R
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) M . |xk x0,k | < R k = 1, . . . , d
x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) M . x M

x [x0,1 R, x0,1 + R] [x0,d R, x0,d + R],

M . [x0,1 R, x0,1 +R] [x0,d R, x0,d +R].

, M [a1 , b1 ] [ad , bd ]. x0,k = ak +bk

bk ak
2
k = 1, . . . , d R = d max{ 2 | 1 k d}. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) M
|xk x0,k | Rd k = 1, . . . , d , ,
( )1/2 ( R2 )1/2
x x0 2 = (x1 x0,1 )2 + + (xd x0,d )2 d d = R.

M Rd .

11.6.10. - X d . M X
, , X .
d , 0 1. , ,
x0 X, d (x, x0 ) 1 x X.

M -
. , R R
R .

11.20. (X, d) M X. M ,
.

. x0 X = {Nx0 (n) | n N}.

M (, , X),
M . ,
n1 , . . . , nN M Nx0 (n1 ) Nx0 (nN ). R = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, -
M Nx0 (R) , , M . ( )c
x0 M c . An = {x X | d(x, x0 ) > n1 } = N x0 ( n1 ) -
= {An | n N}. M ,
M . , n1 , . . . , nN M An1 AnN .
n = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, M An , , Nx0 ( n1 ) M c . -
x0 M c M c . M c , ,
M .

11.21. (X, d) N M X. M
N , N .

431
. N . 1 = {N c }
M (, , X). ,

M X = N c N N c A A = A1 A.

M , 1 M 1 .
, A1 , . . . , An 1 ( )
M A1 An . , , N c
A1 , . . . , An .
N c = An ( A1 , . . . , An ).
M A1 An M A1 An1 N c , N A1 An1 .
= {A1 , . . . , An1 } N
.
A1 , . . . , An , = {A1 , . . . , An }
N .
, , N .

11.22 , , ,
.

11.22. (X, d) M, N X M N = . M
N , > 0 d(x, y) x M
y N.

. x M x N c , N c , x > 0
Nx (x ) N c , , Nx (x ) N = . , ,

d(x, y) x x M y N. (11.16)

{Nx ( 2x ) | x M } M , , M -
, x1 , . . . , xn M
x1
M Nx1 ( 2 ) Nxn ( x2n ). (11.17)

x1
= min{ 2 , . . . , x2n } > 0. (11.18)
xk
x M , (11.17), k = 1, . . . , n x Nxk ( 2 ) ,
, (11.16) (11.18), y N
xk xk
d(x, y) d(y, xk ) d(x, xk ) xk 2 = 2 .

d(x, y) x M y N .

11.6
R: [a1 , b1 ] [a2 , b2 ] . . . [an , bn ] . . . ,
x [an , bn ] , , , bn an 0, x
.

11.6. (X, d) K1 , K2 . . . . -
X K n+1 Kn n.
Kn , , +n=1 Kn . , , diam Kn 0,
Kn .

432

. + n=1 Kn = . = {Kn | n N}
c

K1 (, , X).
,
K1 X = c = + n=1 Kn .
c

K1 , n1 , . . . , nN
K1 Kn1 c KnN c . n = max{n1 , . . . , nN }, K1 Kn c ,
, Kn K1 Kn = .
diam Kn 0. x, y Kn ,

0 d(x, y) diam Kn

n. d(x, y) = 0 , , x = y.

11.7 ,
, .12
11.7. (X, d) M X. .
(i) M .
(ii) M M .
. [i ii]. (xn ) M .
x M Nx (x ) x ( x x),
(xn ). = {Nx (x ) | x M }
M . M . ,
x1 , . . . , xn

M Nx1 (x1 ) Nxn (xn ).

(xn ),
, , M , (xn ). , , -
(xn ) M .
, , x0 M > 0
Nx0 () (xn ). Nx0 (1) (xn ),
n1 1 xn1 Nx0 (1). , Nx0 ( 12 ) (xn ),
n2 > n1 xn2 Nx0 ( 21 ). , Nx0 ( 13 ) (xn ),
n3 > n2 xn3 Nx0 ( 13 ). ,
(xnk ) (xn ) xnk Nx0 ( k1 ) , , d(xnk , x0 ) < k1 k.
xnk x0 (X, d).
[ii i]. 1. > 0.
x1 , . . . , xn M
M Nx1 () Nxn ().
. x1 M . M Nx1 (). x2 M
x2 Nx1 (). M Nx1 () Nx2 (). x3 M x3 Nx1 () Nx2 ().
12
, 11.7 .
(X, d) M X. M M
M .
,
( )
. , , ,
, 11.7 ,
( ),
, . , ,
, , , , 11.7
.

433
M Nx1 () Nx2 () Nx3 (). x4 M x4 Nx1 () Nx2 () Nx3 (). -
(xn ) M d(xn , xm )
n, m n = m. , ,
(xn ) .
2. M . > 0 -
: x M Nx () A .13
> 0 . , > 0
x M Nx () A . = n1
n N n xn M Nxn ( n1 )
A . , , (xnk ) (xn )
x0 M . x0 A . x0 A0 . A0
, > 0 Nx0 () A0 . nk
1
d(xnk , x0 ) < 2 nk < 2 .

x Nxnk ( n1k )

d(x, x0 ) d(x, xnk ) + d(xnk , x0 ) < 1

nk + d(xnk , x0 ) <
2 +
2 =

, , Nxnk ( n1k ) Nx0 () A0 , Nxnk ( n1k )

A .
3. M . , 2, > 0
x M Nx () A . 1,
x1 , . . . , xn M

M Nx1 () . . . Nxn ().

, , Nxk () A . Nxk () Ak .

M Nx1 () Nxn () A1 An .

, = {A1 , . . . , An } M .

11.6.11. (a, b] R (xn ) xn = a + ba n

n. xn a, (xn ) a. (xn )
(a, b] (a, b]. (a, b]
R.

11.6.12. [a, b] R (xn )

[a, b]. (xn ) . , Bolzano - Weierstrass R,
(xn ) (xnk ) x R.
[a, b] (xnk ) [a, b], x [a, b]. , ,
[a, b] [a, b] ,
, [a, b] R.

11.6.13. [a, +) R (xn ) xn = a + n

n. xn +, +. (xn )
[a, +) [a, +).
[a, +) R.

, M
: M
M . M
13
Lebesgue M .

434
 : M -
M .
11.6.12, Bolzano -
Weierstrass R.
11.23. Rd
.
. M = [a1 , b1 ] [ad , bd ]. (xn ) M
xn = (xn,1 , . . . , xn,d ) n.
[ak , bk ] [ak , ak +b ak +bk
2 ] [ 2 , bk ],
k

M 2d . , , M
M -
M . , (xn ) M , -
2d (xn ).
M1 = [a1,1 , b1,1 ]
a +b a +b
[a1,d , b1,d ]. [a1,k , b1,k ] [a1,k , 1,k 2 1,k ] [ 1,k 2 1,k , b1,k ],
M1 2d . M1
M1
M1 , (xn ) M1 , 2d
, , (xn ).
M2 = [a2,1 , b2,1 ] [a2,d , b2,d ].
, -
Ml = [al,1 , bl,1 ] [al,d , bl,d ] :
(i) Ml (xn ).
(ii) M M1 . . . Ml1 Ml . . . .
(iii) k = 1, . . . , d

ak a1,k . . . al1,k al,k . . . bl,k bl1,k . . . b1,k bk .

(iv) k = 1, . . . , d l 2
bl1,k al1,k b1,k a1,k bk ak
bl,k al,k = 2 = ... = 2l1
= 2l
,

bl,k al,k 0
(v) l 2
diam Ml1 diam M1 diam M
diam Ml = 2 = ... = 2l1
= 2l
,

diam Ml 0.
M1 (xn ) xn1 M1 . M2 -
(xn ) xn2 M2 n2 > n1 . M3
(xn ) xn3 M3 n3 > n2 . , (xnl )
(xn ) xnl Ml l 1. :

al,k xnl ,k bl,k k = 1, . . . , d l 1. (11.19)

(iii) k = 1, . . . , d (al,k ) , (bl,k )

, ,
, , (iv), .

xk = liml+ al,k = liml+ bl,k . (11.20)

(11.19)
xnl ,k xk

435
, k = 1, . . . , d,
xnl x = (x1 , . . . , xd ).
, , x Ml l 1, , (iii) (11.20),
al,k xk bl,k k = 1, . . . , d l 1.
, x Ml (, , M Ml ).
, , (xn ) M
M , M .
. M , -
, M .
, M 2d
.
, - -
, M
. M1 . ,
M1 2d -
. M2 . -
, (Ml )
(ii) (v)
(i) :
(i ) l Ml .
, x M Ml .
M , A0 x A0 . A0 , 0 > 0
Nx (0 ) A0 . diam Ml 0, l0 diam Ml0 < 0 .
y Ml0 ( x Ml0 )
y x2 diam Ml0 < 0
, , y Nx (0 ). Ml0 Nx (0 ) A0 . = {A0 }
Ml0 .

Bolzano - Weierstrass Rd ,
() .
BOLZANO - WEIERSTRASS. [] Rd
.
[] Rd .
. [] (xn ) Rd .
M xn M
n. 11.23, M , ,
11.7, (xn ) ( M ).
[] K Rd . K ,
(xn ) K . K , (xn )
, , [], (xnk ) (xn )
x Rd . (xnk ) ,
x. (xnk )
x x. 11.12 x
K.

, ,
.
: .

436
 11.8. M Rd . M
.

. 11.20 .
M . (xn ) M .
M , (xn ) , Bolzano - Weierstrass,
(xnk ) , , xnk x x Rd . M
(xnk ) M , x M .
M M , , 11.7
M .
. 11.20 .
M , N -
M N . 11.23 N
, M , M , 11.21, -
.

11.6.14. N x0 (R) Rd .

11.8 11.20 Rd . , ,
.

11.6.15. 11.6.8 11.6.10,

X d
.

11.24. - R .

. - M R. M - ,
M supremum u = sup M .
> 0 x M u < x u , , x Nu (). u
M , M , u M . u M .
.

11.9. (X, d) (Y, ), M X f : M Y . f

M M , f (M ) .

. (yn ) f (M ). (yn )
f (M ). n xn M
f (xn ) = yn . M , (xnk )
M , xnk x x M . f M ,
ynk = f (xnk ) f (x) f (M ).
. T f (M ). 11.2,
B T AB X

f 1 (B) = AB M. (11.21)

f (M ) BT B,

M BT f 1 (B) BT AB .

, = {AB | B T } M . M
, B1 , . . . , Bn T

M AB1 ABn .

437
 (11.21)

M (AB1 ABn ) M = (AB1 M ) (ABn M ) = f 1 (B1 ) f 1 (Bn ),

f (M ) B1 Bn . {B1 , . . . , Bn } f (M )
T .

11.10 -
f : [a, b] R R.

11.10. (X, d), M X f : M R. f

M M , f .

. 11.9 f (M ) . ,
11.24, f (M ) .

11.6.16. (B(A), dA )
(BC(A), dA ) dA A, A
(X, d). f : A R,

C(A) = {f | f : A R }.

BC(A) = B(A) C(A),
, , B(A), C(A) .
A A
A A A.
, A , A A,

BC(A) = C(A) B(A).

, .

11.20. (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y . f -

A > 0 > 0
(f (x ), f (x )) < x , x A d(x , x ) < .

11.11. (X, d) (Y, ), M X f : M Y . f

M M , f M .

. f M . > 0
> 0 x , x M d(x , x ) < (f (x ), f (x )) .
n N xn , xn M

d(xn , xn ) < 1
n (f (xn ), f (xn )) .

M , (xn ) (xnk )
M , xnk x x M . , ,

d(xnk , x) d(xnk , xnk ) + d(xnk , x) < 1

nk + d(xnk , x) 0

, , xnk x. f x, f (xnk ) f (x) f (xnk ) f (x).

( ) ( ) ( )
f (xnk ), f (xnk ) f (xnk ), f (x) + f (x), f (xnk ) 0.
( )
f (xnk ), f (xnk ) k.

438
 . > 0. f M , x M x > 0

(f (y), f (x)) <

2 y M d(y, x) < x . (11.22)

, {Nx ( 2x ) | x M } M , M -
, x1 , . . . , xn M
x1
M N x1 ( 2 ) Nxn ( x2n ). (11.23)

x1 xn
= min{ 2 , ... , 2 } > 0 (11.24)
x , x M d(x , x ) < . x
M , ,
xk
(11.23), k = 1, . . . , n x Nxk ( 2 ) , ,
xk
d(x , xk ) < 2 < xk . (11.25)

(11.24) (11.25)
xk
d(x , xk ) d(x , x ) + d(x , xk ) < + 2 x k . (11.26)

(11.25), (11.26) (11.22) (f (x ), f (xk )) < 2 (f (x ), f (xk )) < 2 .

(f (x ), f (x )) (f (x ), f (xk )) + (f (x ), f (xk )) < .

x , x M d(x , x ) < (f (x ), f (x )) < . f
M .

11.6.1. {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 0, x2 0, x1 + x2 1}
R2 {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 x3 1} R3 .
11.6.2. (0, 1) R Ax = ( x2 , 1+x
2 ) 0 < x < 1.
= {Ax | 0 < x < 1} (0, 1)
(0, 1) .
[0, 1] R Ax = ( x2 , 1+x
2 ) 0 < x < 1. I J
0 I 1 J. = {I, J} {Ax | 0 < x < 1}
[0, 1] [0, 1] .
[0, 1] .
11.6.3. Rd -
.
11.6.4. X (X, d ), d -
X, : (i) X (ii) X
. x0 X
N x0 (1). =
;
11.6.5. 11.1.3. 1 p < q + M Rd . M
(Rd , dp ) (Rd , dq ).
11.6.6. [] A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 1} R2 .
f (x1 , x2 ) = ex1 +x2 A;
[] A = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 + x2 1, |x3 | 2} R3 .
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ex1 +x3 sin(x1 x2 ) A;

439
11.6.7. f : Rd R f (x) 0 x2 +. , ,
> 0 R > 0 |f (x)| < x Rd x2 > R.
x0 Rd f (x0 ) 0, f .
x0 Rd f (x0 ) 0, f .
f : R2 R f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 ex1 x2
2 2

11.6.8. (X, d). X.

11.6.9. (X, d), (xn ) X, x X xn = x

n xn x. {xn | n N} {x} {xn | n N}
.

11.6.10. (X, d) M1 , . . . , Mn X.
M1 , . . . , Mn , M1 Mn .

M1 , M2 , . . . R + n=1 Mn -
R.

11.6.11. (X, d) - M X. M
diam M < +.

11.6.12. (X, d).

X.
M, N X M N , M N .

11.6.13. (X, d), M X x0 , x0 X. R

M Nx0 (R ) R M Nx0 (R ).
|xy|
11.6.14. R d d(x, y) = |xy|+1
x, y R. 11.2.25[], d .
R d
. R d R
.

11.6.15. (X, d).

= N M X, diam N diam M .
= M, N X M N = , diam (M N ) diam M + diam N .

11.6.16. (X, d) - M X. diam M = diam M .

11.6.17. (X, d) A, B X. A B ,
A B .

11.6.18. (X, d), x0 X - M N X.

x , y M d(x , y ) = diam M .
x M d(x0 , x ) = inf{d(x0 , x) | x M }.
x M y N d(x , y ) = inf{d(x, y) | x M, y N }.

11.6.19. x0 Rd , - M Rd -
N Rd .
x M x0 x 2 = inf{x0 x2 | x M }.
x M y N x y 2 = inf{x y2 | x M, y N }.

11.6.20. M Rd . M , M M .

440
11.6.21. R -
.
11.6.22. (X, d) (Y, ), M X, N Y f : M N
-- . f M M ,
f 1 : N M N .
11.6.23. A R f : A R. Gf = {(x, f (x)) | x A} R2
f .
f . , Gf , f .
A . , f , Gf .
A . f Gf
.
11.6.24. (X, d) (Y, ), B A X f : A Y . f
A, B.
11.6.25. (X, d), (Y, ) (Z, ), A X, B Y , f : A B g : B
Z. f A g B,
g f : A Z A.
11.6.26. (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y (Y, )
. :
(i) f A, F : A Y -
A F (x) = f (x) x A.
(ii) f A.
11.6.27. (X, d) M X. M ,
A M M = A.
11.6.28. 14 (X, d) M X.
M > 0 -
M M
, , > 0 -
M M .
M .
11.6.29. 15 11.1.6 11.2.26. (X, d) - M
X. M (X, d) M
(M, d).
11.6.30. [] x, y : [a, b] R f : K R x, y
[a, b], f K R2 (x(t), y(t)) K t [a, b].
f (x, y) : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0
> 0 = {a = t0 , . . . , tn = b} [a, b] w() <
= {1 , . . . , n } = {1 , . . . , n }
 n b 
 
k=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 ) a f (x(t), y(t)) dt < .
[] 6.5.6 ,
x = x(t) y = y(t) [a, b] [a, b],
b
l() = a (x (t))2 + (y (t))2 dt.
14
. 11.7,
, , .
15
M
M ( ) .

441
11.6.31. (X, d).
[]

Zb = {A | A - X}.

A, B Zb
{ }
e B) = inf > 0 | A
d(A, bB Nb () B aA Na () .

e B) -
infimum d(A,
e B) < +.
0 , , 0 d(A,
de Zb . ,
e A) = 0.
(ii), : A Zb d(A,
e B) = 0 A = B.
A, B Zb d(A,
[]
Zbc = {A | A -, X}.
e B).
A, B Zbc d(A,
de Zbc . de Hausdorff Zbc
-, (X, d).
, (X, d) Rd . (An ) -,
(, ) Rd d(A e n , A) 0,
A , , -, R . ,
d

An , A .
d(A, e B)
R2 R3 .

11.6.32. I R |I| I.
[] A R
+ > 0 (In )
R A n=1 In + n=1 |In | < .
R .
A B R B , A .

Am R m N , A = + m=1 Am
.
Q .
A R. A > 0

I1 , . . . , In A nk=1 Ik nk=1 |Ik | < .
A - .
[]16 4.1.16. f : [a, b] R.
> 0 A() = {x [a, b] | (f ; x) }. , 0 < 1 < 2 ,
A(2 ) A(1 ).
> 0 A() .

A = {x [a, b] | x f }. A = + 1
n=1 A( n ).
f , > 0 A() ,
, A .
, A , f .
16
:
.

442
11.7 .
11.21. (X, d) A X. B, C
A (i) B C = A, (ii) B C = , (iii) B = , C = , (iv) B, C
.

(i), (ii), (iii), B, C A.

11.7.1. R2 B = N0 (1), C = N3 (1)

A = B C. B, C A.
B = N0 (1), C = N2 (1) A = B C,
B, C , , A.
B = N0 (1), C = N2 (1) A = B C,
B, C A: B 1
C.

11.22. (X, d) A X. A -
, B, C
(i) - (iv)

11.7.2. A 11.7.1 - -
R2 .
, , A
11.7.1 . B, C -
A A. , A
, ,
A.

11.7.3. {x}
.
.

11.2. (X, d) A, B, C X B C =
B, C . A A B C,
A B A C.

.
B1 = A B, C1 = A C.
, B1 C1 = A B1 C1 = .
, x B1 . x B, x C. r > 0
C Nx (r) , C1 C, C1
Nx (r). x C1 . B1
C1 . C1 B1 .
B1 = C1 = , B1 , C1 A
, A . B1 = C1 = , , A C
A B, .

11.25. (X, d)

X . A A
.

. U = A A U .
, , x0 A .
U , B, C B C = U , B C = ,
B = , C = B, C .

443
, x0 U , x0 B x0 C. x0 B (
x0 C).
A A U , , A B C. 11.2,
A B C. : A
C, x0 B. ,
, A B. U = A A B.
U B C - U .
U .

11.26. (X, d) A X. A A
D A, D .
. D , B, C B C = D,
B C = , B = , C = B, C .
A D, A B C. A , 11.2
A B A C. A B. ( A C.)
D A, D A , ,
B ( A B). D C ( C
B). C - D.
D .

11.12. (X, d), (Y, ), A X f : A Y A.

A , f (A) .
. f (A) .
B , C B C = f (A), B C = , B = , C =
B , C .
B , C A,

B = f 1 (B ) = {x A | f (x) B }, C = f 1 (C ) = {x A | f (x) C }.

B C = A, B C = , B = , C = .
, B C, b B b
C. (cn ) C cn b. f b,
f (cn ) f (b). (f (cn )) C , , f (b)
C . , f (b) B B
C . B C.
C B.
B, C A. A .
f (A) .

11.23. (X, d), x, y X r > 0.

{z0 , . . . , zn } X z0 = x, zn = y d(zk , zk1 ) < r k = 1, . . . , n
r- x, y. , , zk A k = 0, . . . , n,
r- A.
11.13. (X, d) K X. K
x, y K r > 0 r-
K x, y.
. K .
x, y K r > 0 ( )
r- K x, y.

B = {b K | r- K x, b},

444
 C = {c K | r- K x, c}.
B C = K, B C = , B = ( x B) C = ( y C).
B , b, C. ( b B)
r- K x, b , , ( b
C) c C d(c, b) < r. r- K
x, b ( b) c, r-
K x, c. , , c C. B
C.
, , C , c, B. (
c B) b B d(c, b) < r ( b B)
r- K x, b. r- K
x, b ( b) c, r-
K x, c. , , c C. C
B.
B, C K K .
r- K x, y.
, x, y K r > 0 r-
K x, y.
( ) K .
B, C B C = K, B C = , B = , C = B, C
.
x B. B K, x K. K
, x K. x / C ( C B)
x B. B , , .
, B K K , B .
C .
B, C , , 11.22, r > 0
d(b, c) r b B c C. B = , C = ,
b B c C. r-
K b , c , .
, r- {z0 , . . . , zn } K z0 = b , zn = c
d(zk , zk1 ) < r k = 1, . . . , n. z0 B, zn C,
k zk1 B, zk C. d(zk , zk1 ) < r d(b, c) r
b B, c C.

11.27. I R .
. I . I , ,
1.4, x1 , x2 , x x1 < x < x2 x1 , x2 I x / I.
B = I (, x) C = I (x, +) I .
I .
, I .
I , .
I = [a, b] a < b, [a, b]
x, y [a, b] r > 0,
[a, b], x y,
< r. ( r
.) [a, b] .
I , -
In = [an , bn ] I.
In , 11.25 I
.

445
 11.12.
11.28. (X, d), A X f : A R A. A
, f A.
. f (A) R , , . , ,
u1 , u2 f A, u1 , u2 f (A).
u u1 < u < u2 f (A). ,
u1 , u2 f A f A.

11.28
, f : I R I R,
I. , I R.
11.24. (X, d), I R : I X
I. (X, d). = (I) = {(t) | t I}
.
A X, A.
11.7.4. 11.27 11.12
(X, d) X. , -
I ( ) (, , )
R, 11.9 -
X.
, Rd
Rd . , R2 R2 ,
, R2 .
11.25. (X, d) A X. A
A A
.
11.29. (X, d) A X. A -
, .
. x0 A.
x A
x A x0 x. , x A
x0 , x x . xA x A. , x A

x , , , A xA x .

A = xA x .
, x x x0 , -
A .

11.7.5. A Rd , ,
. , A
A.
,
Rd .
11.7.6. A Rd -
x0 A x A . [x0 , x] A.
x0 A. -
, A .
A , , .

446
, A
A : . x0
. x0 .

11.7.7. R2 .

11.7.8. A = N0 (1) N2 (1) 11.7.1 11.7.2

R2 , 1.

11.14. A Rd . A
.

. A , , 11.29,
.
, A .
x, y A ( )
A x, y.

B = {b A | A x, b},

C = {c A | A x, c}.
B C = U , B C = , B = ( x B) C = ( y C).
B , b, C. ( b B)
A x, b. A , r > 0
Nb (r) A ( b C) c Nb (r) C.
A x, b ( ) . [b, c]
( Nb (r), A),
A x, c. , , c C. B
C.
, , C , c, B. A
, r > 0 Nc (r) A. ( c B)
b Nc (r) B. , ( b B) A
x, b , ( ) . [b, c] (
Nc (r), A), A x, c. ,
, c C. C B.
B, C A
A .
A x, y. , ,
, .

11.26. (X, d) A X. C A -
A C : C C A C
, C = C .

, C A A
A.
. C
A B A C B =
. C B , ,
C C B A. C A, C B = C
, , B C. :
A A .

447
 C1 , C2 A C1 C2 =
. C1 A C2
A, C1 C2 . C2 C1 , , C1 = C2 .
, C1 C2 = . :
A .
11.30. (X, d) A X. A
( ) .
. A A.
x A Cx B A
x. ( {x}.)

Cx = {B | B A x B}.
Cx A, B A. Cx x
, B x.
, Cx C A C , C
B A x, Cx C Cx ,
, Cx = C .
Cx A x.

A A -
A.
11.7.9. A = N0 (1) N3 (1) R2 .
N0 (1) N3 (1) A.
11.2 B = N0 (1) C = N3 (1),
A N0 (1) N3 (1). ,
A N0 (1) N3 (1).
N0 (1) N3 (1) A.
11.7.10. Z R {n}
n Z. ( )
{n} . {n} C Z C = {n}. C = {n} C \ {n} .
{n} C \ {n} C ,
. C . , {n}
Z.
Z , .
11.31. (X, d) A X. A ,
A .
. C A.
C A A C C,
C C A.
11.26 C C
A, C = C. C .

11.32. A Rd . A
.
. C A x C.
x A , A , r > 0 Nx (r) A.
Nx (r) A C A, -
Nx (r) C. x C.
C .

448
 , 11.30 11.32, Rd
.
,
R. T
R.

11.15. - A R. A
.
,
A = I I. , ,
.

. 11.27, 11.30 11.32.

, A. -
A ,
.
A Q. ,
Q, .

11.7.1. R2 ( - )
( . {x R2 | x (0, 1)e = 2}, ) R2 \ [(1, 0), (1, 1)] [(1, 1), (0, 2)] ,
R2 \ [(1, 0), (1, 1)] [(1, 1), (0, 2)] [(0, 2), (1, 0)] , N(0,0) (1) N(3,0) (1) [(1, 0), (2, 0)],
+
N(0,n) (1), {( n1 , 0)|n N}, {(0, 0)} {( n1 , 0)|n N}, [(0, 0), (1, 0)] + 1 1
n=1 [(0, n ), (1, n )],
+
n=1
n=1 {x R | xe = 1 + n }, {(x, 0) | x Q}, {(x, y) | x, y Q}.
2 1

11.7.2. {(x, sin x) | x R}, {(x, sin x1 ) | 0 < x 1},

{(x, sin x1 ) | 0 < x 1} [(0, 1), (0, 1)] R2 .

11.7.3. d 2, U Rd a1 , . . . , an U .
U \ {a1 , . . . , an } . d = 1;

11.7.4. L Rd Rd
L. Rd
, L.

11.7.5. 11.2.8 C
Cantor .

An X
11.7.6. (X, d)
An An+1 = n. +
n=1 An .

11.7.7. R2
.

11.7.8. A R2 A -
.
A R2 A .

11.7.9. B Rd . B , , ,
B = B = Rd .

11.7.10. U Rd .
U U -
.

449
11.7.11. (X, d) A X.
A , A B, C
B C = A, B C = , B, C = .
A , A B, C
B C = A, B C = , B, C = .

11.7.12. U Rd .
U ( ).

11.7.13. (X, d) A X. A
f : A {0, 1} A .
{0, 1} Z;

11.7.14. (X, d) ( ) A X. -
r > 0 x, y A r- A
x, y.

11.7.15. (X, d). (X, d)

x X r > 0 U x U Nx (r).
(X, d) A X
A .

11.7.16. (X, d). (X, d) -

x X r > 0 U
x U Nx (r).
(X, d) , A X
.

11.7.17. 17 11.1.6 11.2.26. (X, d) - A X.

A (X, d) A
(A, d).

17
A
A ( ) .

450
 .
Apostol, T. (1974) Mathematical Analysis, Ch 3-4. Addison-Wesley.
Bartle, R. (1967) The Elements of Real Analysis, Ch II-IV. Wiley.
Beals, R. (2004) Analysis, an Introduction, Ch 6-7. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Buck, R. & Buck, E. (2003) Advanced Calculus, Ch 1-2. Waveland Press.
Copson, E. (1988) Metric Spaces. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Davidson, K. & Donsig, A. (2010) Real Analysis and Applications, Ch 4. Springer.
Dieudonn, J. (1969) Foundations of Modern Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 3. Academic Press.
Gleason, A. (1991) Fundamentals of Abstract Analysis, Ch 14. Taylor and Francis.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 4-6. Wiley.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 6. Springer.
Pugh, C. (2015) Real Mathematical Analysis, Ch 2. Springer.
Rosenlicht, M. (1986) Introduction to Analysis, Ch III-IV. Dover.
Ross, K. (2013) Elementary Analysis, Ch 2-3. Springer.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 2-4. McGraw-Hill.
Simmons, G. (2004) Introduction to Topology and Modern Analysis, Ch 1-7. McGraw-Hill.

.
artle, R. & Sherbert, D. (2011) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 11. Wiley.
Berberian, S. (1994) A First Course in Real Analysis, Ch 4-6. Springer.
Boas, R. (1996) A Primer of Real Functions, Ch 1. Math. Association of America.
Goffman, C. (1953) Real Functions, Ch 4-6. Rinehart.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch VI-VIII. Springer.
Stoll, M. (2000) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 3-4. Pearson.

451
452
 12

12.1 .
6
Riemann .
. , -
: -
- -
.
1. b R {+} f : [a, b) R. f -
[a, b) , , [a, x]
x [a, b).
b
12.1. a f (x) dx f [a, b)
, ,
x .
limxb a f (t) dt R,
b
a f (x) dx
b x
a f (x) dx = limxb a f (t) dt.
x b
limxb a f (t) dt , a f (x) dx -
x b
, limxb a f (t) dt = , a f (x) dx
. x b
limxb a f (t) dt, a f (x) dx -
.
b
a f (x) dx .
f [a, b), . ,
, -
.
+ 1 x 1
2 dx = limx+ 1 t2 dt = limx+ (1 x ) = 1. ,
1
12.1.1. 1
+ 1
x
1 x2
dx 1.
+ 1 x
12.1.2. 1 dx = limx+ 1 1t dt = limx+ log x = +. ,
+ 1
x
1 x dx + +.
1 1 x 1
12.1.3. 0 x1 dx = limx1 0 t1 dt = limx1 log(1 x) = .
1 1
, 0 x1 dx .

453
 1 x 1
12.1.4. 0
1dx = limx1 0 1t dt = limx1 (2 2 1 x) = 2
1x
1 1
, , 0 1x dx 2.
x
12.1.5. limx+ 0 cos t dt = limx+ sin x . -
+
0 cos x dx .

12.1 -
.

12.1. f : [a, b] R [a, b].

b b b
a f (x) dx a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.

. f [a, b], M |f (x)| M

x [a, b]. , f [a, b] , ,
[a, x] x [a, b). ,
x   
 f (t) dt b f (t) dt =  b f (t) dt M (b x)
a a x
x b
x [a, b), limxb a f (t) dt = a f (t) dt.

2. a R{} f : (a, b] R. f
(a, b] , , [x, b] x (a, b].
b
12.2. a f (x) dx f (a, b]
, ,
b .
limxa+ x f (t) dt R,
b
a f (x) dx
b b
a f (x) dx = limxa+ x f (t) dt.
b b
limxa+ x f (t) dt , a f (x) dx -
b b
, limxa+ x f (t) dt = , a f (x) dx
. b b
limxa+ x f (t) dt, a f (x) dx
.
2 2
12.1.6. 0 1x dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ (2 2 2 x) = 2 2 .
2
, 0 1x dx 2 2 .
2 2
12.1.7. 0 x1 dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ (log 2 log x) = +.
2
, 0 x1 dx + +.
0 1
0 1 1
12.1.8. (x1) 2 dx = limx x (t1)2 dt = limx (1 1x ) = 1.
0 1
, (x1) 2 dx 1.

1
12.1.9. limx0+ x t12 cos 1t dt = limx0+ (sin x1 sin 1) .
1
0 t12 cos 1t dt .

, , 12.1, .

12.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b].

b b b
a f (x) dx a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.

454
. f [a, b], M |f (x)| M
x [a, b]. , f [a, b] , ,
[x, b] x (a, b]. ,
b   
 f (t) dt b f (t) dt =  x f (t) dt M (x a)
x a a
b b
x (a, b], limxa+ x f (t) dt = a f (t) dt.

3. a R {}, b R {+} f : (a, b) R

(a, b).
b
12.3. a f (x) dx f (a, b)
, , .
b d a < d < b.
d
a f (x) dx d f (x) dx ,
b
a f (x) dx . ,
d b d
a f (x) dx, d f (x) dx a f (x) dx +
b b
f (x) dx , f (x) dx
d d b a
. , a f (x) dx, d f (x) dx
d b
a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx ,
b
a f (x) dx
b d b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx.
b
a f (x) dx ,
b
a f (x) dx , , ,
.

b d,
12.1 ,
a f (x) dx.

12.1. a R {}, b R {+} f : (a, b) R

(a, b). a < d < d < b.
d b d b
a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx, a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx
.

. x x d
d f (t) dt = d f (t) dt + d f (t) dt
d x
x (a, b) d f (t) dt . limxb d f (t) dt, -
x
limxb d f (t) dt
x x d
limxb d f (t) dt = limxb d f (t) dt + d f (t) dt.

, b b d
d f (x) dx = d f (x) dx + d f (x) dx. (12.1)
,
d d d
x f (t) dt = x f (t) dt d f (t) dt
d d
x (a, b) f (t) dt . limxa+
d f (t) dt, -
d x
limxa+ x f (t) dt
d d d
limxa+ x f (t) dt = limxa+ x f (t) dt d f (t) dt.

455
,
d d d
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx d f (x) dx. (12.2)
d
d f (x) dx , , (12.1) (12.2),
d b d b
a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx.

12.3 12.1 12.2.

12.3. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b b b
a f (x) dx a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
. a < d < b. f [a, d] [d, b]. -
d d b b
12.1 12.2 a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx d f (x) dx = d f (x) dx ,
b b
, a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
+ x x t 1 2
12.1.10. 0 dx = limx+ 0 t2 +1 dt = limx+ 2 log(x +1) =
0
2
x +1
0
+ x2x+1 dx = limx x t2 +1 t
dt = limx 21 log(x2 + 1) = .
+ x
x2 +1 dx .
+ 1 x 1
12.1.11. 0 2 +1 dx = limx+ 0 t2 +1 dt = limx+ arctan x = 2
0 0
x
x21+1 dx = limx x t21+1 dt = limx arctan x = 2 .
+ 1
x2 +1 dx = .
b b b
, a f (x) dx, a f (x) dx, a f (x) dx, -
,
b
a f (x) dx.

, , -
12.1, 12.2 12.3, (,
) .
, , ,
,
.

4. .
a R {}, b R {+} f (a, b) , ,
. , 1 , . . . , n1
f : (a, 1 ) (1 , 2 ) (n2 , n1 ) (n1 , b) R.
n1
12.4. a 1 f (x) dx, 12 f (x) dx, . . . , n2 f (x) dx,
b
n1 f (x) dx , . f (a, b)

b 1 2 n1 b
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + 1 f (x) dx + + n2 f (x) dx + n1 f (x) dx.

. +
, . f (a, b)
b
+ a f (x) dx = +. , .
b +, .
f (a, b) a f (x) dx = .
, . f (a, b) .

456

b .
b
, . a f (x) dx a f (x) dx. ,
b = +, .
+
a f (x) dx.

f : [a, +) R
[a, +)
+ + x
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt,

.
.
+ +
12.4. a < c. a f (x) dx c f (x) dx
+ c +
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx.
. x c x
a f (t) dt = a f (t) dt + c f (t) dt
c x
x [a, +). a f (t) dt , limx+ a f (t) dt
x
limx+ c f (t) dt , ,
+ x c x
a f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt = a f (t) dt + limx+ c f (t) dt
c +
= a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx.

+
12.5. f, g +, a f (x) dx
+
a g(x) dx . , .
+ .
. c [a, +) f (x)= g(x) x [c, +).
+ +
, , c f (x) dx c g(x) dx
+ +
c f (x) dx = c g(x) dx. 12.4.
+ + + +
12.6. a f (x) dx, a g(x) dx a f (x)dx+ a g(x)dx
+
, a (f (x) + g(x)) dx
+ + +
a (f (x) + g(x)) dx = a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.

. x x x
a (f (t) + g(t)) dt = a f (t) dt + a g(t) dt
x [a, +) , ,
+ x
(f (x) + g(x)) dx = limx+ a (f (t) + g(t)) dt
a x x
= limx+ a f (t) dt + limx+ a g(t) dt
+ +
= a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.

+ +
12.7. a f (x) dx a f (x) dx
+
, a f (x) dx
+ +
a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.

457
. x x
a f (t) dt = a f (t) dt
x [a, +),
+ x x +
a f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt = limx+ a f (t) dt = a f (x) dx.

12.8. f (x) g(x) x [a, +).

+ + + +
[] a f (x) dx, a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.
+ +
[] a f (x) dx = +, a g(x) dx = +.
+ +
[] a g(x) dx = , a f (x) dx = .
x x
. [] a f (t) dt a g(t) dt x [a, +) , ,
+ x x +
a f (x) dx = limx+ a f (t) dt limx+ a g(t) dt = a g(x) dx.
x x x
[] a f (t) dt a g(t) dt x [a, +). limx+ a f (t) dt = +,
x
limx+ a g(t) dt = +.
[] [].

12.9 .
:
.
+
12.9. [] f, g [a, +). a f (x)g(x) dx
+
, limx+ f (x)g(x) limx+ f (x)g(x) a f (x)g(x) dx
+
, a f (x)g (x) dx :
+ +
a f (x)g (x) dx = limx+ f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f (x)g(x) dx.
[] : [a, +) R [a, +), limx+ (x) = + f
+
([a, +)). (a) f (y) dy a f ((x)) (x) dx
+

, ,
+ +
(a) f (y) dy = a f ((x)) (x) dx.

. [] x [a, +)
x
x
a f (t)g (t) dt = f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f (t)g(t) dt.

+ x
f (x)g (x) dx = limx+ f (t)g (t) dt
a a x
= limx+ f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) limx+ a f (t)g(t) dt
+
= limx+ f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a) a f (x)g(x) dx.
[] x [a, +)
x (x)
a f ((t)) (t) dt = (a) f (s) ds.

+ x (x)
a f ((x)) (x) dx = limx+
a f ((t)) (t) dt = limx+ (a) f (s) ds
y +
= limy+ (a) f (s) ds = (a) f (y) dy.

458
 12.5. f : [a, c) (c, b] R
[a, c) (c, b].
b ( c b )
a f (x) dx , , lim0+ a f (x) dx + c+ f (x) dx
b
P.V. a f (x) dx. ,
b ( b )
c
P.V. a f (x) dx = lim0+ a f (x) dx + c+ f (x) dx .

.
1
12.1.12. 1 x1 dx .
1 1
, 0 x1 dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ ( log x) = +
0 1 x 1
1 x dx = limx0 dt = limx0 log |x| = .
0 1 1 t 1 1
, 1 x dx + 0 x dx = () + (+) .
1 ( 1 )
, P.V. 1 x1 dx = lim0+ 1 x1 dx + x1 dx = lim0+ 0 = 0.

12.10. f : [a, c) (c, b] R

b
[a, c) (c, b]. . a f (x) dx ,
b b
P.V. a f (x) dx a f (x) dx.
b
. . a f (x) dx , . -
c b
a f (x) dx, c f (x) dx . ,
c c b b
lim0+ a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx, lim0+ c+ f (x) dx = c f (x) dx.
c b
a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx ,
b ( c b )
P.V. a f (x) dx = lim0+ a f (x) dx + c+ f (x) dx
c b b
= a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx = a f (x) dx.

.
3 7 3 2 + + 1 7
12.1.1. 1 x1 dx, 1 1
x2 x
dx, 1 x2 1 dx,
dx, 1 x
x dx, 2 log x1 dx,
+ x

0 log x dx ;
1 1 5 x 1
12.1.2. 0 x log x dx, 0 sinx x dx, 1 log
x1 dx, 0 log x log(1 + x) dx -
.
() ;
+ + 1 1
12.1.3. sin1 x dx, 0 log | cos x| dx, 0 sin(1/x) dx
;
+ + 1 + x + 1 +
12.1.4. 1 1
x2 (x2 +1)
dx, 1 x(x+1) dx, 0 x2 +a2
dx, 0 x2 +a2
dx, 0 ex dx,
+ x2 + + b + arctan x
0 xe dx, 0 x
x3 +x2 +x+1
dx, 2 (x2 1)1x2 +1 dx, a 1 dx, 0 1+x2
dx.
(xa)(bx)
+ + +
12.1.5. 0 eax cos bx dx, 0 eax sin bx dx, 1
eax +eax dx.
+
12.1.6. 0 xn ex dx = n! n Z, n 0.
+
12.1.7. 0
1
x2 +2x cos +1
dx =
sin (0, ).

459
 1 +
12.1.8. 0 xp log x dx = (p+1)
1
2 , p > 1, 1 xp log x dx = 1
(p+1)2
,
p < 1.
+ xn1 (n1)!(m1)!
12.1.9. 0 (1+x)n+m
dx = (n+m1)! n, m N.
+ log x
12.1.10. 0 (x+1)2
dx.
+
12.1.11. 0 (1)[x] dx.
12.1.12. f (0, +)
0 < A B < +.
x
[] g(x) = x1 1 f (t) dt 0 < x < + L = limx+ g(x)
. :
B B g(x)
(i) A f (x)
x dx = g(B) g(A) + A x dx.
BT
(ii) limT + AT f (x) x dx = L log A .
B
+ f (Ax)f (Bx) B f (x)
(iii) 1 x dx = L log B
A + A x dx.
1 f (t)
[] h(x) = x x t2 dt 0 < x < + l = limx0+ h(x)
. :
B B h(x)
(i) A f (x)
x dx = h(A) h(B) + A x dx.
Bt
(ii) limt0+ At f (x) B
x dx = l log A .
1 B f (x)
(iii) 0 f (Ax)f
x
(Bx)
A A x dx.
dx = l log B
+ f (Ax)f (Bx)
[] [], [], 0 x dx = (L l) log B
A
.
+ cos(Ax)cos(Bx) B
+ e Ax e Bx B
0 x dx = log A 0 x dx = log A .

12.2 - .
+
12.1. f (x) 0 x [a, +), a f (x) dx
+
0 +. , 0 a f (x) dx +.
+ x
, a f (x) dx , a f (x) dx , x [a, +),
, +, .
. a x1 < x2 ,
x2 x1 x2 x1
a f (t) dt = a f (t) dt + x1 f (t) dt a f (t) dt.
x x
a f (t) dt , x, x [a, +). lim x+ a f (t) dt

x +. , a f (t) dt 0 x [a, +),
limx+ a f (t) dt 0. x
x
, a f (t) dt
x, limx+ a f (t) dt ,
, limx+ a f (t) dt +.

. - , -
+
0 +. , , a f (x) dx
+ +
a f (x) dx < + a f (x) dx = +.

+ 12.11. [] 0 f (x) g(x) x [a, +). 0

+
f (x) dx g(x) dx.
a +
a +
, , a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx .
f (x)
[] f (x) 0, g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+ g(x)
, , fg(x)
(x)
+.
+ +
a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx .

460
 + +
. [] 12.1, a f (x) dx, a g(x) dx ,
+ + +
12.8 0 a f (x) dx a g(x) dx. a g(x) dx ,
+ + +
a g(x) dx < +, a f (x) dx < + , , a f (x) dx
.
[] M c [a, +) 0 fg(x)
(x)
M x [c, +).
+ +
a g(x) dx , c g(x) dx .
+ + +
c f (x) dx c M g(x) dx = M c g(x) dx < +.
+ +
c f (x) dx , , a f (x) dx .

, ,
12.11 , ,
12.12.
+ 1
12.2.1. 1 p dx.
+ 1 x 1 x x1p 1
+ 1
p = 1, 1 xp dx = limx+ 1 tp dt = limx+ 1p . 1 xp dx = +,
+ 1 1
p < 1, 1 xp dx = p1 , p > 1.
+ 1 x 1
, 1 x dx = limx+ 1 t dt = limx+ log x = +.
: {
+ 1 1
p1 , p > 1
1 x p dx =
+, p 1
1
12.2.2. , 0 x1p dx.
1 1 1p 1
p = 1, 0 x1p dx = limx0+ x t1p dt = limx0+ 1x . 1
xp dx = 1
1p , p < 1,
1 1p 0
0 x1p dx = +, p > 1.
1 1
, 0 x1 dx = limx0+ x 1t dt = limx0+ log x = +.
: {
1 1 1
1p , p < 1
0 xp dx =
+, p 1
12.2.1 12.2.2
+ 1
0 xp dx = + p.
+
12.2.3. c, q > 0. 1 xp ecx dx.
q

xn
n > p+1 q . x 0 e n! . x cx
x q

ecx n! xqn . 0 < xp ecx cn xqnp x > 0. qn p > 1,

q cn q n! 1
+ 1
12.2.1, . 1 dx . .
+ p cxq xqnp
1 x e dx :
+
xp ecx dx < +
q
0 1 c, q > 0.

.
,
8.7. +
12.11[] , , : a f (x) dx
+
+, a g(x) dx +.
, f (x), g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+ fg(x) (x)
= ,
+
, 0 < < +, a f (x) dx

461
 +
a g(x) dx : .
+. , limx+ fg(x) (x)
= , -
+ +
, a g(x) dx , a f (x) dx .
+
limx+ fg(x) 1 1
(x) = , , a f (x) dx ,
+
a g(x) dx . , f (x), g(x) > 0 x [a, +)
+
limx+ fg(x)
(x)
= 0, , 12.11[], a g(x) dx
+
, a f (x) dx . .
2 + 1 + 1
12.2.4. limx+ 1/x 1/x = 0, 1 x2
dx < + 1 x dx = +.

, f (x), g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+ fg(x)

(x)
= +, -
+ +
a f (x) dx , a g(x) dx .
limx+ fg(x)(x) = 0 12.11[].

. 12.11.
, .
-
. .
. , ,
5.8.2.
+ e2x +3ex +1
12.2.5. 1 e3x +x2
dx.
2x x
e e3x +3e +1
+x2
e2x e3x , -
.
e2x +3ex +1 2x x +e2x
e3x +x2
= ee3x 1+3e
1+x2 e3x
x [1, +)
2x +3ex +1 2x
limx+ ( e e3x +x2
)/( ee3x ) = 1.

.
+ e2x +
1 e3x
dx = 1 ex dx.

. , .
+ x3 +3
12.2.6. 1 2x4 +x+1
dx.
3
2xx4 +x+1
+3
x3 2x4 , .

x3 +3 x3 1+3x3
2x4 +x+1
= 2x 4 1+(1/2)x3 +(1/2)x4

3 3
limx+ ( 2xx4 +x+1
+3 x
)/( 2x 4 ) = 1.

1
+ x3 1
+ 1
1 2x4
dx = 2 1 x dx = +,
+ x3 +3
1 = +.
2x4 +x+1
+
12.2.7. 1 sin x1 dx.

limx+ (sin x1 )/( x1 ) = 1.
+ 1 +
1 1 x dx +, 1 sin x1 dx.

462
 -
. ,
. .
. (xn ) xn 0
n. f : [1, +) R [1, +) f (n) = xn
+
n. 1 f (t) dt , 0 +
+ +
(i) n=1 xn < + 1 f (t) dt < +,
+ +
(ii) n=1 xn = + 1 f (t) dt = +.
,
n+1 n
1 f (u) du x1 + + xn x1 + 1 f (u) du n N
+ +
1 f (t) dt + n=1 xn x1 + 1 f (t) dt.
.
+ + (sin x)2
12.2.1. 1 (sin x1 )2 dx 1 0 x2
dx 2.
1 1
12.2.2. 0 xp (1x)q dx p, q < 1.
+
12.2.3. 0
1
dx 1 q < p < 1.
xp (xq +1)
+ 1 + log x
12.2.4. 0 e(x+x ) dx, 1
x x2 1
dx .
+
xx ex dx p > 1.
p
12.2.5. 0
+ 1
12.2.6. 2 xp (log x)q dt (i) p > 1 (ii) p = 1
q > 1.
+ +
12.2.7. 0 x2 ex (sin x) dx, 1
8 2 1
1+x4 (sin x)2
dx .
+ 3 x8 (sin x)2 + 1
0 x e dx, 1 1+x2 (sin x)2
dx +.
12.2.8. . .
+
f : [1, +) [0, +) 1 f (x) dx
limx+ f (x).
+
f : [1, +) R. limx+ f (x) 1 f (x) dx,
limx+ f (x) = 0.
12.2.9. f, g : [a, +) [0, +) [a, +) p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+ +
[] a (f (x))p dx < + a (g(x))q dx < +, Hlder
. :
+ ( + )1/p ( + )1/q
a f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x))p dx a (g(x))q dx .
Schwarz, Buniakowsky . :
+ ( + )1/2 ( + )1/2
a f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x))2 dx a (g(x))2 dx .
Hlder s, t 0
0 s(f (x))p = t(g(x))q x [a, +).
+ +
[] a (f (x))p dx < +, a (g(x))p dx < +, Minkowski
. :
( + )1/p ( + )1/p ( + )1/p
a (f (x) + g(x))p dx a (f (x))p dx + a (g(x))p dx .
Minkowski s, t 0
0 sf (x) = tg(x) x [a, +).

463
12.3 .
+
CAUCHY. a f (x) dx > 0
 x 
c0 [a, +)  x f (t) dt < x , x (c0 , +).
x
. F (x) = a f (t) dt x [a, +).
x
F (x ) F (x ) = x f (t) dt , ,
F Cauchy .

12.3.1 .
+ +
12.6. a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx
+
, , a |f (x)| dx < +.
+
. a f (x) dx ,
 +  +
 f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
a
+
. a |f (x)| dx . > 0. , -
x
Cauchy, c0 [a, +) x |f (t)| dt < , ,
 x 
 f (t) dt x |f (t)| dt <
x x

x , x (c0 , +). a f (x) dx .
+

, x [a, +) |f (x)| f (x) |f (x)|,

+ + + +
a |f (x)| dx = a (|f (x)|) dx a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
 +  +
 a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx.
. f + , f : [a, +) R
f + (x) = (f (x))+ , f (x) = (f (x)) .

0 f + (x) |f (x)|, 0 f (x) |f (x)|, f + (x) + f (x) = |f (x)|, f + (x) f (x) = f (x)
x [a, +). + +
a |f (x)| dx < +, a f + (x) dx, a f (x) dx .
+
+
f = f + f , a f (x) dx
+ + + +
a f (x) dx = a (f + (x) f (x)) dx = a f + (x) dx a f (x) dx.
,
 +   + + +   + +   + 
 f (x) dx= f (x) dx f (x) dx  f (x) dx + f (x) dx 
a a a a a
+ + + + +
= a f (x) dx + a f (x) dx = a (f (x) + f (x)) dx
+
= a |f (x)| dx.

+
12.12. [] |f (x)| g(x) x [a, +) a g(x) dx -
+  + 
, a f (x) dx , . ,  a f (x) dx
+
a g(x) dx.
|f (x)|
[] g(x) > 0 x [a, +) limx+
g(x)
+
, , |fg(x)
(x)|
+. a g(x) dx ,
+
a f (x) dx , , .

464
 + +
. [] a g(x) dx , a |f (x)| dx ,
+
a f (x) dx
 +  + +
 f (x) dx |f (x)| dx g(x) dx.
a a a

[] 12.11 .

+ 12.11 ,
+
a |f (x)| dx a f (x) dx. ,
+
a f (x) dx.
+ sin x
12.3.1. 1 dx , | sin x
| x12 x
+ 1 x2 x2
[1, +) 1 x2
dx .
+ +
12.3.2. | sinx x | dx = | sinx x| dx = +,
+ sin x
x dx .
(k+1) | sin x| (k+1)
x dx (k+1) k | sin x| dx = (k+1)
1 2
k

k N. , n N,
n | sin x| n1 (k+1) | sin x| n1 n
x dx = k=1 k x dx 2

1
k=1 k+1 = 2

1
k=2 k .

n +
nk=2 k1 +, | sinx x| dx +, | sin x|
dx = +.
+ x
sinx x dx .

12.3.2 .
+
12.7. a f (x) dx -
.
x
12.2. f, g : [a, +) R F (x) = a f (t) dt x [a, +)
f [a, +) g [a, +).
[] g [a, +), limx+ g(x) = 0 F
+
[a, +). a f (x)g(x) dx .
+
[] g [a, +) a f (x) dx .
+
a f (x)g(x) dx .

. [] M |F (x)| M x [a, +). f

, F (x) = f (x) x [a, +). , g (x) 0 x
[a, +).
x x x
f (t)g(t) dt = F (t)g(t) dt = F (x)g(x)
a a a F (t)g (t) dt (12.3)
+
x [a, +). a F (x)g (x) dx ,
+ + + x
a |F (x)g (x)| dx M a |g (x)| dx = M a g (x) dx = M limx+ a g (t) dt
= M limx+ (g(x) g(a)) = M g(a) < +.
+ x
a F (x)g (x) dx , limx+ a F (t)g (t) dt -
. |F (x)g(x)| M g(x) x [a, +),

limx+ F (x)g(x) = 0.

465
, (12.3)
x x
limx+ a f (t)g(t) dt = limx+ a F (t)g (t) dt
+
, a f (x)g(x) dx .
+
[] To l = limx+ g(x) . [], a f (x)(g(x)l) dx
.
+ + +
a f (x)g(x) dx = a f (x)(g(x) l) dx + a f (x)l dx
+ +
= a f (x)(g(x) l) dx + l a f (x) dx,
+
f (x)g(x) dx .
a
+
12.3.3. sinx x dx , ,
12.3.2, .
x1 [, +) limx+ x1 = 0.
sin x [, +)
x 
 sin t dt = | cos cos x| 2

+
x .
sin x
x dx .
sin x
12.3.4. dx
0 { .
x

x , 0 < x ,
sin x
g : [0, ] R g(x) =
1, x = 0
sin x
, [0, ].
0 x dx = 0 g(x) dx
0 g(x) dx.

12.3.5. ,
+ sin x sin x + sin x
0 x dx = 0 x dx + x dx
+ sin x
. 0 x dx 12.3.12
12.4.6. .
,
+ + (1cos x) +
0
sin x
x dx = 0 x dx = limx+ 1cos x
x limx0+ 1cos x
x + 0
1cos x
x2
dx
+ 1cos x
= 0 x2
dx.

+ /4 7/4 + 7/4
0
sin x
x dx = 0
1cos x
x2
dx + /4
1cos x
x2
dx + 7/4
1cos x
x2
dx /4
1cos x
x2
dx.

1 cos x 1 cos 4 x [ 4 , 7
4 ],
+ 7/4
12(2 2)
0
sin x
x dx (1 cos 4 ) /4
1
x2
dx = 7 > 0.

8.3.8 . .
+
. a f (x) dx - f :
x [0, +). . -
[a, +)
a f (t) dt :
. limx+ f (x) = 0

466
 . ,
+ 1 . -
+ 1
, . 1 x2
dx 1 x dx
0 +, . .
x12 x1 . :
2
limx+ 1/(x ) 1
1/x = 0. , x2 . -
x1
. . 12.11.
, . ,
. .
.
- .
. -
. . ,
. ,
+
. , . sinx x dx
+ | sin x|
x dx. . , -
. , -
. .
.
. . -
.
,
, . .
. - . -

.
12.11 12.12 . -
, .
.
- . . -
. , ,
12.2.

.
n1
12.3.1. f : [0, +) R f (x) = (1)n x [n 1, n) n N.
+
0 f (x) dx .
+ cos x + + 1
12.3.2. 0 1+x2
dx, 0 ex cos x dx, 1 1
x sin x dx .
+ x
12.3.3. , p > 1, sin xp dx , 0 < p 1,
. .
+ sin x
0 x2 +p2
dx p = 0 p = 0.
+ x sin x + sin x + x cos(x2 ) + x(x+1) sin(x2 )
12.3.4. 1 1+x+x 2 dx, 2 log x dx, 1 1+log x dx, 1 x+sin x dx,
+ x cos x + x sin x
+
1 x+1 dx, 0 (x+1)(x+sin x) dx, 1 cos x sin x1 dx .

P (x)
12.3.5. R(x) = Q(x) , P (x) Q(x) -
.
+
R(x) dx Q(x)
deg Q(x) deg P (x) + 2.

467
 +
R(x) sin x dx Q(x)
{k | k Z} 1 deg Q(x) deg P (x) + 1.

12.3.6. 7.3.16.
: [a, +) R + [a, +)
limx+ (x) = +. a sin((x)) dx .
+ +
1 sin(xa ) dx, 1 cos(xa ) dx , |a| > 1, ,
+ +
|a| 1. , 0 sin(x2 ) dx, 0 cos(x2 ) dx .1

12.3.7. 1 < x < + (x) = + 1
n=1 nx . 10.1.26 7.3.20.
+ [t] + [t]
(x) = x 1 tx+1
1
dt x1 x 1 dt x1
tx+1
x
x > 1,
+ 1
x1 n=1 nx x1
1 x
.
+ t[t]
(x) = x1 x
x 1 tx+1
dt x > 1.
. x > 0. 0 (x)
0 (x) (0, 1) (1, +)
(x) (1, +). , (x) ,
, (0, 1).
(x) [] 7.3.20 , x 7.1.8, -
n (x) 1 (x) = (x) n+1 (x) = 1 (n (t) n ) dt, n =
2
1 n (t) dt, n. , n, n (x) 1,
R n (1) = 0. , n (x) R. ,
[],

(x) = x+1
x1 1 x 2 x(x + 1) n1 x(x + 1) (x + n 2)
+ n (t)
x(x + 1) (x + n) 1 tx+n+1
dt

x > 1 n. .
x > n. n (x)
n (x) (n, 1) (1, +) (x)
(1, +). , (x) , ,
(n, 1).
, , n < m, n (x) m (x) (n, 1)
(1, +), .
(, 1) (1, +) , n, n (x) (n, 1)
(1, +).
, , - Riemann
: (, 1) (1, +) R : (1, +) R,
10.1.26.2
{
1
, 0 x n
12.3.8. 3 [] fn (x) = n n. (fn )
0, x > n
+ +
0 [0, +) 0 fn (x) dx 0 0 dx.
[] f, fn : [a, +) R n g : [a, +) [0, +).
|fn (x)| g(x)
+x [a, +), c > a (fn) +
f
[a, c] a g(x) dx . a f (x) dx
+ +
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.
1
. Fresnel.
2
12.4.2 12.5.4.
3
.

468
12.3.9. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1], f (0) = 0 f -
1
0. 0 f (x)x 2 dx .
3

+ sin(x)
12.3.10. p 0 x+p2 x2
dx ;
+ xp1 xq1 + sin(xp )
p, q 0 x1 dx, 0 xq dx
;
+ x[x](1/2)
12.3.11. 1 xp dx p > 0.

12.3.12. (6.40), :

(i) 0 sin((n+(1/2))x)
sin(x/2) dx = n,
sin(nx)
(ii) 0 sin x dx = 0, n , ,
( )2
(iii) 0 sin(nx) dx = n n.
sin x
{
1
2 , 0 < x
f (x) = sin(x/2) x f (x)
0, x = 0

[0, ]. 7.3.22[] limn+ 0 f (x) sin((n + 12 )x) dx = 0.

limn+ 0 x2 sin((n + 12 )x) dx = limn+ 0 sin((n+(1/2))x)
sin(x/2) dx = . -
4
+ sin x
0 x dx = 2 .

12.3.13. f, g : [a, +) R [a, +) p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.

+ + +
[] a |f (x)|p dx < + a |g(x)|q dx < +, a f (x)g(x) dx
Hlder :
 +  ( + )1/p ( + )1/q
 f (x)g(x) dx |f (x)|p dx |g(x)|q dx .
a a a

Schwarz, Buniakowsky:
 +  ( + )1/2 ( + )1/2
 f (x)g(x) dx |f (x)|2 dx |g(x)|2 dx .
a a a

Hlder s, t 0
0 s|f (x)|p = t|g(x)|q x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0
x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0 x [a, +).
+ +
[] a |f (x)|p dx < +, a |g(x)|p dx < +, Minkowski
:
( + )1/p ( + )1/p ( + )1/p
a |f (x) + g(x)|p dx a |f (x)|p dx + a |g(x)|p dx .

Minkowski s, t 0
0 s|f (x)| = t|g(x)| x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0
x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0 x [a, +).
+
12.3.14. f : [a, +) R w : [a, +) (0, +) a w(x) dx = 1
+ +
a f (x)w(x) dx. Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx.5
Jensen.6 f : [a, +) (c, d)
[a, +) g : (c, d) R (c, d). , , w : [a, +) (0, +)
4
12.4.6.
5
+
Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx f w [a, +)
, w .
6
6.4.19[,] 8.3.24.

469
 + +
[a, +)
( a w(x) dx
) = 1. Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx ,
g Ew (f ; a, +) Ew (g f ; a, +) , ,
( + ) +
g a f (x)w(x) dx a g(f (x))w(x) dx.

g (c, d), .
g , , () (c, d), Jensen
f [a, +).

12.4 .
12.4.1 .
12.8. I f : I [c, d] R.
x I f (x, y), y [c, d], [c, d],
d
c f (x, y) dy. x I, g : I R
d
g(x) = c f (x, y) dy x I.
d
c f (x, y) dy x I.
, f I [c, d], x I f (x, y),
y [c, d], [c, d] , , [c, d].

12.3 12.4 , , g
, , I.

12.3. I f : I [c, d] R. f I [c, d],

d
g : I R g(x) = c f (x, y) dy I.

. I. [a, b] I :
I, , , [a, b] ,
I, , , [a, b]. g
g [a, b] .
> 0. f [a, b] [c, d], > 0

|f (x , y ) f (x , y )| <
dc+1 (12.4)

(x , y ), (x , y ) [a, b] [c, d] |(x , y ) (x , y )| < .

x [a, b] |x | < y [c, d] (x, y), (, y) [a, b] [c, d]
|(x, y) (, y)| = |x | < , (12.4)

|f (x, y) f (, y)| <

dc+1 . (12.5)

x [a, b] |x | < , (12.5)

d 
|g(x) g()| =  c (f (x, y) f (, y)) dy 
dc+1 (d c) < .

g [a, b] .
f (x,)f (,)
12.9. limx x , ,
x f (, ). , limy f (,y)f
y
(,)
, , -
y f (, ).
f f (x,)f (,) f f (,y)f (,)
x (, ) = limx x , y (, ) = limy y .

470
 12.4. I f : I [c, d] R. f
I [c, d] f
x , , I [c, d]. g : I R g(x) =
d
c f (x, y) dy x I I
d
g (x) = c f
x (x, y) dy x I.

. I. 12.3, [a, b] I
, I, ,
I. , g [a, b]
d
g () = c fx (, y) dy.
> 0. f x [a, b] [c, d], > 0
 f 
 (x , y ) f (x , y ) < (12.6)
x x dc+1

(x , y ), (x , y ) [a, b] [c, d] |(x , y ) (x , y )| < .

x [a, b], y [c, d] |x | < . x,
f (x,y)f (,y) f
x = x (, y)

, | | |x | < , (12.6)
 f (x,y)f (,y) f   
 x (, y) =  f f 
x (, y) x (, y) <

x dc+1 . (12.7)

x [a, b] |x | < , (12.7)

 g(x)g() d f   d ( f (x,y)f (,y) f ) 
 (, y) dy = (, y) dy  dc+1

(d c) < .
x c x c x x

g(x)g() d
limx x = c f x (, y) dy , , g [a, b] -

g () = c f
d
x (, y) dy.
(x ) 2 2
s2 ds 2 g(x) = 1 ex (y +1) dy.
12.4.1. f (x) = 0 e y 2 +1
2 x
0
, , f (x) = 2ex 0 es ds x.
2

x2 (y 2 +1)
e y2 +1 x 2xex (y +1)
2 2

R [0, 1], 12.4
1 2 1 2 x
g (x) = 2x 0 ex (y +1) dy = 2xex 0 ex y dy = 2ex 0 es ds = f (x)
2 2 2 2 2

x. f + g R,
1
f (x) + g(x) = f (0) + g(0) = 0 + 0 y21+1 dy = arctan 1 arctan 0 =
4 (12.8)

x.
1 ex
2
dy = 4 ex
2
0 g(x) 0 1+y 2

x , , limx+ g(x) = 0. (12.8)

limx+ f (x) =
4 limx+ g(x) = 4 .

+
ex dx =
2
0 2 .
0
, ex , ex dx =
2 2
2 ,
, Gauss:
+ x2
e dx = .

471
12.4.2 .
12.10. I f : I [c, +) R. x I
f (x, y), y [c, +),
+
[c, +) c f (x, y) dy . x I,
, , g : I R
+
g(x) = c f (x, y) dy x I
+
. x I c f (x, y) dy
g(x) I.

g I.
+
12.4.2. {0 exy dy x.
y (exy 1)/x, x = 0
y 0 0 ext dt = , limy+ ,
y, x = 0
{
+ xy +, x 0 +
0 e dy = 0 exy dy -
1/x, x > 0
1
x (0, +).
+
0 exy dy = x1 , ,
(0, +).
+ sin(xy)
12.4.3. 0 y dy x.
x = 0, . 0.
+ sin(xy) + sin y
, , x > 0. 0 y dy = 0 y dy.
+ sin y + sin(xy)
0 y dy A . 0 y dy =
A x > 0.
+ sin(xy) + sin(|x|y) + sin(|x|y)
x < 0, 0 dy = 0 dy = 0 dy = A.
y y
y

A, x > 0
+ sin(xy)
0 dy g(x) = 0, x = 0 R.
y

A, x < 0
, , A > 0 , , g 0 ,
, (, 0) (0, +).
+
12.11. c f (x, y) dy g(x)
I { y  }
limy+ sup g(x) c f (x, t) dt | x I = 0
 y 
, , > 0 c0 [c, +) g(x) c f (x, t) dt
x I y (c0 , +).

-
. ,
+ .. +
c f (x, y) dy = g(x) I c f (x, y) dy = g(x) I

+. ,
, c f (x, y) dy = g(x) x I , ,
y
limy+ c f (x, t) dt = g(x) x I.
, y [c, +) gy : I R
y
gy (x) = c f (x, t) dt x I.

472

{ y  }
sup g(x) c f (x, t) dt | x I = sup{|g(x) gy (x)| | x I} = gy gI .
+
: c f (x, y) dy
g(x) I

lim gy gI = 0.
y+
+
12.13. c f (x, y) dy g(x)
I, g(x) I.

. I.
  {  }
g() y f (, t) dt sup g(x) y f (x, t) dt | x I = gy gI ,
c c
y
limy+ c f (, t) dt = g().
+
I, c f (x, y) dy -
g(x) I.
+
12.4.4. 0 exy dy x1
(0, +).
+ .. 1
0 exy dy = x (0, +).

,
 ,  (0, +).
y
 x1 0 ext dt = e x x > 0 y 0.
xy

{ y  }
sup  x1 0 ext dt | x (0, +) = sup{ e x | x > 0} = +
xy

{ y  }
y 0. limy+ sup  x1 0 ext dt | x (0, +) = 0,
+ xy
0 e dy x1 (0, +).
+
, a > 0, 0 exy dy -
x1 [a, +). ,
+ 1
a > 0 : 0 exy dy = x [a, +).

,
{ y  }
sup  x1 0 ext dt | x [a, +) = sup{ e x | x a} =
xy eay
a

y > 0 , ,
{ y  }
limy+ sup  x1 0 ext dt | x [a, +) = limy+ eay
a = 0.

(yn ) [c, +) yn +.
gyn : I R
y
gyn (x) = c n f (x, t) dt x I n.
+
, , c f (x, y) dy -
..
g(x) I, , , gyn g gyn g I.

g, -
.

473
 + 12.5. I f : I[c, +) R. f I[c, +)

c f (x, y) dy g(x) I, g : I R
I.
. (yn ) [c, +) yn +. , -
y
gyn : I R gyn (x) = c n f (x, t) dt. gyn g I. f
I [c, yn ], I [c, +), , 12.3,
n, gyn I. g I.

12.6. I f : I [c, +) R. f , f x
+ f
I [c, +), c (x, y) dy h(x) I
+ x +
c f (, y) dy I. c f (x, y) dy
g(x) I
I, g I g (x) = h(x) x I.
. (y ynn) [c, +) yn +
gyn : I R gyn (x) = c f (x, t) dt.
y
12.4, gyn (x) = c n f x (x, t) dt x I. -

, gyn h I. , , (gyn ()) .
9.3 (gyn ) g
I I, g
I g (x) = h(x) x I. ,
y +
g(x) = limn+ gyn (x) = limn+ c n f (x, t) dt = c f (x, y) dy
+
x I. c f (x, y) dy g(x) I.
+
c f (x, y) dy g(x)
[a, b] I.
F : [c, +) R F (y) = gy g[a,b] .
+
, c f (x, y) dy g(x) [a, b]
limy+ F (y) = 0. ,
y (yn ) [c, +)
yn + gyn (x) = c n f (x, t) dt x I.
(gyn ) g [a, b], F (yn ) = gyn g[a,b] 0.
3.1, limy+ F (y) = 0.

12.5 12.6
. , ,
, Weierstrass
.
12.7. I f : I [c, +) R F : [c, +) R
+
|f (x, y)| F (y) y [c, +), x I. c F (y) dy ,
+
c f (x, y) dy I.
+
. 12.12, x I c f (x, y) dy .
+
g :I y R g(x) = c f (x, y) dy. , , gy : I R
gy (x) = c f (x, t) dt.
+
c f (x, y) dy g(x) I , -
, limy+ gy gI = 0.
y [c, +), x I
 + y   +  +
|g(x) gy (x)| =  c f (x, t) dt c f (x, t) dt =  y f (x, t) dt y |f (x, t)| dt
+
y F (t) dt,

474
 + + y
gy gI y F (t) dt = c F (t) dt c F (t) dt.
y +
limy+ c F (t) dt = c F (t) dt, limy+ gy gI = 0.
+
12.4.5. 0 ey sin(xy) dy x.
+
|ey sin(xy)| ey y [0, +), x R 0 ey dy .
+
, 12.7, 0 ey sin(xy) dy g(x)
R. ,
+ y
0 e sin(xy) dy = g(x) R.

12.5 g(x) R.
+ ..
, 0 ey sin(xy) dy = g(x) R , ,
+
g(x) = 0 ey sin(xy) dy x.

ey sin(xy) R [0, +). , 12.5,

g R.
x ey sin(xy) yey cos(xy),
R [0, +). , |yey cos(xy)| yey y [0, +), x R
+
0 yey dy .
+
0 yey cos(xy) dy h(x) R. ,
+
0 yey cos(xy) dy = h(x) R.
+
, 0 ey sin(xy) dy g(x) R, 12.6
g(x) R
+
g (x) = h(x) = 0 yey cos(xy) dy x.
+
, g(x) = 0 ey sin(xy) dy
:
+ y + d ey
0 e sin(xy) dy = 0 dy sin(xy) dy
+
= limy+ ey sin(xy) + x 0 ey cos(xy) dy
+ d ey
= x 0 dy cos(xy) dy
+
= x limy+ ey cos(xy) + x x2 0 ey sin(xy)dy
+
= x x2 0 ey sin(xy)dy.

limy+ ey sin(xy) = limy+ ey cos(xy) = 0,

|ey sin(xy)| ey |ey cos(xy)| ey .
+ y x
0 e sin(xy) dy = 1+x 2.

, , 7.3.7.
+
12.4.6. 0 exy siny y dy x > 0.
  +
exy siny y  exy y (0, +) x (0, +) 0 exy dy
. +
, 12.12, 0 exy siny y dy x (0, +)

+
g(x) = 0 exy siny y dy x (0, +).

475
 + xy sin y ..
, , e dy = g(x) (0, +).
 0xy sin y  y xy
a > 0. e  e eay y (0, +) x
+ ay y
+
[a, +). 0 e dy , , 12.7, 0 exy siny y dy
g(x) [a, +).
,
+
a > 0 : 0 exy siny y dy = g(x) [a, +).

exy siny y [a, +) (0, +). ,

12.5, g [a, +). a > 0, g
(0, +).
x exy siny y exy sin y, -
[a, +) (0,+). , | exy sin y| exy eay y (0, +),
x [a, +) 0 eay dy . 0 exy sin y dy -
+ +

h(x) [a, +).

,
+
a > 0 : 0 exy sin y dy = h(x) [a, +).
12.6 g(x) [a, +)
+
g (x) = h(x) = 0 exy sin y dy x [a, +).
+
, g (x) = x1 0 ey sin( xy ) dy, 12.4.5

g (x) = x21+1 x [a, +).

a > 0,

g (x) = x21+1 = arctan x x > 0.

g(x) = arctan x + c x > 0.

, +
|g(x)| 0 exy | siny y | dy 0 exy dy = 1
x

x > 0, limx+ g(x) = 0. 0 = limx+ arctan x + c, c = 2 .

+ xy sin y
y dy = 2 arctan x

0 e x > 0.
y
F (y) = 0 sint t dt.
+ sin t
12.3.5, A = limy+ F (y) = 0 t dt
+ xy sin y
. limx0+ 0 e y dy = A.
, F (y) = sin y
y y > 0.

+ + +
A 0 exy siny y dy = 0 (1 exy ) siny y dy = 0 (1 exy ) d (F (y)A)
dy dy
+
= x 0 exy (F (y) A) dy,

 
A + exy sin y dy  x + exy |F (y) A| dy.
0 y 0

476
 F [0, +) limy+ F (y) = A
. M 0 |F (y) A| M y 0.
> 0. y0 > 0 |F (y) A| < 4 y y0 .
limx0+ exy0 = 1, > 0 1 exy0 < 4M+1 x (0, ). ,
x (0, )
 
A + exy sin y dy  x y0 exy |F (y) A| dy + x + exy |F (y) A| dy
0 y 0 y0
y0 xy + xy
Mx 0 e
dy + 4 x y0 e dy
= M (1 exy0 ) + 4 exy0 4 +
4 <
+
, , limx0+ 0 exy siny y dy = A.
A = limx0+ ( 2 arctan x) = 2 ,
+ sin y 7
0 y dy = 2 .

.
+
12.4.1. 0 ey cos(2xy) dy x.
2

. g(x) R. -
+
, 0 ey cos(2xy) dy = g(x) R.
2

g(x)

R g (x) + 2xg(x) = 0 x.
x2
, g(x) = 2 e x.
12.4.2. 12.3.7.
+ n (t)
, n N, 1 tx+n+1
dt x
(n, +) , a > n, [a, +).
(x) (, 1) (1, +)
(x 1)(x) (, +).
+ sin x
+ sin x cos x + (sin x)2
12.4.3. 0 x dx = 2 , 0 dx = 4 , 0 x2
dx = 2 ,
+ (sin x)4 + (sin x) 4
x

0 x2
dx = 4 , 0 x4
dx = 3 .
+ 1 sin(xy)
12.4.4. 0 y 2 +1 y dy x 0.
. g(x) [0, +).
+ 1 sin(xy) ..
, 0 y 2 +1 y dy = g(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, . g(x) [0, a].
+ 1 sin(xy)
, 0 y 2 +1 y dy = g(x) [0, a] a > 0.
g(x) [0, +).
12.4.5. f : [0, +) R [0, +) limx+ f (x) = l.
+
limx+ 0 ey f (xy) dy = l.
+ x
12.4.6. [] 0 1+x2 y 2
dy x.
. g(x) ,
, R.
, a > 0, . g(x) (, a]
[a, +).
g(x);
+
[] [] R \ {0} 0 ex y cos y dy.
2

7
12.3.12. ,
, 12.4.5. ,
12.4.12 Dirichlet Abel.

477
 + cos y
12.4.7. 2 y+sin x dy x -
R.
+ sin y
0 x+y dy x 0
[0, +).
+
0 exy sin xy dy x > 0 -
(0, +).
{
1
2 , 0 x y 1
12.4.8. [] f : [0, 1] [0, 1] R f (x, y) = y 1 -
x2 , 0 y < x 1
1(1 ) 1(1 )
0 0 f (x, y) dy dx = 0 0 f (x, y) dx dy.
d
[] f : [a, b] [c, d] R [a, b] [c, d]. c f (x, y) dy
b(d )
, x, [a, b]. a c f (x, y) dy dx. -
b
, a f (x, y) dx , y, [c, d].
d(b )
c a f (x, y) dx dy.
b(d ) d(b )
a c f (x, y) dy dx = c a f (x, y) dx dy.
+
[] f : [a, b] [c, +) R [a, b] [c, +) c f (x, y) dy
+
[a, b]. c f (x, y) dy , x,
b ( + ) b
[a, b]. a c f (x, y) dy dx. , a f (x, y) dx ,
+ ( b )
y, [c, +). c a f (x, y) dx dy
b ( + ) + ( b )
a c f (x, y) dy dx = c a f (x, y) dx dy.
b ( + ) + ( b xy )
[] 0 < a < b, a 0 exy dy dx = 0 a e dx dy.
+ eay eby
0 y dy.
1 ( + 1
) + ( 1 1
)
[] 0 0 1+x2 +y 2
dy dx = 0 0 1+x2 +y 2 dx dy.

02 arctan(sin
sin t
t)
dt = 2 log(1 + 2).

12.4.9. [] 02 cos(x sin y) dy x
g(x) R, g(x) R
8 xz + z + xz = 0 R.
+
[] 0 exy y+1 1
dy x g(x)
(0, +) [a, +) a > 0. ,
g(x) (0, +) -
xz + xz = 1 (0, +).
+
12.4.10. 0 ey cosh(xy) dy x.
2

. g(x) R ,
a > 0, [a, a].
g R 2g (x) xg(x) = 0
x.
g(x).
+ arctan(xt) arctan(yt)
12.4.11. 2 0 t2
dt x, y > 0.
. g(x, y)
(0, +) (0, +).
8
Bessel 0.

478
 g(x, y) -
2g +
g xy (x, y) = 2 0 1
(1+x2 t2 )(1+y 2 t2 )
1
dt = x+y x, y > 0.
g(x, y) = (x + y) log(x + y) x log x y log y x, y > 0.
y
12.4.12. I, f, g : I [c, +) R F (x, y) = c f (x, t) dt x I
g
y [c, +) f , y I [c, +).
[] x I g(x, y) , y, [c, +),
limy+ g(x, y) = 0 I F I [c, +),
+
c f (x, y)g(x, y) dy I.
[] x I g(x, y) , y, [c, +), g(x, y)
+
I [c, +) c f (x, y) dy -
+
I, c f (x, y)g(x, y) dy
I.
+ sin y
+ xy sin y
12.4.13. 0 y dy = 2 limx0+ 0 e y dy =
+ sin y
A, A = 0 y dy.
12.4.12[] f (x, y) = sin y
y g(x, y) = exy [0, +) [0, +).

12.4.14. Hermite 5.5.22.

x2 1
, , n (x) = Hn (x)e 2 = (2n n! ) 2 n (x).
5.5.22

(i) n+1 (x) = xn (x) n (x), (ii) n (x) = (x2 2n 2)n (x)

x n Z, n 0.
( )
d
(ii) dx m (x)n (x) m (x)n (x) = 2(m n)m (x)n (x)
+
x m, n Z, m, n 0. 2(m n) m (x)n (x) dx = 0
m, n Z, m, n 0 , ,
+
m (x)n (x) dx = 0, m, n Z, m, n 0, m = n.
+ +
, 2 xn (x)n (x) dx = (n (x))2 dx
n Z, n 0.
+ +
(n+1 (x))2 dx = 2(n + 1) (n (x))2 dx
n Z, n 0
+
2 dx = + ( (x))2 dx
( n+1 (x)) n

n Z, n 0. , Gauss,
+ 2
(n (x)) dx = 1, n Z, n 0.

12.5 .
9
+
0 y x1 ey dy

x (0, +).
9
Euler. Euler
12.5.8.

479
 x > 1, y x1 ey y
+ 1 [0, +). 12.2.3
1 y x1 ey dy . , 0 y x1 ey dy -
+
. , 0 y x1 ey dy
. +
x 1, y x1 ey y (0, +). 1 y x1 ey dy
1
. 0 y x1 ey dy , , . (- -
)
1 x1 y 1
0 y e dy 0 y x1 dy < +
+
0 < x 1. , 0 < x 1, 0 y x1 ey dy
. +
, , x > 0, 0 y x1 ey dy .
, , n,
+ x1
0 y (log y)n ey dy.

, y x1 (log y)n ey , y, (0, +)

. . .
+ x1
n ey dy + y x+n1 ey dy < +.
1 y (log y) 1

,
1 x1 1 + +
0 y | log y|n ey dy 0 y x1 | log y|n dy = 0 tn ext dt = 1
xn+1 0 sn es ds < +
+ 1
x > 0. 1 y x1 (log y)n ey dy 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy x > 0,
+ x1
0 y (log y)n ey dy .
+ +
12.2. 0 y x1 ey dy 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy x > 0
n N. ,
[a, b] (0, +).
. . x > 0.
, .
n = 0. , , 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy g(x)
+

(0, +). ,
+ x1 ..
0 y (log y)n ey dy = g(x) (0, +). (12.9)

a, b 0 < a b < + x [a, b].

y 1,
|y x1 (log y)n ey | y n+x1 ey y n+b1 ey
+ n+b1 y +
, 1 y e dy < +, 1 y x1 (log y)n ey dy -
h(x) [a, b]. ,
+
1 y x1 (log y)n ey dy = h(x) [a, b]. (12.10)

0 < y 1,
|y x1 (log y)n ey | y a1 | log y|n
1 1
, 0 y a1 | log y|n dy < +, 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy
q(x) [a, b]. ,
1
0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy = q(x) [a, b]. (12.11)

480
 (12.10) (12.11)
+
0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy = q(x) + h(x) [a, b].
+ ..
0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy = q(x) + h(x) [a, b], (12.9) q(x) +
h(x) = g(x) x [a, b] , ,
+
0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy = g(x) [a, b].

12.12. : (0, +) R
+ x1 y
0 y e dy. ,
+
(x) = 0 y x1 ey dy x (0, +).

12.14. (0, +)
+
(n) (x) = 0 y x1 (log y)n ey dy x (0, +), n N.

. (0, +). a, b 0 < a < < b < +

y x1 ey x, y x1 (log y)ey ,
[a, b] (0, +). +
12.2, 0 y x1 ey dy 0 y x1 (log y)ey dy -
+

- (x) - [a, b]. 12.6 -

[a, b] , ,
+
() = 0 y 1 (log y)ey dy.

y x1 (log y)ey x, -
y x1 (log y)2 ey ,
+ [a, b] (0, +).
+ x1
12.2, 0 y y
(log y)e dy 0 y x1 (log y)2 ey dy -
[a, b], 12.6
+
() = 0 y 1 (log y)2 ey dy.

12.15. :
(i) (x) > 0 x (0, +).
(ii) limx+ (x) = + limx0+ (x) = +.
(iii) (x + 1) = x(x) x (0, +).
(iv) (1) = 1 (n) = (n 1)! n N.
(v) log (0, +).

. (i) y x1 ey > 0 y > 0,

+
(x) = 0 y x1 ey dy 0.

, y x1 ey y = 1 1e > 0, ,
, c, d 0 < c < 1 < d < + y x1 ey 2e1

y [c, d].
d 1
(x) c 2e dy = dc
2e > 0.

481
(ii) x > 0
1 1
(x) 0 y x1 ey dy e1 0 y x1 dy = 1
ex .

limx0+ (x) = +.
, x 1
+ +
(x) 2 y x1 ey dy 2x1 2 ey dy = 2x1 e2 .

limx+ (x) = +.
(iii) , x (0, +)
+ +
(x + 1) = 0 y x ey dy = x 0 y x1 ey dy = x(x).
+
(iv) (1) = 0 ey dy = 1. (x + 1) = x(x), , -
(2) = 1(1) = 1, (3) = 2(2) = 2 1 = 2!, (4) = 3(3) = 3 2! = 3! ,
, (n) = (n 1)!.
(v) x (0, +) t
+
t2 (x) + 2t (x) + (x) = 0 y x1 (t log y + 1)2 ey dy 0.

(x)(x) ( (x))2 , , (log ) (x) 0 x > 0.

(0, +)
N :

(n) = (n 1)! n N.

.
, 12.5.9 1
Rd .
.
1
12.5.1. 0 (log y1 )x1 dy = (x) x > 0.

12.5.2. 12.15 (x)(x) ( (x))2

log (x).
Schwarz, Buniakowsky 12.3.13.
+ x2

12.5.3. ( ) Gauss, e dx = 2 , -
0
12 = .
( ) (2n)!
n + 12 = 4n n! n Z, n 0.

12.5.4. x > 1.
ny y x1 , y, -
, a > 0, + n=1 e
x1
eyy 1 [a, +).
b x1 b ny x1 + ny x1
a eyy 1 dy = + n=1 a e y dy + n=1 0 e y dy, 0 < a < b <
+ yx1 + + ny x1
+. 0 ey 1 dy n=1 0 e y dy.
n + ky x1 + yx1
n k=1 0 e y dy 0 ey 1 dy.
+ + ny x1 + yx1
n=1 0 e y dy 0 ey 1 dy.

+ + ny x1 + yx1
n=1 0 e y dy = 0 ey 1 dy x > 1.

482
 +
n N 0 eny y x1 dy = (x)
nx .
12.4.2 12.3.7.
+ y x1
(x)(x) = 0 ey 1 dy x > 1.
n
12.5.5. y x1 (1 ny )n dy (x) x > 0.
0
n nx n!
0 y x1 (1 ny )n dy = x(x+1)(x+n) ,
, Gauss:10
nx n!
x(x+1)(x+n) (x) x > 0.

Gauss x = 12 Wallis
7.3.11.
:

(x)(x + 21 ) = 212x (2x) x > 0.

Gauss,
(x )
log (x) = x log x + + n=1 n log(1 + n )
x
x > 0

= limn+ (1 + 1
2 + + 1
n log n) Euler 2.4.6,
6.4.11 7.3.20.

12.5.6. f : (0, +) R : (i) f (x) > 0 x (0, +),

(ii) f (1) = 1, (iii) f (x + 1) = xf (x) x (0, +) (iv) log f
(0, +).
nx n!
x(x+1)(x+n) f (x) x (0, +).
f ,
, f =
Gauss 12.5.5.

12.5.7.
(x) +
(x) = 1
x + x
n=1 n(n+x) x > 0,

= limn+ (1 + 1
2 + + 1
n log n) Euler 2.4.6,
6.4.11 7.3.20.

12.5.8. 11
1
B(x, y) = 0 tx1 (1 t)y1 dt x, y > 0.

B.
B(x, y) = B(y, x) x, y > 0 B(x, 1) = x1
B(1, y) = y1 x, y > 0.
x
B(x + 1, y) = x+y B(x, y) x, y > 0 -
.

1 x1 , y > 0
1 x, B (x, y) =

0 t (1 t) y1 log t dt B (x, y) = 0 t (1 t)y1 (log t)2 dt. ,
x1

log , y > 0, log B(x, y) ,

10
Gauss 12.5.6.
11
Euler.

483
 x, (0, +).
y > 0, f (x) = (y) 1
B(x, y)(x + y) x (0, +). -
f : (i) f (x) > 0 x (0, +), (ii) f (1) = 1,
(iii) f (x + 1) = xf (x) x (0, +) (iv) log f (0, +).
12.5.6, f = ,
(x)(y)
B(x, y) = (x+y) x, y > 0.

7.3.13.

12.5.9. Vd 1 d- Rd . -
: V1 = 2, V2 = , V3 = 4 3 .
k N, k 2. , Rk r > 0,
rk Vk . Rk 0 1
x1 [1, 1] x1 -
x1 Rk1 1 x1 2 ,
k1
(1 x1 2 ) 2 Vk1 . ,
1 1
t 2 dt.
k1 k1 1
Vk = Vk1 1 (1 x1 2 ) 2 dx1 = Vk1 0 (1 t) 2

12.5.8 , , ( 12 ) = 12.5.3,

( k+1 )( 12 ) ( k1 +1)
Vk = Vk1 B( k+1 1
2 , 2 ) = Vk1
2
k
( 2 +1)
= Vk1 ( k2 +1) .
2

d1 ( 1 +1)
, Vd = 2 V1 ( d2 +1)
2

d
2
Vd = ( d2 +1)
.

484
 .
Artin, E. (2015) The Gamma Function. Dover.
Bartle, R. (1967) The Elements of Real Analysis, Ch VI. Wiley.
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 6-7, 10. Dover.
Buck, R. & Buck, E. (2003) Advanced Calculus, Ch 4, 6. Waveland Press.
Courant, R. (1988) Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol I, Ch IV and Vol II, Ch IV. Wiley.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 3, 7 and Vol II, Ch
4. Springer.
Dieudonn, J. (1971) Infinitesimal Calculus, Ch III-IV. Hermann.
Ghorpade, S. & Limaye, B. (2006) A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis, Ch 9. Springer.
Goldberg, R. (1976) Methods of Real Analysis, Ch 7. Wiley.
Goursat, E. (2006) A Course in Mathematical Analysis, Vol I, Ch IV, VIII. Dover.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch IV, VIII. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Landau, E. (2001) Differential and Integral Calculus, Ch 28-30. American Math. Society & Chelsea.
Lang, S. (1997) Undergraduate Analysis, Ch XIII. Springer.
Nikolsky, S. (1977) A Course of Mathematical Analysis, Vol 1, Ch 9. Mir Publishers.
Protter, M. (1998) Basic Elements of Real Analysis, Ch 9. Springer.
Whittaker, E. & Watson, G. (1996) A Course of Modern Analysis, Ch III. Cambridge Univ. Press.

.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 8. McGraw-Hill.

485
486
 13

13.1 Peano.
, N -
. , , N ,
, Peano,
( )
N.

Peano:
1. N , 1.

2. n N n N, n.

3. n N n = 1.
, 1 .

4. n, m N n = m , n = m.
, n, m N n = m, n = m .

5. K N : (i) 1 K (ii) n K, n K.
K = N.
2 n 7 n N -
N. , 3 1
4 --. 5
.

13.1.1 .
13.1. n N n = n.
. K n N n = n. 1
3 1 K. n K. n N n = n. 4
(n ) = n , , n K. K = N.

13.2. m N, m = 1 n N n = m.
. K 1 m N n N
n = m. 1 K m K. m N n N (:
m) n = m . m K. K = N.
m N K, , m = 1, n N n = m. 4
n N n = m .

487
 13.2 n 7 n N \ {1},
, , -
N N \ {1}.
13.1. : N N N : (i)
n N (n, 1) = n (ii) n, m N (n, m ) = ((n, m)) .
. K n N : fn : N N
(i) fn (1) = n (ii) m N fn (m ) = (fn (m)) .
, 1 K. , f1 : N N f1 (m) = m . (i)
f1 (1) = 1 (ii) m N f1 (m ) = (m ) = (f1 (m)) .
, n K. , fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n
(ii) m N fn (m ) = (fn (m)) . n K.
fn : N N fn (m) = (fn (m)) . (i) fn (1) = (fn (1)) = (n ) (ii)
m N fn (m ) = (fn (m )) = ((fn (m)) ) = (fn (m)) . n K.
K = N. n N fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n
(ii) m N fn (m ) = (fn (m)) .
, : N N N (n, m) = fn (m). : (i) (n, 1) =
fn (1) = n (ii) n, m N (n, m ) = fn (m ) = (fn (m)) = ((n, m)) .
(i), (ii) .
: N N N : (i) n N (n, 1) = n
(ii) n, m N (n, m ) = ((n, m)) . n N
K m N : (n, m) = (n, m). 1 K,
(n, 1) = n = (n, 1). , m K, (n, m) = (n, m). (n, m ) =
((n, m)) = ((n, m)) = (n, m ) , , m K. K = N.
m N (n, m) = (n, m) , n N,
(n, m) = (n, m) n, m N. , .

13.1. (n, m) N , 13.1,

n, m N n, m
n + m.
, n + m = (n, m). n, m N -
N.
13.1 , :
n+1 = (n, 1) = n , 1+n = (1, n) = f1 (n) = n , n+m = (n, m ) = ((n, m)) = (n+m)
n + m = (n , m) = fn (m) = (fn (m)) = ((n, m)) = (n + m) . :
n + 1 = n = 1 + n, n + m = (n + m) = n + m.
13.3. n, m N n + m = m + n.
. n N K m N : n + m = m + n.
n + 1 = n = 1 + n. 1 K. , m K, n + m = m + n.
n + m = (n + m) = (m + n) = m + n, m K.
K = N.

13.4. n, m, k N (n + m) + k = n + (m + k).
. n, m N K k N : (n + m) + k =
n + (m + k).
(n + m) + 1 = (n + m) = n + m = n + (m + 1). 1 K. , k K,
(n + m) + k = n + (m + k). (n + m) + k = ((n + m) + k) = (n + (m + k)) =
n + (m + k) = n + (m + k ), k K.
K = N.

488
 , -
13.3 13.4, , -
. :
(m + n) + (k + l) = ((n + l) + m) + k, (m + n) + (k + l) = (n + m) + (l + k) =
((n + m) + l) + k = (n + (m + l)) + k = (n + (l + m)) + k = ((n + l) + m) + k. ,

. -
: (m + n) + (k + l), ((n + l) + m) + k n + m + k + l
( n + l + k + m k + m + l + n ...).

13.5. n, m N m = n + m.

. n N K m N : m = n + m.
1 = n = n + 1, 1 K. , m K, m = n + m. m =
(n + m) = n + m , m K.
K = N.

13.6. n, m, k N. m = k, n + m = n + k.

. m, k N, m = k K n N : n + m =
n + k.
1 + m = m = k = 1 + k, 1 K. , n K, n + m = n + k.
n + m = (n + m) = (n + k) = n + k, n K.
K = N.

13.7. n, m N : (i) n = m, (ii)

k N n = m + k (iii) k N m = n + k. k (ii), (iii)
.

. n N K m N
(i) (iii).
, 1 K. , n = 1, (i) 1. , n = 1,
k N n = k = 1 + k, (ii) 1.
m K, (i) (iii) m. (i)
m, n = m, n + 1 = n = m , , (iii) m .
(ii) m, k N n = m + k. k = 1,
n = m + 1 = m , (i) m . k = 1, l N k = l ,
n = m + l = (m + l) = m + l , , (ii) m . ,
(iii) m, k N m = n + k. m = (n + k) = n + k ,
(iii) m . , , m
(i) (iii) , , m K.
K = N.
k (ii), (iii) 13.6.
(i), (ii) 13.5. , (i),
(iii) . (ii), (iii), n = m+k
m = n + l k, l Z, n = m + k = n + l + k = (l + k) + n,
13.5. (i) (iii).

13.1.2 .
13.2. n, m N. k N n = m + k, n
m n > m , , m n
m < n.

489
 n, m N. n > m, k N n = m + k
n, m
n m.
n, m N, n > m n m N.

13.8. n, m N : n = m, n > m,
n < m.

. 13.7.

13.3. n, m N. n > m n = m , , m < n m = n,

n m n m , , m
n m n.

13.9. m, n, k N.
[] n < m m < k, n < k.
[] n m m < k n < m m k, n < k.
[] n m m k, n k.

. [] n < m m < k. p, q N m = n + p k = m + q.
k = m + q = n + p + q = n + (p + q), n < k.
[], [] , [].

13.10. n, m N n + m > n.

. .

13.11. m, n, k N. n < m n + k < m + k. ,

n = m n + k = m + k.

. n < m. l N m = n+l. m+k = n+l+k = (n+k)+l

, , n + k < m + k.
n + k < m + k. n = m, n + k = m + k , m < n, m + k < n + k.
. n < m.
, n = m, n + k = m + k. n + k = m + k. n < m, n + k < m + k
, m < n, m + k < n + k. .
n = m.

13.12. m, n, k, l N.
[] n < m k < l, n + k < m + l.
[] n m k < l n < m k l, n + k < m + l.
[] n m k l, n + k m + l.

. [] n < m k < l. , 13.11, n + k < m + k <

m + l.
[], [] , [].

13.13. n N n 1.

. n = 1, n 1. n = 1, m N n = m = m + 1 > 1.

13.14. m, n N.
[] n > m, n m + 1.
[] n < m + 1, n m.

490
. [] n > m, k N n = m + k. k 1, n m + 1.
[] , [].

. - N .
. - M N m0 M . K n N
m m M .
, 1 K. m0 + 1 > m0 m0 M , m0 + 1 K. K
N, , , n0 K
n0 + 1 = n0 / K.
, (i) n0 m m M . , n0 K. ,
n0 / M . m M n0 < m , , n0 + 1 m. n0 + 1 K
. (ii) n0 M .
(i), (ii) n0 M .

13.1.3 .
13.2. : N N N : (i)
n N (n, 1) = n (ii) n, m N (n, m ) = (n, m) + n.
. K n N : fn : N N
(i) fn (1) = n (ii) m N fn (m ) = fn (m) + n.
, 1 K. , f1 : N N f1 (m) = m. (i)
f1 (1) = 1 (ii) m N f1 (m ) = m = m + 1 = f1 (m) + 1.
, n K. , fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n (ii)
m N fn (m ) = fn (m) + n. n K.
fn : N N fn (m) = fn (m)+m. (i) fn (1) = fn (1)+1 = n+1 = n (ii)
m N fn (m ) = fn (m )+m = fn (m)+n+m = fn (m)+n +m = fn (m)+n .
n K.
K = N. n N fn : N N (i) fn (1) = n
(ii) m N fn (m ) = fn (m) + n.
, : N N N (n, m) = fn (m). : (i) (n, 1) =
fn (1) = n (ii) n, m N (n, m ) = fn (m ) = fn (m) + n = (n, m) + n.
(i), (ii) .
: N N N : (i) n N (n, 1) = n
(ii) n, m N (n, m ) = (n, m) + n. n N
K m N : (n, m) = (n, m). 1 K,
(n, 1) = n = (n, 1). , m K, (n, m) = (n, m). (n, m ) =
(n, m) + n = (n, m) + n = (n, m ) , , m K. K = N.
m N (n, m) = (n, m) , n N,
(n, m) = (n, m) n, m N. , .

13.4. (n, m) N , 13.2,

n, m N n, m

n m.

, nm = (n, m). n, m N
N.
13.2 ,
: n 1 = (n, 1) = n, 1 n = (1, n) = f1 (n) = n, n m = (n, m ) = (n, m) + n =
nm+n n m = (n , m) = fn (m) = fn (m)+m = (n, m)+m = nm+m. :

n 1 = n = 1 n, n m = n m + n, n m = n m + m.

491
 n m nm

n1 = n = 1n, nm = nm + n, n m = nm + m.

13.15. n, m N nm = mn.

. n N K m N : nm = mn.
n1 = n = 1n. 1 K. , m K, nm = mn. nm =
nm + n = mn + n = m n, m K.
K = N.

13.16. n, m, k N n(m + k) = nm + nk.

. n, m N K k N : n(m + k) =
nm + nk.
n(m + 1) = nm = nm + n = nm + n1. 1 K. , k K,
n(m+k) = nm+nk. n(m+k ) = n(m+k) = n(m+k)+n = nm+nk +n = nm+nk ,
k K.
K = N.

13.17. n, m, k N (nm)k = n(mk).

. n, m N K k N : (nm)k = n(mk).
(nm)1 = nm = n(m1). 1 K. , k K, (nm)k = n(mk).
(nm)k = (nm)k + nm = n(mk) + nm = n(mk + m) = n(mk ), k K.
K = N.

, -
, 13.15 13.17, , -
-
.

13.18. m, n, k N. n < m nk < mk. ,

n = m nk = mk.

. n < m. l N m = n + l. mk = nk + lk , ,
nk < mk.
nk < mk. n = m, nk = mk , m < n, mk < nk.
. n < m.
, n = m, nk = mk. nk = mk. n < m, nk < mk , m < n,
mk < nk. . n = m.

13.19. m, n, k, l N.
[] n < m k < l, nk < ml.
[] n m k < l n < m k l, nk < ml.
[] n m k l, nk ml.

. [] n < m k < l. , 13.18, nk < mk < ml.

[], [] , [].

492
13.2 .
(n1 , n2 ), NN.
(n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 )

(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 )

n1 m2 = m1 n2 .

13.20. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) N N.

[] (n1 , n2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ).

. [] n1 n2 = n1 n2 , (n1 , n2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), n1 m2 = m1 n2 . m1 n2 = n1 m2 ,
(m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ).
[] (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ), n1 m2 = m1 n2 m1 k2 = k1 m2 .
n1 m2 m1 k2 = m1 n2 k1 m2 , n1 k2 = k1 n2 . (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ).

13.5. , -
, N N : -
, , ,
, .
Q+ .
r (, ),
r r. ,
-
.

13.2.1 .
13.6. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) NN. (n1 , n2 )
(m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , (m1 , m2 )
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (n1 , n2 ) n1 m2 > m1 n2 , , m1 n2 <
n1 m2 .

13.21. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), (l1 , l2 ) N N. (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ),

(n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ), (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ), (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).

. (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ). n1 m2 >

m1 n2 , n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 = l1 m2 . k1 n2 m1 l2 = l1 m2 n1 k2 > l1 k2 n2 m1 . k1 l2 >
l1 k2 , , (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).

13.21 r
s, r -
s. , , .

13.7. r, s Q+ . r s r > s ,
, s r s < r (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 )
(, , ) (n1 , n2 ) r (,
, ) (m1 , m2 ) s.

13.22. r, s Q+ : r = s, r > s,
r < s.

493
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, .
, r = s, r > s, r < s
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 )
n1 m2 = m1 n2 , n1 m2 > m1 n2 , n1 m2 <
m1 n2 .

13.8. , r s r s
, , s r s r r > s
r = s , , s < r s = r.

13.23. r, s, t Q+ .
[] r < s s < t, r < t.
[] r s s < t r < s s t, r < t.
[] r s s t, r t.

. [] r < s s < t. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ),

(k1 , k2 ) r, s, t, . (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ),
n1 m2 < m1 n2 m1 k2 < k1 m2 . n1 m2 m1 k2 < m1 n2 k1 m2 , ,
n1 k2 < k1 n2 . (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ), r < t.
[], []. , [].

13.24. [] r Q+ s Q+ s > r.
[] r Q+ s Q+ s < r.
[] r, s Q+ , r < s t Q+ r < t < s.

. [] r Q+ (n1 , n2 ) r. -
(n1 + n1 , n2 ) s Q+ , (n1 + n1 , n2 ) .
(n1 + n1 , n2 ) (n1 , n2 ) (n1 + n1 )n2 = n1 n2 + n1 n2 > n1 n2 . s > r.
[] r Q+ (n1 , n2 ) r. (n1 , n2 +
n2 ) s Q+ , (n1 , n2 + n2 ) . (n1 , n2 + n2 )
(n1 , n2 ) n1 (n2 + n2 ) = n1 n2 + n1 n2 > n1 n2 . s < r.
[] r, s Q+ , r < s (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) r, s, -
. , (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ), n1 m2 < m1 n2 .
(n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) t Q+ , (n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) .
n1 m2 < m1 n2 n1 n2 + n1 m2 < n1 n2 + m1 n2 , n1 (n2 + m2 ) <
(n1 + m1 )n2 . (n1 , n2 ) (n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) , , r < t.
n1 m2 < m1 n2 n1 m2 + m1 m2 < m1 n2 + m1 m2 , (n1 + m1 )m2 <
m1 (n2 + m2 ). (n1 + m1 , n2 + m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , t < s.

13.2.2 .
13.9. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) N N.
(n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ).

13.25. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), (l1 , l2 ) N N. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 )

(m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ), (n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) + (l1 , l2 ).

. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ). n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 =

l1 m2 . (n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) + (l1 , l2 ) , , (n1 m2 +
m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) (k1 l2 + l1 k2 , k2 l2 ), (n1 m2 + m1 n2 )k2 l2 = (k1 l2 +
l1 k2 )n2 m2 . , , n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 = l1 m2 .

13.25 . -
r s .

494
 t.
r s,
, t. , ,
.

13.10. r, s Q+ . r, s

r+s

(n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 ) (,
, ) (n1 , n2 ) r (, , ) -
(m1 , m2 ) s. r, s Q+ r + s
Q+ .

13.26. r, s Q+ r + s = s + r.

. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, . (n1 , n2 )+(m1 , m2 ) =

(n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) r + s (m1 , m2 ) + (n1 , n2 ) = (m1 n2 +
n1 m2 , m2 n2 ) s+r. (n1 m2 +m1 n2 , n2 m2 )
(m1 n2 + n1 m2 , m2 n2 ). , , , .

13.27. r, s, t Q+ (r + s) + t = r + (s + t).

. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) r, s t, .

((n1 , n2 ) + (m1 , m2 )) + (k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) + (k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m2 k2 + m1 n2 k2 +
k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 k2 ) (r + s) + t (n1 , n2 ) + ((m1 , m2 ) + (k1 , k2 )) =
(n1 , n2 )+(m1 k2 +k1 m2 , m2 k2 ) = (n1 m2 k2 +m1 k2 n2 +k1 m2 n2 , n2 m2 k2 )
r + (s + t). (n1 m2 k2 + m1 n2 k2 + k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 k2 )
(n1 m2 k2 + m1 k2 n2 + k1 m2 n2 , n2 m2 k2 ). , , ,
.

, 13.26
13.27, ,
.

13.28. r, s Q+ r + s > r.

. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, . (n1 , n2 )+(m1 , m2 ) =

(n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) r + s, , r + s > r,
(n1 m2 + m1 n2 , n2 m2 ) (n1 , n2 ) , , n1 m2 n2 + m1 n2 n2 >
n1 n2 m2 , .

13.29. r, s, t Q+ . r < s r + t < s + t. ,

r = s r + t = s + t.

. r < s (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) r, s, t, .

(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 . (n1 , n2 ) + (k1 , k2 ) = (n1 k2 +
k1 n2 , n2 k2 ), (m1 , m2 ) + (k1 , k2 ) = (m1 k2 + k1 m2 , m2 k2 ) r + t, s + t,
. , r + t < s + t (n1 k2 +
k1 n2 , n2 k2 ) (m1 k2 + k1 m2 , m2 k2 ) , , n1 k2 m2 k2 + k1 n2 m2 k2 < m1 k2 n2 k2 +
k1 m2 n2 k2 . , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 .
r + t < s + t. r = s, r + t = s + t , s < r, s + t < r + t.
. r < s.
, r = s, r + t = s + t. r + t = s + t. r < s, r + t < s + t ,
s < r, s + t < r + t. . r = s.

495
 13.30. r, s, t, u Q+ .
[] r < s t < u, r + t < s + u.
[] r s t < u r < s t u, r + t < s + u.
[] r s t u, r + t s + u.

. [] r < s t < u. , r + t < s + t < s + u.

[], []. , [].

13.31. r, s Q+ . r < s, t Q+ r + t = s.
, r s, t Q+ r + t = s.

. r < s (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, .

(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 . k N
n1 m2 + k = m1 n2 . t Q+ (k, n2 m2 ).
r + t (n1 , n2 ) + (k, n2 m2 ) = (n1 n2 m2 + kn2 , n2 n2 m2 ) ,
r + t = s, (n1 n2 m2 + kn2 , n2 n2 m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) ,
, n1 n2 m2 m2 + kn2 m2 = m1 n2 n2 m2 . , , n1 m2 +
k = m1 n2 .
t 13.29.
r + t = s s > r. , r s,
t Q+ r + t = s.

13.11. r, s Q+ , r < s, t Q+ r + t = s
s, r

s r.

r, s Q+ , r < s s r Q+ .

13.2.3 .
13.12. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) N N.
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (n1 m1 , n2 m2 ).

13.32. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), (l1 , l2 ) N N. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 )

(m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ), (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).

. (n1 , n2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (l1 , l2 ). n1 k2 = k1 n2 m1 l2 =

l1 m2 . n1 k2 m1 l2 = k1 n2 l1 m2 , , (n1 m1 , n2 m2 ) (k1 l1 , k2 l2 ),
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (k1 , k2 ) (l1 , l2 ).

13.32 .
r s .
t.
r s, -
t. , , .

13.13. r, s Q+ . r, s

rs

(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) (,
, ) (n1 , n2 ) r (, , ) -
(m1 , m2 ) s. r, s Q+ r s
Q+ .

496
 , rs r s.

13.33. r, s Q+ rs = sr.

. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ) r, s, . (n1 , n2 )(m1 , m2 ) =

(n1 m1 , n2 m2 ) rs (m1 , m2 )(n1 , n2 ) = (m1 n1 , m2 n2 ) -
sr. (n1 m1 , n2 m2 ) (m1 n1 , m2 n2 ). , ,
, .

13.34. r, s, t Q+ (rs)t = r(st).

. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ), , r, s, t.

((n1 , n2 )(m1 , m2 ))(k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m1 , n2 m2 )(k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 ) -
(rs)t (n1 , n2 )((m1 , m2 )(k1 , k2 )) = (n1 , n2 )(m1 k1 , m2 k2 ) = (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 )
r(st). (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 ) (n1 m1 k1 , n2 m2 k2 ).
, , , .

13.33
13.34, ,
-
.

13.35. r, s, t Q+ r(s + t) = rs + rt.

. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) , , r, s, t.

(n1 , n2 )((m1 , m2 )+(k1 , k2 )) = (n1 m1 k2 +n1 k1 m2 , n2 m2 k2 ) r(s+t)
(n1 , n2 )(m1 , m2 ) + (n1 , n2 )(k1 , k2 ) = (n1 m1 n2 k2 + n1 k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 n2 k2 ) -
rs + rt. , r(s + t) = rs + rt,
(n1 m1 k2 + n1 k1 m2 , n2 m2 k2 ) (n1 m1 n2 k2 + n1 k1 n2 m2 , n2 m2 n2 k2 ).
(n1 m1 k2 + n1 k1 m2 )n2 m2 n2 k2 = (n1 m1 n2 k2 + n1 k1 n2 m2 )n2 m2 k2 ,
.

13.36. r, s, t Q+ . r < s rt < st. , r = s

rt = st.

. r < s (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), (k1 , k2 ) r, s, t, -

. (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 . (n1 , n2 )(k1 , k2 ) =
(n1 k1 , n2 k2 ), (m1 , m2 )(k1 , k2 ) = (m1 k1 , m2 k2 ) rt, st, .
rt < st (n1 k1 , n2 k2 ) (m1 k1 , m2 k2 ) ,
, n1 k1 m2 k2 < m1 k1 n2 k2 . , , n1 m2 < m1 n2 .
rt < st. r = s, rt = st , s < r, st < rt.
. r < s.
, r = s, rt = st. rt = st. r < s, rt < st , s < r,
st < rt. . r = s.

13.37. r, s, t, u Q+ .
[] r < s t < u, rt < su.
[] r s t < u r < s t u, rt < su.
[] r s t u, rt su.

. [] r < s t < u. rt < st < su.

[], []. , [].

13.38. r, s Q+ . T t Q+ rt = s.

497
. (n1 , n2 ), (m1 , m2 ), , r, s. t
Q+ , (m1 n2 , n1 m2 ). (n1 , n2 )(m1 n2 , n1 m2 ) =
(n1 m1 n2 , n2 n1 m2 ) rt. , rt = s,
(n1 m1 n2 , n2 n1 m2 ) (m1 , m2 ) , , n1 m1 n2 m2 = m1 n2 n1 m2 ,
.
t 13.36.

13.14. r, s Q+ , t Q+ rt = s
s, r
s
.
r
r, s Q+ rs Q+ .

13.2.4 .
13.15. n N (n, 1)
n. r Q+ , r = n n N
. Z+ . , Z+ = {n | n N}
Z+ Q+ .
13.39. n, m N. n < m n < m. ,
n = m n = m.
. n m (n, 1) (m, 1), . n < m
(n, 1) (m, 1) n1 < m1. , n = m
(n, 1) (m, 1) n1 = m1.

13.39 r Z+
n N r = n.
13.40. r, s Q+ . n N nr > s.
. t = rs Q+ , tr = s. (n1 , n2 )
t n = n1 + 1. n2 1, nn2 n > n1 = n1 1,
(n, 1) (n1 , n2 ). n > t , , nr > tr = s.

13.41. r Q+ . n1 , n2 N r = n1
n2 . ,
(n1 , n2 ) r r = nn12 .
. (n1 , n2 ) r Q+ . (n1 , 1) (n2 , 1)
n1 n2 , . (n2 , 1)(n1 , n2 ) = (n2 n1 , n2 ) -
n2 r , , (n2 n1 , n2 ) (n1 , 1), n2 r = n1 . r = nn12 .
, n1 , n2 N r = nn12 , n2 r = n1 . (m1 , m2 )
r, o (n2 , 1)(m1 , m2 ) = (n2 m1 , m2 ) -
n2 r, (n2 m1 , m2 ) (n1 , 1) , , n2 m1 = n1 m2 , ,
(n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ). (n1 , n2 ) r.

13.42. n, m, k N.
[] n + m = k n + m = k.
[] nm = k n m = k.
. [] (n, 1), (m, 1), (k, 1) n, m, k. (n, 1) + (m, 1) =
(n1 + m1, 11) = (n + m, 1) n + m. n + m = k
(n + m, 1) (k, 1) (n + m)1 = k1 n + m = k.
[] (n, 1)(m, 1) = (nm, 11) = (nm, 1) n m. n m = k
(nm, 1) (k, 1) nm1 = k1 nm = k.

498
 13.42 :
. , n + m n, m
k, k = n + m. , n + m = n + m. ,
n m n, m k, k = nm. ,
n m = nm.
13.39 13.42 .
n N n Z+ , ,
n Z+ n N.
N
Z+ . : (i) n < m
n < m n = m n = m, (ii) n + m = k
n + m = k (iii) nm = k n m = k.
N Z+ , , Z+
N ,
.
: n n.
13.16. , n
n , , N Z+ . ,
, n N, -
n n Z+ . ,
N, Z+ Z+

Z+ . , , N, Z+ ,
N Q+ .
, 13.40 n n
: r, s n nr > s. ,
, :
r, s n nr > s.
. 13.41 : r nn12
, ,
r nn12 .
, 13.41
.

13.3 .
13.17. x Q+ ,
: (i) x Q+ , (ii) x
Q+ x (iii) x
, x x.
R+ .
: ( ) .
13.18. (i) (iii), -
, , , Dedekind.
.
13.43. x R+ .
[] r, s Q+ : r
/ x s > r, s
/ x.

499
[] r, s Q+ : r x s < r, s x.
[] r x s x, s > r.

. [], ] (ii) x. []
(iii) x.

13.19. x R+ . (ii) x, x -
x x
x.

Q+ ,
(i) (iii), : (i)
, (ii)
,
(iii) ,
.

13.3.1 .
13.20. x, y R+ , y x y > x ,
, x y x < y y x , ,
x y.

:
.

13.44. x, y R+ . x < y r Q+ r y
r
/ x.

. x < y, x y. r Q+ r y r / x.
r Q+ r y r
/ x. s x. s < r , , s y.
x y , r, x y.

13.45. x, y R+ : x = y, x > y,
x < y.

. x = y, x > y, x < y , , x = y, x y,
x y, .
x = y. (i) r Q+ r y r
/ x (ii) r Q+
r x r / y. (i) , 13.44, x < y
(ii) , , x > y.

13.21. x, y R+ , y x
y x , , x y x y
y > x y = x , , x < y x = y. , y x , , x y
y x , , x y.

13.46. x, y, z R+ .
[] x < y y < z, x < z.
[] x y y < z x < y y z, x < z.
[] x y y z, x z.

. [] x < y y < z. x y y z , , x z. x < z.

[], []. .

500
13.3.2 .
13.3. x, y R+ . z = {r + s | r x, s y}
, R+ . , t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y t + u
/ z.

. r x, s y , , r + s z. z . ,
t, u Q+ , t / x, u / y. , r x, s y r < t, s < u,
r + s < t + u. z = t + u, t + u / z. z
(i) .
, , t, u Q+ , t / x, u / y t + u
/ z.
z. r + s, r x, s y.
t Q+ , t < r + s. r+s t
(r + s) = t < r + s = 1(r + s), r+s t
< 1.
r r+s < r1 = r s r+s < s1 = s. r r+s x s r+s y , ,
t t t t
t
r r+s t
+ s r+s z. , r r+st t
+ s r+s t
= (r + s) r+s = t, t z. z
(ii) .
, z. r + s, r x, s y.
t x, u y r < t, s < u. r + s < t + u t + u z.
z (iii) .
z R+ .

13.22. x, y R+ . z R+ 13.3
x, y
x + y.
, x + y = {r + s | r x, s y}. x, y R+
x + y R+ .

13.47. x, y R+ x + y = y + x.

. x + y = {r + s | r x, s y} = {s + r | s y, r x} = y + x.

13.48. x, y, z R+ (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

. x + y = {r + s | r x, s y} y + z = {s + t | s y, t z}.
(x + y) + z = {(r + s) + t | r x, s y, t z} = {r + (s + t) | r x, s y, t z} =
x + (y + z).

13.49. t Q+ x R+ . r x, s Q+ , s
/ x s r = t.

. r1 x s1 Q+ , s1 / x. s1 > r1 , s1 r1 Q+ .
13.40, n N nt > s1 r1 , r1 + nt > s1 .
{n N | r1 + nt / x} , n0 .
n0 = 1, r = r1 , s = r1 + n0 t = r1 + t, r x, s Q+ , s
/ x
s r = t. n0 > 1, r = r1 + (n0 1)t x, s = r1 + n0 t / x,
r x, s Q+ , s
/ x s r = t.

13.50. x, y R+ x + y > x.

. t y. 13.49, r x, s Q+ , s / x
s r = t. , r + t = s
/ x r + t x + y. , 13.44,
x < x + y.

501
 13.51. x, y, z R+ . x < y x + z < y + z. ,
x = y x + z = y + z.

. x < y. t1 / x, t1 y. , t2 y, t2 > t1 ,
t2 t1 Q+ . 13.49, r z, s Q+ , s / z s r = t2 t1 .
t = t1 + s = t2 + r. t2 y, r z, t y + z. t1
/ x, s
/ z,
t/ x + z. x + z < y + z.
x + z < y + z. x = y, x + z = y + z , y < x, y + z < x + z.
. x < y.
, x = y, x + z = y + z. x + z = y + z. x < y, x + z < y + z ,
y < x, y + z < x + z. . x = y.

13.52. x, y, z, w R+ .
[] x < y z < w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z < w x < y z w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z w, x + z y + w.

. [] x < y z < w. x + z < y + z < y + w.

[], []. , [].

13.53. x, y R+ . x < y, z R+ x + z = y.
, x y, z R+ x + z = y.

. , x + z > x. , z
13.51.
x < y. z = {s r | s y, r / x, s > r}
z R+ x + z = y.
t1 / x, t1 y. , t2 y, t2 > t1 . t2 t1 z. ,
t Q+ , t
/ y. s y, r / x, s > r, s r < (s r) + r = s < t. t
/ z.
z (i) .
s r z, s y, r / x, s > r. t Q+ , t < s r. t + r <
(s r) + r = s, t + r y. , t + r > r. t = (t + r) r z. z
(ii) .
, s r z, s y, r / x, s > r. t y, t > s, t > r.
t r = (t s) + (s r) > s r t r z. z (iii)
.
z R+ .
, x + z y. r1 + (s r) x + z,
r1 x, s y, r / x, s > r. (r1 + (s r)) + (r r1 ) = s r > r1 ,
r1 + (s r) < s. r1 + (s r) y.
, y x + z. (i) s y, s / x. s1 y, s1 > s. ,
r x, s2 Q+ , s2 / x s2 r = s1 s. s = r + (s1 s2 ),
r x, s1 y, s2 / x s1 > s2 ( s1 = s2 + (s r) s > r). s x + z. (ii)
s y, s x. s1 y, s1 / x s < s1 . (i) s1 x + z.
s x + z.
x + z y y x + z x + z = y.

13.23. x, y R+ , x < y, z R+ x + z = y
y, x

y x.

x, y R+ , x < y y x R+ .

502
13.3.3 .
13.4. x, y R+ . z = {rs | r x, s y} -
, R+ . , t, u Q+ , t
/ x, u
/ y tu
/ z.
. r x, s y , , rs z. z . ,
t, u Q+ , t / x, u / y. , r x, s y r < t, s < u,
rs < tu. z = tu, tu / z. z
(i) .
, , t, u Q+ , t / x, u
/ y tu
/ z.
z. rs, r x, s y.
t Q+ , t < rs. r rt = t < rs, rt < s. rt y , , t = r rt z.
z (ii) .
, z. rs, r x, s y. t x,
u y r < t, s < u. rs < tu tu z. z
(iii) .
z R+ .

13.24. x, y R+ . z R+ 13.4
x, y
x y.
, x y = {rs | r x, s y}. x, y R+
x y R+ .
x y, , xy.
13.54. x, y R+ xy = yx.
. xy = {rs | r x, s y} = {sr | s y, r x} = yx.

13.55. x, y, z R+ (xy)z = x(yz).

. xy = {rs | r x, s y} yz = {st | s y, t z}. (xy)z = {(rs)t | r
x, s y, t z} = {r(st) | r x, s y, t z} = x(yz).

.
13.56. x, y, z R+ x(y + z) = xy + xz.
. x(y + z) r(s + t), r x, s y, t z.
, r(s + t) = rs + rt xy + xz. x(y + z) xy + xz.
xy + xz r1 s + r2 t, r1 , r2 x, s y, t z.
r r1 , r2 . r x rs r1 s, rt r2 t,
r(s + t) r1 s + r2 t. r(s + t) x(y + z), r1 s + r2 t x(y + z).
xy + xz x(y + z).
x(y + z) = xy + xz.

13.57. x, y, z R+ . x < y xz < yz. ,

x = y xz = yz.
. x < y. 13.53, w R+ x+w = y.
yz = (x + w)z = xz + wz > xz.
xz < yz. x = y, xz = yz , y < x, yz < xz.
. x < y.
, x = y, xz = yz. xz = yz. x < y, xz < yz , y < x,
yz < xz. . x = y.

503
 13.58. x, y, z, w R+ .
[] x < y z < w, xz < yw.
[] x y z < w x < y z w, xz < yw.
[] x y z w, xz yw.

. [] x < y z < w. xz < yz < yw.

[], []. , [].

13.59. r Q+ . r = {s Q+ | s < r} -
, R+ .

. s Q+ , s < r , , r r . r
(i) .
s r t Q+ , t < s. s < r, t < r , , t r . r
(ii) .
s r . s Q+ , s < r. s1 Q+ s < s1 < r. s1 r
s1 > s. r (iii) .

13.60. x R+ x1 = x.

. x1 . rs, r x, s Q+ , s < 1.
rs Q+ rs < r1 = r, rs x. x1 x.
r x. r1 x, r1 > r. rr1 r1 = r < r1 = 1r1 , rr1 < 1 , ,

r1 1 . r = r1 r1 x1 . x x1 .
r r

x1 = x.

13.61. x R+ y R+ xy = 1 .

. y 13.57.
s Q+ , s / x, y = { 1s | s Q+ , s / x}.
s Q+ , s / x s0 , y = { 1s | s Q+ , s / x, s = s0 }.
s Q+ , s / x. s + s Q+ , s + s > s, s + s / x s + s
s0 ( ). s+s y. , r x.
1

s Q+ , s / x s = r , s 1s = 1 = r 1r , 1r = 1s . 1r
y. y (i) .
1s y, s Q+ , s / x. r < 1s . r 1r = 1 =
s s, s < r . r Q+ , r
1 1 1 1
/ x 1r s0 ( ).
r = 1/r y. y (ii) .
1

1s y, s Q+ , s / x s
s0 ( ). s1 Q+ , s1 / x, s1 < s , , s2 Q+ ,
s1 < s2 < s. , , s2 / x s2 s0 ( ).
s2 y s < s2 . y (iii) .
1 1 1

y R+ .
, xy 1 . r 1s xy, r x,
s Q+ , s / x. s > r, r 1s < s 1s = 1 r 1s Q+ . r 1s 1 .
, 1 xy. t Q+ , t < 1. r x , ,
r1 x, s1 Q+ , s1 / x s1 r1 = (1 t)r. rt1 Q+ rt1 > s1 ( (1 t)s1 >
(1 t)r, r1 = s1 (1 t)r > ts1 ). rt1 / x s0 (
). r11/t y. , t = r1 r11/t xy.
xy 1 1 xy xy = 1 .

13.25. y 13.61 x

x1 .

504
 13.62. x, y R+ . z R+ xz = y.
. z 13.57.
x, y R+ . z = x1 y R+ , xz = xx1 y = 1 y = y.

13.26. x, y R+ , z R+ xz = y,
x1 y, y, x
y
.
x
y
x, y R+ x R+ .

13.3.4 supremum R+ .
13.27. - A R+ u R+
: a u a A. u
A.
13.5. - A R+ . A
.

. u0 = {a | a A} = {r Q+ | r a a A}. , u0
a (a A).
a0 A r0 Q+ , r0 a0 . r0 u0 . ,
u A s Q+ , s / u. r u0 .
a A r a. a u ( a u), r u, r = s.
r = s r u0 , s
/ u0 . u0 (i) .
r u0 r1 Q+ , r1 < r. a A r a, r1 a. r1 u0 .
u0 (ii) .
r u0 . a A r a. , r1 a, r1 > r.
r1 u0 , r1 > r. u0 (iii) .
u0 R+ .
u0 : a u0 a A. , a u0
a A, u0 A. , u A. a u
a A, a u a A , , u0 u. u0 u
u A. u0 A.
, , u0 A. u0 A
u0 A, u0 u0 . , u0
A u0 A, u0 u0 . u0 = u0 .

13.28. -, A R+ . A,
13.5, supremum
A
sup A.

13.3.5 .
13.29. r Q+ , r R+
n Z+ (= N), n R+
. () Q+ R+
r (r Q+ ) () Z+
R+ n (n Z+ (= N)). , Q+ =
{r | r Q+ } Z+ = {r | r Z+ (= N)}.
13.63. r, s Q+ . r < s r < s . ,
r = s r = s .

505
. r < s. r s r / r . r < s .
r < s . r = s, r = s , s < r, s < r .

, r < s.
r = s, , , r = s . r = s . r < s, r < s , s < r,
s < r . , r = s.

13.64. r, s, t Q+ .
[] r + s = t r + s = t .
[] r s = t r s = t .
[] rs = t r s = t .

[] rs = t rs = t .

. [] r + s = t. r1 + s1 r + s ,
r1 , s1 Q+ , r1 < r, s1 < s. r1 + s1 Q+ r1 + s1 < r + s = t, r1 + s1 t .
r + s t .
t1 t , t1 Q+ , t1 < t = r + s. r+s t1
< 1, r+s t1
r<r
r+s s < s , , r+s r r r+s s s . t1 = r+s r + r+s s r + s .
t1 t1 t1 t1 t1

t r + s .
r + s = t .
, r + s = t r + s = u. u = r + s = t , ,
u = t.
[] [].
[] rs = t. r1 s1 r s , r1 , s1 Q+ , r1 < r,
s1 < s. r1 s1 Q+ r1 s1 < rs = t, r1 s1 t . r s t .
t1 t , t1 Q+ , t1 < t = rs. t2 Q+ t1 < t2 < rs.
ts2 < r tt12 s < s , , ts2 r tt12 s s . t1 = ts2 tt12 s r s .
t r s .
r s = t .
, r s = t rs = u. u = r s = t , , u = t.
[] [].

13.65. x R+ . x Q+ s Q+
s / x, x = r .
/ x. , r s Q+ s

. x Q+ . , x = r , r Q+ . , x = {t Q+ | t <
r}, r s Q+ s / x. ,
s Q+ s / x s r. t x
t < r ( r / x) , , t Q+ , t < r, t x.
x = {t Q+ | t < r} = r .

13.66. x R+ , r Q+ . (i) r x r < x (ii)

/ x r x.
r

. (i) r x. r / r , r < x. , r < x.

r1 x, r1
/ r . r1 x r1 r, r x.
(ii) (i).

13.67. x, y R+ , x < y. r Q+ x < r < y.

. x < y. s y, s / x. , r y, r > s.
/ r , r < y. , s r s
r y r / x, x < r .

506
 13.63 13.64 .
r Q+ r Q+ . -
r Q+
r Q+ .
Q+ r Q+ R+
r .

13.30. , r
r , , Q+
Q+ R+ . , , r
Q+ , r
r Q+ . , o Q+
Q+ -
Q+ . , , Q+ , Q+ ,
Q+ -
R+ .
, (, ) n -
n , Z+ Z+
R+ . , n n
Z+ . , o Z+ , , N Z+

Z+ . , Z+ , Z+ ,
Z+ = N R+ .

,
.
13.67 :
.
13.66 ()
()
: () -
()
()
() .
, 13.65 :
,
, .
13.60 :
x1 = x x .
13.61 :
x y xy = 1.

13.4 .
13.31. , R+ , -
0. 0
x R+ . , x R+ ,
x x x. x (x R+ )
0 y R+ . , ,
x, y R+ , x, y .

507
 x (x R+ ) R . -
, R = {x | x R+ }. , -
R . , R = R {0} R+ .
r (r Q+ ) Q . ,
Q = {r | r Q+ }. ,
Q . , Q = Q {0} Q+ .
, n (n Z+ = N)
Z . , Z = {n | n Z+ }. , -
Z . , Z = Z {0} Z+ .

13.4.1 .
13.32. x R |x| x



x, x R+
|x| = 0, x = 0


y, x = y, y R+

, x , |x| .
13.33. x, y R. x > y y < x
x, y . , x, y
. x y x > y , ,
y x y < x (i) x, y
|x| < |y| (ii) x y (iii) x y = 0 (iv)
x = 0 y .
13.68 .
13.68. x R. x x > 0. , x
x < 0.
13.69 13.70, ,

.
.
13.69. x, y R : x = y, x > y,
x < y.
13.34. x, y R, x y
x y , , y x
y x x > y x = y , , y < x y = x.
13.70. x, y, z R.
[] x < y y < z, x < z.
[] x y y < z x < y y z, x < z.
[] x y y z, x z.

13.4.2 .
13.35. x, y R. x + y x, y
. , x, y . x, y

x+y

508
 (i) (|x| + |y|) x < 0, y < 0, (ii) |x| |y| x > 0, y < 0, |x| > |y|, (iii)
(|y| |x|) x > 0, y < 0, |x| < |y|, (iv) 0 x > 0, y < 0, |x| = |y|, (v) |y| |x|
x < 0, y > 0, |y| > |x|, (vi) (|x| |y|) x < 0, y > 0, |y| < |x|, (vii) 0 x < 0, y > 0,
|x| = |y|, (viii) x y = 0 (ix) y x = 0.
, R.

-
. - -
.

13.71. x, y R x + y = y + x.

13.72. x, y, z R (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

13.36. x R. x x . , ,
x , x

(i) 0 x = 0 (ii) |x| x < 0.

13.73. x R x > 0 x = 0 x < 0 , ,

x < 0 x = 0 x > 0.

13.74. x R (x) = x, | x| = |x| x + (x) = 0.

13.75. x, y R (x + y) = x + (y).

13.37. x, y R x, y

xy

x + (y). , R.

13.76. x, y R (x y) = y x.

13.77. x, y R x > y x y > 0

y x < 0.

13.78. x, y R x > y x < y. , x = y

x = y.

13.79. x, y, z R. x < y x + z < y + z. ,

x = y x + z = y + z.

13.80. x, y, z, w R.
[] x < y z < w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z < w x < y z w, x + z < y + w.
[] x y z w, x + z y + w.

13.81. x, y R z R x + z = y.

z 13.81 y + (x) = y x.

509
13.4.3 .
13.38. x, y R. xy x, y
. , x, y . x, y

xy
, , xy (i) |x||y| x < 0, y < 0, (ii) (|x||y|) x < 0, y > 0 x > 0,
y < 0 (iii) 0 x = 0 y = 0.
, R.

13.82. x, y R. xy = 0 x, y
.

13.83. x, y R |xy| = |x||y|.

13.84. x, y R xy = yx.

13.85. x, y, z R (xy)z = x(yz).

13.86. x R x1 = x.

13.87. x, y R (x)y = x(y) = xy, (x)(y) = xy.

13.88. x, y, z R x(y + z) = xy + xz.

13.89. x, y, z R. z > 0, x > y xz > yz.

z < 0, x > y xz < yz.

13.39. x R, x = 0. x ,
. , x ,

x1

x |x|1 .

13.90. x R, x = 0 xx1 = x1 x = 1.

13.91. x, y R, x = 0. z R xz = y.

13.40. z xz = y , , x1 y.
y, x
y
.
x
, R.

13.4.4 supremum.
13.41. - A R u R
: a u a A. u A.

13.6. - A R+ . A
.

510
. A , u1 R a u1
a A.
: A a0 R+ .
A1 = A R+ - a u1 a A1 . A1 -
R+ , 13.5, A1
, u0 , R+ . a A a R+ . a A1 , a u0 .
a A a / R+ . a a0 , a0 u0 , a u0 . , ,
a A, a u0 , u0 A. , u A.
u A1 , u0 u. u0 A.
: A R+ .
a0 A, a0 0. a1 R a0 + a1 R+
A1 = {a + a1 | a A}. A1 - u1 + a1 :
a + a1 u1 + a1 a A. , A1 R+ (
a0 + a1 ). , A1 , u2 . ,
a A a + a1 A1 , a + a1 u2 , , a u2 a1 . u0 = u2 a1
A. , u A, a A
a + a1 u + a1 , u + a1 A1 , , u + a1 u2
u u2 a1 = u0 . u0 A.
, A u0 .
, , u0 A. u0 A
u0 A, u0 u0 . , u0
A u0 A, u0 u0 . u0 = u0 .

13.4.5 R.
R 13.7 .

R.

13.7. 1. . x, y R -
R x + y :
. x + y = y + x x, y R.
. (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) x, y, z R.
. R 0 x + 0 = x x R.
. x R R x x + (x) = 0.
2. . x, y R R
xy :
. xy = yx x, y R.
. (xy)z = x(yz) x, y, z R.
. R 1, 0, x1 = x
x R.
. x R, x = 0 R x1 xx1 = 1.
3. . x(y + z) = xy + xz x, y, z R.
4. . R R+ :
. x + y R+ x, y R+ ,
. xy R+ x, y R+ ,
. x R x = 0, x R+ , x R+ .
5. supremum. - A R
.

R , -
, . R , -

511
 . , R supremum,
.

13.5 .
13.3
( 13.2 -
13.1).
Dedekind.
.
.
: , ,
( ) .
: .
, :
.
,
: , , ,
, , supremum.
,
13.4.
, , ,
, , . -
, .

13.5.1 Cauchy.
(rn ) Q+ Cauchy Q+
n0 N |rn rm | < n, m N, n, m n0 .
Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ (rn )
(sn ) limn+ (rn sn ) = 0. Q+ n0 N
|rn sn | < n N, n n0 .

Cauchy Q+ . Cauchy Q+ -
: Cauchy Q+
Cauchy Q+ -
.
, , R+ .
Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ . (rn )
(sn ) , , (sn ) (rn ) (rn ) (sn )
, , (sn ) (rn ) Q+ n0 N rn sn >
n N, n n0 . , (rn ), (sn ), (tn ), (un ) Cauchy
Q+ (rn ) (sn ), (rn ) (tn ), (sn ) (un ), (tn ) (un ).
. x, y R+
(rn ) x (sn ) y. x
y , , y x x > y , ,
y < x (rn ) (sn ) , , (sn ) (rn ).
Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ . (rn + sn ) Q+
Cauchy. , , , (rn ), (sn ), (tn ), (un )
Cauchy Q+ (rn ) (tn ), (sn ) (un ), (rn + sn ) (tn + un ).
. x, y R+ (rn ) x

512
 (sn ) y. x + y R+
(rn + sn ).
, Cauchy (rn ) (sn ) Q+ . (rn sn )
Q+ Cauchy , , , (rn ), (sn ), (tn ), (un ) Cauchy
Q+ (rn ) (tn ), (sn ) (un ), (rn sn ) (tn un ).
. x, y R+ (rn ) x
(sn ) y. xy R+
(rn sn ).
, R+ ,
R+
13.3, supremum.
, Cantor,
Cauchy Q+ , Q+ .

13.5.2 .
([rn , rn ]) -
Q+ (rn ) Q+ (rn ) Q+
limn+ (rn rn ) = 0.
([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ])
Q+ ([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ]) limn+ (rn sn ) = 0 ,
, limn+ (rn sn ) = 0.

Q+ .
Q+ .
,
, R+ .
([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ])
Q+ . ([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ]) , , ([sn , sn ])
([rn , rn ]) ([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ]) , ,
([sn , sn ]) ([rn , rn ]) Q+ n0 N rn sn >
n N, n n0 . , ([rn , rn ]), ([sn , sn ]), ([tn , tn ]), ([un , un ]) -
Q+ ([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ]),
([rn , rn ]) ([tn , tn ]), ([sn , sn ]) ([un , un ]), ([tn , tn ]) ([un , un ]).
. x, y R+
([rn , rn ]) x ([sn , sn ]) y. x -
y , , y x x > y ,
, y < x ([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ]) , , ([sn , sn ]) ([rn , rn ]).
([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ])
Q+ . ([rn + sn , rn + sn ]) -
Q+ . , , , ([rn , rn ]), ([sn , sn ]), ([tn , tn ]), ([un , un ])
Q+ ([rn , rn ]) ([tn , tn ]),
([sn , sn ]) ([un , un ]), ([rn + sn , rn + sn ]) ([tn + un , tn + un ]). , -
, . x, y R+ ([rn , rn ])
x ([sn , sn ]) y. x + y R+
([rn + sn , rn + sn ]).
, ([rn , rn ]) ([sn , sn ])
Q+ . ([rn sn , rn sn ]) -
Q+ . , , , ([rn , rn ]), ([sn , sn ]), ([tn , tn ]), ([un , un ])
Q+ ([rn , rn ]) ([tn , tn ]),
([sn , sn ]) ([un , un ]), ([rn sn , rn sn ]) ([tn un , tn un ]).
. x, y R+ ([rn , rn ]) x

513
 ([sn , sn ]) y. xy R+
([rn sn , rn sn ]).
, R+ -
13.3, supremum.

514
 .
Brand, L. (2006) Advanced Calculus, Ch 1. Dover.
Cohen, L. & Ehrlich, G. (1977) The Structure of the Real Number System. Krieger.
Gleason, A. (1991) Fundamentals of Abstract Analysis, Ch 8-9. Taylor and Francis.
Goffman, C. (1953) Real Functions, Ch 3. Rinehart.
Graves, L. (2009) The Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Ch II. Dover.
Krantz, S. (2013) Real Analysis and Foundations, Ch 2. Chapman and Hall.
Landau, E. (2001) Foundations of Analysis. American Math. Society & Chelsea.
Pugh, C. (2015) Real Mathematical Analysis, Ch 1. Springer.
Rudin, W. (1976) Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Ch 1. McGraw-Hill.
Spivak, M. (1994) Calculus, Ch 29-30. Cambridge Univ. Press.

.
Courant, R. & John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol I, Ch 1. Springer.
Goffman, C. (1966) Introduction to Real Analysis, Ch 1. Harper and Row.
Hardy, G. (2008) A Course of Pure Mathematics, Ch I. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Smirnov, V. (1964) A Course of Higher Mathematics, Vol 1, Ch 1. Pergammon Press.

515
516
 14

.

. .
, . -
,
. , , ,
. ,
. . ,
, .
, ,
. -
.
.
, , , ,
, .
,
.

(, ).

14.1 1.
1.1.1. a x b a y b, |x y| b a
.
: a x b a y b, a x b b y a.
(b a) x y b a. |x y| b a.
: -
, -
.
1.1.5. Newton .
() ()
: n = 1 (x + y)1 = 10 x0 y 1 + 11 x1 y 0
(1) (1)
0 = 1 = 1.
, n 1 ,
( )
(x + y)n = nk=0 nk xk y nk .

517

(x + y)n+1 = x(x + y)n + y(x + y)n
( ) ( )
= nk=0 nk xk+1 y nk + nk=0 nk xk y n+1k
(n) k+1 nk (n) n+1 0 (n) 0 n+1 n (n) k n+1k
= n1
k=0 k x y + n x y + 0 x y + k=1 k x y
(n) 0 n+1 n1 (n) k+1 nk n (n) k n+1k (n) n+1 0
= 0 x y + k=0 x y + k=1 x y + x y
(n+1) 0 n+1 n k ( n ) k n+1k nk (n) k n+1kn (n+1) n+1 0
= 0 x y + k=1 k1 x y + k=1 k x y + n+1 x y
(n+1) 0 n+1 n (( n ) (n)) k n+1k (n+1) n+1 0
= 0 x y + k=1 k1 + k x y + n+1 x y
(n+1) 0 n+1 n (n+1) k n+1k (n+1) n+1 0
= 0 x y + k=1 k x y + n+1 x y
n+1 (n+1) k n+1k
= k=0 k x y .
1.2.2. (a, +) [a, b)
.
: . , ,
u (a, +). b (a + ) ( a + 1),
b > a, b u. u > a u + 1 > a , ,
u + 1 (a, +). u (a, +), u + 1 u -
.
(a, +) , , .
, .
u. u = max{a, u}, u a u u. -
b > u ( b = u + 1) b > a,
b (a + ), b > u. u (a, +).
(a, +) , ,
.
. c [a, b). d
c < d < b ( d = c+b 2 ). d [a, b) , c < d, c
[a, b).
[a, b) .
.
1.2.3. [] l a + > 0, l a.
[] |a b| > 0, a = b.
: [] l a > 0. 1.3
l a 0 l a.
1.3 ( ), -
1.3.
, , a < l. x = a+l 2
a < x < l. ( > a) x = a +
> 0. ; x a, l,
a l, = la
2 .
, : = x a = a+l 2 a= 2 .
la

, , > 0 l a+. ,
, l a.
[] 1.3 ( []) |a b| 0 , |a b| 0,
|a b| = 0 a = b.
1.2.4. a
1 0 < < 1, a 0.
: . , , a > 0.
a 1

( 1 > 0) a a a (1 + a)

518
 a
( 1 + a > 0) 1+a .
1+a 0 < < 1. , , 1+a
a a

> 0 ( 1). 1.3 1+a 0.
a

a > 0.
a 0.
. -
.
a 1
( 1 > 0) a a a (1 + a).
.
a + 1 0, a 1 a 0.
a + 1 > 0, 1+a a
0 < < 1
a 0.

. 1
0 < < 1.

, > 0. = 1 , = 1+
0 < < 1.
> 0 a , 1.3 a 0.
1.2.5. inf A = inf B sup A = sup B. A = B;
: .
, A = [a, b] B = {a, b} infimum, a,
supremum, b.
1.2.6. - A. [inf A, sup A]
R A.
: inf A x sup A x A , , A
[inf A, sup A].
[l, u] R A.
l x u x A. l u
A. inf A sup A
A, l inf A sup A u , , [inf A, sup A] [l, u].
[inf A, sup A] A.
. , ,
[l, u] A
[inf A, sup A]. inf A l u sup A
.
, , u < sup A. supremum -
x A u < x. , , A
[l, u] A [l, u].
inf A < l.
1.2.7. [a, b];
: [a, b]
(c, d). [a, b] (c, d).
a (c, d) b (c, d), c < a b < d.
c = c+a b+d
2 ( c, a) d = 2 (
b, d), c < c < a b < d < d.
[a, b] (c , d ) (c , d ) (c, d).
, (c, d) [a, b] -
.
[a, b].
-

519
 .
(c, d) [a, b] ,
, (c , d ) (c, d)
[a, b]. [a, b]
[a, b]. , -
[a, b].
: -
[a, b] . [a, b].

(a, b).
(a, b)
.
1.2.8. - A. ( ) sup A
A, : sup A = + sup A < +.
A inf A.
: sup A = +, A ,
.
sup A < +, A
sup A, sup A A. ,
A [sup A, +).
A ,
inf A = , (, inf A], < inf A.
: + A A, -
. A {+}, sup A = +,
[sup A, +], sup A < +. , A
{}, inf A = , [, inf A], < inf A.
1.2.9. - A. sup A A A
.
: sup A A. sup A A ,
A, A sup A. sup A
A.
, A , max A. , ,
sup A = max A, sup A A.
1.2.10. - A u = sup A ( u -
).
> 0 (u , u] A = ;
> 0 (u , u) A = ;
u
/ A;
: . u = sup A
> 0 x A u < x u , , x (u , u].
> 0 x (u , u] A , , (u , u] A = .
: .
. x A
(u , u]. x A u
A (u , u] A (u , u).
-
.
A = {a}. a = sup A > 0

520
(, > 0 ) (a , a)
A, (a , a) A = .
: .
. A = [a, b] {c}, a b < c. c = sup A
> 0, 0 < c b,
(c , c) A, (c , c) A = .
. u / A. u = sup A
> 0 x A u < x u. x A u / A,
x = u, u < x < u , , x (u , u).
> 0 x (u , u) A, (u , u) A = .
: .
, ,
.
1.2.11. - A u R.
sup A u x u x A.
u sup A < u x A < x.
: . sup A u. x A. x sup A, x u.
x u x A.
. sup A u. sup A
A, u A. x u x A.
, x u x A. u
A. sup A A, sup A u.
. ( ) u < sup A.
sup A x A u < x sup A.
x u x A. sup A u.
. u sup A. < u. < sup A,
sup A x A < x. < u x A
< x.
, < u x A < x. ( )
sup A < u. = sup A ( sup A < u).
< u, x A < x, sup A < x.
. u sup A.
. < u x A < x
< u A. , sup A A,
sup A < u , , u sup A.
1.2.12. - A, B.
[] sup A inf B x y x A, y B.
[] x y x A, y B. ( ) sup A,
inf B x y x A, y B.
[] x y x A, y B > 0
x A, y B y x < . sup A = inf B.
: [] sup A inf B. x A, y B x sup A inf B y,
x A, y B x y.
, x y x A, y B.
: y B ( ).
x y x A y A. sup A
A, sup A y. ( y)
sup A y y B, sup A B. ,
inf B B, sup A inf B.

521
 : ( ) inf B < sup A. sup A -
x A inf B < x. inf B
y B y < x. x A, y B y < x
x y x A, y B.
[] [], x y x A, y B sup A inf B.
x y x A, y B , ,
A B.
sup A inf B.
[sup A, inf B].
[] [] sup A inf B.
inf B sup A.
: ( ) sup A < inf B. sup A, inf B
( sup A + inf B ).
0 < inf B sup A, x A, y B
x sup A inf B y, y x inf B sup A . x A, y B
y x < . [], inf B sup A.
: > 0. , x A, y B
y x < . x sup A inf B y, inf B sup A y x < .
inf B sup A < > 0. , 1.3, -
inf B sup A 0 , , inf B sup A.
1.2.13. - A, B A B = R x < y
x A, y B. A = (, ), B = [, +) A = (, ],
B = (, +).
: , A B = R
A, B. , x < y A, B .
A, B.
, 1.2.12[], sup A inf B.
, A ( ) sup A B
( ) inf B.
. sup A < inf B.
, sup A, inf B,
sup A+inf
2
B
, A, B.
sup A = inf B.
= sup A = inf B.
, x < B, A. , x >
A, B. , -
A, B. A, A = (, ] B = (, +). B,
A = (, ), B = [, +).
1.2.14. - A, B. A sup A sup B
x A < x y B y > .
: sup A sup B.
x A < x. x sup A , , x sup B,
< sup B. y B y > .
, , x A < x y B y > .
, x A < x y B y > .
, , sup B < sup A. x A
sup B < x. = sup B,
y B y > = sup B. , , .
sup A sup B.

522
 . x A. < x
y B y > < x B. sup B,
B, sup B < x, x sup B.
, , x A x sup B. , sup B
A sup A sup B.
1.2.15. - A, B A B. inf B inf A sup A
sup B.
: inf A sup A . inf B inf A
sup A sup B.
supremum -
.
x A x B, x sup B. sup B A
, , sup A sup B.
. ( ) sup B < sup A. -
sup A x A sup B < x. ,
x A x B. sup B < x .
sup A sup B.
1.2.16. [] - A, B. sup(A B) = max{sup A, sup B}.
A B , sup(A B) min{sup A, sup B}. -
sup(A B) = min{sup A, sup B};
[] - A, B A + B = {x + y | x A, y B}.
sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B.
: [] . A A B. x A x A B
, , x sup(A B). sup(A B) A
sup A sup(A B).
sup B sup(A B).
sup A sup B sup(A B), -
sup(A B). ,

max{sup A, sup B} sup(A B). (14.1)

, x A x sup A max{sup A, sup B}. , x B

x sup B max{sup A, sup B}. x A B x max{sup A, sup B}.
max{sup A, sup B} A B , ,

sup(A B) max{sup A, sup B}. (14.2)

(14.1) (14.2) sup(A B) = max{sup A, sup B}.

. x A x sup A x B
x sup B. x A B . , ,
x A B sup A sup B,
. x AB x min{sup A, sup B}
, , min{sup A, sup B} A B. ,

sup(A B) min{sup A, sup B}.

, A = [0, 1] {2} B = [0, 1] {3},

A B = [0, 1]. sup A = 2 sup B = 3,
min{sup A, sup B} = 2. , sup(A B) = 1 sup(A B) < min{sup A, sup B}.
[] sup(A + B) sup A + sup B.
x A x sup A y B y sup B.

523
 x A, y B x + y sup A + sup B. (
sup A, sup B +.)
sup A + sup B A + B,

sup(A + B) sup A + sup B.

, sup A + sup B sup(A + B) .

. x A, y B x + y A + B,

x + y sup(A + B).

y B

x sup(A + B) y

x A. sup(A + B) y
A,
sup A sup(A + B) y
y B. (- y B -
.) , sup A y . y
. sup A +.
.
sup A ,

y sup(A + B) sup A

y B. sup(A + B) sup A B,

sup B sup(A + B) sup A

( sup A )

sup A + sup B sup(A + B).

sup A = +, sup A sup(A+B)y,

, sup(A + B) = + , ,

sup A + sup B sup(A + B)

.
:

sup(A + B) < sup A + sup B (14.3)

.
sup(A + B) . A + B
, u x + y u x
A, y B. y0 B, x u y0 x A.
A , sup A .
B , sup B . (14.3)
.
x A sup A y B
sup B x + y sup A + sup B. ;
sup(A + B) sup A + sup B. x + y
sup(A + B) .

524
 = (sup A + sup B) sup(A + B) > 0.
x A sup A 2 < x sup A y B
sup B 2 < y sup B. x A y B
(sup A + sup B) < x + y, , ,
sup(A + B) < x + y. , x + y A + B .
1.2.18. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) > a f (b) < b,
(a, b) f () = .
[] I f : I R x I > 0
f (x ) f (x) f (x ) x , x (x , x + ) I x x x . f
I.
: [] A = {x [a, b] | x f (x)}.
A - a A. , A
[a, b]. = sup A a b.
a A b A.
, f () > . < b. = f () > 0
x [, + ] [, b]

f (x) f () = + x

, , x A. A ,
A.
, f () < . a < . = f () > 0
x ( , ] [a, ]

f (x) f () = < x

, , x / A. A
, A.
f () = .
[] a, b I a < b. A = {x [a, b] | f (a) f (x)}.
A - a A. , A
[a, b]. = sup A ( []) a b.
/ A. a < f () < f (a). , > 0
f (x ) f () f (x ) < f (a) x ( , ] I. A
,
A. A , , f (a) f ().
, < b. > 0 f () f (x )
f (a) f (x ) x [, + ) I. A
, A. = b.
f (a) f () = b f (a) f (b).
f (a) f (b) a, b I a < b, f I.
1.3.1. l a + n1 n N, l a.
|a b| n1 n N, a = b.
: . l a + n1 n N (
) l > a.
l a > 0, , , n N n1 < l a ,
, a + n1 < l .
. |a b| n1 n N. []
|a b| 0 a = b.
1.3.2. supremum infimum : {(1)n n | n N},

525
N { n1 | n N}, {(1)n 1
n | n N}, { 2n
1
| n N} {1 1
2n | n N}.
: A = {(1)n n | n N}
. .
, , u 2k u
k N. k u2 k N, N
. , sup A = +.
, , l l (2k 1)
k N. k l+1
2 k N N
. , inf A = .
B = N { n1 | n N} , N N
. sup B = +.
, B . 0
B 0 B.
l > 0. n N n1 < l.
B l. l > 0
B, 0 B. , , inf B = 0.
n 1 2k1 1

C = {(1) n | n N},
n 1

1 1 = 2, 1 1
3 = 43 , 1 1
5 = 65 ...

n 1 1
2k C,

1 1
2 = 21 , 1 1
4 = 34 , 1 1
6 = 5
6 ...

[2, 1]
[ 21 , 1].
C 2, inf C = min C = 2.
supremum C 1,
, , C.
u < 1 C, 1 2k 1
u < 1 k N.
0 < 2(1 u) k k N, .
1

C < 1, sup C = 1.
D = { 2n 1
| n N} {1 2n
1
| n N} [1, 1].
0 1.
1 D. u < 1 D, 1 2n 1

u < 1 n N. 0 < 2(1 u) n n N,
1

.
D < 1, sup D = 1.
inf D = 0.
1.3.3. supremum A = (a, b) Q = {r Q | a < r < b}.
: A . A
, , (a, b),
, A. , -
A , a, b, .
(a, b) ,
A. A
( A) a, b
( A) . -
: A (a, b)
A (a, b).

526
: , b A, A (a, b).
, u < b A. A
> a, a < u. , r u < r < b.
a < r < b ( a < u), r A.
A > u , u A.
A < b , ,
A b. sup A = b.
. u < b. u = max{a, u}
a u u u u < b. r u < r < b. a < r < b
( a u ) r A. , u < r ( u u ) , ,
u A.
u < b A, A b.
1.3.4. A = { n1 | n N}, B = { n1 | n N}
x y x A, y B.
x y x A, y B.
A = {r Q | r < 0}, B = {r Q | r > 0}.
: . = 0 , , x y
x A, y B.
, x y x A, y B.
n1 n1 n N.
n1 n N 0.
n1 , , n1 n N
0, 0.
0 0 = 0.
= 0 x y x A, y B.
. , = 0
x y x A, y B.
, x y x A, y B.
n N n1 A n1 B. n1 n1
n N , , = 0.
= 0 x y x A, y B.
. x y x A, y B.
> 0, r 0 < r < . , r B r < -
.
, < 0, r < r < 0. , r A < r
.
= 0 x y x A, y B.
1.3.5. r a r Q r > b, b a.
{r Q | r < a} = {r Q | r < b}, a = b.
: . ( ) b < a.
r Q b < r < a. ,
> b a.
. < a
< b.
( ) a < b. r Q
a < r < b. < b < a .
b < a. a = b.
1.4.1. supremum (a, b) (R \ Q) = {x R \ Q | a < x < b}.

527
: 1.3.3.
1.4.2. a A = {r Q | r < a}.
A Q A - Q. , u Q ( -
, u = [a] + 1) r u r A.
Q, A. -
Q supremum.
: s = sup A s Q. , : s < a
s > a.
1.4.6. y > 1. y x = inf{y r | r Q, x < r}.
: y x < y r r Q x < r. y x
{y r | r Q, x < r}.
, > y x , 1 < y x .
y x , y x = sup{y s | s Q, s < x}. s Q
s < x 1 < y s . , , r = s > x y r < .
{y r | r Q, x < r} <
{y r | r Q, x < r}.
y x {y r | r Q, x < r}.

14.2 2.
2.1.1. , .
: (xn ) . , xn xn+1 ,
, xn xn+1 n. xn = xn+1 n,
xn = x1 n. (xn ) .
( ) ( )
n1 ab , n 2[ n ]
(n 2.1.2.
) a+b 2 + (1) 2 2
n 3[ 3 ] .
: , , a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, a, . . . . n
, a, , n ,
b. {a, b}.
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . .
{0, 1}.
{ }
0, n = 2k
xn = = n : 2.
1, n = 2k + 1
1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, . . . . -
{0, 1, 2}

0, n = 3k
xn = 1, n = 3k + 1 = n : 3.

2, n = 3k + 2
2.1.3. : 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36.
49; 24; ;
: . ,
.
: IQ tests. IQ test
49 : 12 , 22 , 32 , 42 , 52 , 62 72 .
2.1.4.

528
 .
: (xn ) , xn xn+1 n
x1 xn n. (xn )
, , .
.
2.1.5. (xn ) (yn ) (xn + yn ).

.
: (xn ) (yn ) . xn xn+1 yn yn+1
n. xn + yn xn+1 + yn+1
n. (xn + yn ) .
(xn ) (yn ) . u v
xn u yn v n.
xn + yn u + v n. (xn + yn ) .
n 30
2.1.6. ( 13n! ) ( n2n ) ; ;
:
. , .
n
xn = 13n!

131 132 133 134

1! = 13, 2! = 84.5, 3! = 366.16 . . . , 4! = 1190.04 . . . ...

-
n 13n+1
. , , . , , 13n! < (n+1)! n
n .
n 13n+1
n < 12 13n! > (n+1)! n > 12.

x1 < x2 < . . . < x11 < x12 = x13 > x14 > x15 > . . .
( ).
, . 0
12
x12 = x13 = 13
12! .
30
xn = n2n

130 230 330 430

21
= 0.5, 22
= 228 , 23
, 24
= 256 , . . . ...

.
.
! !
. ,
30 30
, n n2n < (n+1) n+1 . 2 <
2
(1+ n1 )30 30 2 < 1+ n1 n < 301 . 301
[ 21 ] 21
(;) , n0 = 301 , ( n0 < 301 < n0 + 1)
21 21
n30 (n+1)30 30 (n+1)30
<
2n n n0
2n+1
n2n > 2n+1
n n0 + 1.

x1 < x2 < . . . < xn0 < xn0 +1 > xn0 +2 > xn0 +3 > . . .

( (n0 + 1)- ).
, . 0
xn0 +1 .

529
 2.1.9. (xn ) .
c xn = c n.
: (xn ) {a1 , a2 , . . . ak }.
c xn = c n, , ,
c a1 , . . . , ak .
a1 , . . . , ak . ,
, c a1 , . . . , ak , xn = c
n.

xn = a1 n,

xn = a2 n,
...
...
...
xn = ak n.
,
xn = a1 a2 . . . ak n.
(, n xn = a1 A1 ,
n xn = a2 A2 , ..., n
xn = ak Ak , n
A1 + A2 + + Ak .)
, n (, , n) xn =
a1 a2 . . . ak .
a1 , . . . , ak , c ,
xn = c n.
: c . ,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . , {1, 1},
c : c = 1 c = 1. , 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .
, {1, 1}, c :
c = 1.
: . -
x1 , x2 , . . . ,
: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 . (
. ;)
2.1.11. ( ) -
(xn ) xn+1 = x1 + + xn ;
xn+3 = xnxn+1
xn+2
.
: xn+1 = x1 + + xn n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , :

x2 = x1 , x3 = x1 + x2 , x 4 = x1 + x2 + x3 , x5 = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 , ... .

, x1 ,
x2 , x3 , x4 ,
x5 . , ,
. , , x1 ,

530
 .
xn+3 = xnxn+1
xn+2
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , :
x1 x3 x2 x4 x3 x5 x4 x6
x4 = x2 , x5 = x3 , x6 = x4 , x7 = x5 , ... .

, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , . . . .
. , ,
. ,
, x2 = 0. ,
x3 = 0. x4 = 0. , x4
= 0 x1 = 0 (
x2 = 0 x3 = 0).
x5 = 0. ,
x6 = 0 , , , ,
= 0
.

= 0.
2.2.1. , : 1
n+8 0, 3n+1
2n+5 32 , 1
n+5
0,
2n2 n +, n2 7n +, 1
5n 4n 0.
: . > 0. | n+8
1
0| <
1 1
n+8 < n < ( ,
) n > 1 . :
 1 
 
n+8 0 < n+8 < n < n > .
1 1 1

, n0 > 1 , n0 n n0
n > 1 , , | n+8
1
0| < . :
 1 
n n0 n > 1  n+8 0 < .

2n+5 2 | < 4n+10 <

. > 0. | 3n+1 3 13
13
4n < ( , )
n > 13 4 . :
 3n+1 3 
 
2n+5 2 < 4n+10 < 4n < n > 4 .
13 13 13

, n0 > 13 4 , n0 n n0
n > 13
4 , , | 2n+5 2 | < . :
3n+1 3

 3n+1 3 
n n0 n > 13  
4 2n+5 2 < .

. > 0. | n+5
1
0| < 1
n+5
<
1n < ( , )
n > 12 . :
 1 
 0 < 1 < 1 < n> 1
.
n+5 n+5 n 2

, n0 > 12 , n0 n n0
n > 12 , , | n+5
1
0| < . :
 1 
n n0 n > 1
2
 n+5 0 < .

531
 . M > 0. 2n2 n > M
n2 > M ( , , 2n n n )
2 2

n > M . :

2n2 n > M n2 > M n > M .

,
n0 > M , n0 n n0
n > M 2n2 n > M . :

n n0 n > M 2n2 n > M.

: -
n. , ,
n n0 , , n 13
n 7. n max{n0 , 13, 7} = max{n0 , 13}.
, n0 = max{n0 , 13} n n0
. , n0 n0 n0
n0 . .
. M > 0. n2 7n > M -
,
. , n
, n2 7n ,
7n n2 , n2 . , , , n
, n2 7n 12 n2 . ,
n 14. , . , n 14,
n2 7n > M 21 n2 > M . :
{ }
n 14
n2 7n > M. (14.4)
(1/2)n2 > M

, 12 n2 > M n > 2M . ,

n0 > 2M n0 n n0 n > 2M , ,
1 2
2 n > M . :
n n0 12 n2 > M. (14.5)
n0 = max{n0 , 14} n0 n n0 n
14 n n0 , , (14.4) (14.5), n2 7n > M .
:
{ } { }
n 14 n 14
n n0 n2 7n > M.
n n0 (1/2)n2 > M

. > 0. | 5n 4 1
n 0| < 5n 4n < .
1

5 4 , 4
n n n

5n , 5n , 5n . ,
, 5n 4n 12 5n , n . ,
5n 4n 12 5n 12 5n 4n ( 54 )n 2.
Bernoulli ( 54 )n = (1 + 14 )n 1 + n4 , ( 54 )n 2
n 4. , , 5n 4n 12 5n n 4.
. , n 4, 5n 4 1
n <
1
(1/2)5n < . :
{ }
n4  1 
1 1
5n 4n <  5n 4 
n 0 < . (14.6)
(1/2)5n <

532
 1 n > 2 n > log 2 .
, (1/2)5 n < 5 5
n0 > log5 2 n0 n n0
n > log5 2 , , (1/2)5
1
n < . :

n n0 1
(1/2)5n < . (14.7)

, n0 = max{n0 , 4}. n0 n n0
n 4 n n0 , , (14.6) (14.7), | 5n 4
1
n 0| < .

:
{ } { }
n4 n4  1 
n n0 1  5n 4 
n 0 < .
n n0 (1/2)5n <

2.2.2. [] > 0 x R ,
Nx () .
[] l < x, x ( +) l, > 0
Nx () l.
x < u, x ( ) u,
> 0 Nx () u.
l < x < u, x () l, u,
> 0 Nx () l, u.
: [] x R 0 < 1 < 2 . x 2 < x 1 < x + 1 < x + 2 ,
(x 1 , x + 1 ) (x 2 , x + 2 ).
x = + 0 < 1 < 2 . 0 < 12 < 11 , ( 11 , +] ( 12 , +].
x = .
[] l < x x R. (x , x + ) l,
l x , , x l. 0 < x l (x , x + )
l.
: x l,
(x , x + ) l.
, x = + ( l < x). , ( 1 , +]
l, l 1 .
.
l 0, , ( = 1), ,
, ( 1 , +] l. ( .)
l > 0, 1l , , 0 < 1l
( 1 , +] l.
x < u l < x.
, l < x < u. (x , x + ) l, u,
l x x + u , , x l u x.
0 < min{x l, u x} (x , x + ) l, u.
: > 0
x l, u, (x , x + )
l, u. min{x l, u x} x -
l, u.
2.2.3. x, y R x = y. > 0 Nx () Ny () = .
: x, y .
.
, , x, y R x < y ( y < x ).
(x , x + ) (y , y + ) , x + y ,

533
, yx2 .
, = yx 2 ( > 0), (x , x + )
(y , y + ) .
: = yx x+y
2 , x + y 2
x, y. > 0 ( ) yx 2 ,
(x , x + ) x+y2 (y , y + ) x+y
2 ,
yx
. 2 , (x , x + )
(y , y + ) x+y
2 .
2.2.4. x R.
> 0 n Nx ( n1 ) Nx ().

>0 Nx () = {x} , ,
x x.

+n=1 Nx ( n ) = {x}.
1

: . n n1 < (
n) Nx ( n1 ) Nx ().
. x . -
.
x R. y x, |y x| < > 0.
|y x| 0 , |y x| 0, |y x| = 0, y = x.
y x y = x.
x = +. y +, y > 1
> 0 , , 0 < y1 < > 0. , , !
y R + y = +.
x = .
. x R. y Nx ( n1 ) x,
|y x| < n1 n N. |y x| 0
y = x. y Nx ( n1 ) x y = x.
x = +. y N+ ( n1 ) +, y > n
n N. , , y
N. y R + y = +.
x = .
2.2.5. xn x. > 0 n0 () n0 xn Nx ()
n n0 . , 0 < < , n0 ( ) n0 ().
: n0 ( ) xn Nx ( ) n n0 ( ).
0 < < , Nx ( ) Nx ().
xn Nx () n n0 ( ).
n0 ( ) n0 xn Nx () n n0 . , n0 ()
n0 xn Nx () n n0 .
n0 () n0 ( ).
2.2.6. (xn ) x > 0
xn
/ Nx () n.
: xn x :

xn x > 0 n0 n n0 xn Nx ().

(xn x) > 0 n0 n n0 xn
/ Nx ().

534
, n0 n n0 xn
/ Nx ()
xn
/ Nx () n , ,

(xn x) > 0 n xn
/ Nx ().

, n0 n n0 xn / Nx (). n0 = 1
n1 1 xn1 / Nx (). , n0 = n1 + 1
n2 n1 + 1 xn2 / Nx (). , n0 = n2 + 1 n3 n2 + 1
xn3 / Nx (). , n0 = n3 + 1 n4 n3 + 1
xn4 / Nx (). .
n1 , n2 , n3 , n4 , . . . xnk / Nx () k. ,
nk , , n1 < n2 < n3 < n4 < . . . .
xn / Nx () n.
, xn / Nx () n. , n0 ,
< n0 , n n0 xn / Nx ().
2.2.7. 0 > 0. xn x 0 < 0
xn Nx ().
: :

A: xn x

B: 0 < 0 xn Nx ().
xn x
B, A
. :

A: > 0 xn Nx ().

B: 0 < 0 xn Nx ().
A B. , A
> 0 ( xn Nx ()) B
> 0, 0 , .
B A.
, , B. > 0 0
xn Nx ().
A > 0,
> 0 , .
, , > 0 . B, 0
, xn Nx (0 ). , > 0 ,
Nx (0 ) Nx () ( , ). ,
xn Nx (0 ), xn Nx ().
> 0 > 0 xn Nx () , ,
A.
2.2.8. (xn ) x : n0
> 0 |xn x| < n n0 . xn x.
(xn ) .
: xn x :

xn x > 0 n0 |xn x| < n n0 .

535
, , (xn ) :

n0 > 0 |xn x| < n n0 .

xn x
. n0 > 0.
, n0
> 0 |xn x| < n n0 . n n0
|xn x| < > 0. 1.3 n n0
|xn x| 0 , , xn = x. , xn = x n n0 ,
(xn ) .
2.2.9. [] (xn ) .
, xn x, (xn ) x .
: A (xn ) d > 0
A. n0 |xn x| < d2 , , xn (x d2 , x+ d2 )
n n0 . (x d2 , x + d2 ) A.
2.2.10. x (xn ).
[] : xn x > 0
|xn x| .
: xn x. > 0 |xn x| < .
|xn x| < |xn x| , > 0
|xn x| .
, > 0 |xn x| . , > 0
2 > 0. , > 0 |xn x| 2 .

( : . ,
2 .)
, |xn x| 2 |xn x| < ,
> 0 |xn x| < . xn x.
( 27 (n+3)79 ) ( n(n+1) 3 ) ( 2n +3n
)
2.3.1. (n+1) , n+4 4n4n2 +1 , 2n+1
(2n+1) 106 +3n+1

( n2 + n + 1 n2 + 1).
: .
n
(n+1)27 (n+3)79 n106 (1+(1/n))27 (1+(3/n))79 (1+(1/n))27 (1+(3/n))79 127 179
(2n+1)106
= n106 (2+(1/n))106
= (2+(1/n))106
2106
= 1
2106
.
3
. n(n+1)
n+4 + 4n2 +1 +,
4n

. , :
n(n+1) 4n3 12n3 +n2 +n 12
n+4 4n2 +1
= 4n3 +16n2 +n+4
4 = 3.

. n
:
n
. 3n 32n =
( 23 )n +. , 3n+1 . :
2n +3n 3n (2/3)n +1 1 (2/3)n +1
2n+1 +3n+1
= 3n+1 (2/3)n+1 +1
= 3 (2/3)n+1 +1 1 0+1
3 0+1 = 13 .

. ,

n2 + n + 1 = n 1 + n1 + n12 +

536
 a2 b2
, , n2 + 1 +. , a b = a+b ,
(n2 +n+1)(n2 +1)
n2 + n + 1 n2 + 1 =
n2 +n+1+ n2 +1
= n2 +n+1+n
n2 +1
= 1 1+1
1
= 12 .
1+(1/n)+(1/n2 )+ 1+(1/n2 )

( 2n 2n+1 22n
)
2.3.2. , , 3n + 3n+1
+ + 32n
.
:
2n 2n+1 22n
( 2 )n ( ( 2 )n )
3n + 3n+1
+ + 32n
= 3 1+ 2
3 + + 3 0 1(2/3)
1
= 0.
( 21 )
2.3.3. 31
2+1 3+1 n+1
n1
.
: n 2
12(n1) (n1)!
21 31
2+1 3+1 n+1
n1
= 34(n+1) = (n+1)!/(12) = 2
n(n+1) 0.

2.3.4. x = 1 ( xxn 1
n
+1 ) .
: |x| < 1,
xn 1
xn +1 01
0+1 = 1.
|x| > 1, xn , | x1 | < 1,

xn 1 1(1/x)n
xn +1 = 1+(1/x)n 10
1+0 = 1.

xn 1
, x = 1, xn +1 = 0 0.
(x+1)2n
2.3.5. x limn+ (2x+1)n ;
:
(x+1)2n ( x2 +2x+1 )n
(2x+1)n = 2x+1

:

2 +2x+1
0 | x 2x+1 | < 1 , , 2 2 < x < 2 + 2.
x2 +2x+1
+ 2x+1 > 1 , , x > 12 x = 0.
x2 +2x+1
1 = 1 , , x = 0.
2x+1
2 +2x+1
, x 2x+1 1 , , x 2 2

2 + 2 x < 12 .
2.3.6. x = 1 xn = 1 n. xn x
xn
1x n
1x
x
.
: , xn x, xn
1xn x
1x .

x xn
y = 1x , yn = 1x n
.
y = 1 yn = 1 n
y yn
x= 1+y , xn = 1+yn .

, , yn y, xn x.
2.3.9. xn x R yn y R. x < y,
xn < yn .
: a x < a < y.

537
 x < a, xn < a. a < y, a < yn .
xn < a a < yn . xn < yn .
(2.3.12.
) 2.5[], -
(1)n1 + n103 .
: xn = (1)n1 + n103 xn = 1 + n103 , n ,
xn = 1 + n103 , n .
xn 1 n , , n.
, 1, -
0. , 1 + n103 0
n 3, xn 0 n 4 , , n.
.
2.3.13. 22n+(1)
n1 n
0.
: xn = 2 2n+(1)n1 n xn = 23n n xn = 2n
n.
23n xn 2n n,
xn 0.

[ n]
2.3.14. xn = .
n

: [x] x < [x] + 1

x 1 < [x] x.

,
n 1 < [ n] n

[ n]
1 1
n
<
n
1

[ n]
n.
n
1.

2.3.15. (1 1 n
n2
) 1.
: Bernoulli
( )n
1 n12 1 nn2 = 1 n1 = n1n n. (14.8)

, n = 1
( 1 n
) ( n2 1 )n
1 n2
= n2
= 1
(n2 /(n2 1))n
.

Bernoulli
( n 2 )n ( )n
n 1
2 = 1 + 1
n 1
2 1 + n2n1 1 + 1
n n = 1.

( )
1 n
1 n2
1
1+(1/n) = n
n+1 n = 1. (14.9)
(14.8) (14.9)
( 1 n
)
n1
n 1 n2
n
n+1 n 2,

(1 1 n
n2
) 1.
(3n)!
2.3.17. xn = (n!)3
.

538
 +
: + .
. :
xn+1 (3(n+1))!/((n+1)!)3 (3n+3)! ( n! )3 (3n)!(3n+1)(3n+2)(3n+3) 1
xn = (3n)!/(n!)3
= (3n)! (n+1)! = (3n)! (n+1)3
(3n+1)(3n+2)(3n+3) 27n3 +
= (n+1)3
= n3 +
27.

27 > 1, xn +.
.
(3n)! n!(n+1)(2n)(2n+1)(3n) (n+1)(n+n) (2n+1)(2n+n)
xn = (n!)3
= n!n!n! = 1n 1n .

n+k
k 2 2n+k
k 3 1 k n.

xn 2 2 3 3 = 2n 3n = 6n
, , xn +.

2.3.18. 0 a b. a + bn b.
n n

: bn an + bn 2bn .

2.3.19. n n4 + 3n2 + n + 1 1.
: n4 n4 + 3n2 + n + 1 n4 + 3n4 + n4 + n4 = 6n4 .
[a]+[2a]++[na]
2.3.20. a, n2
a2 .
: x 1 < [x] x 1 + 2 + + n =
n(n+1)
2 , .
2.3.21. n
n2 +1
+ n
n2 +2
+ + n
n2 +n
1.
: 1
n2 +n
1
n2 +k
1
n2 +1
1 k n.
{
( ) 1, x Q
2.3.22. limm+ limn+ (cos m!x)2n =
0, x R \ Q
: x Q m N (;) , m!x .
2.3.24. xn x yn y, max{xn , yn } max{x, y}.
: . 1.2.1
xn +yn +|xn yn | x+y+|xy|
max{xn , yn } = 2 2 = max{x, y}.

. :

a < a b < b , max{a, b} < max{a , b }. (14.10)

, a < a b < b a < a max{a , b } b < b max{a , b }

max{a, b} < max{a , b }.
> 0.
xn x yn y x < xn < x +
y < yn < y + . x < xn < x + y < yn < y + ,
(14.10)

max{x , y } < max{xn , yn } < max{x + , y + }

539
, ,
max{x, y} < max{xn , yn } < max{x, y} + .
max{xn , yn } max{x, y}.
2.3.25. :
1=n 1
n = 1
n + + 1
n (n ) 0 + + 0 (n ) = 0.
: : 1 0. .
.
, , k . , k
(, , . . . , ),
n .
n + + n n, n.
1 1

2.3.27. (xn ), (yn ) (xn + yn ) .

: (xn ) (yn )
(xn ).
!
xn = (1)n1 yn = xn = (1)n1 xn + yn = 0 n.
, (xn ) (yn ) , xn + yn 0.
2.3.29. [] (xn ), yn ) xn +, yn (xn + yn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
[] (xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn + (xn yn ) (i)
c R (ii) .
: [] (i) c R. xn = n + c yn = n. xn +,
yn xn + yn = c c.
c = +. xn = 2n yn = n. xn +, yn
xn + yn = 2n n = n +.
c = . xn = n yn = 2n. xn +, yn
xn + yn = n 2n = n .
(ii) xn = n + (1)n yn = n. xn +, yn
xn + yn = n + (1)n n = (1)n , (xn + yn ) . ( xn +
xn n 1 n n 1 +.)
[] (i) c R. xn = nc yn = n. xn 0, yn +
xn yn = c c.
c = +. xn = n1 yn = n2 . xn 0, yn +
xn yn = n +.
c = . xn = n1 yn = n2 . xn 0, yn +
xn yn = n . n
(ii) xn = (1) n yn = n. xn 0, yn +
xn yn = (1)n .
( )
2.3.30. [] (xn ), (yn ) xn +, yn 0 ( xn yn) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn
c [, 0);
( y )
[] (xn ), (yn ) xn 0, yn x ( n y )(i)
n

c {+, } (ii) . xn n c R;
: [] (i) c = 1. xn = n yn = n1 . xn +,

yn 0 xn yn = n n 1.
c R, c > 1. xn = cn yn = n1 . xn +, yn 0
xn yn = c c.

540
 0 < c < 1. xn = c1n yn = n1 . xn +, yn 0
xn yn = c c.
c = +. xn = nn yn = n1 . xn +, yn 0
xn yn = n +.
c = 0. xn = nn yn = n1 . xn +, yn 0
xn yn = n1 0.
n1
(ii) xn = n yn = (1)n . xn +, yn 0
n1 n1
xn yn = n(1) . , n(1) = n 1 n
n1
n(1) = n1 12 n. ( )
xn +, xn > 0 , , xn yn > 0. xn yn
c [, 0);
[] (i) c = +. xn = n1 yn = n. xn 0, yn
xn yn = nn +.
c = . xn = n1 yn = 2n 1. xn 0, yn
xn yn = n2n+1 . n
(ii) xn = (1) n yn = n. xn 0, yn xn yn =
2 n 2 2
(1) n , (1)n nn = nn 4 n (1)n nn =
n

nn 1 n.
yn , yn < 0. , xn = 0 (
xn yn ). ,
( )yn
|xn yn | = |xn |yn = |x1n | +,
( )
|x1n | + yn +. xn yn c R,
|xn yn | |c| R.
2.3.31. (xn ), (yn ) xn , yn > 0 n, xn 0,
yn + (xn yn ) .
{
n, n
: xn = n1 yn =
n2 , n
, xn , yn > 0 n xn 0. , yn n n,
yn +. {
1, n
, xn yn =
n, n
xn 1 n , , n xn 2
n , , n. (xn yn ) .
2.3.32. x (rn ) rn x.
.
: . . x
, : (x)
x.
x .
:
, x
x -
. x,
x.
; -
x. , ,
x. : (x n1 , x + n1 ) n N.

541
 ;
:
.
.
(x n1 , x + n1 ) n.

. , rn ,

x 1
n < rn < x + 1
n n.

(rn ) , ,
x.
. (rn ) rn x -
.
x , ,
.
, , (x n1 , x n+1
1
) n.
, . -
, rn ,

x 1
n < rn < x 1
n+1 n.

(rn ) , , x.
, (rn ) (x n1 , x n+1
1
) rn
(x n+1 , x n+2 ) rn+1 .
1 1

2.3.33. - A. A
> sup A A sup A.
: (xn ) A x. xn A n,
xn sup A n. , xn x, x sup A.
A sup A. -
(xn ) A > sup A.
. : sup A + -
.
sup A = +, A .
A +.
:
A, (-
, , A) A +. -
+, -
(n), A. -
, . -
( ).
2.3.32.
+,
A, , A ,
A , , -
+.
2.3.32.
(x n1 ) (x + n1 ), x, (
) (rn ),
. x, (rn )

542
 x.
.
(n) +. A ,
n A > n. , , xn A

xn > n.

(xn ) A xn > n n.
n +, xn +.
A +.
, sup A , A .
( ,
sup A, A,
sup A A.)
(sup A n1 ) sup A < sup A.
sup A n
A sup A n1 sup A. , , xn A

sup A 1
n < xn sup A.

(xn ) A sup A n1 < xn sup A

n. xn sup A.
A sup A.
2.3.34. - A u A. u = sup A
A u.
: u A.
(xn ) A xn u. u = sup A, -
A u.
u A. xn u n. xn u,
u u . u A.
, u = sup A.
A u. , , 2.3.33.
2.3.35. - A.
sup A A, A sup A.
sup A
/ A, A sup A.
: sup A A. u = sup A
xn = u n. (xn ) A u = sup A.
sup A / A.
sup A R sup A = + ( -
2.3.33), (yn )
A

yn sup A yn < sup A n.

sup A R , , yn = sup A n1
sup A = + , , yn = n. (
2.3.33.)
(yn ), (xn ) A
.
x1 A
y1 < x1 < sup A.

543
( sup A, y1 < sup A.)
, x2 A

max{y2 , x1 } < x2 < sup A.

( , max{y2 , x1 } < sup A.) , x3 A

max{y3 , x2 } < x3 < sup A.

, x4 A

max{y4 , x3 } < x4 < sup A.

.
(xn ) A :

yn < xn < sup A xn < xn+1 n.

yn sup A, xn sup A
(xn ) .
2.3.36. k N, k 2 xn 0 n.

xn x, k xn k x.

xn +, k xn +.
2.12.
: x = 1. , , xn 1.
0 < 1. xn 1, n0 |xn 1| < ,
,
0 1 < xn < 1 + n n0 .


0 k
1 < k xn < k 1 + n n0 .

, , a k a 0 a 1 k a a 1 a. ,

0 1 < k xn < 1 + n n0

, , | k xn 1| < n n0 .

, , 0 < 1 n0 | k xn 1| <
n n0 .
= 1, > 1.

> 0 n0 | k xn 1| < n n0 .

, , xn 1, k xn 1.
x > 0.
yn = xxn , xn x, yn 1.

k yn 1

k
xn = k yn x = k yn k x k x.

x = 0, , x 0, k xn 0.
> 0. xn 0 ( xn 0 n), n0
0 xn < k n n0 .

0 k
xn < n n0 .

k x 0.
n

544
, xn +.
M > 0. n0 xn > M k n n0 .

k
xn > M n n0

, , k xn +.
2.3.38. xn x xn x n, sup{xn | n N} = x.
: xn x n, x {xn | n N}.
x .
: u {xn | n N}. xn u n ,
xn x, x u. x {xn | n N}.
: u < x. xn x, u < xn .
{xn | n N} ( ) > u.
u < x {xn | n N}, x
.
2.3.39. xn x, inf{xn | n k} x sup{xn | n k} k.
: l = inf{xn | n k} u = sup{xn | n k}.
l xn u n k. l xn u. xn x,
l x u.
2.3.40. xn x. (xn )
k xk x.
: (xn ) . k xn xk n.
, , xn x, x xk .
, k xk x. .
n xn > x. , , xn x n. ,
, xn xk n xk (xn ).
n xn > x. n1 n,

x < xn1 .

xn x, xn < xn1 , n0

xn < xn1 n n0 . (14.11)

, n1 n0 , 1 n1 n0 1.
x1 , . . . xn0 1 . -
xn 1 n n0 1. , ,

xn xn n 1 n n0 1. (14.12)

1 n1 n0 1, , ,

xn xn1 . (14.13)

(14.11) (14.13)

xn xn n n0 . (14.14)

, (14.12) (14.14) xn xn n (xn )

xn .
2.3.41. [] Cesro: xn x R, x1 ++xn
n x.
xn = (1)n1 n, x1 ++x
n
n
0.

545
 n
xn = 1+(1)
2 n n, x1 ++x
n
n
+.
(xn ) .
Cesro.
[] an+1 an a R, ann a.
( n) ( log n )
an n
a
a > 1.

[] xn > 0 n xn x [0, +], n x1 xn x.

[] an > 0 n an+1
an a [0, +],
n a a.
n
(
n
)
n
( n), n! .
: [] xn 0,
. , , xn 0.
> 0. n0

|xn | <
2 n n0 .
{ [ 2(|x1 |++|xn 1 |) ] }
n0 = max n0 ,
0
+1 .
2(|x1 |++|xn 1 |)
n n0 n n0 n >
0
,
|x1 |++|xn | |x1 |++|xn 1 | |xn |++|xn | (nn0 +1)(/2)
| x1 ++x
n
n
| n = n
0
+ 0
n <
2 + n

< 2 + 2 = .

x1 ++xn
n 0.
. |x1 |++|x
n
n|
. ,
|x1 |++|x
n0 1| |x |++|xn |
n n0 n .
, n, .
.
, , , xn x R.
yn = xn x
yn 0
(y1 +x)++(yn +x) y1 ++yn y1 ++yn
x1 ++xn
n = n = n + x++x
n = n + x 0 + x = x.

x = +. M > 0. n0

xn > 2(M + 1) n n0 .
{ [ ] }
n0 = max 2n0 1, |x1 + + xn0 1 | + 1 .
n n0 n 2n0 1 n0 n > |x1 + + xn0 1 |,
x1 ++xn 1 xn ++xn (nn0 +1)2(M +1)
x1 ++xn
n = n
0
+ 0
n > 1 + n 1 + (M + 1) = M.

x1 ++x
n
n
+.
x = , yn = xn
yn +.
(y1 )++(yn )
x1 ++xn
n = n = y1 ++y
n
n
(+) = .

xn = (1)n1 n, x1 + + xn : 0 n
1 n . 0 x1 ++x
n
n
n1 n , ,
x1 ++xn
n 0.
n
xn = 1+(1)
2 n n,
x1 +x2 ++x2k3 +x2k2 +x2k1 +x2k 0+2++0+(2k2)+0+2k 1++(k1)+k k(k+1) k+1
2k = 2k = k = 2k = 2

546

x1 +x2 ++x2k3 +x2k2 +x2k1 0+2++0+(2k2)+0
2k1 = 2k1 = 2 1++(k1)
2k1 = k(k1)
2k1 .

x1 ++x
n
n
n1
4 n , ,
x1 ++xn
n +.
[] [] b1 = a1 bn = an an1
n 2. bn a
a1 +(a2 a1 )++(an an1 )
an
n = n = b1 +b2 ++bn
n a.
n
, an+1 an = (a 1)an + a > 1, an +.
, loga (n + 1) loga n = loga n+1 n 0,
loga n
n 0.
loga n+1 n 0 n 1 -
n+1

. -
. , > 0. | loga n+1 n |<
loga n+1
n < n+1
n < a n > 1
a 1 .
n0 > a 1 n n0 n > a 1 , ,
1 1

| loga n+1n | < .

[] [].
. , ,
4.3.3, [] [] -
, []
[].
an
[] [] b1 = a1 bn = an1
n 2. bn a

n a = n a a2 an n
b1 b2 bn a.
n 1 a1 an1 =

n 1
, n+1 n 1.
n

(n+1)!
, n! = n + 1 + n n! +.
2n n!
2.4.1. xn = nn .
+
: +
n
2nnn! .
X :
xn+1 2n+1 (n+1)!/(n+1)n+1 2n+1 (n+1)!nn 2(n+1)nn 2nn
xn = 2n n!/nn = 2n n!(n+1)n+1
= (n+1)n+1
= (n+1)n = 2
( n+1 )n
= 2
1 n
(1+ n )
2e .
n

2
e < 1, xn 0.
2.4.3. k, (1 + nk )n ek ( n +, )
k N.
(1 + nk )n ek k Z.
: k = 1, (1 + n1 )n e e.
, (1 + nk )n ek k N.
( ) n+k+1 ( )( )
1 + k+1
n = n = n+k n
n+k+1 k
n+k = 1 + n 1 +
1
n+k .
,
( )
k+1 n
( )n ( )n ( )n ( )n+k ( )k
1+ n = 1 + nk 1+ 1
n+k = 1 + nk 1+ 1
n+k 1 + 1
n+k . (14.15)

547
 1 k
(1 + n+k ) 1 ( n +).
, (1 + n ) e, (1 + n+k
1 n 1 n+k
) e ( n +),
(14.15) (1 + n ) e e1 = e .
k+1 n k k+1

, (1 + nk )n ek k N.
k = 0, (1 + nk )n ek , 1 1.
, k Z, k < 0, |k| = k N.
n |k| + 1
k n|k| 1 1
1+ n = n = n/(n|k|) = 1+(|k|/(n|k|)) ,

( )
k n 1
1+ n = (1+(|k|/(n|k|)))n . (14.16)
|k| n
(1 + n ) e|k|
( |k| )n ( |k| )n|k| ( |k| )|k|
1+ n|k| = 1+ n|k| 1 + n|k| e|k| 1 = e|k| .

, (14.16) (1 + nk )n 1
e|k|
= ek .
2.4.6. 2.4.4 (an ) (bn ) an = 1 + 12 +
+ n1
1
log n bn = 1 + 12 + + n1 log n n. (an )
, (bn ) .
: an < an+1

1+ 1
2 + + 1
n1 log n < 1 + 1
2 + + 1
n1 + 1
n log(n + 1)

, ,( log n+1
n <
1 1 n
) n , , (1 + n ) < e
1 n
(1 + n ) e.
, bn+1 < bn

1+ 1
2 + + 1
n + 1
n+1 log(n + 1) < 1 + 1
2 + + 1
n log n
1
, , n+1 < log n+1
n , , e < (1 + n1 )n+1
( 1 n+1
) ( )
(1 + n ) (1 + n1 )n ,
e.
, an < bn n bn an = n1 0.
.

2.4.8. [] (xn ) x1 > 0 xn+1 = 2xn
n. , x1 ,
.
: . (xn ) :


x1 , x2 = 2x1 , x3 = 2x2 = 2 2x1 , x4 = 2x3 = 2 2 2x1 , . . . ...

, -
xn xn+1 xn 2xn .
(xn ) > 0,
.
xn 2 2xn xn 2.
, ,

xn xn+1 xn 2

548
 xn+1 xn 2 xn .
n-
n- 2.
, , 2 ,
, 2.
, , : x1 2 x1 2.
2, (xn ) ,
2, (xn ) .
, , 0 < x1 2.
. xn 2 n, xn+1 = 2xn 2 2 = 2.
xn 2 n (xn ) .
, (xn )
2. (xn ) .
xn x xn+1 2 = 2xn x2 = 2x, x = 0 x = 2.
x = 0 , (xn ) x1 > 0.
x = 2, xn 2.
x1 2, xn 2 n
(xn ) ( 2).
xn 2.
:
. , .

(xn ) x1 > 0 xn+1 = 2xn n.
.
(xn )
.
.
:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
x1 , x2 = 2 2 x1 2 , x3 = 2 2 + 22 x1 22 , x4 = 2 2 + 22 + 23 x1 23 , . . . ...
,
1 1 1 1 1 ( ) 1
xn = 2 2 ++ 2n1 x1 2n1 = 21 2n1 x1 2n1 = 2 x21 2n1 n.
, 0 < x21 1, (xn ) 2 , 1 x21 , (xn )
2.
. . ,
.

.
xn+1 = 2xn
1
xn = 2( x21 ) 2n1 . , ,
.
. [-] .
n
2.4.9. [] a > 1 k N, ( na k ) ,
an+1 k n an
(n+1)k
n
= a (n+1) a
k nk , nk
+.
n
: ( na k ) ,

an an+1
nk
(n+1) k

n : n. -
n+1
n a1/k n a1/k1 1 .

549
an n+1
nk
(n+1)
a
k n a1/k 1 , , -
1

.
n
( na k ).
. , 2.1
( ) . , ,
(
). 2.1, ,
+. ( ), +,
.
n
( na k ) .
n
, na k x.
:
an+1 nk an
(n+1)k
= a (n+1) k nk n.
x = ax. a = 1,
x = 0. , , ! , n0 ,
n n
, na k na 0k n n0 .
0
n
x na 0k > 0.
0
, , , +.
( )
2.4.10. (xn ), (yn ) xn 1, yn + ( xn y)n (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . xn yn
c [, 0);
: (i) c = 1. xn = 1 yn = n. xn 1, yn +
xn yn = 1 1.
c R, c > 1 b = log c > 0. xn = 1 + n1 yn = bn.
xn 1, yn + xn yn = ((1 + n1 )n )b eb = c.
0 < c < 1 b = log c < 0. xn = (1 + n1 )1 yn = bn.
xn 1, yn + xn yn = ((1 + n1 )n )b eb = c.

c = +. xn = n n yn = n. xn 1, yn +
xn yn = n +.
n n yn = n. xn 1, yn +
1
c = 0. xn =
xn yn = 1
n 0.
(1)n1
(ii) xn = n n yn = n. 1

nn xn n
n
n1
n, xn 1. , yn + xn yn = n(1) ,
n1 n1
n(1) = n1 12 n n(1) = n 1 n.
( )
xn 1, xn > 0 , , xn yn > 0. xn yn
c [, 0);
2.4.11. [] b , b+1 1
+ b+2 1 1
+ b+3 + +
b+n +.
1

[] (1 + a1 ) (1 + an ) 1 + a1 + + an ,
a1 , . . . , an 0, (1 a1 ) (1 an ) 1 a1 an , 0 a1 , . . . , an 1.
b , limn+ (a+1)(a+2)(a+n)
(b+1)(b+2)(b+n) , -
a = b, a > b, a < b.
[] xn > 0 n.
( )
c < 0 n xxn+1 1 c, xn 0.
( xn+1
n
)
c > 0 n xn 1 c, xn +.
( )
d < 0 n xxn+1 1 d, xn 0.
( n
)
d > 0 n xxn+1 n
1 d, xn +.

550
 -
2.10.
(2n)!
4n (n!)2
0. -
2.10;
: []

xn = 1
b+1 + 1
b+2 + + 1
b+n , yn = 1 + 1
2 + + n1 .

yn + (xn ) (yn ).
b 0, k = [b] k 0 k b < k + 1.

xn 1
k+2 + 1
k+3 + + 1
k+n+1 = yn+k+1 yk+1 n.

yn+k+1 yk+1 (+) yk+1 = +, xn +.

b < 0, k = [b] k = |k| 1 k b < k+1.
b = b k, 0 b < 1. , n |k| + 1,

xn = 1
b+1 + + 1
bk + bk+1 + + bk+n+k
1 1

= 1
b+1 + + 1
bk + b +1 + + b +n|k|
1 1
(14.17)
= 1
b+1 + + 1
bk + xn|k| ,

xn = 1
b +1 + 1
b +2 + + 1
b +n .

, (xn ) (xn ) b b.
b 0, xn + . xn|k| +,
(14.17) xn +.
[] n = 1 (1 + a1 ) (1 + an ) 1 + a1 + + an (, ,
). n.

(1 + a1 ) (1 + an )(1 + an+1 ) (1 + a1 + + an )(1 + an+1 )

= 1 + a1 + + an + an+1 + (a1 + + an )an+1
1 + a1 + + an + an+1 .

n + 1.
.

xn = (a+1)(a+2)(a+n)
(b+1)(b+2)(b+n) .

, a = b, xn = 1 1.
a , xn = 0, xn 0.
a .
a > b 0. , ,
(a+1)(a+2)(a+n) ( )( ) ( )
(b+1)(b+2)(b+n) = 1 + b+1 1 + b+2 1 + b+n
ab ab ab
xn =
( 1 )
b+1 + b+2 + + b+n = 1 + (a b) b+1 + b+2 +
1 + ab ab ab 1
+ 1
b+n .
1
ab > 0, [] 1+(ab)( b+1 1
+ b+2 + + b+n
1
) +
xn +.
a > b b < 0, [].

551
 k = [b] k = |k| 1 k b < k + 1. b = b k,
0 b < 1. , , a = a k. , n |k| + 1,
(a+1)(ak)(ak+1)(ak+n+k) (a+1)(ak) (a +1)(a +n|k|)
xn = (b+1)(bk)(bk+1)(bk+n+k) = (b+1)(bk) (b +1)(b +n|k|)
(a+1)(ak)
(14.18)
= (b+1)(bk) xn|k| ,

(a +1)(a +n)
xn = (b +1)(b +n) .

, (xn ) (xn ) a a b b.
a > b 0, xn + . xn|k| +,
(a+1)(ak)
(14.18) xn (b+1)(bk) (+) = + .
a < b,
1
xn = yn ,

(b+1)(b+2)(b+n)
yn = (a+1)(a+2)(a+n) .

, (yn ) (xn ) a b b a. -
yn + yn , , xn 0.
[] c < 0 n( xxn+1n
1) c n n0 . xn+1 xn c+n n
n n0 , n = n0 , . . . , k 1,
(c+n0 )(c+n0 +1)(c+k1)
xk xn0 n0 (n0 +1)(k1) k n0 + 1.

(a+1)(a+2)(a+kn0 )
0 < xk xn0 (b+1)(b+2)(b+kn0 ) k n0 + 1,

a = c + n0 1 b = n0 1. a < b, [] (a+1)(a+2)(a+kn 0)
(b+1)(b+2)(b+kn0 ) 0
, , xk 0.
, c > 0 n( xxn+1
n
1) c n n0 .
c < 0,
(a+1)(a+2)(a+kn0 )
xk xn0 (b+1)(b+2)(b+kn0 ) k n0 + 1,

a = c+n0 1 b = n0 1. a > b, [] (a+1)(a+2)(a+kn 0)

(b+1)(b+2)(b+kn0 ) +
( > 0
) , , xk +.
( )
d < 0 n xxn+1 1 d, c d < c < 0
( xn+1 n )
n xn 1 c. xn 0.
( )
d > 0 n xxn+1 1 d, c 0 < c < d
( n )
n xxn+1
n
1 c. xn +.

2.10. , , .
0 < a < 1 xxn+1 n
a. n( xxn+1
n
1)
n(a 1) < 1, xn 0. .
(2n)!
, , xn = 4n (n!)2
.

xn+1 (2n+2)!4n (n!)2 (2n+1)(2n+2) 2n+1

xn = (2n)!4n+1 ((n+1)!)2
= 4(n+1)2
= 2n+2 .

552
 n( xxn+1
n
1) = 2n+2
n
12 . 21 < 0, xn 0.
2.10 , xxn+1
n 2n+2 1.
= 2n+1
2.4.12. y 0 k N, k 2. (xn ) x1 > 0
y
xn+1 = k1 1
k xn + k xn k1 n.
xn > 0 n.
, Bernoulli, xn k y n 2 ,
, xn+1 xn n 2.
(xn ) , x = limn+ xn , xk = y x 0.
: xn > 0 n .
, n 2 (
Bernoulli)
( k1 y )k ( )
1 yxn1 k k
( yxn1 k )
xn k = k xn1 + 1
k xn1 k1 = xn1 k 1 + k xn1 k xn1 k 1 + xn1 k
= y.

,
y 1 xn k
xn+1 = k1
k xn + 1
k xn k1 k1
k xn + k xn k1 = xn

n 2.
(xn ) ,
0, 0.
, x = limn+ xn , x 0.

k1
xn+1 xn k1 = k xn
k + k1 y
k1 k
, , xk = k x + k1 y xk = y.
2.4.15. xn = 135(2n1) .
2
(246(2n)
1 2
)
(nxn ) (n + 2 )xn .
. (xn );
: (nxn 2 ) -

nxn 2 (n + 1)xn+1 2
n 1 232 452 6(2n1) (n + 1) 1 232 452 6(2n1)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(2n+1)
2 (2n)2 2 (2n)2 (2n+2)2

2 (2n+1)2
n (n + 1) (2n+1)
(2n+2)2
= 4(n+1)

4n2 + 4n 4n2 + 4n + 1.
, , ( ,
) (nxn 2 ) .
(n + 12 )xn 2 . .
, nxn 2 (n + 12 )xn 2 n.
, ,
.
.
,

0, (n + 12 )xn 2 nxn 2 0 , , 12 xn 2 0. , ,
, .
, (yn ) (zn ) y z (-
) y = z, yn zn 0,

553
 ( ) y z = 0 , , y = z.
. , -
. yznn 1. (
) yz = 1 , , y = z. (
zn = 0 n z = 0.)
.
.
( )
nxn 2 x n + 12 xn 2 x .
, x = 0 ( (nxn 2 ) > 0),
(n+(1/2))xn 2 x
nxn 2
x .

(n+(1/2))xn 2 n+(1/2)
nxn 2
= n 1,

xx = 1 x = x .
x = x = x .
, nxn 2 x xn 2 = n1 nxn 2 0x = 0 , , xn 0.
. (xn ) ( -
0) . xn + +
. , -
, . xxn+1 2n+2 1. ,
= 2n+1
xn+1 n
xn 1.

135(2n1) 123456(2n1)(2n) (2n)! (2n)!
xn = 246(2n) = (246(2n))2
= (2n n!)2
= 4n (n!)2
.

(xn ) 2.4.11,
xn 0.
2.4.16. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) > a f (b) < b,
(a, b) f () = .
[] I f : I R x I > 0
f (x ) f (x) f (x ) x , x (x , x + ) I x x x . f
I.
: [] ( ) f (x) = x x [a, b].
2 ) = 2 . f ( 2 ) < 2 , a1 = a b1 = 2 . f ( 2 ) > 2 ,
f ( a+b a+b a+b a+b a+b a+b a+b

a1 = a+b 2 b1 = b. , f (a1 ) > a1 f (b1 ) < b1 .

[a1 , b1 ], [a2 , b2 ]
[a1 , b1 ] f (a2 ) > a2 f (b2 ) < b2 .
, [a1 , b1 ], [a2 , b2 ], . . .

[an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ], f (an ) > an , f (bn ) < bn bn an = ba

2n n.

bn an 0, an bn n an ,
bn .
an < f (an ) f () n f (). , f () f (bn ) < bn
n f () .
f () f () f () = .
[] ( ) f I, a, b I a < b

554
f (a) > f (b).
f (a) > f ( a+b a+b a+b
2 ) f ( 2 ) > f (b). f (a) > f ( 2 ), a1 = a
b1 = a+b a+b a+b
2 . f ( 2 ) > f (b), a1 = 2 b1 = b.
f (a1 ) > f (b1 ).
( []) ,
[a1 , b1 ], [a2 , b2 ], . . .

[an+1 , bn+1 ] [an , bn ], f (an ) > f (bn ) bn an = ba

2n n.

an bn n an , bn .
, > 0 f (x ) f () f (x ) x , x ( , + ) I
x x .
an bn , an , bn ( , + ) I an bn
f (an ) f () f (bn ). f (an ) > f (bn )
n.
2.4.20. x (rn ) rn x.
, p- x
2.3.32.
.
y > 1 x . (rn )
rn x (y rn ) . (
) (rn ) rn x (y rn )
(rn ) rn x. y x = limn+ y rn
(rn ) rn x.
y > 1 x . y x = limn+ y rn (rn )
rn x.
0 y 1 x . y x
( 1.9).
1.8 .
: .
. y > 1, x (rn ) rn x.
(y rn ) . , , ,
[x] + 1, rn < x < [x] + 1 y rn < y [x]+1 n. (y rn )
.

, , (rn ) rn x. (y rn )

z = limn+ y rn .
, ( ) (rn ) rn x.
> 0. y 1/m 1 y 1/m 1, m N

1 < y 1/m < 1 < y 1/m < 1 + .

rn x rn x, rn rn 0 m
1
< rn rn < 1
m.
,
rn
1 < yrn < 1 +
y
y rn
1.
y rn

y rn z, y rn z.
, ( z) (y rn )
(rn ) rn x. y x .
, y rn y x (rn ) rn x.
. y > 1, x (rn ) rn x.

555
 rn = x rn rn 0. ,
rn
yrn 1. , y rn = y x y x , y rn y x .
y
y x y > 1 x
y rn y x y > 1 x ( )
(yn ) yn x.
. y = 1, y x = 1 x. , y = 0,
y x = 0 x > 0.
1
0 < y < 1, y x = (1/y) x x.

y x y 0 x (
x > 0 y = 0) y rn y x y 0 x
( ) (yn ) yn x.
y = 0 y = 1, (y rn ) 0 1,
. 0 < y < 1,

y rn = 1
(1/y)rn 1
(1/y)x = yx,

y1 > 1 ( y1 )rn ( y1 )x .
. y, y1 , y2 > 0 x, x1 , x2 ( ).
(rn ) rn x. y1 rn y2 rn = (y1 y2 )rn n.
y1 rn y1 x , y2 rn y2 x (y1 y2 )rn (y1 y2 )x , y1 x y2 x = (y1 y2 )x .
y x1 y x2 = y x1 +x2 , (y x1 )x2 = y x1 x2 .
( ).
, x > 0 y > 1. (rn ) rn x,
y rn y x . x > 0, rn > 0 , y > 1, y rn > 1.
, (y rn ) , y x > 1.
y x > 1 x > 0 y > 1
1.8.
. y 1/m 1 y > 1.
. -
( Bernoulli
).
2.4.21. [] y > 0.
y r1 1 y r2 1
r1 , r2 r1 < r2 r1 , r2 = 0, r1 r2 .
x1 < x2 x1 , x2 = 0, y x11 y x21 .
x1 x2

[] y > 0.
( )
n( n y 1) .
.

log y = limn+ n( n y 1).
log y = limn+ y xn1 (xn ) xn 0 xn = 0
xn

n.
2.13 ( []) .
: [] 0 < r1 < r2 .
y r11 y r21 rr21 (y r1 1) y r2 1 ,
r1 r2

z = y r1 > 0, rr21 (z 1) z r2 /r1 1 ,

r = rr12 > 1, r(z 1) z r 1. , r = m n
m, n N m > n x = z 1/n > 0,

m(xn 1) n(xm 1).

556
, , :

n(x 1)(xm1 + + x + 1) m(x 1)(xn1 + + x + 1) 0

( )
(x 1) nxm1 + + nxn (m n)xn1 (m n)x (m n) 0
( m1 ++xn xn1 ++x+1 )
(x 1) x mn n 0. (14.19)
.
x 1,
xm1 ++xn (mn)xn nxn1 xn1 ++x+1
mn mn = xn xn1 = n n

, 0 < x 1,
xm1 ++xn (mn)xn nxn1 xn1 ++x+1
mn mn = xn xn1 = n n .

(14.19) , y r11 y r21

r1 r2

.
, r1 < r2 < 0.
s1 = r1 s2 = r2 , 0 < s2 < s1
s2 s1
s1 , s2 y1 > 0 y s21 y s11 , ,
y r2 1
yr1 , , y r11 y r21 .
r1 r1 r2
r2 1
, r1 < 0 < r2 .
s1
s1 = r1 > 0 y r11 y r2 1
y s11 y r21 ,
r1 r2
r2
y s1 1 y r2 1 y s1 1
y r2y ( ), -
r2 +s1 s1
, s1 y s1 r2 , , s1
y 1
y r2 +s11 .
s 1 r2 +s 1
, s1 0 < s1 < r2 + s1 .
, y > 0 x1 < x2 x1 , x2 = 0. (rn,1 ) (rn,2 )
rn,1 x1 rn,2 x2 rn,1 < rn,2 rn,1 , rn,2 = 0 n.
rn,1 rn,2
y rn,11 y rn,21 n, n +
y x1 1y x2 1
x1
x2 .
. y x11 y x21 x1 < x2 x1 , x2 = 0 y x1
x1 x2 x

(, 0) (0, +). ,
, .
. -
.
, y x1 ,
x

log y.
,
y x1 1
y x21 . -
x2
x1
, , .
( )
[] . n( n y 1)

y 1/(n+1) 1 y 1/n 1
1/(n+1) 1/n n.

, , (
) [].

y = 1, n(( y 1)
n
) 0 0.

y > 1, n( n y 1) 0 , ,
.
, 0 < y < 1.

y 1/n 1 ( y1 )1/n 1
1/n = 1/n y 1/n

557
 ( ) ( )
, , n( n y 1) , n( n 1/y 1) ( y1 > 1)
y 1/n 1.

. log y = limn+ n( n y 1) y > 0,
(xn ) xn 0 xn = 0 n.
1/m
y 1/m1 log y. , y 1/m1 log y. ,
1/m

y 1/m 1 y 1/m 1 1
1/m = 1/m y 1/m (log y)1 = log y.

, > 0. m N
y 1/m 1 y 1/m 1
log y < 1/m 1/m < log y + .

xn 0, m
1
< xn < 1
m

y 1/m 1 y xn 1 y 1/m 1
log y < 1/m xn 1/m < log y + .

y xn1 log y.
xn

. , y1 , y2 > 0.

n( n y1 y2 1) = n( n y1 y2 n y2 ) + n( n y2 1)

= n( n y1 1) n y2 + n( n y2 1) (log y1 )1 + log y2 = log y1 + log y2 .

n( n y1 y2 1) log(y1 y2 ), log(y1 y2 ) = log y1 + log y2 -
[] 2.13.
y > 0 z = 0. xn = nz -
:

n( n y z 1) = z y z/n1 = z y xn1 z log y.
z/n xn

n( n y z 1) log(y z ), log(y z ) = z log y.
y > 0 z = 0, log(y z ) = z log y
( log 1 )= 0
, , , n( n 11) 0.
[] [] 2.13.
log e = 1. .
(1 + n1 )n e (1 + n1 )n < e n.
> 0.
= 4 (1 )e <

(1 + n ) < e , , 1 n e < 1 + n1 < n e ( ), ,
1 n n

( 1 )
1 < n( n e 1) < n 1 1
+ n n 1 1 . (14.20)

, < 21 , 1
1 < 1 + 2, Bernoulli

n 1
1 < n
1 + 2 1 + 2
n.

, (14.20) , < 12 ,

1 < n( n e 1) < 1 + 2
n + 2 1 + 4 = 1 + .

0 < < 2 , , > 0.

, n( n e 1) 1 log e = 1.
[] 2.13 (;)
log y > 0 y > 1.

558
, , y > 1. = 1 y1 , 0 < < 1, y = 1
1
.


n( n y 1) . (14.21)

n y 1 + n 1+1 n 1
( )n n
1+1 1 . ,
n
Bernoulli: ( )n ( )n
1

1+ n
1 n 1 .

, (14.21), log y > 0.

2.5.1. , a, b, c,
, a, b, c .
:
a, b, c, a, b, c, a, b, c, a, b, c, . . . ...
: a, b, c R ;
2.5.2. (xn ) : ,
. (xnk ) (xn ) .
: (xn ) . , xn xn+1 n. ,
xn xm n, m n < m.
, , (xnk ) (xn ). k nk < nk+1 ,
( nk nk+1 n m), xnk xnk+1 . (xnk ) .
(xn ) . u xn u n.
(xnk ) (xn ). k ( nk n)
xnk u. (xnk ) .
2.5.3.
2.3.36 2.4.3
p n
(1 + qn ) e p Z q N q 2. , (1 + nr )n er
q p

r Q.
x. > 0. ex ,
r, s Q r < x < s ex < er < es < ex + . ,
ex < (1 + nr )n < (1 + nx )n < (1 + ns )n < ex + (1 + nx )n ex .
: p Z q N q 2.
p n
)+ n ) e .
p

( p qn ) ( p (1
2.4.3
p qn
(1 + qn ) n
(1 + n ) , (1 + qn ) ep .
, 2.3.36

p n p qn
(1 + qn ) = q (1 + qn ) q ep = ep/q .

(1 + nr )n er r Q.
, x.
ex ex = sup{er | r Q, r < x}. > 0
r Q r < x ex < er .
1.4.6 ex = inf{es | s Q, x < s}.
> 0 s Q x < s es < ex + .
> 0 r, s Q

r<x<s ex < er < es < ex + .

, , (1 + nr )n er (1 + ns )n es ,
ex < (1+ nr )n (1+ ns )n < ex +. (1+ nr )n < (1+ nx )n < (1+ ns )n

559
( r < x < s),
( )n ( )n ( )n
ex < 1 + nr < 1 + nx < 1 + ns < ex + .

, > 0 ex < (1 + nx )n < ex + , (1 + nx )n ex .

2.5.4. (xn ) (xnk ) xnk
x R, xn x.
(xn ) (xnk ) xnk x R,
xn x.
xn = 1 + 21 + 13 + + n1 n. 2.4.4
x2n xn 21 n. x2k k2 + 1 k ,
, xn +.
: . (xn ) , (xnk ) . , xnk x R,
(xn ) x.
. (xn ) , . ,
.
. x21 = x2 = 1 + 12 , x2k k2 + 1 k = 1.
x2k k2 + 1 k.

x2k+1 = x22k x2k + 1

2 k
2 +1+ 1
2 = k+1
2 + 1.

x2k k2 + 1 k.
, (x2k ) +. , (xn ) , ,
, xn +.
2.5.6. [] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + x2n n. -
(x2k ), (x2k1 ) . (xn )
.
: xn > 0 n.
.
2,
xn xn+2 .
,
2 2 3xn +2
xn+2 = 1 + xn+1 =1+ 1+(2/xn ) = xn +2 n.

xn xn+2 , -
:

xn xn+2 xn 3xn +2
xn +2 xn 2 xn 2 0 (0 <) xn 2.

, xn+2 xn 2 xn .
, , xn xn+2
xn 2. :

xn+2 2 3xn +2
xn +2 2 xn 2.

, xn+2 2 xn 2.
, , , xn 2, xn+2 2
xn . , xn 2, xn+2 2
xn .
,

xn+1 2 1+ 2
xn 2 xn 2.

560
, xn+1 2 xn 2.
, 2.
, , (0 <) x1 2,

0 < x1 x3 x5 . . . 2 . . . x6 x4 x2 ,

, 2 x1 ,

0 < x2 x4 x6 . . . 2 . . . x5 x3 x1 .

(x2k ), (x2k1 ) , -
, .
x2k x, x2k+2 = 3x x2k +2 x = x+2 , x = 2 x = 1.
2k +2 3x+2

x = 1 x2k > 0, x = 2. x2k 2

x2k1 2. xn 2.
2.5.7. x2k a x2k1 b, a, b R ( (xn )
). (xnk ) xnk x.
(xnk ) (x2k ) (x2k1 ). (xnk )
(x2k ) (x2k1 ); x = a x = b.
: (xnk ) (x2k ).
(xnk ) (x2k ). -
, , x ( ) a
( ). , x = a.
, (xnk ) (x2k1 ),
x = b.
x = a x = b, a = b.
(xnk ) (x2k ) (x2k1 ).
, (xnk ) (x2k )
(x2k1 ). , (x2k ) (x2k1 )
(xn ). , , x = a x = b.
2.5.9. (xn ). xn
m > n xm < xn .
(xn ) , -
(xn ). (xn ) ,
(xn ) .
.
Bolzano - Weierstrass.
: (xn ) . xn1
(, n1 ). xn2 . xn3
. .
(xnk ) (xn ).
xnk nk+1 > nk , xnk > xnk+1 .
(xnk ) .
, (xn ) . , n1 ,
(xn ) -.
xn1 -, n2 > n1 xn2 xn1 . , xn2
-, n3 > n2 xn3 xn2 . , xn3 -,
n4 > n3 xn4 xn3 . .
(xnk ) .
(xn ) .
(xn ) , . (

561
 2.5.2.) (xn ) ,
2.1. -
Bolzano - Weierstrass.
2.5.10. (xn ) n
(xnk ) k.
: (xn ) .
xn1 . xn2
. xn3 . .
(xnk ) (xn )
.
2.5.11. ,
.
: (xn ) .
2.1.9 c xn = c
n. 2.5.10 (xnk )
xnk = c k.
2.5.12. (xn ) x R -
(xn ) x.
: (xn ) (xn )
.
: . x R xn x. (xnk ) xnk x ,
, (xnk ) ( ) x.
, (xn ) x. -
, (xn ) x.
> 0 xn Nx ().
xn Nx () , , xn / Nx () -
n.
2.5.10 (xnk )
xnk / Nx () k. , (xnk )
x. , , (xnk )
Nx () x.
, (xn ) x.
. (xn ) xn = (1)n1 n. x2k 1
x2k1 1.
(xnk ) (xn ). nk
nk . ( .) nk
, nk (xnk ) -
(x2k1 ) , , 1. nk
, nk (xnk )
(x2k ) , , 1. (xnk )
( 1 1). , (xn ) !
2.5.13. xn < x n. sup{xn | n N} = x
(xn ) x.
( n1 ). sup{ n1 | n N} = 1. , ( n1 ) -
0, ( n1 ), 1.
;
: . xn < x n, x
{xn | n N}.

562
, (xnk ) (xn ) x.
u {xn | n N}, xn u n
xnk u k. xnk x, x u. x
{xn | n N}, x = sup{xn | n N}.
, x = sup{xn | n N}.
{xn | n N}, (xn ), > x 1.
, n1 ,

x 1 < x n1 .

xn1 < x, max{x 21 , xn1 } < x {xn | n N},

(xn ), > max{x 12 , xn1 }.
, n2 , max{x 21 , xn1 } < xn2 . ,

x 1
2 < xn2 xn1 < xn2 .

n1 x 1 < xn1 x 1 < xn2

n2 = n1 , n1 < n2 .
xn2 < x, max{x 31 , xn2 } < x {xn | n N},
(xn ), > max{x 13 , xn2 }.
, n3 , max{x 31 , xn2 } < xn3 . ,

x 1
3 < xn3 xn2 < xn3 .

n2 x 21 < xn2 x 12 < xn3

n3 = n2 , n2 < n3 .
.
(xnk ) (xn ) ( nk < nk+1 k), (
xnk < xnk+1 k) x ( x k1 < xnk < x k).
. ( n1 ) -
, ( n1 ) :
xn < x n. ( n1 ) x = 1
1.
2.5.14. (xn ) (xnk ).
(xnk ) (xn ).
: -
. n ,
m k , . , -
(xnk ) k.
, , (xm ) (xn ).
(xnkl ) (xnk ). (xnkl ) l nkl < nkl+1
l.
m l = n kl l.
ml < ml+1 l , , (xml ) -
(xm ) ( (xn )). , (xml ) (xnkl ).
2.5.15. (xn ) ,
. 2.14.
(xn ) , l, u u < l xn u
n xn l n. 2.5[].
: . (xn ) .
, Bolzano - Weierstrass 2.16, (xn )

563
 x R. (xn ) x,
> 0 xn Nx ().
xn Nx () xn / Nx () n.
2.5.10 (xnk )
xnk / Nx () k. , Bolzano - Weierstrass
2.16, (xnk ) y R (
x). 2.5.14, (xnk ) -
(xn ). (xn ) y. ,
(xnk ) Nx ().
y x. , , -
(xn ) x y.
2.14 : (xn )
, (xn ) .
. (xn ) .
(xn ) -
x R (xn ) y R x = y
x < y. u, l x < u < l < y.
(xn ) x, xn u -
n. , (xn )
y, xn l n.
2.5[] : l, u u < l
xn u n xn l n, (xn ) .
2.6.2. xn = 1 + 12 + + n1 n, 2.4.4
x2n xn 12 n. (xn ) Cauchy; xn +.
: (xn ) Cauchy.
n0 |xn xm | < 21 n, m n0 .
n n0 , 2n n0 , |xn x2n | < 21 .
, x2n xn 12 n.
(xn ) Cauchy , , .
, (xn ) , +. (xn ) -
, xn +.
n1
2.6.3. xn = 1 12 + 13 14 + + (1)n n.
 1 mn1 
|xn xm | =  n+1 n+2
1
+ + (1) m  1
n+1 n, m n < m.
(xn ) Cauchy .
: n < m.
( (1)n1 n (1)m1 ) ( (1)n1 )
xm xn = 1 1
2 + + n + (1)
n+1 + + m 1 12 + + n
(1)n (1)m1 ( 1 (1)mn1 )
= n+1 + + m = (1) n
n+1 1
n+2 + + m ,

 1 (1)mn1 
|xn xm | =  n+1 1
n+2 + + m .
, m n 1 ,
 1 
|xn xm | =  n+1 n+2
1
+ + m1
1
m 1
( 1 ) ( 1 )
=  n+1 n+21
+ + m1 m 1 
( 1 ) ( 1 )
= n+1 n+2
1
+ + m1 m 1
( 1 ) ( 1 )
1
= n+1 n+2 n+31
m2 1
m1 1
m < 1
n+1

564
 > 0.
, m n 1 ,
 1 
|xn xm | =  n+1 n+2
1
+ m1
1
+m 1
( 1 ) ( 1 ) 1
=  n+1 n+21
+ + m2 m1
1
+ m
( 1 ) ( )
= n+1 n+2 1
+ + m2 1
m1
1
+m 1
( 1 ) ( 1 )
1
= n+1 n+2 n+31
m1 m 1
< 1
n+1

> 0.
|xn xm | < n+1
1
n, m n < m.
, > 0. n0 n0 +1 < n, m m > n n0
1

|xn xm | < n+1

1
n01+1 < . (xn ) Cauchy.
2.6.4. [] 0 < M < 1 |xn xn+1 | cM n .
Mn
n0 |xn xm | c 1M n, m n0 n < m. (xn )
Mn
Cauchy. x (xn ), |xn x| c 1M .
[] 0 < M < 1 |xn+1 xn+2 | M |xn xn+1 |.
(xn ) Cauchy. x (xn ), c 0
Mn
|xn x| c 1M .
3
[] x1 > 0 xn+1 = 1 + 1+x n
n. (xn )
. n- xn
.
[] 0 < || < 1 xn+1 = a+ sin xn n. (xn ) .
: [] n0 |xn xn+1 | cM n
n n0 .
m > n n0 .

|xn xm | = |(xn xn+1 ) + (xn+1 xn+2 ) + + (xm1 xm )|

|xn xn+1 | + |xn+1 xn+2 | + + |xm1 xm |
cM n + cM n+1 + + cM m1 (14.22)
= cM (1 + M + + M
n mn1
)
mn Mn
= cM n 1M
1M c 1M .

0, n0
M n
, > 0. 0 < M < 1, c 1M
< n n0 .
M n
c 1M
n0 = max{n0 , n0 }. n, m m > n n0 m > n n0
n n0 , (14.22)
n
|xm xn | c 1M
M
< .

(xn ) Cauchy , , . x (xn ), ,

(14.22) m, n m > n n0 , m +, -

Mn
|xn x| c 1M n n0 .
[] n0 |xn+1 xn+2 | M |xn xn+1 |
n n0 .
, |xn+1 xn | cM n
|x +1 xn0 |
n n0 , c = n0M n0 .
[].

565
[] ,
xn > 0 n. ,
xn > 1 n 2. n 2
 3 
|xn+1 xn+2 | =  1+x n
1+x3n+1  = 3 (1+x
|xn xn+1 |
n )(1+xn+1 )
34 |xn xn+1 |.

(xn ) [] M = 34 , , . x
(xn ), x 1 ( xn > 1 n 2)
x = 1 + 1+x 3
. x = 2 x = 2 x = 2. ,
[] [] n0 = 2, |xn 2| 4c( 34 )n n 2,
c = |x3 x2 |( 43 )2 .
[] | sin x sin y| |x y|.
n

|xn+1 xn+2 | = ||| sin xn sin xn+1 | |||xn xn+1 |.

(xn ) [] M = || , , .
2.7.1. a < b (a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, . . . ). lim lim
.
: a (
) b (
). a b .
x .
x.
, , b, -
b. x b.
, a, -
a, x a.
x a, b.
b a.

lim xn = a lim xn = b.

-
. .
x . -
a b,
2.5.7 x = a x = b.
a, b.
( ) ( )
n1 (1 1 ) ,

( 2.7.2. ,
) (
) , lim, lim n+1
n , (1) n
(1)n1 (1 + n1 ) , sin 2n
3 .
: . n+1
n 1,

lim n+1 n+1

n = lim n = 1.

. xn = (1)n1 (1 n1 )

x2k = 1 + 1
2k 1 x2k1 = 1 1
2k1 1.

1 1 (xn ).
.

566
 : 2.5.7 1 1 -
(xn ).
( ) ( )
lim(1)n1 1 n1 = 1 lim(1)n1 1 n1 = 1.

: (xn ) 1
1. x2k 1 x2 = 12 . x2k1 -
1 x1 = 0. (xn )
1 1.
2.7.1 a b. -
x (xn ). (xn ) x.
(xn ) [1, 1],
[1, 1], x [1, 1].
x (xn ) 1, 1, lim xn = 1
lim xn = 1.
. xn = (1)n1 (1 + n1 )

x2k = 1 1
2k 1 x2k1 = 1 + 1
2k1 1.

1 1 (xn ).
.
: 2.5.7 1 1
(xn ).
( ) ( )
lim(1)n1 1 + n1 = 1 lim(1)n1 1 + n1 = 1.

: (xn ) 1
1. x2k 1 x2k1 1. (xn )
[1, 1]
. .
x .
(xnk ) x.
x > 1.
x2k1 1, x2k1 x .
, x2k x , xn
x . (xnk ) x .
x (xnk ) x .
, , x
: x x x > 1. x 1.
x 1. 1 -
(xn ), lim xn = 1.
lim xn = 1.
. n = 1, n = 2, n = 3 -
:
3 = 2 ,
3 3
sin 2
3 = 2 , sin 4 sin 6
3 = 0.
, -
2n 3
2
3 , 4 6
3 , 3 .

2
3
, 2
3
, 0, 2
3
, 2
3
, 0, 2
3
, 2
3
, 0, 2
3
, 3
2 , 0, ... .

3 =
3 3
lim sin 2n 2 , lim sin 2n
3 = 2 .

567
[ n- :

3
2 , n = 3k + 1
2n
sin 3 = 2 , n = 3k + 2
3


0, n = 3k

,
sin 2(3k+1)
3 = sin(2k + 2
3 ) = sin 2
3 = 2
3

sin 2(3k+2)
3 = sin(2k + 4
3 ) 3 =
= sin 4 2
3

sin 2(3k)
3 = sin(2k) = 0
.]
2.7.3. lim xn = + (xn ) .
lim xn = xn .
: . lim xn = +. (xn ) +
, , . 2.5.2 (xn )
.
, (xn ) . 2.16
(xn ) +. + (xn )
, , . lim xn = +.
. lim xn = . lim xn lim xn , lim xn =
lim xn = xn .
, xn . lim xn = .
2.7.4. lim xn = lim(xn ).
: (xnk ) lim xn . (xnk ) lim xn . ,
(xnk ) (xn ). lim xn (xn )
, ,
lim xn lim(xn ). (14.23)
, (xnk ) ( ) (xn )
lim(xn ). (xnk ) lim(xn ). , (xnk ) (xn ).
lim(xn ) (xn ) , ,

lim xn lim(xn ). (14.24)

(14.23) (14.24) lim xn = lim(xn ).

2.7.5. xn yn , lim xn lim yn .
: . ( ) lim yn < lim xn .
a lim yn < a < lim xn .
yn < a a < xn n. yn < a
a < xn n. yn < xn n. , ,
xn yn .
. (xnk ) (xn ) lim xn .
( ) (ynk ) (yn )
(ynkl ) y R. (xnkl ) (xnk )
lim xn .
, xnkl ynkl l, lim xn y.
2.5.14 (ynkl ) (yn ),
y (yn ) , , y lim yn .

568
 lim xn y y lim yn lim xn lim yn .
2.7.7. lim(xn + yn ) lim xn + lim yn
.
t > 0, lim(txn ) = t lim xn .
: . . lim xn + lim yn = +,
, , .
lim xn + lim yn < + , , lim xn < + lim yn < +.
> lim xn + lim yn .
> lim xn > lim yn = + . .
lim yn > lim xn lim yn >
> lim xn = .
> lim xn , xn < , > lim yn , yn < .
xn < yn < , , xn + yn < + = .
, < lim(xn + yn ), < xn + yn n.
, , xn + yn < . lim(xn + yn ) .
> lim xn + lim yn lim(xn + yn ) .
lim(xn + yn ) lim xn + lim yn .
. , lim xn +lim yn < + , ,
lim xn < + lim yn < +.
(xnk + ynk ) (xn + yn ) lim(xn + yn ).
, (xnk ) (xnkl ) x R.
2.5.14 (xnkl ) (xn )
x lim xn < +.
, (ynkl ) (ynkl ) y R. ,
m
2.5.14 (ynkl ) (yn )
m
y lim yn < +.
,

xnkl + ynkl lim(xn + yn ) xnkl x ynkl y.

m m m m

lim(xn + yn ) = x + y lim xn + lim yn .

. (xnk ) lim xn . (txnk ) t lim xn . ,
(txnk ) (txn )

t lim xn lim(txn ).
1
(txn ) t

t lim(txn ) lim(xn ).
1

lim(txn ) = t lim xn .
2.7.8. (yn ) , -
lim(xn + yn ) = lim xn + lim yn .
: (xnk ) lim xn . (ynk ) lim yn (xnk + ynk )
lim xn + lim yn . (xnk + ynk ) (xn + yn ),

lim xn + lim yn lim(xn + yn ).

, (xnk + ynk ) ( ) (xn + yn )

lim(xn + yn ). , (xnkl ) (xnk ) x R.

569
 2.5.14 (xnkl ) (xn )
x lim xn . 2.5.14 (ynkl )
(yn ) lim yn .

xnkl + ynkl lim(xn + yn ) xnkl x ynkl lim yn .

lim(xn + yn ) = x + lim yn lim xn + lim yn .

lim(xn + yn ) = lim xn + lim yn .
2.7.10. (xnk ) (xn ).
2.5.14 (xnk ) -
(xn ).
lim xnk lim xn .
: x (xnk ). -
(xnk ) x. , (xnk ) , -
2.5.14, (xn ). x
(xn ).
, lim xnk (xnk ),
(xn ). lim xnk lim xn .
2.7.11. [] x R (xn )
> 0 xn Nx () n.
[] X R (xn ). (yn )
X yn y R, y X.
a < b < c d. (xn )
[a, b) [c, d].
: x R (xn ). , -
(xnk ) (xn ) xnk x. > 0 xnk Nx ()
k , , xn Nx () n ( n = nk k
).
, > 0 xn Nx () n.
n1 xn1 Nx (1). , n2 > n1 xn2 Nx ( 21 ). ,
n3 > n2 xn3 Nx ( 13 ). -
(xnk ) (xn ) xnk Nx ( k1 ) k.
> 0. k1 < Nx ( k1 ) Nx () k .
, xnk Nx () k . xnk x, x -
(xn ).
[] > 0. yn y, n0 yn Ny ()
n n0 .
, , n n0 , yn Ny (). -
Ny () > 0 Nyn () Ny (). -
[], yn (xm ) (
n ), xm Nyn ()
m. xm Ny () m.
> 0 xm Ny () m, ,
[], y (xn ) y X.
( ) (xn ) X = [a, b)
[c, d]. (yn ) X yn b. (,
yn = b ba n .) , b / X
.

570
 2.7.13. [] lim xn lim x1 ++x
n
n
lim x1 ++x
n
n
lim xn .
Cesro 2.3.41[];
: . lim xn < x. xn < x, n0
xn < x n n0 . , n n0
x1 ++xn x1 ++xn0 1 xn0 ++xn x1 ++xn0 1 (nn0 +1)x
n = n + n < n + n .

2.7.5,
( x ++x ) ( x ++x (nn0 +1)x )
lim x1 ++x
n
n
lim 1 n n0 1 + (nnn0 +1)x = lim 1 n n0 1 + n = x.

, , x > lim xn lim x1 ++x

n
n
x. ,
lim x1 ++xn
n lim x n .
lim xn lim x1 ++x
n
n
.
, lim (xn )
2.7.4 :
( )
lim xn = lim(xn ) lim (x1 )++(x
n
n)
= lim x1 ++x
n
n
= lim x1 ++x
n
n
.

. xn x. lim xn = lim xn = x.
lim x1 ++x
n
n
= lim x1 ++x
n
n
= x x1 ++x
n
n
x.
Cesro.
2.7.15. (xn ). un = sup{xk | k n} n.
(xn ) , un = + n.
(xn ) , un R un+1 un n,
(un ) [, +). un lim xn .
: . (xn ) . n
u. 2.16,
> u. u {xk | k n}. {xk | k n}
, un = +.
. (xn ) . {xk | k n} -
, un . , xk un k n xk un
k n + 1. un {xk | k n + 1}, un+1 un .
(un ) . un u.
u = lim xn .
x > u. un u, un < x. m
um < x. , xn < x n m. xn < x.
lim xn x. ( x < lim xn , x < xn n
xn < x.)
lim xn x x > u. lim xn u.
, x > lim xn . xn < x. m
xk < x k m, x {xk | k m}. um x.
(un ) un u, u x.
u x x > lim xn . u lim xn .
lim xn u u lim xn u = lim xn .
2.7.16. 2.18.
[] lim xn x : (i)
x < x, xn < x (ii) x < x, x < xn n.
[] xn < x, lim xn x. x < xn n,
x lim xn .
: [] x (i) (ii).

571
 x < lim xn . x x < x < lim xn , , (i),
xn < x. , x < lim xn , x < xn n
. lim xn x.
lim xn < x. x lim xn < x < x, , (ii),
x < xn n. , lim xn < x, xn < x
. x lim xn .
lim xn x x lim xn x = lim xn .
[] xn < x. x < lim xn ,
x < xn n. lim xn x.
x < xn n. lim xn < x,
xn < x. x lim xn .
2.7.17. (xn ) : xn+1 xn 0. ,

+ (1 + 12 + + n1 ).
x = lim xn x = lim xn , (xn )
[x, x] R.
(0, 1, 12 , 0, 13 , 32 , 1, 43 , 24 , 14 , 0, 15 , 52 , 35 , 54 , 1, 65 , 46 , 36 , 62 , 16 , 0, . . . ). -
;
: , x = x x = x, x (xn ). , x
[x, x], x (xn ).
x x < x < x (xn ).
, , x < x < x.
> 0

x < x < x < x + < x.

( ) xn
/ (x , x + ). , m

xn / (x , x + ) n m.
xn+1 xn 0, |xn+1 xn | < 2. , x < x,
xn x n , x + < x,
x + xn n. n1 , n2

m n1 < n 2 , xn1 x , x + xn2

|xn+1 xn | < 2 n n1 n n2 1.

n n1 n2 , n0 ,
xn x . , n1 n0 < n2 ( x + xn2 ). ,

x n0 x x < xn0 +1 .

, , m n1 , n n1
n2 xn
/ (x , x + ).
x + xn0 +1 .
, xn0 x x + xn0 +1 |xn0 +1 xn0 | 2
, |xn+1 xn | < 2 n n1 n n2 1.
xn (x , x + ) n.
, , > 0 ( > 0) xn Nx ()

572
 n. 2.7.11[] x -
(xn ).
(0, 1, 12 , 0, 13 , 23 , 1, 43 , 24 , 41 , 0, 15 , 25 , 35 , 54 , 1, 56 , 46 , 36 , 26 , 16 , 0, . . . ) -
. ( n1 ) 0 ( n1 n ) 1. 0, 1
.
[0, 1] [0, 1]. 0
lim 1 lim . , ,
xn+1 xn 0.
[0, 1].
2.7.18. [] a > 0. (xn ) xn = na [na]
n. (xn ) [0, 1].
: xn [0, 1) n xn n.

{
xn + xm , 0 < xn + xm < 1
xn+m = (14.25)
xn + xm 1, 1 < xn + xm < 2

n, m, 0 < xn + xm < 2 xn + xm = 1 n, m.
,
{
xn xm , 0 < xn xm < 1
xnm = (14.26)
xn xm + 1, 1 < xn xm < 0

n, m n > m, 1 < xn xm < 1 xn xm = 0

n, m.
> 0. k N k1 < .

[0, k1 ), [ k1 , k2 ), . . . , [ k1
k , 1)

k1 . k, k + 1
x1 , x2 , . . . , xk+1 . m, n
1 n, m k + 1, n > m 0 < |xn xm | < k1 . , (14.26),
xnm = xn xm , 0 < xn xm < k1 , xnm = xn xm + 1, k1 < xn xm < 0.
0 < xnm < k1 1 k1 < xnm < 1.
p = n m > 0 p

0 < xp < 1 < xp < 1.

0 < xp < n = [ x1p ], (14.25)

0 < xp < x2p < < xnp < 1

xp , x2p , . . . , xnp [0, 1] < .

1 < xp < 1 n = [ 1x 1
p
], (14.25)

0 < xnp < < x2p < xp < 1

xnp , . . . , x2p , xp [0, 1] < .

, [0, 1], , -
(xn ). , (xn )
[0, 1].

573
14.3 3.
3.1.1. a < b < c. (a, b) (b, c), (a, b) {c +
n | n N}.
1

: [a, c], a, b, c,
A = (a, b) (b, c). A: x < a c < x,
x A.
[a, b] B = (a, b) {c + n1 | n N}. ,
c B. , c + n1 c c + n1 = c n,
c B = c. ,
[a, b] {c} B. x < a b < x < c
c + 1 < x, , , x B. ,
c + n1 B , B c + n1
1 1
c + n+1 c + n1 ( n = 1),
c + n B c + n1 . ,
1
1
x c+ n+1 c+ n1 B , ,
x B. , , B
[a, b] {c}.
3.1.2. + A A
.
: + A N > 0 x A,
x > N N > 0 A A
.
3.1.3. R A
> 0 N () A.
: . > 0 N () -
A, N () A
. A.
, A.
( ) > 0 N ()
A ( ). A
N () , A. A
N () , ( A), x1 , . . . , xn ,
> 0 N ( ) A (
). , x1 , . . . , xn
> 0 N ( )
x1 , . . . , xn . A.
, > 0 N ()
A.
3.1.4. R A B. A,
B.
: A. N () -
x A x = . A B, N ()
x B x = . B.
3.1.5. R Q R \ Q.
(a, b) Q (a, b) \ Q.
: R. , , > 0 r Q
< r < + ( r Q < r < ). > 0 r Q N ()

574
 r = . Q.
= +. , N > 0 r Q
r > N . = + Q.
= Q.
R \ Q : .
(a, b) Q (a, b) \ Q [a, b].
, .
3.1.6. - A. , sup A A,
A.
- A sup A .
: sup A A
sup A , , sup A A, A
= sup A. , > 0 x A Nsup A () x = sup A. sup A
A.
A = {a} sup A = a a A. , a < b < c,
A = [a, b]{c} sup A = c c A.
sup A A.
3.1.7.
x12 > 100 ; 0.
(1)[1/x] < 0 ;
0
0.
: x12 > 100 x -
x12 , R \ {0} = (, 0) (0, +).
x12 > 100 . x12 > 100
0 < x2 < 100 1
0 < |x| < 10 1
.
x2 > 100 ( 10 , 0) (0, 10 ) , , x2 > 100 0.
1 1 1 1

(1)[1/x] < 0 x
(1)[1/x] < 0, R \ {0} = (, 0) (0, +).
(1)[1/x] < 0 .
[ x1 ] , (1)[1/x] < 0 [ x1 ]
, k Z [ x1 ] = 2k 1. ,
(1)[1/x] < 0 k Z 2k 1 x1 < 2k. -
, k 1, 2k 1 x1 < 2k 2k 1
< x 2k1
1
. ,
k = 0, 1 x < 0 < x 1. , , k 1,
1

2k 1 x1 < 2k 2k 1
< x 2k1
1
.
k k , k 1, 2k 1 x1 < 2k
2k1
< x 2k+1
1
. (1)[1/x] < 0
( ] + ( 1 ]
(, 1] + k=1 2k , 2k+1 k=1 2k , 2k1 .
1 1 1

0 ( )
(1)[1/x] < 0, (, 0) (0, +).
, (1)[1/x] < 0
0 0.
, 0 ( )
(1)[1/x] < 0. , > 0 k N < 2k+1 1
<0
0 < 2k1 < 2k+1 2k1 (1)
1 1 1 [1/x] < 0.
(1) [1/x] < 0 0

575
 0 .
, (1)[1/x] < 0 0
. , > 0 (1)[1/x] < 0 x (, 0)
x (0, ). > 0 k N < 2k 1 1
< 0 0 < 2k <
2k 2k (1)
1 1 [1/x] < 0.
3.1.8. R A
(xn ) A xn xn = n.
R A
(xn ) A xn xn > n.
: A. n N xn
A N ( n1 ) xn = . (xn ) A xn =
n. , > 0. n1 , N ( n1 ) N ().
xn N () , , xn .
, (xn ) A xn xn =
n. xn , > 0 xn N () , xn =
n, > 0 x A N () x = ( x -
xn n). A.
A. n N
xn A < xn < + n1 . (xn ) A xn
xn > n.
, (xn ) A xn xn >
n. xn , > 0 < xn < + ,
xn > n, < xn < + . > 0 x A
< x < + ( x xn n). ,
A.
3.1.9. A R
A.
-
(xn ) A xn , xn = n xn
n.
: . > 0 -
x A N () x = . , n N
xn A N ( n1 ) xn = xn .
(xn ) A xn = n xn n.
, > 0. n1 , N ( n1 ) N ().
xn N () , , xn .
, (xn ) A xn , xn =
n xn n. xn , > 0
xn N () , xn = n, > 0 x N ()
x = ( x xn
n). , .
3.1.10. []
R.
: A.
A , (xn ) A ,
xn = xm n, m n = m.
A , (xn ) . Bolzano -
Weierstrass, (xn ) : xnk x.

576
, > 0. Nx () xnk k
, , Nx () (xn )
A.
x A.

3.2.1. limx0 x+|x| 1 1
, limx1 3x2 +2x6 , limx0 x2 , limx (x+
2)6/4 ;
: .
1
limx0 sin(1/x) , limx+ log sin x .
: .
1
x+|x| (0, +) 0 .

1
3x2 +2x6
(, 13 19
) ( 1+3 19
, +) 1 -

1 19

1+ 19

<1<
3 x2 {0} 0
3 .
. (x + 2)6/4 [2, +)
.
1
. sin(1/x)
( { })
R \ {0} 1
n |n N

0 . , log sin x

nZ (2n, (2n + 1)) + .

3.2.2. limx2 3x = 6, limx1 ( x1 +1) = 2, limx1 x2 =
3x
1, limx1 (x1) 2 = +.

: , > 0 > 0
0 < |x 2| < |3x 6| < .
|3x 6| < |x 2| < 3 ,
0 < 3 , 0 < |x 2| < |x 2| < 3
|3x 6| < .
, > 0 > 0
0 < |x 1| < |( x1 + 1) 2| < .
|( x1 + 1) 2| < |x1|
|x| < .
|x1|
|x| . , 0 -
1: , 0 < |x 1| < 12 , |x| > 12 ,
, |x1|
|x| < 2|x 1|. :

|x1|
0< 1
2 : 0 < |x 1| < |x| < 2|x 1|. (14.27)

, 2|x 1| < |x 1| < 2 , ,

0 < 2 , 0 < |x 1| < |x 1| < 2
2|x 1| < . :

0<
2 : 0 < |x 1| < 2|x 1| < . (14.28)

(14.27) (14.28), :
{ }
|x1| ( ) 
< 2|x 1|
0 < min{ 12 , 2 } : 0 < |x1| < |x| |x1|
|x| <  x1 +1 2 < .
2|x 1| <

, > 0 > 0
0 < |x 1| < |x2 1| < .

577
 |x2 1| < |x + 1||x 1| < . |x + 1||x 1|
|x + 1|, x 1 |x + 1|
. , |x 1| < 1, |x + 1| |x 1| + 2 < 3
, , |x2 1| = |x + 1||x 1| < 3|x 1|. :

0<1 : 0 < |x 1| < |x2 1| < 3|x 1|. (14.29)

, 3|x 1| < |x 1| < 3 , ,

0 < 3 , 0 < |x 1| < |x 1| < 3
3|x 1| < . :

0<
3 : 0 < |x 1| < 3|x 1| < . (14.30)

(14.29) (14.30), :
{ 2 }
|x 1| < 3|x 1|
0 < min{1, 3}

: 0 < |x 1| < |x2 1| < .
3|x 1| <

, M > 0 > 0
0 < |x 1| < (x1)
3x
2 > M.
3x
(x1)2
x, x
3x
0 (, x 0, (x1)2

0 > M ). , |x 1| < 1
2,
x > 12 , , (x1)
3x 3
2 > 2(x1)2 . :

0< 1
2 : 0 < |x 1| < 3x
(x1)2
> 3
2(x1)2
. (14.31)

, 3
2(x1)2
> M 0 < |x 1| < 3
,
2M .

0< 3
2M , 0 < |x 1| < 0 < |x 1| < 3
2M
3
2(x1)2
> M . :

0< 3
2M : 0 < |x 1| < 3
2(x1)2
> M. (14.32)

(14.31) (14.32), :
{ }
{ 3 } 3x
(x1)2
3
> 2(x1) 2
0 < min 12 , 2M : 0 < |x 1| < 3 3x
(x1)2
> M.
2(x1)2
>M

3.2.3. A B R A, ,
3.1.4, B. g : B R limx g(x) = R.
f : A R g A, f (x) = g(x) x A.
limx f (x) = .
: > 0.
limx g(x) = , > 0 x B N () x =
g(x) N ().
, , A B, x A N () x B N ().
> 0 x A N () x = g(x) N ().
, , , f (x) = g(x) x A, > 0
x A N () x = f (x) N ().
limx f (x) = .
3.2.4. A B = R A B. f : A R

578
 {
f (x), x A
g : B R, h : A B R h(x) =
g(x), x B
limx h(x) limx f (x), limx g(x) ,
, limx h(x) = limx f (x) = limx g(x).
: limx h(x). f h A,
3.2.3 limx f (x) = limx h(x). , g
h B, limx g(x) = limx h(x).
, limx f (x), limx g(x) : limx f (x) =
limx g(x) = .
> 0.
limx f (x) = , > 0 x A N ( ) x =
f (x) N (). , limx g(x) = , > 0 x B N ( )
x = g(x) N ().
= min{ , } > 0. , A N () A N ( ) B N ()
B N ( ). , x A N () x = f (x) N ()
x B N () x = g(x) N ().
, x (AB)N () x = . x AN () x = x B N ()
x = . f (x) N () , , h(x) N () (
h(x) = f (x) x A). g(x) N () ,
, h(x) N () ( h(x) = g(x) x B).
h(x) N ().
, , x (A B) N () x = h(x) N ().
limx h(x) = .
3.2.5. f : A R R A.
limx f (x) = > 0
f (x)
/ N () .
limx f (x) = > 0 > 0
x A N () x = f (x)
/ N ().
: limx f (x) = :

lim f (x) = > 0 > 0 x A N () x =

x

f (x) N ().

( lim f (x) = ) > 0 > 0 x A N () x =

x

f (x)
/ N ().

:
( lim f (x) = ) > 0
x

f (x)
/ N ().

3.2.6. f : A R R A 0 > 0.
limx f (x) = 0 < 0 f (x) N () .
: 2.2.7.
.
limx f (x) = . > 0 ( ) f (x) N ()
. , 0 < 0 f (x) N () .

579
, , 0 < 0 f (x) N () .
limx f (x) = , > 0 (
0 ) f (x) N () . , > 0
f (x) N () .
> 0 = 0 ,
f (x) N (0 ) . , > 0 , N (0 ) N ().
, f (x) N () .
, , > 0 > 0 f (x) N ()
. limx f (x) = .
3.2.7. f : A R R A. > 0
> 0 f (x) N () x A N () x = . ;
: 2.2.8. f -
(A \ {}) N ().
x3 x2 x+1
3.3.1. limx1 x5 3x4 +6x3 10x2 +9x3
.
: 1 . x 1 -
:
x3 x2 x+1 (x+1)(x1)2 x+1
x 3x +6x 10x +9x3
5 4 3 2 = (x2 +3)(x1)3
= (x2 +3)(x1) .
,
x3 x2 x+1 x3 x2 x+1
limx1 x5 3x4 +6x3 10x2 +9x3
= , limx1+ x5 3x4 +6x3 10x2 +9x3
= +.

3.3.2. limx0 ( x13 + 1

|x| ), limx0 1
x2 |x|
.
: :
( 1 1
) ( 1 1
) 1+x2
limx0+ x3
+ |x| = limx0+ x3
+ x = limx0+ x3
= +

( ) ( ) 1x2
limx0 1
x3
+ 1
|x| = limx0 1
x3
1
x = limx0 x3
= .
:
limx0 1
x2 |x|
= limx0 1
|x|(|x|1) = .
3x2 +2x6/5 4
3x
2 1
3.3.3. limx0 (
3 2 ), limx+ x6/5 2x9/8 +2
.
x
: x 0+,
3x
2 1
3 2 (0, +). :
x
( )
2 3 x1
limx0 2

3x 1
3 2 = limx0
3 2 = .
x x

, () x6/5 ,
:
2 +2x6/5 4 16/5 +24x6/5
limx+ 3x
x6/5 2x9/8 +2
= limx+ 3x
12x3/40 +2x6/5
= 2.
x3a 1
3.3.4. a = 0. limx1 1
xa 1 , limx1 xa 1 .
: a > 0, xa < 1 0 x < 1 xa > 1 x > 1.

limx1 1
xa 1 = , limx1+ 1
xa 1 = +.

a < 0, xa > 1 0 < x < 1 xa < 1 x > 1.

limx1 1
xa 1 = +, limx1+ 1
xa 1 = .

580
:
= limx1 (x 1)(x
a 2a a
x3a 1 +x +1)
limx1 xa 1 xa 1 = limx1 (x2a + xa + 1) = 3.

3.3.5. limx+ x( x + 1 x).

: limx+ ( x + 1 x) (+) (+). ,
2 b2
a b = aa+b :

limx+ x( x + 1 x) = limx+
x((x+1)x)

x+1+ x
= limx+ 1
= 12 .
1+(1/x)+1

3.3.6. a > 0 limx+ ( ax2 + bx + c Ax B)= 0, A, B -
a, b, c , A, B, limx+ x( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) =
4acb 2
.
8a a

: , A < 0, lim 2
x+ ax + bx + c = +
limx+ (Ax B) = + , , limx+ ( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) = +
.
limx+ ax + bx + c = + limx+ (Ax B) = B
A = 0, 2

, , limx+ ( ax + bx + c Ax B) = + .
2
2 b2
A > 0 , a b = aa+b , :
(aA2 )x2 +(b2AB)x+cB 2
ax2 + bx + c Ax B =
ax2 +bx+c+Ax+B
2 2 )/x2 (14.33)
= )+(b2AB)/x+(cB
x (aA 2
.
a+(b/x)+(c/x )+A+(B/x)

, a A2 = 0,
aA2
limx+ ( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) =
a+A
(+) = 0

.

, a A2 = 0, A = a ( A > 0).
(14.33)
(b2AB)x+cB 2 (b2AB)+(cB 2 )/x
ax2 + bx + c Ax B =
ax2 +bx+c+Ax+B
= . (14.34)
a+(b/x)+(c/x2 )+A+(B/x)

limx+ ( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) = b2AB

a+A

, limx+ ( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) = 0, b 2AB = 0 , ,
b
B = 2A = 2b a .
, (14.34) :
(cB 2 )x
x( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) =
ax2 +bx+c+Ax+B
= cB 2
,
a+(b/x)+(c/x2 )+A+(B/x)

cB 2 2
limx+ x( ax2 + bx + c Ax B) =
a+A
= 4acb
.
8a a

3.3.7. limx ( 3xx27x

2
+1
)1/2 , limx0 (1 1
x + 1 1/5
x3
) .
3x2 7x 3x2 7x
: limx x2 +1
= 3, x2 +1
.
3x2 7x 1/2
( x2 +1 ) . ,
3x2 7x 3x2 7x
x2 +1
3 . ,
= x2 +1
= 3 x = 37 .

581
 3x2 7x
x y = x2 +1


limx ( 3xx27x
2
)1/2 = lim y 1/2 = 3.
+1 y3

( ) x3 x2 +1
limx0 1 1
x + 1
x3
= limx0 x3
=

( ) x3 x2 +1
limx0+ 1 1
x + 1
x3
= limx0+ x3
= +.
1 x1 + x13 0
0 . , > 0
(1 x1 + x13 )1/5 (, 0) (0, ).
x 0 x 0+.
x ( (0, ))
y = 1 x1 + x13

limx0 (1 1
x + 1 1/5
x3
) = limy+ y 1/5 = +.

3.3.8. limx (ex e2x + 1), limx0 1

ex 1 .
: :
limx (ex e2x + 1) = 0 0 + 1 = 1

limx+ (ex e2x + 1) = limx+ e2x (ex 1 + e2x ) = .

ex < 1 x < 0 ex > 1 x > 0,

limx0 1
ex 1 = , limx0+ 1
ex 1 = +.

log(2x) 1 1log x
3.3.9. limx0 log(3x) , limx1 log x , limx0 log 1+(log x)2
.
: x y = log x :
log(2x) log x+log 2 y+log 2
limx0 log(3x) = limx0 log x+log 3 = limy y+log 3 = 1.

log x < 0 0 < x < 1 log x > 0

x > 1,
limx1 log1 x = , limx1+ log1 x = +.
, x y = log x :
1log x 1y
limx0 1+(log x)2
= limy 1+y 2
= 0.

1log x
, 1+(log x)2
> 0 0 ( ).
, 0 < x < 1.
1log x
x z = 1+(log x)2
:

1log x
limx0 log 1+(log x)2
= limz0+ log z = .

3.3.10. R limx [x]. limx [x];

limx [1/x].
: , k k < < k+1. , k = [].

582
 [x] k = [] (k, ) (, k + 1)

lim [x] = [] / Z.
x

, [x] 1 ( 1, )
(, + 1)

lim [x] = 1 = [] 1 lim [x] = = [] Z.

x x+

, limx [x] .
(1, +) 0 < x1 < 1 , , [ x1 ] = 0. , (, 1)
1 < x1 < 0 , , [ x1 ] = 1.
[ ] [ ]
limx x1 = 1, limx+ x1 = 0.
1cos x sin(3x)
3.3.11. limx0 x cot x, limx0 x sin x , limx sin x , limx x sin x1 .
:
limx0 x cot x = limx0 x
sin x cos x = 1 1 = 1.
limx0 1cos
x sin x
x
= limx0 1cos
x2
x x
sin x = 1
2 1 = 12 .
sin(3x) sin(33x) sin(3y)
limx sin x = limx sin(x) = limy0 sin y = 3.
sin y
limx x sin x1 = limy0 y = 1.

3.3.12. limx [x] x .

a, b > 0, limx0+ (x/a)[b/x].
: x > 0, x 1 < [x] x 1 x1 < [x] [x]
x 1 limx+ x = 1.
, x < 0 1 x1 > [x]
x 1 limx [x]
x = 1.
[ ]
, x > 0, x 1 < x x xa > 0 ab xa <
b b b
[ ] b
a x a . , limx0+ a [ x ] = a .
x b x b b

3.3.15. limx1 f (x), (x1)f (x) 1 x 0 < |x1| < 14 .

: 1 41 < x < 1, (x 1)f (x) 1 f (x) x1 1
,
limx1 f (x) = .
1 < x < 1 + 41 , f (x) x1
1
, limx1+ f (x) = +.
3.3.16. limx+ f (x)

f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 + 1 x > 1.
: limx+ f (x) = R.

, x y = x, limx+ f ( x) = limy+ f (y) = .

f ( x) = 3(f
(x))2 + 1 = 3 2 + 1.
= = 16 13 .
f (1, +) -

x > 1
1 13
x +.
6
. f (x) = 16 13 x > 1.
. -

f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 + 1 x > 1. (14.35)
a > 1 ( , a = 2)
n) n
1 < . . . < a1/(2 < . . . < a1/4 < a1/2 < a < a2 < a4 < . . . < a2 < . . .

583
 n n
a1/(2 ) 1 a2 +,
[ n n1 n n+1
. . . a1/(2 ) , a1/(2 ) ), . . . , [a1/4 , a1/2 ), [a1/2 , a), [a, a2 ), [a2 , a4 ), . . . , [a2 , a2 ), . . .

(1, +).

, , x , x
( ) . , , x -
, x2 (
) .
f [a, a2 ).
x [a1/2 , a), x2 [a, a2 ), -
f [a1/2 , a) f (x) = 3(f (x2 ))2 + 1. , f
[a1/2 , a) [a, a2 ).
f [a1/2 , a), , x [a1/4 , a1/2 ), x2
[a1/2 , a), f [a1/4 , a1/2 )
f (x) = 3(f (x2 ))2 + 1. , f [a1/4 , a1/2 )
[a1/2 , a).
, , f [a, a2 ) -
f (1, a).

(14.35) 1 < x < a2 . , 1 < x < a2 , t = x
. . . , [a1/4 , a1/2 ), [a1/2 , a), t2 = x (
) f

f ( x) = f (t) = 3(f (t2 ))2 + 1 = 3(f (x))2 + 1.

f [a2 , +)
f [a2 , a4 ), [a4 , a8 ), . . . .

x [a2 , a4 ), x [a, a2 ),
f [a2 , a4 )

f (x) = 1f3( x) .

.
,
f [a, a2 ): f (x) 1 x [a, a2 ).
f [a2 , a4 ). , x [a4 , a8 ),
2 4 4 8
x [a , a ), f [a , a )

f (x) = 1f3( x) . , f (x) 0 1
x [a2 , a4 ),
.
, , f [a, a2 ) -
f [a2 , +).
(14.35) a2 x < +. , a2 x, x

[a2 , a4 ), [a4 , a8 ), . . . , x ( -
) f f (x) =
3(f (x2 ))2 + 1.
, f [a, a2 ) f (x) 1
x [a, a2 ) f (1, +) (14.35).
f limx+ f (x) = .


f (x) = 1f3( x) ! -
f (x) 0 1 f (x) 1

584

f 1f3( x) .
+
. -
f .
, f (1, +)
(14.35) limx+ f (x) = . , ,
3.4.6.
f
f
. limx+ f (x) = .
f (14.35) !
3.3.19. f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R.
limx0 f (|x|) = l limx0+ f (x) = l.
f (1/x). limx+ f (1/x) = l
limx0+ f (x) = l limx f (1/x) = l limx0 f (x) = l.
f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R limx0 f (|x|)
limx0 f (x).
: . limx0 f (|x|) = l. x = |x| x > 0,
limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ f (|x|) = l.
, limx0+ f (x) = l. x y = |x|,
limx0 f (|x|) = limy0+ f (y) = l.
. O x1 (1, 0) (0, 1) x (, 1)
(1, +). , x1 (1, 0) x (, 1) x1
(0, 1) x (1, +).
, limx+ f (1/x) = l. x y = x1 ,
limx0+ f (x) = limy+ f (1/y) = l.
, limx0+ f (x) = l. x y = x1 , -
limx+ f (1/x) = limy0+ f (y) = l.
.
. f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R f (x) = |x| x .
limx0 f (|x|) = limx0 1 = 1. limx0 f (x) , limx0 f (x) =
limx0 (1) = 1 limx0+ f (x) = limx0+ 1 = 1.
( )
3.3.20. f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R. limx0 f (x) + f (x) 1
= 2,
limx0 f (x).
( )
f : (1, 0) (0, 1) R. limx0 f (x) + |f (x)|
1
= 0, limx0 f (x).
( 1
) 1
: . limx0 f (x) + f (x) = 2 f (x) + f (x) >0
0. , f (x) > 0 0.
g : (1, 0) (0, 1) R g(x) = f (x) + f (x)1
, limx0 g(x) = 2.
1
g(x) = f (x) + f (x) f (x) g(x). , , -
g(x) 2 0. ,
( )2
g(x) 2 = f (x) 1 0
f (x)

0.
, g(x) = f (x) + 1
f (x) f (x)2 g(x)f (x) + 1 = 0 , ,

g(x) g(x)2 4
f (x) = 2

585
 0. ( g(x) 2 g(x)2 4 0.)

g(x) g(x)2 4
2 22 4
limx0 f (x) = limx0 2 2 = = 1.
1
. f (x) > 0 x. f (x) + |f (x)| 1
= f (x) + f (x) 2. ,
( 1
) 1
limx0 f (x) + |f (x)| = 0 f (x) + |f (x)| < 2 0 ,
,
( ) f (x) < 0
( 0. )
limx0 f (x) f (x)
1 1
= limx0 f (x) + |f (x)| = 0 f (x) < 0 0.
g : (1, 0) (0, 1) R g(x) = f (x) f (x)
1
, limx0 g(x) = 0.
g(x) = f (x) f (x) f (x) g(x)
1

g(x) g(x)2 +4
f (x) = 2 .

, f (x) < 0 0,

g(x) g(x)2 +4
f (x) = 2

0.

g(x) g(x)2 +4 0 02 +4
limx0 f (x) = limx0 2 = 2 = 1.

3.3.21. f, g : A R, R A limx f (x) <

limx g(x). f (x) < g(x) .
: a limx f (x) < a < limx g(x).
limx f (x) < a f (x) < a
a < limx g(x) a < g(x) . f (x) < a
a < g(x) , , f (x) < g(x) .
3.3.22. f, g : A R, R A. limx f (x) = R
limx g(x) = R, limx max{f (x), g(x)} = max{, }.
: .
< , 3.3.21 f (x) < g(x) -
. max{f (x), g(x)} = g(x) , limx max{f (x), g(x)} =
limx g(x) = = max{, }.
< .
= R. > 0 < f (x) < +
< g(x) < + . , < max{f (x), g(x)} < +
, limx max{f (x), g(x)} = = max{, }.
= = +, f (x) max{f (x), g(x)} limx max{f (x), g(x)} =
+ = max{, }.
, = = . M > 0 f (x) < M
g(x) < M . max{f (x), g(x)} < M , ,
limx max{f (x), g(x)} = = max{, }.
3.3.23. limx (f (x) + g(x))
limx f (x), limx g(x).
( )
: limx0 x1 limx0 ( x1 ) , limx0 x1 + ( x1 ) =
limx0 0 = 0.
.
( ) x+ sin x limx+ ( sin x) ,
lim
limx+ sin x + ( sin x) = limx+ 0 = 0.
3.3.24. f , g f (x) +, g(x)

586
 f (x) + g(x) (i) c R (ii) .
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) + f (x)g(x) (i)
c R (ii) .
: 2.3.29.
3.3.25. f , g f (x) +, g(x) 0
f (x)g(x) (i) c [0, +] (ii) .
f (x)g(x) c [, 0);
f , g f (x) 0, g(x) f (x)g(x) (i)
c {+, } (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c R;
f , g f (x) 1, g(x) + f (x)g(x) (i)
c [0, +] (ii) . f (x)g(x)
c [, 0);
: 2.3.30 2.4.10.
3.3.26. f : A R, R A, limx f (x) =
f (x) x A x = . sup{f (x) | x A, x = } = .
:
u = sup{f (x) | x A, x = },
u = .
f (x) x A x =
{f (x) | x A, x = }. u .
, f (x) u x A x = . limx f (x) u, u.
u u u = .
3.3.28. |a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + + an sin nx| | sin x| x.
|a1 + 2a2 + + nan | 1.
: |a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + + an sin nx| | sin x| |x|
x 0.
f (2x)
3.3.29. [] f : (0, +) R (0, +). limx+ f (x) = 1,
f (ax)
a > 0 limx+ f (x) = 1.
f (2n x)
: , n N, limx+ f (x) = 1.

3.3.30. f : A R R A. limx f (x) = R

f (x) = ,
{f (x) | x A}.
: > 0.
limx f (x) = , f (x) N () . ,
f (x) = , f (x) N () f (x) = .
, , , > 0, N ()
{f (x) | x A} = . {f (x) | x A}.
3.3.31. [] - -
y+1
y = 2x+1
x1 x = y2 .
[] y = 2x x1 (0, +).

(, +) x = 14 (y + y 2 + 8).
- - .
[] , f

587
 f 1 ;
: []
( 2x+1 )
limx 2x+1
x(x1) = 0, limx x1 0x = 2.

, y = 0x + 2 = 2
+ y = 2x+1
x1 . , x = 1
2x+1
y = x1 .
,
y+1 ( )
limy y(y2) = 0, limy y+1 y2 0y = 1.

x = 0y + 1 = 1 +
x = y+1
y2 . , y = 2
y+1
x= y2 .
[] y (, +) y = 2x x1 2x2 yx 1 = 0

y y 2 +8 y+ y 2 +8
x = 4 . , x = 4 .
y (, +) y = 2x x1 x (0, +) ,
, y = 2x x1 (0, +) (, +)

x = 41 (y + y 2 + 8).
,
( ) ( )
limx+ x1 2x x1 = 2, limx+ 2x x1 2x = 0,

y = 2x + y = 2x x1 . ,
x = 0 y = 2x x1 .
,
( )
y+ y 2 +8
limy 4y = 0, limy 14 (y + y 2 + 8) 0y = 0

(1 )
y+ y 2 +8
limy+ 4y = 21 , limy+ 4 (y + y 2 + 8) 12 y = 0.

1 1

x = 0y +0 = 0
x = 2 y + x = 4 (y + y 2 + 8).
[] , y = x + + y = f (x).

limx+ (f (x) x ) = 0.
> 0, limx+ (x + ) = + limx+ f (x) = +. ,
y x = f 1 (y),
( ) ( )
limy+ f 1 (y) 1 y + = limx+ x 1 f (x) + = limx+ x+f

(x)
= 0.

x = 1 y + x = f 1 (y).
< 0, limx+ (x + ) = limx+ f (x) = . ,
y x = f 1 (y),
( ) ( )
limy f 1 (y) 1 y + = limx+ x 1 f (x) + = limx+ x+f
(x)
= 0.

x = 1 y x = f 1 (y).
= 0 (, ), limx+ f (x) = . ,
y x = f 1 (y),

limy f 1 (y) = limx+ x = +.

588
 y = x = f 1 (y). ,
, - + y = f (x)
( + ) x = f 1 (y)
+ y = f (x) x = f 1 (y).
f .
, x = y = f (x).
limx+ f (x) = +, , y x = f 1 (y),

limy+ f 1 (y) = limx+ x = .

x = + x = f 1 (y).
limx f (x) =
y = f (x)
x = f 1 (y).
, : x = f 1 (y)
y = f (x).
. y = f (x) x =
f 1 (y) : - y = f (x) -
- x = f 1 (y) -
y = f (x) x = f 1 (y) .
, y = x + x = 1 y -
, y = f (x)
x = f 1 (y) xy
- y = f (x) x = f 1 (y).
[]
[].
3.4.4. f : R R > 0, f (x + ) = f (x)
x. , limx+ f (x), f .
: n N f (x+n ) = f (x) x.
.
, limx+ f (x) = R t.
(xn ) xn = t + n n , ,
xn +. limx+ f (x) = f (xn ) .
, f (xn ) = f (t + n ) = f (t) n, f (xn ) f (t).
f (xn ) f (xn ) f (t) f (t) = .
f (t) = t , , f ( ).

3.4.6. f : (1, +) R f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 +
1 x > 1 limx+ f (x) = .
n
: a > 1 xn = a2 .
xn (1 + ) n xn +.

, ( ) f : (1, +) R f ( x) = 3(f (x))2 + 1
x > 1 limx+ f (x) = .
f (xn ) .

xn+1 = xn n

f (xn ) = f ( xn+1 ) = 3(f (xn+1 ))2 + 1 n.

yn = f (xn ) n

yn yn = 3yn+1 2 + 1 n.

589

t = 3t2 + 1 : = 16 13 = 1+ 13
6 < .
yn , n0

yn n n0 .

n n0 yn+1 , yn+1 t = 3t2 + 1.

yn+1 3yn+1 2 + 1 = yn n n0 .
, (yn ) yn .

3.5.1. f : [1, +) R [1, +) f (n) n
n N. limx+ f (x); , .
f -
;
: f , = limx+ f (x) +.
, xn = n n.

xn +, f (xn ) . , f (xn ) = f (n) n n
f (xn ) +.
= +.

f , f (n) n n N
limx+ f (x).

, , f (x) = x cos(2x). , f (n) = n
n N, limx+ f (x) . ,
xn = n xn = n + 12 , xn + xn +,

f (xn ) = n + f (xn ) = n + (1/2) .
3.5.2. a > 1.
[] loga (ax) = 1 + loga x x > 0
loga x limx0 loga x.
: loga x , = limx0 loga x .
limx0 loga (ax) = limy0 loga y = .
, loga (ax) = 1 + loga x = 1 + = .
3.5.3. f : A R A R
A.
= limx f (x) = limx+ f (x),
.
y : f (x ) y f (x ) x , x A
x < < x . y [, ].
: f , = limx f (x) + -
= limx+ f (x) .
x A x < . x A < x f (x ) f (x ).
f (x ) limx + f (x ), f (x ) .
, , f (x ) x A x < . limx + f (x ) ,
.
, , .
, y f (x ) y f (x )
x , x A x < < x . x x +,
y . y [, ].
, y [, ].
f , f (x ) x A x < .

590
 , f (x ) x A < x . f (x ) y f (x )
x , x A x < < x . , y [, ]
f (x ) y f (x ) x , x A x < < x .
3.5.4. R {+}, A (, ), f : A R A
A. = limx f (x)
R {+} f (x) < x A. B = {f (x) | x A}
(, ). f A,
f 1 : B A B.
A B limy f 1 (y) = .
: B
3.3.30.
f 1 : B A B B (, )
B, limy f 1 (y).
= limy f 1 (y) = .
, , f f 1
f 1 (f 1 )1 = f . , f 1 : B A
B, B (, ) B,
A ( f 1 ) (, ) A.
A (, ) (, ) ,
A. , < ,
A, A (, ). , < ,
A, A (, ). = .
3.6.1. f : A R, R A > 0, M > 0, > 0
|f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x A 0 < |x | <
0 < |x | < . limx f (x) .
: > 0. 1 = ( M )1/ > 0 2 = min{, 21 } > 0.
x , x A 0 < |x | < 2 0 < |x | < 2
0 < |x | < 0 < |x | <

|f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | .

, |x x | |x | + |x | < 1
2 + 1
2 = 1 , ,

|f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | < M 1 = .

> 0 2 > 0 |f (x ) f (x )| < x , x A

0 < |x | < 2 0 < |x | < 2 . , limx f (x) .

14.4 4.

4.1.1. x2 , x1 , x 1.
: . > 0.
> 0 |x2 1| < x |x 1| < .
, |x2 1| < |x+1||x1| < |x+1||x1|
M |x1| 1, M x
. |x + 1| M . ,
> 0 1, x |x 1| < |x 1| < 1 , ,
|x + 1| = |(x 1) + 2| |x 1| + 2 < 3. , > 0
1, x |x 1| < |x + 1||x 1| < 3|x 1|. :

0<1 : |x 1| < |x + 1||x 1| < 3|x 1|. (14.36)

591
 3|x1| < |x1| < 3 . ,
> 0 3 , x |x 1| < |x 1| < 3 , , 3|x 1| < .
:
0 < 3 : |x 1| < 3|x 1| < . (14.37)
, , > 0 1 3 ,
(14.36) (14.37) : x |x 1| < |x + 1||x 1| < 3|x 1| (
1) 3|x 1| < ( 3 ) , , |x + 1||x 1| < . :
{ }
|x + 1||x 1| < 3|x 1|
0 < min{1, 3 } :

|x1| < |x+1||x1| < .
3|x 1| <
. > 0.
> 0 | x1 1| < x = 0 |x 1| < .
| x1 1| < |x1| |x1|
|x| < |x| M |x 1|
1, M x .
|x| M1
. , > 0
12 , x |x 1| < |x 1| < 12 , , |x| > 12 .
, > 0 21 , x |x 1| <
|x1|
|x| < 2|x 1|. :
|x1|
0<1 : |x 1| < |x| < 2|x 1|. (14.38)
, 2|x 1| < |x 1| < 2 . , > 0
2 , x |x 1| < |x 1| < 2 , , 2|x 1| < .
:
0 < 2 : |x 1| < 2|x 1| < . (14.39)
, , > 0 12 2 ,
(14.38) (14.39) : x |x 1| < |x1|
|x| < 2|x 1| ( 2 )
1

|x1|
2|x 1| < ( 2 ) , , |x| < . :
{ }
|x 1|/|x| < 2|x 1| |x1|
0< min{ 21 , 2 } : |x 1| < |x| < .
2|x 1| <
. > 0 > 0

| x 1| < x 0 |x 1| < .
|x1|
, | x 1| < x+1
< |x 1| < (
). , > 0 , x 0
|x1|
|x 1| < |x 1| < | x 1| = x+1
< .
 
4.1.3. x [x], x [x] 12 , x [x] 12 .
;
: 36 37.

592
 f (x) = x[x]. 3.3.10 ,
, limx [x] = [] , , limx+ [x] = = []
limx [x] = 1 = [] 1.
, ,

limx f (x) = limx (x [x]) = [] = f ()

. ,

limx+ f (x) = limx+ (x [x]) = [] = 0 = f (),

limx f (x) = limx (x [x]) = [] + 1 = 1 = f () + 1,

.
f (x) = x [x] 12 . ,
( )
limx x [x] 12 = [] 12 = f ()

. ,
( )
limx+ f (x) = limx+ x [x] 12 = [] 12 = 12 = f (),
( )
limx f (x) = limx x [x] 12 = [] + 12 = 12 = f () + 1
.
f (x) = |x [x] 12 |. ,
   
limx f (x) = limx x [x] 12  =  [] 12  = f ()

. ,
     
limx+ f (x) = limx+ x [x] 12  =  [] 12  =  21  = 12 = f (),
     
limx f (x) = limx x [x] 12  =  [] + 12  =  12  = 12 = f ()
.
.
nx nx
4.1.5. f (x) = limn+ nx +nx
;
nx nx 11
: x = 0, nx +nx
= 1+1 = 0 n, f (0) = limn+ 0 = 0.
x > 0,
nx nx 1n2x 10
f (x) = limn+ nx +nx
= limn+ 1+n2x
= 1+0 = 1.

, x < 0,
nx nx n2x 1
f (x) = limn+ nx +nx
= limn+ n2x +1
= 01
0+1 = 1.

593


1, x > 0
f f (x) = 0, x = 0 f = 0


1, x < 0
0.
4.1.6. f : ( , + ) R.
[] , f , limh0 (f ( + h) f ( h)) = 0.
{
1, x = 0
f (x) = = 0 ;
0, x = 0
: f , limh0 f ( + h) = f () limh0 f ( h) =
f () , ,

limh0 (f ( + h) f ( h)) = f () f () = 0.

limh0 f (0 + h) = limh0 f (h) = 0 limh0 f (0 h) =

limh0 f (h) = 0

limh0 (f (0 + h) f (0 h)) = 0.

, f 0, f (0) = 1.
4.1.7. f : A R, A > 0, M 0 |f (x)| M
x A |x | < . g : A R g(x) = (x )f (x). g
.
: g() = ( )f () = 0.
, |g(x)| = |x ||f (x)| M |x | , limx M |x | = 0,
limx g(x) = 0.
g .
4.1.8. f : A R, A A {
f (x), x A, x =
f . R g(x) =
, x =
, f .
: g , limx g(x) = g() = . , f, g -
, limx f (x) = limx g(x) = .
f .
{
1, x Q
4.1.9. f (x) = x.
0, x R \ Q
{
x, x Q
f (x) = 0 x = 0.
0, x R \ Q
{
1/n, x = m/n m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1
f (x) = -
0, x R \ Q
x Q x R \ Q.
: . . > 0
> 0 x |x | < |f (x) f ()| .
, , f .
Q, f () = 1.
|f (x) f ()| = |f (x) 1| > 0, x
, x |f (x) f ()| = |1 1| = 0. ,
x |f (x)f ()| = |01| = 1 |f (x)f ()|

594
 1.
, 0 < 1 ( ,
= 1 = 21 ). > 0 x R \ Q
( , +). x |x| < |f (x)f ()| < ,
|f (x) f ()| = |0 1| = 1 .
, R \ Q, f () = 0.
.
0 < 1. > 0 x Q
( , + ). x |x | <
|f (x) f ()| < , |f (x) f ()| = |1 0| = 1 .
. = 0.
Q \ {0}, f () = = 0.
0 < ||. > 0
x R \ Q ( , + ). x |x | <
|f (x) f ()| < , |f (x) f ()| = |0 | = || .
f .
, R \ Q, f () = 0.
0 < || ||
2 . > 0 = min{, 2 } > 0
x Q ( , + ). x
|x | < . , , |x | < || ||
2 |x| 2 .
x |f (x) f ()| < , |f (x) f ()| = |x 0| = |x| || 2 .
f .
, = 0.

|x| f (x) |x|

x. limx0 f (x) = 0 = f (0),

f = 0.
: = 0
.

lim f (x) = lim x=0 lim f (x) = lim 0 = 0.

xQ,x0 xQ,x0 xR\Q,x0 xR\Q,x0

, Q R \ Q R,

lim f (x) = 0.
x0

.
f : A B R A B = . A B
limxA,x f (x) = l limxB,x f (x) = l, limx f (x) = l.
, , 3.2.4.
. Q.
= m n m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1 , ,
1
f () = n > 0.
0 < f (). > 0
x R \ Q ( , + ). x |x | <
|f (x) f ()| < , |f (x) f ()| = |0 f ()| = f () .
f .
, R \ Q, f () = 0.
> 0 n0 N n10 .

595
 mn m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1 n n0 .
m
, n m
n , :
 m  |m n m n |
 m 
= 1
,
n n n n n0 2

m n m n = 0 n , n n0 . ,
n10 2 .
, ( 2n10 2 , + 2n10 2 ). -
n10 2 ,
. , = 2n10 2 ,
,
. ( , + )
x
x= m n m Z, n N gcd(m, n) = 1 n > n0 , ,

|f (x) f ()| = | n1 0| = 1
n < 1
n0 .

, x ( , + ) |f (x) f ()| = |0 0| = 0 < .

> 0 > 0 |f (x) f ()| < x ( , + )
, , f .
4.1.10. A B, A, g : B R f : A R
g A. , g , f .
: g . > 0 > 0
|g(x) g()| < x B |x | < . A B,
|g(x) g()| < x A |x | < . , f (x) = g(x) x A.
|f (x) f ()| < x A |x | < f .
{
x(1)[1/x] , x = 0
4.1.11. f (x) = f -
0, x = 0
0 0.
: x = 0
 
|f (x)| = x(1)[1/x]  = | x| = |x|.

limx0 f (x) = 0 = f (0), f 0.

n N, n 2, ( n+1
1
, n1 ] f (x) = x(1)n ( n1 , n1
1
]
f (x) = x(1) n1 ,

limx(1/n) f (x) = n1 (1)n , limx(1/n)+ f (x) = n1 (1)n1 .

limx(1/n) f (x), n1 f .
f 0.
4.1.12. f : A R, A > 0, M 0, > 0 |f (x)f ()|
M |x | x A |x | < . f .

|x|, x2 , |x| = 0
.
= 0 .
= 0
= 0.
: limx M |x | = 0 |f (x) f ()| M |x |
limx (f (x) f ()) = 0 limx f (x) = f ().

596
 f (x) = |x|.

|f (x) f ()| = ||x| ||| |x |

x. f = 1.
> 0, M 0, > 1 |f (x) f ()|
M |x | x |x | < . , ||x| ||| M |x | .
= 0, |x| M |x| 0. |x|1 M
0 , limx0 |x|1 = +.
> 0, x > 0 , , ||x| ||| M |x | ,
|x | M |x | . |x |1 M
, limx |x |1 = +.
< 0.
= 1 |f (x) f ()| M |x |
.
f (x) = x2 . = 0

|f (x) f (0)| = |x 0|2

x. f = 2.
> 0, M 0, > 2 |f (x) f (0)| M |x 0|
x |x 0| < . , |x|2 M |x| 0. |x|2 M
0 limx0 |x|2 = +.
= 2 |f (x) f (0)| M |x 0| 0.
= 0

|f (x) f ()| = |x2 2 | = |x + ||x |.

= 1, |x | < 1 |x + | = |x + 2| |x | + 2|| 1 + 2||.

M = 1 + 2||,

|f (x) f ()| M |x |

x |x | < 1.
, = 0 > 0, M 0, > 1
|f (x) f ()| M |x | x |x | < . , |x2 2 | M |x |
. |x + ||x |1 M ,
limx |x + ||x |1 = +.
= 1 |f (x) f ()| M |x |
= 0.

f (x) = |x|. = 0

|f (x) f (0)| = |x 0|1/2

x. f = 12 .
> 0, M 0, > 12 |f (x)f (0)| M |x0|
x |x 0| < . , |x|1/2 M |x| 0. |x|(1/2) M
0 limx0 |x|(1/2) = +.
= 12 |f (x) f (0)| M |x 0| 0.
= 0
||x||||
|f (x) f ()| = ||x|1/2 ||1/2 | = |x|1/2 +||1/2
1
||1/2
|x |.

f = 1.
= 0 > 0, M 0, > 1 |f (x) f ()|

597
M |x | x |x | < . , ||x|1/2 ||1/2 | M |x | .
||x||||1 ||x||||1
|x| 1/2 +||1/2 M , limx |x|1/2 +||1/2 = +.

= 1 |f (x) f ()| M |x |
= 0.
4.1.13. , n N, { An Am An =
1/n, x An n
m, n N m = n. f (x) =
0, x
/ An n
+
f x R \ +
n=1 An x n=1 An .
+
: R \ n=1 An , f () = 0.
> 0. n0 N n10 <
n0 1
n=1 An . , > 0
x |x | + . , x |x | <
<
+
R \ n=1 An n=n0 An x f (x) = 0
f (x) = n1 n N, n n0 . x |x | <

|f (x) f ()| = |f (x)| 1

n0 < .

f
+ .
n=1 An , x An0 n0 N, f () = n10 .
0
= n10 n01+1 > 0 > 0. nn=1 An
,
x |x|
+ <
R \ + n=1 nA A
n=n0 +1 n . ,
x |x | < f (x) = 0 f (x) = n1 n n0 + 1.
x
   
|f (x)f ()| = |f ()| = n10 > n10 n01+1 = |f (x)f ()| =  n1 n10   n01+1 n10  = .

, , > 0 > 0
x |x | < |f (x) f ()| . f .
4.1.14. - B. f (x) = inf{|x b| | b B} x.
, , |f (x ) f (x )| |x x | x , x , , f
.
: f (x ) |x b| x b B.

f (x ) |x x | |x b| |x x | |x b|

x , x b B.
, x , x f (x ) |x x | {|x b| | b B}
f (x ) |x x | f (x ) , , f (x ) f (x ) |x x | x , x .
x , x , f (x ) f (x ) |x x |
x , x |f (x ) f (x )| |x x | x , x .
4.1.15. I f : I R I.
J = f (I) f , f I.
, , f I, f 1 : J I J.
: . f , , f
I, K ( ) -
f . , f K
f K. , , f .
, f , f I.

598
 . f I, f 1
J f I f . f 1 : J I
f 1 (J) = I.
f 1 J ( f )
( I). , f 1 , -
f 1 J.
4.1.16. f : A R A.
f , 0 > 0 f
AN (0 ). 0 sup{f (x )f (x ) | x , x AN ()} < + (0, 0 ].
: (0, 0 ] R+
0 () = sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()}
(0, 0 ]. (0, 0 ], lim0 ()
0. (f ; ) = lim0 ().
f . > 0
sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} = +. (f ; ) = +.
f (f ; ) = 0.
: 0 > 0 f A N (0 ), -
M0 |f (x)| M0 x A N (0 ). , (0, 0 ],
x , x A N ()

|f (x ) f (x )| |f (x )| + |f (x )| 2M0 ,

{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()}

sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} < +.

, {f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()}
- . , x1 , x2 A N (). f (x1 ) f (x2 ),
x = x2 , x = x1 x , x A N () f (x ) f (x ) 0. f (x1 )
f (x2 ), x = x1 , x = x2 x , x A N () f (x ) f (x ) 0.
, {f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} -
,

sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} 0.

() = sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} (0, 0 ]

- .
, 0 < 1 < 2 0 . x , x A N (2 ) f (x ) f (x ) (2 ),
x , x A N (1 ) f (x ) f (x ) (2 ). (2 )
{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N (1 )} , , (1 ) (2 ).
(0, 0 ].
lim0 () 0 ( () 0 (0, 0 ]).
, f . , > 0
{f (x) | x A N ()} . , , > 0. ,
, x1 A N (). M > 0 x A N ()

f (x) < M + f (x1 ) f (x) > M + f (x1 ).

f (x) < M + f (x1 ), x = x1 , x = x x , x A N ()

f (x ) f (x ) > M . f (x) > M + f (x1 ), x = x, x = x1
x , x A N () f (x ) f (x ) > M . x , x A N ()

599
 f (x ) f (x ) > M . {f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()}
, ,

sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} = +.

f . ,
0 > 0 f A N (0 ).
> 0. 1 > 0 |f (x) f ()| < 4
x A N (1 ). (0, 0 ] < 1 |f (x) f ()| < 4
x A N ().

f (x ) f (x ) = f (x ) f () + f () f (x ) |f (x ) f ()| + |f (x ) f ()| <

4 +
4 =
2

x , x AN (). 2 {f (x )f (x ) | x , x AN ()},
() 2 < .
, , > 0 1 > 0 (0, 0 ] < 1
0 () < . lim0 () = 0, (f ; ) = 0.
, (f ; ) = 0, lim0 () = 0.
> 0. 1 > 0 (0, 0 ] < 1
() < . = min{0 , 21 }. (0, 0 ] < 1 () < .
,
sup{f (x ) f (x ) | x , x A N ()} < ,
f (x ) f (x ) < x , x A N ().
, x A N (), x = x x = ,
f (x) f () < , x = x = x, f () f (x) < .
x A N () |f (x) f ()| < .
> 0 > 0 x A N () |f (x) f ()| < .
, f .
4.1.17. I f : I R I.
a, b I a < x1 < . . . < xn < b jk = limxxk + f (x) limxxk f (x)
f xk k = 1, . . . , n, j1 + + jn limxb f (x) limxa+ f (x).
: > 0
a, x1 , . . . , xn , b.
m N m 1
2
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1
a+ m , x1 m
1 1
, x1 + m , x2 m
1 1
, . . . . . . , xn1 + m , xn m
1 1
, xn + m ,b m
1
.

f ,
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
f x1 m 1
f a+ m 1
+ f x2 m
1
f x1 + m
1
+
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
+ f xn m f xn1 + m + f b m
1 1 1
f xn + 1
m 0,

0,
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( )) ( ) ( )
f x1 + m1
f x1 m
1
+ + f xn + 1
m f xn 1
m f b 1
m f a+ 1
m .

, m +,

j1 + + jn limxb f (x) limxa+ f (x).

4.2.2. f, g : A R A f (x) > 0

x A. f g : A R (f g )(x) = f (x)g(x) .
xx , (log x)log x . ;

600
: (f g )(x) = f (x)g(x) = eg(x) log f (x) -
f g
.
xx (0, +). (log x)log x
x log x log x > 0.
(log x)log x (1, +).
4.2.3. limx+ e1/x , limx0 ex sin(1/x) 4.10.
3.13;
: limx+ x1 = 0 ey 0, -
x y = x1 , limx+ e1/x = e0 = 1.
3.13, x1 = 0
+.
limx0 x sin x1 = 0 ey 0, -
x y = x sin x1 , limx0 ex sin(1/x) = e0 = 1.
3.13, x sin x1 =
0 0. , n N xn sin x1n = 0, xn = n 1
0.
4.2.4. f : A R A A. f
f (x) l f (x) l
, f ().
: f , limx f (x) = f (). , f (x) l
, f () l , f (x) l
, f () l. f () = l.
4.2.5. f : ( , + ) R. limx f (x) = l, limh0 f (+h)+f (h)2f
|h|
()
=
m R, f .
limx f (x) m ;
: limx f (x) = l, limh0 f ( + h) = l limh0 f ( h) = l.
,
limh0 (f ( + h) + f ( h) 2f ()) = 2l 2f ().
f (+h)+f (h)2f ()
, limh0 |h| = m R,

2l 2f () = limh0 (f ( + h) + f ( h) 2f ())
( )
= limh0 f (+h)+f (h)2f
|h|
()
|h| = m0 = 0.

l = f (), f .
f (x) = sign x = 0 limh0 f (h)+f (h)2f
|h|
(0)
= limh0 0 =
0 R. limx0 f (x)
{ , , 0.
1, x = 0
f (x) = = 0 limx0 f (x) = 1
0, x = 0
f (h)+f (h)2f (0) 2
limh0 |h| = limh0 |h| = +. 0.
4.2.6. f, g : A R max{f, g} : A R max{f, g}(x) =
max{f (x), g(x)} x A.
, f , g A, max{f, g} .
f +g+|f g|
: max{f, g} = 2 max{f, g} f, g
.
4.2.7. f, g, h : A R A. m : A R , x A,
m(x) f (x), g(x), h(x) .

601
 m A.
{ } { }
: max{f, g, h} = max max{f, g}, h min{f, g, h} = min min{f, g}, h

4.2.6, max{f, g, h} min{f, g, h} A.
, m = f + g + h max{f, g, h} min{f, g, h}, m
A.
{
1, x Q
4.2.8. f (x) =
1, x R \ Q
R |f | R.
: f R
4.1.9
R. |f | R |f |
1.
4.2.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) = 0 f (b) = 0,
f [a, b].
: f [a, b]:

X = {x | a x b, f (x) = 0}.

X - ( a X) ( X [a, b]). X supremum

.
= sup X.
a X, a . b X, b.
[a, b], f .
sup X > 0
x X < x . , > 0 x ( , ] f (x) = 0.
f () > 0, f (x) > 0
. f () < 0. f () = 0.
X = sup X, f [a, b].
4.2.11. f I ( ). f (r) 0
r I, f (x) 0 x I.
: I f () < 0.
f , f (x) < 0 . , > 0
f (x) < 0 x ( , + ) I.
I I , ( , + ) I .
r ( , + ) I, f (r) < 0.
, r I f (r) 0.
f (x) 0 x I.
4.2.12. [] f : R R f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) x1 , x2 .
, f , f (x) = cx
c.
[] f : R R f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 )f (x2 ) x1 , x2 f (0) = 0.
, f , f (x) = ecx
c.
: [] x1 = x2 = 0 f (0) = 0.
, x1 = x, x2 = x 0 = f (0) = f (x) + f (x) f (x) = f (x).
,

602
 :

f (x1 + + xn ) = f (x1 ) + + f (xn ) x1 , . . . , xn .

x1 = . . . = xn = n1 f (1) = nf ( n1 ) f ( n1 ) = f (1)
n n N.
, x1 = . . . = xn = m f ( m ) = nf ( m ) = f (1) m n, m N.
1 n 1 n

, f (r) = f (1)r r. , r ,
r f (r) = f (r) = f (1)(r) = f (1)r. ,
f (r) = f (1)r r = 0, f (0) = 0.
, ,

f (r) = f (1)r r Q. (14.40)

, x0 f .

f (x) = f (x + x0 + x0 ) = f (x + x0 ) + f () f (x0 )

limx f (x) = limx f (x + x0 ) + f () f (x0 ) = limyx0 f (y) + f () f (x0 ) = f ().

f .
, , (14.40), 4.2.11
f (x) f (1)x, f (x) = f (1)x x.
[] x1 = x2 = 0 f (0) = f (0)2 f (0) = 1.
x f (x) = 0, x1 = x, x2 = x f (0) = f (x)f (x) = 0,
. f (x) = 0 x.
, x1 = x2 = x2 f (x) = f ( x2 )2 > 0. f (x) > 0 x.
, h(x) = log f (x), h(x1 + x2 ) = h(x1 ) +
h(x2 ) x1 , x2 .
[] , f ,
h(x) = cx f (x) = ecx c.
4.2.13. f : R R R.
, f ,
R.
, f R ,
R.
: a < b. f 0 < < ba. k = [ a ]+1 Z
k f a < k < b.
A f , f ( ) = f (0) A. ,
x f ( ) = f (0) x.
4.2.14. f : A R A. g : A
R g(x) = sup{f (t) | t A, t x} x A.
g A f (x) g(x) x A.
h : A R A f (x) h(x) x A,
g(x) h(x) x A. , g
A f A.
, f A, g .
: x A. f , {f (t) | t A, t x}
. , -,

603
f (x). g(x) = sup{f (t) | t A, t x} .
f (x) {f (t) | t A, t x}, f (x) g(x).
x1 , x2 A x1 < x2 , {f (t) | t A, t x1 } {f (t) | t A, t x2 },
g(x1 ) g(x2 ).
(, t A t x1 f (t) {f (t) | t A, t x2 },
f (t) g(x2 ). g(x2 ) {f (t) | t A, t x1 }, g(x1 ) g(x2 ).)
g A.
, h : A R A f (x) h(x) x A.
x A. t A t x f (t) h(t) h(x), h(x)
{f (t) | t A, t x} , , g(x) h(x).
, x1 , x2 A x1 < x2 ,

0 g(x2 ) g(x1 ) sup{f (t) f (x1 ) | t A, x1 t x2 }. (14.41)

0 {f (t) f (x1 ) | t A, x1 t x2 },
0 = f (x1 ) f (x1 ).

sup{f (t) f (x1 ) | t A, x1 t x2 } 0. (14.42)

, t A t x2 . t x1 x1 < t x2 .
t x1 , f (t) g(x1 ), (14.42)

f (t) g(x1 ) + sup{f (t) f (x1 ) | t A, x1 t x2 } t A, t x1 . (14.43)

x1 < t x2 ,

f (t) = f (x1 ) + f (t) f (x1 )

(14.44)
g(x1 ) + sup{f (t) f (x1 ) | t A, x1 t x2 } t A, x1 < t x2 .

(14.43) (14.44) g(x1 ) + sup{f (t) f (x1 ) | t A, x1 t x2 }

{f (t) | t A, t x2 },

g(x2 ) g(x1 ) + sup{f (t) f (x1 ) | t A, x1 t x2 }

(14.41).
f A.
> 0. > 0 |f (x) f ()| < 4 x A
|x | < .
x A < x < + , f (t) f () < 4 t A t x. 4
{f (t) f () | t A, t x}, (14.41)

0 g(x) g()
4 < x A, < x < + . (14.45)

x A < x < , f (t) f (x) = f (t) f () + f () f (x) < 4 + 4 = 2

t A x t . 2 {f (t) f (x) | t A, x t },
(14.41)

0 g() g(x)
2 < x A, < x < . (14.46)

(14.45) (14.46) |g(x) g()| < x A |x | < .

g .
4.2.15. f : R R R limx f (x) = , limx+ f (x) =
+. g : R R g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y} y.

604


x + 1, x 1
3
f (x) = x, f (x) = x , f (x) = 0, 1 x 1


x 1, 1 x
g.
f (g(y)) = y y.
, , f , g f .
g R y. g
y;
: .

g(y) = sup{x | x < y} = y

y.
, y 0,

g(y) = sup{x | x3 < y} = sup{x | x < 3
y} = 3 y

, y < 0,

g(y) = sup{x | x3 < y} = sup{x | x < 3 y} = 3 y.

, y 0,

g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y} = sup{x | x + 1 < y} = sup{x | x < y 1} = y 1

, y > 0,

g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y} = sup{x | x 1 < y} = sup{x | x < y + 1} = y + 1.

. , y x f (x) < y,
limx f (x) = . {x | f (x) < y} -. , y N > 0
f (x) > y x > N , limx+ f (x) = +.
{x | f (x) < y} N {x | f (x) < y} .
g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y} < + y , , g : R R
g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y} y.
, y > 0. f g(y), > 0

|f (x) f (g(y))| < x |x g(y)| < . (14.47)
g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y}, {x | f (x) < y} > g(y).
, x > g(y) f (x) < y. f (x) < y, x g(y)
g(y) < x g(y). , (14.47) x
|f (x) f (g(y))| <

f (g(y)) < f (x) + < y + . (14.48)

, g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y}, x > g(y) f (x) y.

, x g(y) < x < g(y) + f (x) y. , (14.47)
x g(y) < x < g(y) + |f (x) f (g(y))| < ,

f (g(y)) > f (x) y . (14.49)

(14.48), (14.49) |f (g(y)) y| < f (g(y)) = y.

605
 . f , x

g(f (x)) = sup{t | f (t) < f (x)} = sup{t | t < x} = x.

f (g(y)) = y g(f (x)) = x g f .

. y1 < y2 , {x | f (x) < y1 } , ,
{x | f (x) < y2 }

g(y1 ) = sup{x | f (x) < y1 } sup{x | f (x) < y2 } = g(y2 ).

, y > 0. g(y) = sup{x | f (x) < y},

{x | f (x) < y} > g(y) . , x > g(y) f (x) < y. -
= y f (x) > 0 x y y < y y y > f (x)
, , x g(y ), g(y) < g(y ). , y y < y y
g(y ) g(y), g . y y < y y
g(y) < g(y ) g(y) , , g y.
g y.
: g 0.
4.3.3. 2.3.41[] -
2.3.41[].

: xn x R, log xn log x, log n x1 xn = log x1 ++log xn
log x.
n
n x1 xn x.
xn 0 xn + ;
4.3.4. f [a, b] x [a, b]
x [a, b] |f (x )| 21 |f (x)|. f
[a, b].
: x1 [a, b] ( x1 = a x1 = b x1 = a+b 2 ).
, x2 [a, b] |f (x2 )| 2 |f (x1 )|. -
1

, x3 [a, b] |f (x3 )| 12 |f (x2 )|. ,

(xn ) [a, b] ( (xn ) -
) |f (xn+1 )| 12 |f (xn )| n. , ,

|f (xn )| 12 |f (xn1 )| 1
22
|f (xn2 )| ... 1
2n1
|f (x1 )|,

|f (xn )| 1
2n1
|f (x1 )| n.

f (xn ) 0. (14.50)

Bolzano - Weierstrass (xnk )

(xn ) .
x nk
.
a xnk b n, a b, [a, b]. f
, ,
f (xnk ) f ().
(14.50)
f (xnk ) 0
f () = 0.
4.3.5. f : [a, +) [a, +) M 0 M < 1
|f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x [a, +). 4.1.12,

606
f [a, +). [a, +) f () = .
[a, b], (, b], (, +)
[a, +).
: x1 [a, +) (xn ) [a, +) -
xn+1 = f (xn ) n.
2.6.4[] [a, +) f () = . ,
.
4.4.2. sin x1 (0, +)
(0, +). ;
1
1+x sin x1 (0, +).
: sin x1 38. ( -
.)

, 1 sin x1 1 x > 0. , , 1
1
(/2)+2n n Z, n 0. , 1
1
(/2)+2n n N.
f (x) = 1+x 1
sin x1 1 < f (x) < 1 x > 0.
1
, (0, +) xn = (/2)+2n n.
f (xn ) = 1+xn 1, xn 0.
1

x > 0 f (x) < 1 f (x) < f (xn ). , f (x)

f . , f .
f .
4.4.3. x7 3x6 + 5x5 + 13x4 x3 12x2 5x + 1 = 0
[0, 1].
x3 + x1 2 1
+ x2 5
+ x3 = 0
(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3).
ex = x + 2 .
: f (x) = x7 3x6 + 5x5 + 13x4 x3 12x2 5x + 1 x [0, 1], f
[0, 1] f (0) = 1, f (1) = 1. f (x) = 0
[0, 1].
(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3) x3 + x1
2 1
+ x2 5
+ x3 = 0
3(x 1)(x 2)(x 3) + 2x(x 2)(x 3) + x(x 1)(x 3) + 5x(x 1)(x 2) = 0.

f (x) = 3(x 1)(x 2)(x 3) + 2x(x 2)(x 3) + x(x 1)(x 3) + 5x(x 1)(x 2)

607
 x, f [0, 1], [1, 2], [2, 3] -
: f (0) = 18, f (1) = 6, f (2) = 2, f (3) = 30.
f (x) = 0 (0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3).
f (x) = ex x 2 x, f f (2) = e2 > 0,
f (0) = 1 < 0, f (2) = e2 4 > 0. f (x) = 0
(2, 0), (0, 2).
4.4.4. a1 < b1 < a2 < b2 < < an < bn . -
P (x) = 2(x a1 ) (x an ) + 3(x b1 ) (x bn ) n .
: k = 1, . . . , n

P (ak ) = 3(ak b1 ) (ak bn ), P (bk ) = 2(bk a1 ) (bk an ).

(ak b1 ) (ak bn ) n k + 1
: ak bk , . . . , ak bn . , (bk a1 ) (bk an )
n k : bk ak+1 , . . . , bk an .

P (ak )P (bk ) = 6(ak b1 ) (ak bn )(bk a1 ) (bk an )

(n k + 1) + (n k) = 2(n k) + 1 . 2(n k) + 1
, P (ak )P (bk ) . P (x) = 0
(a1 , b1 ), . . . , (an , bn ). , P (x)
n, P (x) = 0 n
. P (x) = 0 n ,
(a1 , b1 ), . . . , (an , bn ).
4.4.5. f : I R I n N, n 2.
x1 , . . . , xn I I f () = f (x1 )++f
n
(xn )
.
: a b x1 , . . . , xn .
[a, b] I, f [a, b].
l u f [a, b]. x1 , . . . , xn [a, b],
l f (x1 ) u, . . . , l f (xn ) u l f (x1 )++f
n
(xn )
u.
f (x1 )++f (xn )
, , n f , [a, b]
f (x1 )++f (xn )
( I) f () = n .
4.4.6. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1] f (0) = f (1). k N k 2
x [0, k1 1
k ) f (x) = f (x + k ).

: ( ) f (x + k1 ) f (x) = 0 [0, k1k ).

f (x + k ) f (x) > 0 x [0, k ) f (x + k ) f (x) < 0
1 k1 1

x [0, k1
k ).

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
f (0) < f k1 < f k2 < . . . < f k2 k < f k1k

( k1 )
f (1) = f (0) < f k . (14.51)
, f (x + k1 ) > f (x) x [0, k1
k ) f [0, 1],
x k ,
k1

( )
f (1) f k1
k . (14.52)

(14.51) (14.52) .
.

608
 f (x + k1 ) f (x) = 0 [0, k1
k ).
4.4.7. f, g [a, b] f (x) > g(x)
x [a, b]. > 0 f (x) g(x) +
x [a, b].
: h = f g.
h [a, b] h(x) > 0 x [a, b].
- [a, b]
h() h(x) x [a, b]. = h()
0 < h(x) = f (x) g(x) x [a, b].
4.4.8. |f | : [a, b] R,
4.3.4.
: |f ()| |f | [a, b].
[a, b] |f ( )| |f ()|
2 . , |f ()|
|f |, |f ()| |f ( )| |f ()| |f ()|

2 .
, |f ()| = 0.
4.4.9. f I. f (x) Q x I,
f I.
: f I, a, b I f (a) < f (b).
, , f (a) < < f (b).
f I, f I.
f .
f I.
4.4.10. [] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (a) g(a) f (b) g(b),
[a, b] f () = g().
[] f : R R . limx f (x) = limx+ f (x) = +,
f () = .
: [] h = f g, [a, b]. h(a)
0 h(b), [a, b] h() = 0 , , f () = g().
[] ( ) f (x) x = 0 . f (x) x > 0
x f (x) x < 0 x.
f (x) > x x limx+ f (x) = +.
f (x) < x x limx f (x) = .
.
f () = .
4.4.11. f, g I f (x) = g(x)
x I. f (x) < g(x) x I f (x) > g(x)
x I.
h I h(x) = f (x) h(x) = g(x)
x I. h(x) = f (x) x I h(x) = g(x)
x I.
: . = f g. I (x) = 0
x I. (x) < 0 x I (x) > 0 x I.
.

= 21 (f + g).

609
 I f g.

f (x) < g(x) x I.

( .) , ,

f (x) < (x) < g(x) x I.

h I f g , ,

h(x) = (x) x I.

h , h(x) < (x)

x I h(x) > (x) x I.
, h I f g,
, , h(x) = f (x) x I h(x) = g(x) x I.
4.4.12. [] f, g I f (x)2 =
g(x)2 > 0 x I. f (x) = g(x) x I
f (x) = g(x) x I.
[] f [0, +) f (x)2 = x2 x [0, +). -
f (x) = x x [0, +) f (x) = x x [0, +).
f R f (x)2 = x2 x R;
: [] f (x) = g(x) f (x) = g(x) x I.
f, g I. f, g
I, f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0
x I g.
, f, g x I,
f (x) = g(x) x I , f, g x I,
f (x) = g(x) x I.
[] [] f g(x) = x
(0, +) [0, +).
f (x) = x x (0, +) f (x) = x
x (0, +).
f (0)2 = 02 = 0, f (0) = 0 f (x) = x f (x) = x
x = 0.
f (x) = x x [0, +) f (x) = x x [0, +).
( ) (, 0] [0, +).
f (x) = x x [0, +) f (x) = x
x [0, +) (, 0].
f R = (, 0][0, +)
: f (x) = x x R f (x) = x x R
f (x) = |x| x R f (x) = |x| x R.
f R.
4.4.13. [] I f1 , . . . , fn : I R I.
f1 , . . . , fn x I n . -
;
, , h : I R I x I -
( x) n , ,
(h(x) f1 (x)) (h(x) fn (x)) = 0 x I. h
f1 , . . . , fn ;

610
[] I [1, +) I [0, 1] h : I R I.
(h(x) x)(h(x) x2 )(h(x) x3 ) = 0 x I. h(x) = x
x I h(x) = x2 x I h(x) = x3 x I.
I = [0, +), - - h;
: [] x0 I -
f1 , . . . , fn x0 . T

f1 (x0 ) < f2 (x0 ) < . . . < fn1 (x0 ) < fn (x0 ).

,
.
4.4.11

f1 (x) < f2 (x) < . . . < fn1 (x) < fn (x) x I.

4.4.11 , h(x0 ) = fk (x0 )

k = 1, . . . , n, h(x) = fk (x) x I. , h
f1 , . . . , fn I.
[] I [1, +). I \ {1} x < x2 < x3 .
[] h(x) = x x I \ {1} h(x) = x2
x I \ {1} h(x) = x3 x I \ {1}.
x = 1 ( 1 I),
1 1.
I [0, 1]. I \ {0, 1} x3 < x2 < x.
[] h(x) = x x I \ {0, 1} h(x) = x2
x I \ {0, 1} h(x) = x3 x I \ {0, 1}.
x = 0 x = 1 ( 0, 1 I),
0 0 1 1.
I = [0, +), , , h x, x2 , x3 [0, 1]
x, x2 , x3 [1, +).
{ k = 1, 2, 3 m = 1, 2, 3 ( k = m)
xk , 0 x 1
h(x) = [0, +).
xm , 1 x < +
h .
4.4.14. a, b R, a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b). ,
limxa f (x), limxb f (x) x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) > limxa f (x)
f (x0 ) > limxb f (x), f (a, b).
: : limxa f (x) < f (x0 ) limxb f (x) < f (x0 ), a
b a < a < b < b

f (x) < f (x0 ) x (a, a ) x (b , b). (14.53)

, , x0 [a , b ].
, f [a , b ], [a , b ]

f (x) f () x [a , b ]. (14.54)

, f (x0 ) f (), (14.53)

f (x) < f () x (a, a ) x (b , b). (14.55)

, (14.54) (14.55) f () f (a, b).

611
 :
u = sup{f (x) | x (a, b)},
u R {+}. , f (x0 ) u.
2.3.33 {f (x) | x (a, b)}
u. (xn ) (a, b)

f (xn ) u. (14.56)

Bolzano - Weierstrass 2.16,

(xnk ) (xn ) R
xnk . (14.57)
(14.56)
f (xnk ) u. (14.58)
a < xnk < b k, [a, b].
= a, ( ) limxa f (x) xnk a,
u f (xnk ) limxa f (x) u < f (x0 ). ,
= a. = b.
(a, b) , , f .
, (14.57) f (xnk ) f () (14.58) f () = u.
f () = u f (a, b).
4.4.15. I f : I R I. x I,
I, > 0 x (x, x + ) I f (x) f (x ). f
I.
f (b)f (a)
: a, b I, a < b, f (a) > f (b) g(x) = f (x) f (a) ba (x a).
g(a) = g(b) = 0. g [a, b].
4.4.16. f : R R R. x f -
x > x f (x ) > f (x). x (a, b) f a, b
f . A f (x) < f (b) x (a, b) f (a) = f (b).
: b f , f (x ) f (b) x > b.
, a f , f (x ) f (a) x > a. ,
f (b) f (a).
, x (a, b). ( ) f (x) f (b).
x f , x > x f (x ) > f (x).
f (x ) f (b) f (x) x > b, x (x, b) f (x ) > f (x).
f [x, b] > f (x) f (b).
, , x0 (x, b) f (x0 ) f (x ) x [x, b].
, , f (x0 ) f (b) f (x ) x > b. , f (x0 ) f (x )
x > x0 , x0 f x0 (a, b)
(a, b) f .
f (x) < f (b) x (a, b).
f (a) = limxa+ f (x) f (b). f (a) f (b) f (a)
f (b) f (a) = f (b).
4.4.17. f : (a, +) R (a + ).
b > 0 (xn ) (a, +) xn + f (xn + b) f (xn ) 0.
: > 0 |f (x + b) f (x)| +. ,
a0 a |f (x + b) f (x)| x (a0 , +).
, f (x + b) f (x) = 0 x (a0 , +),
f (x + b) f (x) (a0 , +).

612
 f (x + b) f (x) x (a0 , +) f (x + b) f (x)
x (a0 , +).
x (a0 , +)
(a0 , +) xn = x + (n 1)b n.
f (xn ) f (x) + (n 1) n , , f (xn ) +.
f .
f (xn ) (xn )
.
> 0 |f (x + b) f (x)| +.
, > 0 |f (x + b) f (x)| < +.
x1 (a, +) x1 > 1 |f (x1 + b) f (x1 )| < 1. ,
x2 (a, +) x2 > 2 |f (x2 + b) f (x2 )| < 21 . , x3 (a, +)
x3 > 3 |f (x3 + b) f (x3 )| < 31 . , -
(xn ) (a, +) xn > n |f (xn + b) f (xn )| < n1 n.
xn + f (xn + b) f (xn ) 0.
4.4.18. f, g : [a, b] [a, b] [a, b]. g
f g = g f . [a, b] f () = g() = .
: 4.4.10[], x1 [a, b] f (x1 ) = x1 .
(xn ) [a, b] xn+1 = g(xn ) n. -
(xn ) , (xn ), f () = g() = .
4.4.19. f -- I. f
I.
: f I. a, b, c I
a < b < c f (a) < f (b) > f (c) f (a) > f (b) < f (c).
. ( .)
f (a) < f (b) f (c) < f (b), max{f (a), f (c)} < f (b).
max{f (a), f (c)} < < f (b).
f (a) f (b) f (b) f (c).
f [a, b] [b, c], x1 (a, b)
x2 (b, c) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = . x1 < x2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
.
f I.
: --. -
: -- -
.
.
4.4.20. I ( ) f : I R
f (x) = . f
I.
: ( ) f I.
f
f (x) = . , a, b I a < b f (a) = f (b) = .
u l f [a, b].
u = l = f (a) = f (b), f [a, b]
. u > f (a) = f (b) l < f (a) = f (b).
u > f (a) = f (b). c a < c < b f (c) = u. ,
d I, d = c f (d) = u. :
: d < a < c < b. < < u.
x1 (d, a), x2 (a, c), x3 (c, b) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = f (x3 ) =

613
.
: a < c < b < d. < < u.
x1 (a, c), x2 (c, b), x3 (b, d) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = f (x3 ) =
.
: a < d < c < b. l f [d, c]. u = f (d) =
f (c) f [a, b] , , [d, c], l = u,
f [d, c]. l < u, m d < m < c
f (m) = l . max{, l } < < u. x1 (a, d),
x2 (d, m), x3 (m, c), x4 (c, b) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = f (x3 ) = f (x4 ) =
.
: a < c < d < b. , ,
.
, u > f (a) = f (b), .
, l < f (a) = f (b), .
f I.
4.4.21. -
.
: f I.
a, b I a < b f (a) < < f (b) f (a) > > f (b).
g(x) = f (x) [a, b]
[a, b], g(a), g(b) . (a, b) g() = 0 ,
, f () = .
.
4.4.22. - A . -
1.4, a, b A a < b f : A R A
f (a) < < f (b) A f () = .
: - A , a, b, c a < c < b a, b A
c
/ A. {
1, x A, x < c
f (x) =
1, x A, c < x
c / A, f A. , f (a) = 1 f (b) = 1. ,
f (a) < 0 < f (b) x A f (x) = 0.
4.4.23. f : [a, b] R [a, b]
, f (a) f (b)
f (b) f (a) [a, b] f () = . f [a, b].
: 4.1 , 4.1.15.
4.5.1. 2x3 + x2 5x + 6, x4 2x2 + 7 ;
: ,
(, +).
,
l [l, +). , , -
l.
x4 2x2 + 7 = (x2 1)2 + 6
6 6 ( x = 1). l = 6
[6, +).
4.5.2. x + 1
x (, 1], [1, 0), (0, 1],
[1, +).

614
: ( ) x + x1
(, 1], [1, +) [1, 0), (0, 1]. , ,
( ) ( )
limx x + x1 = , limx0 x + x1 = .
, 1 2 1 2.
(, 1] (, 2], [1, 0) (, 2], (0, 1]
[2, +) [1, +) [2, +).
4 5 1
4.5.3. x+1 + x1 + x2 = c.
c.
: f (x) = x+1 4 5
+ x1 1
+ x2 (, 1)
(1, 1) (1, 2) (2, +).
f
. ( f
.)
, , f (, 1) (, 0),
(1, 1) (, +), (1, 2) (, +)
, , (2, +) (0, +).
, c > 0, c f (1, 1),
(1, 2) (2, +) f (, 1).
f (x) = c (1, 1),
(1, 2) (2, +) (, 1). ,
(1, 1), (1, 2) (2, +) f ,
f (x) = c . , c > 0, f (x) = c
.
, c < 0, f (x) = c ,
(, 1), (1, 1) (1, 2).
, c = 0, f (x) = c , -
(1, 1) (1, 2). c = 0
.
4.5.5. P (x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn . a0 an < 0,
> 0 P () = 0.
: a0 < 0 an > 0. P (0) < 0 limx+ P (x) = +. ,
b > 0 P (b) > 0 (0, b) P () = 0.
a0 > 0 an < 0 .
4.5.7. arctan y + arccot y = 2 y arccos y + arcsin y = 2
y [1, 1].
y y = cos(arccos y) y = sin(arcsin y); y
y = tan(arctan y) y = cot(arccot y);
arctan y + arctan y1 = 2 y > 0 arctan y + arctan y1 = 2
y < 0.
arccos(cos x) = x x [0, ]. ,
arccos(cos x) x [k, (k + 1)] k Z ;
: x = arctan y z = arccot y. tan x = y, cot z = y x ( 2 , 2 ), z (0, ).
cot( 2 x) = tan x = y 2 x (0, ). z (0, )
cot z = y, 2 x = z x + z = 2 .
arccos y + arcsin y = 2 (
).
y = cos(arccos y) y
/ [1, 1] arccos y

615
y cos [1, 1]. , y [1, 1] x = arccos y.
cos x = y x [0, ]. cos(arccos y) = y.
y = sin(arcsin y) y [1, 1], y = tan(arctan y)
y = cot(arccot y) y.
y > 0 x = arctan y z = arctan y1 . tan x = y, tan z = y1 x, z (0, 2 ).
cot z = y tan( 2 z) = y 2 z (0, 2 ).
x (0, 2 ) tan x = y, 2 z = x x + z = 2 .
arctan y + arctan y1 = 2 y < 0.
arccos(cos x) = x x [0, ]. x [0, ] cos x = cos x. x = x.
, arccos(cos x) = x x [k, (k + 1)] k Z. x [0, ]
cos x = cos x. .
k , , cos(x k) = cos x = cos x x k [0, ],
x k = x . arccos(cos x) = x k.
k , , cos(x+(k+1)) = cos x = cos x x+(k+1) [0, ],
x + (k + 1) = x . arccos(cos x) = x + (k + 1).
4.5.9. f1 : (, 0) (, +), f2 : (0, +) (, +)
f1 (x) = f2 (x) = 21 (x x1 ).
f1 , f2 (, +).
f1 1 , f2 1 , -
, , ;
, g f1 1 , f2 1 , g(y)2 2yg(y) 1 = 0
y (, +).
g : (, +) R (, +) g(y)2 2yg(y) 1 = 0
y (, +). g = f1 1 g = f2 1 .
.
: f1 , f2 -
.
(, +) . f1 1 : (, +) (, 0)
(, 0) f2 1 : (, +) (0, +) (0, +).
(, +).
g f1 1 , f2 1 . y (, +) x = g(y)
y = f1 (x) y = f2 (x), , , y = 21 (x x1 ).
x2 2yx 1 = 0 g(y)2 2yg(y) 1 = 0.
, g : (, +) R (, +) g(y)2 2yg(y)1 = 0
y (, +).
y (, +) x1 = f1 1 (y), x2 = f2 1 (y)
x2 2yx 1 = 0. , x1 (, 0) x2 (0, +). x1 = x2
, , x1 , x2 x2 2yx 1 = 0. g(y) = x1 = f1 1 (y)
g(y) = x2 = f2 1 (y). , f1 1 (y) < f2 1 (y) y (, +),
4.4.11 g = f1 1 g = f2 1
.
x 2yx
2
1 = 0 x1 = y y + 1 < 0 x2 = y + y + 1 > 0
2 2
1 1
f1 (y) = y y + 1 f2 (y) = y + y + 1.
2 2

4.5.12. a, b R , a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).

limxa f (x) = limxb f (x) = . 4.4.14, f
(a, b). u f , f (, u].
: u f , (, u].
, y (, u]. limxa f (x) = limxb f (x) = ,
x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) < y. , y f

616
(a, b) f . (, u] f .
f (, u].
4.5.13. a, b R, a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).
A = limxa f (x) R, B = limxb f (x) R A < B.
(A, B) f .
A < f (x) < B x (a, b), f (A, B).
f (x) < B x (a, b) x0 (a, b) f (x0 ) A,
f (a, b). l , f
[l, B).
: . A < y < B. limxa f (x) = A limxb f (x) = B,
x1 , x2 (a.b) f (x1 ) < y < f (x2 ). y
f (a, b), y f (a, b). , (A, B)
f .
. A < f (x) < B x (a, b). , , -
f (A, B), , ,
f (A, B).
. f (x) < B x (a, b) x0 (a, b)
f (x0 ) A.
. f (x) f (x0 ) x (a, b). f (x0 ) -
f , l = f (x0 ). , l f (x) < B x (a, b),
f [l, B).
, y [l, B). , limxb f (x) = B, x1 (a, b) y < f (x1 ).
y f (a, b), y f (a, b).
, [l, B) f .
f [l, B).
. x1 (a, b) f (x1 ) < f (x0 ), f (x1 ) < A < B.
, 4.4.14 f , l,
(a, b) , , f
[l, B).
{
0, 0 x < 1
4.6.1. f (x) = [0, 1) (1, 2]
1, 1 < x 2
[0, 1) (1, 2].
: f , , [0, 1) (1, 2]. , x
[0, 1) (1, 2] f
x, x.
, ( ) f [0, 1) (1, 2].
0 < 1. > 0
x , x [0, 1) (1, 2], |x x | < |f (x ) f (x )| < 1.
x = 1 4 , x = 1 + 4 , |x x | = 2 < , |f (x ) f (x )| = 1 .
, f [0, 1) (1, 2].

4.6.2. |x| R, x
[0, +) x1 (0, +).
: . ||x | |x || |x x |.
> 0. 0 <
|x x | < |x x | < ||x | |x || < .
|x| R.

617

. x , x 0 | x x | |x x |,
.
> 0. x , x 0
 
 x x  < |x x | < |x x | < 2 .

0 < 2 x , x 0
 
|x x | < |x x | < 2  x x  < .

x [0, +).
. x1 (0, +).
= 1 > 0
 
x , x > 0, |x x | <  x1 x1  < 1.

x = x > 0 x = x + 2 > 0 |x x | = 2 < .

| x1 x1 | < 1 , , x(2x+)

< 1. x > 0, ,

limx0+ x(2x+) = +, x > 0 0
x(2x+) 1.
1
x (0, +).
4.6.3. f : A R > 0, M > 0 |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x |
x , x A. f A.
|x| R. x2 -
[a, b] R.
: . |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x A.
> 0. |f (x ) f (x )| < M |x x | <
|x x | < ( M )1/ . ,
0 < ( M )1/ , x , x A |x x | < |x x | < ( M )1/ ,
, |f (x ) f (x )| < . f A.
f (x) = |x| |f (x ) f (x )| = ||x | |x || |x x |
x , x .
f (x) = x2 [a, b] |f (x )f (x )| = |x +x ||x x |
M |x x | x , x [a, b], M = max{2a, 2b}. , x , x [a, b]
x + x 2b M x + x 2a M .
, ( ) > 0, M > 0 |f (x )f (x )| M |x x |
x , x R. |x +x ||x x |1 M x , x R. -
x = 1 + n1 x = 1 n N, (2 + n1 )( n1 )1 M n.
1 (, > 1, (2 + n1 )( n1 )1 +).
x = n x = 0 n N, n2 M n. 2 (,
< 2, n2 +). 1 2 .
4.6.4. A B, f : B R. f B,
A.
: f B.
> 0. > 0 |f (x ) f (x )| <
x , x B |x x | < . A B, |f (x ) f (x )| <
x , x A |x x | < .
f A.
4.6.5. f : A B, g : B R. f A g
B, g f : A R A.

618
: > 0.
g B, > 0

|g(y ) g(y )| < y , y B |y y | < . (14.59)

, f A, > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x A |x x | < . (14.60)

(14.60) (14.59) y = f (x ) y = f (x ) ( f (x ), f (x ) B)
x , x A |x x | < |g(f (x )) g(f (x ))| < ,
, |(g f )(x ) (g f )(x )| < .
g f A.
4.6.7. I1 , I2
f : I1 I2 R I1 I2 . f
I1 I2 .
: > 0.
f I1 , 1 > 0

x , x I1 , |x x | < 1 |f (x ) f (x )| < 2 . (14.61)

, f I2 , 2 > 0

x , x I2 , |x x | < 2 |f (x ) f (x )| < 2 . (14.62)

, = min{1 , 2 } > 0, 1 2 .
x , x I1 I2 |x x | < .
x , x .
x , x I1 , (14.61) 1 |f (x ) f (x )| < 2 < .
x , x I2 , (14.62) 2 |f (x ) f (x )| < 2 < .
, x I1 , x I2 . ( x I1 , x I2 .) x0
I1 , I2 . x0 x , x , |x x | < , |x x0 | <
|x x0 | < , |f (x ) f (x0 )| < 2
|f (x ) f (x0 )| < 2 . |f (x ) f (x )| 2 + 2 = .
, ,

x , x I1 I2 , |x x | < |f (x ) f (x )| <

f I1 I2 .
4.6.9. f : A R. f A
(xn ), (xn ) A xn xn 0 f (xn ) f (xn ) 0.
: f .
(xn ) (xn ) A xn xn 0.
> 0, , f A, > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x A |x x | < . (14.63)

, xn xn 0, n0

|xn xn | < n n0 . (14.64)

(14.64) (14.63) x = xn x = xn n n0
|f (xn ) f (xn )| < .

619
 f (xn ) f (xn ) 0.
, (xn ) (xn ) A xn xn 0
f (xn ) f (xn ) 0.
f A. > 0
> 0 x , x A |x x | < |f (x ) f (x )| .
n N xn , xn A |xn xn | < n1 |f (xn ) f (xn )| .
, A, (xn ) (xn ), xn xn 0
|f (xn ) f (xn )| n. ,
f (xn ) f (xn ) 0, .
f A.
4.6.10. f : A R A. (xn ) A
Cauchy, (f (xn )) Cauchy.
x2 ;
: > 0.
f A, > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x A |x x | < . (14.65)

, (xn ) Cauchy, n0

|xn xm | < n, m n0 . (14.66)

(14.66) (14.65) x = xn x = xm n, m n0
|f (xn ) f (xm )| < .
(f (xn )) Cauchy.
f (x) = x2 R. ,
: (xn ) Cauchy, (f (xn )) Cauchy.
, . ( )
, (xn ) Cauchy, , f (xn ) = (xn 2 )
Cauchy.
4.6.11. b R {+} f : [a, b) R [a, b).
, limxb f (x) , f
[a, b).
, , , b R f [a, b),
limxb f (x) .
, , , b R, f [a, b)
g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) = f (x) x [a, b).
: . limxb f (x) = R.
> 0.
c (a, b)

|f (x) | <
4 x [c, b). (14.67)

f [a, c] > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| <
4 x , x [a, c] |x x | < . (14.68)

x , x [a, b) |x x | < .
x , x [a, c], (14.68) |f (x ) f (x )| < 4 < .
x , x [c, b), (14.67) |f (x ) f (x )| |f (x ) | + |f (x ) | <

4 + 4 = 2 < .

620
, x [a, c], x [c, b). ( x [a, c], x [c, b) .) c
x , x , |x x | < , |x c| < ,
|f (x ) f (c)| < 4 |f (x ) f (c)| < 2 .
|f (x ) f (x )| 4 + 2 < .
, ,

|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x [a, b) |x x | <

f [a, b).
. f [a, b).
(xn ) [a, b) xn b. b R, (xn ) (
)
Cauchy. 4.6.10 (f (xn )
Cauchy , , . , R f (xn ) .
, 3.1 limxb f (x) .
. g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) = f (x)
[a, b). g [a, b], ,
4.6.4, g , , f [a, b).
, f [a, b).
,{ = limxb f (x) .
f (x), x [a, b)
g(x) = g [a, b]. ,
, x = b
limxb g(x) = limxb f (x) = = g(b).
4.6.12. f : R R R . > 0
f (x + ) = f (x) x. f R.
: f [0, 2 ].
> 0. > 0 |f (x )f (x )| < x , x [0, 2 ]
|x x | < .
1 = min{, } > 0 x , x |x x | < 1 .
x x . k Z

k x < (k + 1)

, ,
k x < x + 1 (k + 1) + = (k + 2).
, t = x k , t = x k , x , x [0, 2 ] |t t | < .
|f (t ) f (t )| < |f (x ) f (x )| < .
4.6.14. f : [0, +) R [0, +). -
a, b 0 |f (x)| ax + b x 0.
: > 0 = 1
.
|f ()| |f () f (0)| + |f (0)| 1 + |f (0)|. |f (2)| |f (2) f ()| +
|f ()| 2 + |f (0)| , ,

|f (n)| n + |f (0)| n N.

, x [0, +) n = [ x ], n x < (n + 1),

|x n| <

|f (x)| |f (n)| + |f (x) f (n)| n + |f (0)| + 1 1 x + |f (0)| + 1.

|f (x)| ax + b x 0 a = 1
b = |f (0)| + 1.

621
 4.6.15. f : [0, +) R [0, +).
[] f (x + n) 0 x 0, limx+ f (x) = 0.
f : [0, +) R [0, +) f (x + n) 0
x 0, limx+ f (x) = 0 ;
[] (xn ) xn + xn+1 xn 0 f (xn ) 0,
limx+ f (x) = 0. (xn ) xn +
xn+1 xn 0 ;
f : [0, +) R [0, +) (xn ) xn +
xn+1 xn 0 f (xn ) 0, limx+ f (x) = 0 ;
: [] . > 0. f
[0, +), > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| <
2 x , x 0 |x x | < . (14.69)

x0 , x1 , . . . , xm1 , xm 0 = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm1 < xm = 1

< .
k = 0, 1, . . . m 1, m f (xk + n) 0, -
nk |f (xk + n)| < 2 n nk .
n = max{n0 , n1 , . . . , nm1 , nm }

|f (xk + n)| <

2 n n k = 0, 1, . . . , m 1, m. (14.70)

, x n .
n = [x] n n n x < n + 1. x n [0, 1),
x n x0 , x1 , . . . , xm1 , xm . ,
|(x n) xk | < , , |x (xk + n)| < k = 0, 1, . . . m 1, m.
n n , (14.69) (14.70)

|f (x)| |f (x) f (xk + n)| + |f (xk + n)| <

2 +
2 = .

|f (x)| < x n , , limx+ f (x) = 0.

. f : [0, +)( R ) n Z n 0
[n, n + 1] f (x) = (x n)n+1 1 (x n)n+1 . , f
( )
f (x) = (x [x])[x]+1 1 (x [x])[x]+1 x 0.
f [0, +) [n, n + 1] f (n) = 0
n Z n 0.
x 0 n N [x + n] = [x] + n, (x + n) [x + n] = x [x]

( )
f (x + n) = ((x + n) [x + n])[x+n]+1 1 ((x + n) [x + n])[x+n]+1
( )
= (x [x])[x]+n+1 1 (x [x])[x]+n+1 0,

0 x [x] < 1 [x] + n + 1 +.

n+1 1
, limx+ f (x) = 0. , xn = n + 2
xn + f (xn ) = 41 14 .
[] . . > 0 (14.69).
, n0

|xn+1 xn | < |f (xn )| <

2 n n0 . (14.71)

622
, x xn0 .
xn +, n1 > n0 x < xn1 .
n n0 xn x < xn+1 . , xn0 x < xn1
n n0 n1 1 xn x. ,
x < xn+1 .
, , n n0 xn x < xn+1 , (14.71) |x xn | <
|xn+1 xn | < . (14.69) (14.71)

|f (x)| |f (x) f (xn )| + |f (xn )| <

2 +
2 = .

|f (x)| < x xn0 , , limx+ f (x) = 0.

(xn ) [0, +) xn + xn+1 xn 0
xn = log n xn = 1 + 12 + + n1 .
. f (x) = sin(ex )
xn = log n.
f [0, +) xn + xn+1 xn 0 f (xn ) = 0 0.
, limx+ f (x) = 0. , xn = log(2n + 12 )
xn + f (xn ) = 1 1.
4.6.16. A f : A R A.
f .
: > 0 = 1
.
A , [a, b] A [a, b]. [a, b] -
<
A A. x1 , . . . , xn A :
x A k = 1, . . . , n |x xk | < .
, M = max{|f (x1 )|, . . . , |f (xn )|}.
x A k = 1, . . . , n |x xk | <

|f (x)| |f (x) f (xk )| + |f (xk )| 1 + M.

4.6.17. f : R R , R. f
R.
: l, u R l f (x) u x > 0.
[l, u] 2 f
- f .
: y1 < . . . < yn . x1 < . . . < xn y1 = f (x1 ), . . . , yn = f (xn ).
> 0 x2 x1 , . . . , xn xn1 ,
|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x |x x | < .
4.6.18. f : R R > 0. - f
|f ( + x) f (x)| < x.
f : R R > 0 L > 0
L - f .
, 1 1 - f 2 2 - f ,
1 + 2 (1 + 2 )- f .
.
.
, f, g : R R , f + g .
sin x 2. a ,
sin x + sin(ax) .

623
: . |f (1 + x) f (x)| < 1 |f (2 + x) f (x)| < 2
x.

|f ((1 + 2 ) + x) f (x)| |f (1 + 2 + x) f (2 + x)| + |f (2 + x) f (x)| < 1 + 2

x.
. f , > 0
f (x + ) = f (x) x.
[a, b] ( b a = )
. , n Z a n b.
n f , , - f . ,
|f (n + x) f (x)| = 0 < x.
- f , (
f ) f .
. f .
L > 0 L 1-
f .
[L, L]. f , [L, L],
M

|f (x)| M x [L, L]. (14.72)

x. n Z n Lx < n + 1, x [nL, nL + L].

[nL L, nL] L, 1-
f [nL L, nL]. , [nL L, nL]

|f ( + x) f (x)| < 1. (14.73)

x [nL, nL + L] [nL L, nL] ( + x) [L, L],

(14.72) |f ( + x)| M . , (14.73)

|f (x)| |f ( + x)| + |f ( + x) f (x)| < M + 1.

|f (x)| M + 1 x , , f .
, > 0. L > 0 L
3 - f .
[L 1, L + 1]. f ,
[L 1, L + 1], > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| <
3 x , x [L 1, L + 1] |x x | < . (14.74)

1 = min{, 1}, 1 1 1.

x , x |x x | < 1 1. n Z n xL < n + 1,
x [nL, nL + L]. [nL L, nL] L,
3 - f [nL L, nL]. , [nL L, nL]

|f ( + x ) f (x )| < 3 , |f ( + x ) f (x )| < 3 . (14.75)
x [nL, nL + L] [nL L, nL] ( + x ) [L, L],
, |( + x ) ( + x )| = |x x | < 1, ( + x ) [L 1, L + 1].
( + x ), ( + x ) [L 1, L + 1] |( + x ) ( + x )| = |x x | < 1
, , (14.74)

|f ( + x ) f ( + x )| < 3 . (14.76)

624
 (14.75) (14.76)

|f (x )f (x )| |f (x )f ( +x )|+|f ( +x )f ( +x )|+|f ( +x )f (x )| < 3 + 3 + 3 = .

x , x |x x | < 1 |f (x ) f (x )| < , f
.
. f, g : R R .
> 0. L1 L1
6 - f L2 L2 -
6 - g. L = max{L1 , L2 }
L 6 - f 6 - -
g.
f, g , > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| <
6 |g(x ) g(x )| <
6 x , x |x x | < . (14.77)

, n N 2L < n, [L, L] n
< .
[kL, (k + 1)L], k Z, L,
6 - f 6 - g. k,f
6 - f k,g 6 - g. k,f k,g

[L, L] n < [L, L],

. , m n [L, L]
k,f k,g k1 ,f k1 ,g . . . , km ,f km ,g
. k Z kj k,f k,g kj ,f kj ,g
< [L, L] , ,

|(k,f k,g ) (kj ,f kj ,g )| <

, ,
|(k,f kj ,f ) (k,g kj ,g )| < . (14.78)
f = k,f kj ,f g = k,g kj ,g , ,
, f 3 - f g 3 - g. ,

|f (f + x) f (x)| <
3 |g(g + x) g(x)| <
3 x. (14.79)

, (14.78) |f g | <

|(f + x) (g + x)| < x. (14.80)

, (14.77), (14.79) (14.80)

   
(f (f + x) + g(f + x)) (f (x) + g(x)) (f (f + x) + g(g + x)) (f (x) + g(x))
+ |g(f + x) g(g + x)|
< |f (f + x) f (x)| + |g(g + x) g(x)| +
6

< 3 + 3 + 3 = .

f - f + g.
,

T1 = min{k1 ,f , . . . , km ,f }, T2 = max{k1 ,f , . . . , km ,f }.

625
 [a, a + M ] M = 2L + T2 T1 .
a+ML+T1 a+T
L
2
= 2, a+ML+T1 a+T2
L
. k
a+T2
L k <k+1 a+M +T1
L .

a + T2 kL < (k + 1)L a + M + T1 , k,f [kL, (k + 1)L],

a + T2 k,f a + M + T1

a a + T2 kj ,f k,f kj ,f a + M + T1 kj ,f a + M

a f a + M . [a, a + M ] -
f + g.
, , > 0 M M
- f + g. f + g ( f , g
), f + g .
. sin x 2 sin(ax)
2a . , sin x + sin(ax)
.
( ) sin x + sin(ax) T > 0. x

sin(x + T ) + sin(ax + aT ) = sin x + sin(ax). (14.81)

sin(x + h + T ) + sin(ax + ah + aT ) = sin(x + h) + sin(ax + ah) x, h ,

,

2 sin h2 cos 2x+h+2T

2 + 2 sin ah
2 cos
2ax+ah+2aT
2 = 2 sin h2 cos 2x+h ah
2 + 2 sin 2 cos
2ax+ah
2 .

h = 0 h 0

cos(x + T ) + a cos(ax + aT ) = cos x + a cos(ax). (14.82)

cos(x+h+T )+a cos(ax+ah+aT ) = cos(x+h)+cos(ax+ah),

, h = 0 h 0 , ,

sin(x + T ) + a2 sin(ax + aT ) = sin x + a2 sin(ax). (14.83)

(14.81) (14.83)

(a2 1) sin(x + T ) = (a2 1) sin x

, a , sin(x + T ) = sin x x. T =
2k k N. (14.81) x = 0 sin T + sin(aT ) = 0
sin(aT ) = 0. aT = l l Z. , , a = 2k l
Q
.
. , (14.82)
(14.81) (14.81) x.
(14.83) (14.82).
(14.81) (14.82) (14.82) (14.83)
: h,
h h, h
h 0. . ,
, , .

626
14.5 5.

{ f (x) = 3x 5x + 3, f (x) = sign x, f (x) = x sign x,

{ 5.1.1. 2 2

2x, x 0 2x2 , x 0
f (x) = f (x) = , , f (0), f+ (0),
3x, x 0 3x , x 0
2

f (0).
: .
3x2 5x
f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)
x0 = limx0 x = limx0 (3x 5) = 0.

f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)

x0 = limx0 sign x
x = limx0 1
|x| = +.

.
x2 sign x
f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)
x0 = limx0 x = limx0 x sign x = limx0 |x| = 0.

f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)

x0 = limx0 2x
x = limx0 2 = 2,

3x
f+ (0) = limx0+ f (x)f (0)
x0 = limx0+ x = limx0+ (3) = 3.
f (0).
.

f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)

x0 = limx0 2x2
x = limx0 2x = 0,

3x2
f+ (0) = limx0+ f (x)f (0)
x0 = limx0+ x = limx0+ (3x) = 0.
f (0) = 0.
{
2x2 + x + 1, x 0
5.1.3. f (x) =
ax + b, x > 0
a, b f (0).
f (x)f (0)
: limx0 x0 , ,
.
:
f (x)f (0) 2x2 +x+11
limx0 x0 = limx0 x = limx0 (2x + 1) = 1.

1. ,
f (x)f (0) ( )
limx0+ x0 = 1 limx0+ ax+b1
x = 1 limx0+ a + b1
x = 1.

limx0+ (a + b1 x ) (b 1)(+) = , b 1 = 0,
a, b 1 = 0. , , a = 1 b = 1.
f 0 a = b = 1.
5.1.4. g : (a, ] {R, h : [, b) R g() = h() g () = h ()
g(x), a < x
f : (a, b) R f (x) = f () = g () = h ().
h(x), x < b

627
: f (x) = g(x) f () = g(),

f () = limx f (x)f
x
()
= limx g(x)g()
x = g ().
, f (x) = h(x) f () = h(),

f+ () = limx+ f (x)f ()
x = limx+ h(x)h()
x = h ().

, g () = h (), f () = g () = h () = f+ () f () =
g () = h ().
{
x sin(1/x), x = 0
5.1.5. f (x) = 5.1.6
0, x = 0
0, 0. f
a 0+ la,+ (0, 0)
(a, f (a)). la,+
(0, 0);
{
x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
f (x) = 5.1.7 0 f (0) = 0.
0, x = 0
, a 0+ la,+
(0, 0) (a, f (a)).
: ( x 0) 39.
y = sin x1 38 4.4.2.

: a > 0. la,+ (0, 0)

(a, f (a)) f (a)f
a0
(0)
= f (a) 1
a = sin a .
( )
y = sin a1 x, x 0.

628
, a 0+ la,+ l+
(0, 0). .
l+ , y = x, x 0. la,+
l+ , la,+ l+
lima0+ sin a1 = . , lima0+ sin a1 .
l+ , x = 0, y 0.
la,+ l+ , la,+ +
lima0+ sin a1 = +. , lima0+ sin a1 .
l+ , x = 0, y 0.
la,+ l+ , la,+
lima0+ sin a1 = . , lima0+ sin a1 .
a 0+ la,+ l+ (0, 0).
. a > 0. la,+ (0, 0)
(a, f (a)) f (a)f
a0
(0)
= f (a) 1
a = a sin a .
( )
y = a sin a1 x, x 0.
a 0+ la,+ 0: lima0+ a sin a1 = 0. la,+
l+ (0, 0) (0, 0)
0. l+ y = 0x = 0, x 0 (, x-).
{
x2 (1)[1/x] , x = 0
5.1.6. f (x) = f (0) =
0, x = 0
0. 0 f .
:
f (x)f (0)
limx0 x0 = limx0 x(1)[1/x] = 0,

|x(1)[1/x] | = | x| = |x| x = 0.
n N, f x2 (1)n n1
x2 (1)n1 n1 .
(1)n
limx(1/n) f (x) = limx(1/n) x2 (1)n = n2
,

(1)n1
limx(1/n)+ f (x) = limx(1/n)+ x2 (1)n1 = n2
,
f n1 . n N,
0 f .
5.1.7. f : A R A A. f
g : A R
f (x) f () = g(x)(x ) x A.
: g : A R f (x)f () = g(x)(x)
x A.
, g ,
f (x)f ()
limx x = limx g(x) = g().

f f () = g().
, f .

{ f (x)f ()
x , x A, x =
g(x) =
f (), x =

629
 f (x)f ()
g(x) x

limx g(x) = limx f (x)f ()

x = f () = g().

g .
, x A x = g(x)(x ) = f (x) f () g.
g(x)(x ) = f (x) f () , , x = x A.
e 1 x
5.2.2. limx1 log x
x1 , limx0 x -
.
log x ax bx eax ebx
limx1 xa 1 , limx0 x , limx0 x .
:
log x log xlog 1 d log x 1
limx1 x1 = limx1 x1 = dx (1) = 1 = 1,
ex 1 ex e0 dex
limx0 x = limx0 x0 = dx (0) = e0 = 1.
,
log x 1 log(xa ) 1 log y
limx1 xa 1 = a limx1 xa 1 = a limy1 y1 = a1 .
ax bx (a/b)x 1
= b0 limx0 e x 1
x log(a/b)
limx0 x = limx0 bx x
a ex log(a/b) 1 a ey 1
= b0 log b limx0 x log(a/b) = log b limy0 y = log ab .
eax ebx e(ab)x 1 e(ab)x 1
limx0 x = limx0 ebx x = e0 (a b) limx0 (ab)x
b) limy0 e y1
y
= (a = a b.
log ab = 0 ,
, a = b. , , limx0 a b
x x
x = log ab ,
a = b.
, a = b.
, , , limx0 e e
ax bx
x = a b,
a = b.
5.2.4. arccos(cos x).
: k Z x (k, (k + 1)),
{
1, k
d arccos(cos x)
dx = sin x = sin x
| sin x| =
1(cos x)2 1, k

4.5.7,
x [k, (k + 1)] arccos(cos x) = x k, k , arccos(cos x) =
x + (k + 1), k .
x = k, k Z, arccos(cos x) x.
k ,
arccos(cos x)arccos(cos(k)) (x+k)0
limx(k) xk = limx(k) xk = 1,

arccos(cos x)arccos(cos(k)) (xk)0

limx(k)+ xk = limx(k)+ xk = 1.
k ,
arccos(cos x)arccos(cos(k)) (x(k1))
limx(k) xk = limx(k) xk = 1,

arccos(cos x)arccos(cos(k)) (x+(k+1))

limx(k)+ xk = limx(k)+ xk = 1.

630
 {
xa sin(1/x), x = 0
5.2.5. f (x) = a
0, x = 0
f R; f R; f R;
: f x = 0

f (x) = axa1 sin x1 xa2 cos x1 x = 0.

, f x = 0.
a 0,

limx0 f (x) = limx0 xa sin x1

. , a > 0,

limx0 f (x) = limx0 xa sin x1 = 0 = f (0),

f 0.
f R a > 0.
a 1,
f (x)f (0)
limx0 x0 = limx0 xa1 sin x1

. , a > 1,

f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)

x0 = limx0 xa1 sin x1 = 0.

f R a > 1
{
axa1 sin x1 xa2 cos x1 , x = 0
f (x) =
0, x = 0

, 1 < a 2,
( )
limx0 f (x) = limx0 axa1 sin x1 xa2 cos x1 = limx0 xa2 cos x1

. a > 2,
( )
limx0 f (x) = limx0 axa1 sin x1 xa2 cos x1 = 0 = f (0).

f R a > 2.
5.2.6. f : A R f (x) > 0 x A A
( )1/h ( )1/(log xlog )
A. f , limh0 f (+h)
f () limx ff (x)
() .
A (0, +).
:
( f (+h) )1/h 1
log
f (+h) log(f (+h))log(f ())
limh0 f () = limh0 e h f () = limh0 e h

()/f ()
= e(log f ) () = ef .
( f (x) )1/(log xlog ) 1
log
f (x) x log(f (x))log(f ())
limx f () = limx e log xlog f () = limx e log xlog x

()/f ()
= e (log f ) () = ef .
5.2.7. f, g : A R, A A f (x) > 0
x A. f, g , f g : A R

631
 (f g ) ().
xx .
: f g = eg log f
( f )
(f g ) = eg log f g log f + g f = f g g log f + f g1 gf .

xx (0, +) (xx ) = (ex log x ) = ex log x (log x + 1) = xx log x + xx .

5.2.8. P , P () = 0.
k N P Q
P (x) = (x)k Q(x) x Q() = 0. Q() = 0
Q x . P
k (x )k P . P ,
P () = 0, ,
P 0.
.
P . k N
P k 1 P .
: k N P , Q
P (x) = (x )k Q(x) x Q() = 0. ,

P (x) = k(x)k1 Q(x)+(x)k Q (x) = (x)k1 (kQ(x)+(x)Q (x)) = (x)k1 R(x)

x, R(x) = kQ(x) + (x )Q (x) R() = kQ() = 0.

k 1 P .
, k 1 P .
P , l N P .
, l 1 P , , k 1 = l 1,
k = l. k P .
xR (x)
5.2.10. R limx+ R(x) = 0;

: xR (x)
R(x) , R
. R
an xn +
R(x) = bm xm +

n, m Z, n, m 0 an = 0, bm = 0.
n = m,
(nan xn1 + )(bm xm + )(an xn + )(mbm xm1 + ) (nm)an bm xn+m1 +
R (x) = (bm xm + )2
= (bm xm + )2
,

xR (x) (nm)an bm xn+m + (nm)an bm xn+m +

limx+ R(x) = limx+ (an xn + )(bm xm + ) = limx+ an bm xn+m +
= n m = 0.

n = m,
an xn +
R(x) = bn xn +
n Z, n 0 an = 0, bn = 0.
xR (x)
n = 0, R , limx+ R(x) = limx+ 0 = 0.
n 1,
(nan xn1 + )(bn xn + )(an xn + )(nbn xn1 + ) (an bn1 an1 bn )x2n2 +
R (x) = (bn xn + )2
= (bn xn + )2
,

632

xR (x) (an bn1 an1 bn )x2n1 +
limx+ R(x) = limx+ an bn x2n +
= 0.

limx+ xR (x)
R(x) = 0
R .
5.2.12. -
. -
.
: f : A R. f , A ,
x A x A. , f (x) = f (x) x A.
, , f (x) = f (x), f (x) = f (x) ,
, f (x) = f (x) x A. f .
, f , f .
, f : R R . , > 0 f ( + x) =
f (x) x. , f ( + x) = f (x)
x f .
5.2.13. f : A R, A
A f . |f | : A R.
f () = 0, |f | () = sign(f ()) f ().
f () = 0 f () = 0, |f | () = 0.
f () = 0 f () = 0, |f | . , ,
|f |+ () = |f ()| |f | () = |f ()|.
: f () = 0. f () > 0, , f , f (x) > 0

|f (x)||f ()|
|f | () = limx x = limx f (x)f ()
x = f ().

f () < 0, f (x) < 0

|f (x)||f ()| f (x)+f ()
|f | () = limx x = limx x = f ().

|f | () = sign(f ()) f ().

f () = 0 f () = 0.
 |f (x)||f ()|   () 
  |f (x)f ()|
=  f (x)f . (14.84)
x |x| x

limx f (x)f ()
x = f () = 0, limx | f (x)f
x
()
| = 0,
|f (x)||f ()|
(14.84) |f | () = limx x = 0.
f () = 0 f () = 0. f () > 0,

limx f (x)
x = limx f (x)f ()
x = f () > 0

fx
(x)
> 0 . f (x) < 0
f (x) > 0 .
|f (x)||f ()| f (x)
|f | () = limx x = limx x = limx f (x)
x = f () = |f ()|

|f (x)||f ()|
|f |+ () = limx+ x = limx+ f (x)
x = f () = |f ()|.

633
 |f |+ () = |f ()| |f | () = |f ()| f () < 0. ,
f () = 0 |f | () = |f |+ (), |f | .
5.2.14. P , Q, P n 2 n -
x1 , . . . , xn Q n 1.
n
Q(x)
P (x) =
Q(xk )
k=1 P (xk )(xxk ) x R \ {x1 , . . . , xn }.

nk=1 P (x1
k)
.
1 m
(m) (1)k
k=0 k x+k x R \ {0, 1, . . . , m}.
1
x(x+1)(x+m) = m!
: . P n 2 n
x1 , . . . , xn , c = 0

P (x) = c(x x1 ) (x xn ) x.

k = 1, . . . , n
P (x) = c(x xk )Pk (x),
Pk (x) x x1 , . . . , x xn x xk .

Pk (x) = (x x1 ) (x xk1 )(x xk+1 ) (x xn ).

P (x) = cPk (x) + c(x xk )Pk (x)

P (xk ) = cPk (xk ) = (xk x1 ) (xk xk1 )(xk xk+1 ) (xk xn ) = 0.

n Q(xk )
T (x) = c k=1 P (xk ) Pk (x).
T n 1, Pk (x) n 1.
Pk (xl ) = 0 k = l. ,
n Q(xk )
T (xl ) = c k=1 P (xk ) Pk (xl ) = c PQ(x l)
(x ) Pl (xl ) = Q(xl )
l
l = 1, . . . , n.

T Q n 1 n ,
.
n Q(xk ) n Q(xk )P (x)
Q(x) = T (x) = c k=1 P (xk ) Pk (x) = k=1 P (xk )(xxk ) x = x1 , . . . , xn .

Q(x) n Q(xk )
P (x) = k=1 P (xk )(xxk ) x = x1 , . . . , xn .
. Q(x) =
1 , x,
n
x
P (x) =
x
k=1 P (xk )(xxk ) x = x1 , . . . , xn .

x +
x n 1
limx+ P (x) = k=1 P (xk ) .

P n 2, limx+ x
P (x) = 0,
n 1
k=1 P (xk ) = 0.

. Q(x) = 1
P (x) = x(x + 1) (x + m).

634
 P 0, 1, . . . , m ( -
)
P (0) = m!

P (k) = (k)(k + 1) (k + k 1)(k + k + 1) (k + m) = (1)k k!(m k)!

k = 1, . . . , m.

1 m 1 1 m (1)k m! 1 m (m) (1)k

x(x+1)(x+m) = k=0 (1)k k!(mk)!(x+k) = m! k=0 k!(mk)!(x+k) = m! k=0 k x+k

x = 0, 1, . . . , m.
5.2.15. f : A R A (f (x))2 + 4f (x) = x3 5x2
9x + 41 x A. (2f (x) + 4)f (x) = 3x2 10x 9 x A
f . A,
f A .
:

(f (x))2 +4f (x)+4 = x3 5x2 9x+45 = x2 (x5)9(x5) = (x+3)(x3)(x5). (14.85)

(f (x))2 + 4f (x) + 4 = (f (x) + 2)2 0, (x + 3)(x 3)(x 5) 0

x [3, 3] [5, +). , A
A = [3, 3] [5, +).
A = [3, 3] [5, +).
(f (x))2 + 4f (x) = x3 5x2 9x + 41,

(2f (x) + 4)f (x) = 3x2 10x 9

x A f .
(14.85) (f (x) + 2)2 = x3 5x2 9x + 45 x A

f (x) + 2 = x3 5x2 9x + 45 x A.

(3,
3) f (x) + 2 , .

f (x) + 2 = x3 5x2 9x + 45 x (3, 3) f (x) + 2 =

x 5x2 9x + 45 x (3, 3). ,
3
(5, +) f (x) + 2
,
f (x)+2 = x 3 5x2 9x + 45 x (5, +)

f (x) + 2 = x3 5x2 9x + 45 x (5, +).

3, 5, .

{
1 x3 5x2 9x + 45, x [3, 3]
f (x) =
2 x3 5x2 9x + 45, x [5, +)

1 , 2 1. A (
A 3, 5).
5.2.18. f : A B -- A B f 1 : B
A. A A, f f () = 0
f 1 = f ().
B f 1
(f 1 ) () = 1/f ().

635
: f () = 0 limx f (x)f
x
()
= 0 f (x)f
x
()
= 0 ,
, f (x) = f () = .
> 0. f = f (), f (x) N ()
. , f (x) N () f (x) = .
N () B = .
> 0, B.
, f 1 , limy f 1 (y) = f 1 () = . ,
f 1 (y) = , y x = f 1 (y),
f 1 (y)f 1 () f 1 (y)f 1 () x 1
limy y = limy f (f 1 (y))f (f 1 ())
= limx f (x)f () = f () .

(f 1 ) () = 1/f ().
5.2.19. f, g : A R A A. f , g
, limx f (x)g()f
x
()g(x)
.
:
f (x)g()f ()g(x) (f (x)f ())g()f ()(g(x)g()) f (x)f ()
x = x = x g() f () g(x)g()
x ,

limx f (x)g()f ()g(x)

x = f ()g() f ()g ().
5.2.20. f : A R, A A, f
(xn ), (xn ) A xn , xn xn = , xn = n.
f (xn )f (xn )
xn < < xn n, xn xn f ().
(xn )

| xnxnxn
| M n, f ().
f (xxnn)f x
n

f 5.1.7 ( 5.1.5). , xn =

(/2)+2n xn = (/2)+2n n. f 0 xn 0, xn 0,
1 1

f (xn )f (xn )
xn xn f (0).
:
f (xn )f (xn ) f (xn )f ()f (xn )+f () xn f (xn )f () xn f (xn )f ()
xn xn = xn xn = xn xn xn xn xn xn

f (xn )f (xn ) xn ( f (xn )f () ) ( f (x )f () )
xn xn f () = xn xn xn f () + xxnn x n

n
xn f () . (14.86)

, limx f (x)f ()
x = f () xn , xn xn = , xn =
f (xn )f ()
n, f () f (xxnn )f
xn
()
f ().
(14.86) 0.
xn < < xn n,
(xn )
(14.86) : (0, 1). f (xxnn)f x
n
f ().

| xnxnx n
| M n, . ,

, 1.
.
{
x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
. f (x) = f (0) = 0.
0, x = 0
, f (xn ) = (xn )2 f (xn ) = (xn )2 ,
f (xn )f (xn ) (xn )2 +(xn )2 8 2 n2 +
xn xn = xn xn = = 4 3 n2 +
2 .

5.2.21. k N f : R R .

636
 ( )
n f ( + n1 ) + f ( + n2 ) + + f ( + nk ) kf () k(k+1) 2 f ().
f ( + n12 ) + f ( + n22 ) + + f ( + nn2 ) nf () 12 f ().
:
( )
n f ( + n1 ) + + f ( + nl ) + + f ( + nk ) kf ()
f (+(1/n))f ()
= 1/n + + l f (+(l/n))f
l/n
()
+ + k f (+(k/n))f ()
k/n .

f () n +.
(1 + + l + + k)f () = k(k+1)
2 f ().
,

f ( + 1
n2
) + + f ( + nl2 ) + + f ( + nn2 ) nf () 12 f ()
( 2 ))f () ) ( 2 ))f () )
= n12 f (+(1/n1/n2
f () + + nl2 f (+(l/n l/n2
f () +
( 2 ))f () )
+ nn2 f (+(n/n
n/n2
f () + 2n1
f ().

0,
0. , , 0,
.
> 0. > 0 | f (+h)f h
()
f ()| < h
0 < |h| < .
n1 < , h = n12 , . . . , nl2 , . . . , nn2 0 < h < h
| f (+h)f
h
()
f ()| < .
(, n1 < )
 ( ) ( )
 1 f (+(1/n2 ))f ()
f () + + l f (+(l/n2 ))f ()
f () +
n2 1/n2 n2 l/n2
( )
f () 
2 ))f ()
+ nn2 f (+(n/n n/n2
   
n12  f (+(1/n f () + + nl2  f (+(l/n f () +
2 ))f () 2 ))f ()

1/n2 l/n2
 
+ nn2  f (+(n/n f ()
2 ))f ()

n/n2
( )
< n12 + + nl2 + + nn2 = n(n+1) 2n2
.
f (x)f (x)
5.2.22. f : R R 0 0 < < 1 limx0 x = b R.
f (0) = 1
b
.

: > 0. limx0 f (x)f x

(x)
= b R > 0
f (x)f (x)
| x b| < (1 ) 2 x 0 < |x| < ,

|f (x) f (x) bx| < (1 ) 2 |x| x 0 < |x| < . (14.87)

, 0 < |x| < .

0 < |k x| < k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (14.87)

|f (k x) f (k+1 x) bk x| < (1 ) 2 k |x| k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (14.88)

(14.88) k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, -
, ,
,

 
f (x) f (n x) b 1n x < (1 n ) |x| n N.
1 2

637
, n +
f 0 n 0,
 
f (x) f (0) b x |x|,
1 2
 
 f (x)f
x
(0)
b 
1
2 < .
> 0 > 0 | f (x)f
x
(0)
1 |
b
< x
0 < |x| < . , limx0 f (x)f
x
(0)
= b
1 .
5.2.24.
.
.
: r . E = r2 .
dr dE
dt r t dt
E t,
dE dE dr dr
dt = dr dt = 2r dt .

dr dE
r = dt = dt = 2.
5.2.26. l
.
v ( ),
( ). , ,

.
: x
y ,
x2 + y 2 = l2 .
dy
dx
dt dt x y t.
x2 + y 2 = l2
dy
2x dx
dt + 2y dt = 0

l .
dy
dxdt = v > 0, dt = y v = (l2 x2 )1/2 v < 0.
x x

dy
, dx
.
x2 + y 2 = l2
dy
2x + 2y dx =0
dy
dx = xy = (l2 xx2 )1/2 < 0.

5.2.27. y 2 = 4x3 .
( )
( );
x, y.
dx
: x t dt -
y t dy
dt .
y 2 = 4x3 x y
dy dx
2y dt = 12x2 dt .

638
 dx
dt = 2 dy
dt

dy dy
2y dt = 24x2 dt .

dy
dt = 0, 2y = 24x , , y = 12x
2 2
2 3 4 3 1
y = 4x 144x = 4x x = 0 x = 36 . ,
1 1
(0, 0) ( 36 , 108 ).
, dt = 0, 2y dy
dy 2 dy
dt = 24x dt 0 =
0 x, y . ,
.
5.2.28.
dz dz dy
dx = dy dx .
: .
, ( ) .
r > 0 R > 0 .
d, dl = rd.
d
dl = Rd. , , Rd = rd

d r
d = R

.
, d dt.
dt , ,
d.
Rd = rd R d d
dt = r dt , R,

d r d d d
dt = R dt = d dt .

.
5.3.3. , c, x3 12x = c -
[2, 2]; (, 2]; [2, +);
: f (x) = x3 12x c
I, f (x) = 3x2 12 = 3(x 2)(x + 2) = 0
I. ,
f (x) = 0 2, I 2
I [2, 2], (, 2], [2, +).
5.3.4. x2 = x sin x + cos x
0.
: f (x) = x2 x sin x cos x f () = 2 + 1 > 0, f (0) = 1 < 0
f () = 2 + 1 > 0. f (x) = 0
(, 0), (0, ). x1 (, 0) x2 (0, ) f (x) = 0.
x3 f (x) = 0, x1 , x2 , x3
f (x) = 0
f (x) = 0 . , f (x) = 0
2x x cos x = 0 , , x(2 cos x) = 0 f (x) = 0
, 0.
f (x) = 0 x1 , x2 x1 < 0 < x2 .
5.3.6. xn + ax + b = 0 , n
, , n .

639
: n f (x) = xn +ax+b = 0 ,
x1 , x2 , x2 x1 < x2 < x3 . f (x) = nxn1 + a = 0
, (x1 , x2 ), (x2 , x3 ). , n 1
, f .
, n f (x) = xn + ax + b = 0
, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 x1 < x2 < x3 < x4 . f (x) = nxn1 +a = 0 -
, (x1 , x2 ), (x2 , x3 ), (x3 , x4 ).
, (f ) (x) = n(n 1)xn2 = 0 ,
f (x) = 0.
, (f ) (x) = n(n 1)xn2 = 0 , 0.
2 xn
5.3.7. 1 + 1! x
+ x2! + + n! = 0 ,
n , , n .
: .
1 1 + 1! x
= 0 , 1.
2 n
n 1 + 1! x
+ x2! + + xn! = 0 , n
, , n .
2 n xn+1
1 + 1! x
+ x2! + + xn! + (n+1)! = 0.
n + 1 . -
2 n xn+1
P (x) = 1 + 1! x
+ x2! + + xn! + (n+1)! .
, P (x) = 0,
2 n
x
1 + 1! + x2! + + xn! = 0. , , n .
.
2 n xn+1
n + 1 . P (x) = 1 + 1! x
+ x2! + + xn! + (n+1)!
, l, [l, +). x0 P (x0 ) = l
, , l P , P (x0 ) = 0,

P (x0 ) = 1 + x0
1! + x0 2
2! + + x0 n
n! = 0.

, x0 < 0

l = P (x0 ) = P (x0 ) + x0 n+1

(n+1)! = x0 n+1
(n+1)! > 0,

n + 1 . l P , ,
P (x) = 0 .
x2 xn
5.3.8. ex = 1 + x
1! + 2! + + n! .
2 n
: f (x) = ex 1 1! x
x2! xn! = 0 , 0.
f (x) = 0 -
.
n = 0, f (x) = 0 ex 1 = 0 0.
2 n
n 0 ex 1 1! x
x2! xn! = 0 0.
2 n xn+1
f (x) = ex 1 1! x
x2! xn! (n+1)! = 0 , 0, ,
0 f (x) = 0. , f (x) = 0
= 0. , f (x) = 0 ex 1 1!
2 n
x
x2! xn! = 0
.
2 n xn+1
ex 1 1!x
x2! xn! (n+1)! = 0 0.
5.3.9. [] I f : I R I f (x) = 0
x I. f -- I.
[] I f : I R I |f (x)| M -
x I. c = 0 g : I R g(x) = x + cf (x)

640
 -- I.
: [] x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 .
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), [x1 , x2 ] I
f () = 0. , , f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
f -- I.
[] [], c = 0
g(x) = x + cf (x) g (x) = 0 x I.
g (x) = 0 1 + cf (x) = 0 f (x) = 1c .
, |f (x)| M x I,
f (x) = 1c x I, c
M < | 1c | , , 0 < |c| < M 1
.
c 0 < |c| < M g(x) = x + cf (x) -- I.
1

5.3.10. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b)

f (a) = f (b) = 0. (a, b) f () = f ().
: g(x) = ex f (x), [a, b], -
(a, b) g(a) = g(b) = 0. (a, b) g () = 0 , ,
e f () + e f () = 0 , , f () = f ().
5.3.11. [] Rolle , -
n n .
[] a1 < . . . < an P (x) = (x a1 ) (x an ). P
n 1 . P a1 , . . . , an .
[] 5.2.8.
P 1 , . . . , m . k1 , . . . , km
P , P (x) = (x 1 )k1 (x m )km Q(x)
x, Q . P
k = k1 + + km P k.
P k, P
k 1. , P n P n,
P n 1.
: [] P (x) = a1 x + a0 1 (, a1 = 0)
, aa10 .
n n .
P (x) = an+1 xn+1 + + a1 x + a0 n + 1, an+1 = 0
( ) n + 2 . x1 , . . . , xn+2
x1 < x2 < . . . < xn+1 < xn+2 .
(xk , xk+1 )
P (x) = (n + 1)an+1 xn + + a1 n + 1 -
. , P n.
[] P n, P n 1. -
[], P n 1 . , n 1
(ak , ak+1 ) P . P n 1
(ak , ak+1 ).
[] P k = k1 + + km .
1 , . . . , m 1 < . . . < m .
m 1 (j , j+1 ) P ,
m 1 P . , j
kj 1 P . P

m 1 + (k1 1) + + (km 1) = k 1

641
.
, P n P n.
P n 1 n 1 , n 1 .
5.3.13. f : [ h, + h] R [ h, + h]
( h, ) (, + h).
(0, h) f (+h)f (h)
h = f ( + ) + f ( ).
(0, h) f (+h)2f ()+f (h)
h = f ( + ) f ( ).
: g(t) = f ( + t) f ( t),
[0, h] (0, h).
g(t) = f ( + t) + f ( t),
[0, h] (0, h).
5.3.14. f : (0, +) R (0, +) |f (x)|

x x > 0. limx+ (f (x + x) f (x)) = 0.
1

: x > 0 x < < x + x f (x+
x)f (x)
(x+ x)x
= f ().
x > 0

|f (x + x) f (x)| = |f ()| x 1
x< 1
x x= 1
x

limx+ (f (x + x) f (x)) = 0.
5.3.15.
( f
) (0, +) limx+ f (x) = 0.
limx+ f (x + 1) f (x) = 0.
: x > 0 x < < x + 1

f (x + 1) f (x) = f (x+1)f (x)

(x+1)x = f (). (14.89)

> 0. limx+ f (x) = 0, N > 0

|f (x)| < x > N.

x > N . (x, x + 1) (14.89).

> N , |f ()| < , , |f (x + 1) f (x)| = |f ()| < .
( > 0 )N > 0 x > N |f (x + 1) f (x)| < .

limx+ f (x + 1) f (x) = 0.
. (14.89) N ,
, :
x +, + ( x < < x + 1), , , f () 0,
f (x + 1) f (x) 0.
x ( x
). ,
. ,
, - .
,
+ x +, .
(xn ) (0, +) xn +. n
n (xn , xn + 1) (14.89), f (xn + 1) f (xn ) = f (n ).
xn + xn n n, n +. ,
limx+ f (x) = 0, f (n ) 0 f (xn + 1) f (xn ) 0.
) xn + f (xn +1)f (xn ) 0.
( (xn ) (0, +)

limx+ f (x + 1) f (x) = 0.

642
 5.3.16. f [a, b) (a, b). limxa+ f (x)
, f (a) f (a) = limxa+ f (x).
: limxa+ f (x) = l R.
l R. l = .
x (a, b), a < < x
f (x)f (a)
xa = f () (14.90)

> 0. limxa+ f (x) = l, > 0

|f (x) l| < x a < x < a + .

a < x < a + . (a, x) (14.90).

a < < a + , |f () l| < | f (x)f
xa
(a)
l| = |f () l| < .
, > 0 > 0 | f (x)f
xa
(a)
l| < x
a < x < . limxa+ f (x)f (a)
xa = l , , f (a) = l.
5.3.17. 5.2.20 A , f A
(xn )
f , f (xxnn)f
x
n
f ().
: n n xn xn
f (xn )f (xn )
xn xn = f (n ).

xn xn , n . , f
f (n ) f ().
{
x sin(1/x), x = 0
5.3.18. f (x) = 0.
0, x = 0
f 0 ;
{
|x|(2 + sin(1/x)), x = 0
f (x) = f 0; f 0
0, x = 0
;
f : R R f (0) = 0 0
f ;
: . xn = (/2)+2n
1
xn = (/2)+2n
1
n N,

xn 0 xn 0 f (xn ) = xn > 0 f (xn ) = xn < 0 n.
0 f > f (0)
f < f (0). 0 f .
. f 0. ,
( ) ( )
limx0 f (x)f
x0
(0)
= limx0 2 + sin x1 , limx0+ f (x)f x0
(0)
= + limx0 2 + sin x1

.
0 () f

f (x) = |x|(2 + sin x1 ) |x|(2 1) = |x| > 0 = f (0)

x = 0.
{
x2 cos(1/x), x = 0
. f (x) = . ,
0, x = 0

f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)

x0 = limx0 x cos x1 = 0,

643
 0 f . -
, xn = 2n
1
xn = +2n
1
n N.
5.3.19. f, g : I R I. W (f, g) : I R
 
 f (x) g(x) 
W (f, g)(x) =   = f (x)g (x) f (x)g(x)
f (x) g (x)
Wronski f g I.
W (f, g)(x) = 0 x I. 4.2.10
f , f (x) = 0, . , f
f , f
(, ) , , f
, f (, ).
g. , ,
f g .
f g ;
: . f > f I.
f () = 0 W (f, g)() = 0, f () = 0.
limx f (x)f
x
()
= f () = 0, f (x)f
x
()
= 0 , ,
f (x) = f () = 0 . , > 0 f (x) = 0 x
(, + ).
< f () = 0, , < + , b
< b < + , f (b) = 0 f () = 0.
, 4.2.10 f -
b , f b,
f .
, f , -
f .
, g.
. f
g, x f, g W (f, g)(x) = 0.
, a, b I a < b f . , f (a) = f (b) = 0
f (x) = 0 x (a, b).
( ) g o a, b, g(x) = 0
x (a, b). , , g(a) = 0 g(b) = 0,
g(x) = 0 x [a, b].
, h = fg [a, b] h(a) = h(b) = 0.
(a, b)
f ()g()f ()g ()
0 = h () = (g())2
.

, W (f, g)() = 0 .
, , f
g. , : g
f .
, a, b f a < b. ( )
a, b g , , a, b -
c, d g c < d. , a < c < d < b. , ,
c, d f , a, b
f .
f g , ,
f, g.

644
 5.3.20. [] f I I. -
|f (x)| M x I |f (x )
f (x )| M |x x | x , x I.
[] f I |f (x)| M
x I. f I.

x [0, 1];
[0, 1]; [1, +);
: [] |f (x)| M x I.
x , x I.
x = x , |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | , , .
x = x , x , x , ,
I
f (x )f (x )
x x = f (),
 f (x )f (x ) 

 = |f ()| M
x x

|f (x )
f (x )|
M |x x |.
, |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x I.
x I t I t = x,
 f (t)f (x) 
  M.
tx
 (x) 
limtx f (t)f
tx
(x)
= f (x) limtx  f (t)f
tx = |f (x)| |f (x)| M .
[] [] -
4.6.3 ( = 1).

x (0, 1) 21 x , (0, +),
limx0+ 21 x = +. ,

x [0, 1]. , x -
[0, 1] [0, 1].
, 21 x (1, +),

1

2 x
1
2 x (1, +).

, x [1, +).

x [1, +) ,
.

, 4.6.7, x
[0, 1] [1, +) = [0, +).

. x [0, +)
4.6.2. -

. , -
. , , -

.
5.3.21. [] f [a, b] (a, b). f
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b)),
1 , 2 (a, b) f (1 ) < f (b)f
ba
(a)
< f (2 ).
: f

645
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b)), -
.
.
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b))
f (b)f (a)
y= ba (x a) + f (a).

(a, b)
f (b)f (a)
ba ( a) + f (a) < f (),

f (b)f (a) f ()f (a)

ba < a .

, 2 (a, ) f (2 ) = f ()f
a
(a)
f (b)f
ba
(a)
< f (2 ).
() (a, f (a)) (b, f (b))
f (b)f (a)
y= ba (x b) + f (b).

f (b)f (a)
ba ( b) + f (b) < f (),

f (b)f () f (b)f (a)

b < ba .

1 (, b) f (1 ) = f (b)f
b
()
f (1 ) < f (b)f
ba
(a)
.

.
5.3.23. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a) < 0 < f (b),
f [a, b] (
- ) (a, b).
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (a) < < f (b).
(a, b) f () = .
[] I f : I R I. f I,
I.
: [] f [a, b], [a, b].
f a, x (a, b] f (x) f (a) , ,
f (x)f (a)
xa 0
f (a) = limxa+ f (x)f (a)
xa 0.
, f a.
f b, x [a, b) f (x) f (b) , ,
f (x)f (b)
xb 0
f (b) = limxb f (x)f (b)
xb 0.
, f b.
f (a, b).
[] g(x) = f (x) x [a, b] g (a) = f (a) < 0
g (b) = f (b) > 0. [] g
(a, b) , , g () = 0 , , f () = .
[] [] -
4.4.23 4.1.15.

646
 5.3.24. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b], f (a) = f (b) f (x),
f+ (x) x (a, b). (a, b) f () 0 f+ ()
f+ () 0 f ().
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x), f+ (x)
x (a, b). (a, b) f () f (b)f
ba
(a)
f+ () f+ ()
f (b)f (a)
ba f ().
: [] Rolle.
[] Lagrange.
5.3.25. Tn : [1, 1] R :

T0 (x) = 1 Tn (x) = 1
2n1
cos(n arccos x) 1 x 1 n N.

T1 (x) = x 4Tn+2 (x) = 4xTn+1 (x)Tn (x) x [1, 1]

n 1. n 1 Tn [1, 1]
R n 1.
, , Tn .
T2 , T3 , T4 .
n
Tn (1) = 2n1 1
Tn (1) = (1)
2n1
n 1.
n 1 Tn n : xk =
cos( 2k1
2n ) k = 1, . . . , n. (1, 1).
|Tn (x)| 2n1 1
x [1, 1] n 1.

n 1 Tn n 1 : tk = cos( nk )
k = 1, . . . , n 1. (1, 1). Tn (tk )
k = 1, . . . , n 1.
n 1 Tn Tn .
n 1 P n 1
1
2n1 = max{|Tn (x)| | 1 x 1} max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1}.
P n 1 -
;
: . T1 (x) = cos(arccos x) = x x [1, 1].
4.5.7.
,

cos(a + b) + cos(a b) = 2 cos a cos b

a = (n + 1) arccos x b = arccos x

cos((n + 2) arccos x) + cos(n arccos x) = 2 cos(arccos x) cos((n + 1) arccos x)

= 2x cos((n + 1) arccos x).

2n+1 Tn+2 (x) + 2n1 Tn (x) = 2n+1 xTn+1 (x)

4Tn+2 (x) = 4xTn+1 (x) Tn (x) x [1, 1]. (14.91)

n = 2

T2 (x) = 1
2 cos(2 arccos x) = (cos(arccos x))2 1
2 = x2 1
2 x [1, 1].

647
 n = 1 n = 2 Tn [1, 1]
n 1.
, n N Tn Tn+1 [1, 1] -
n n + 1, ,
1.
(14.91) Tn+2 [1, 1]
n + 2 1.
n 1 Tn
[1, 1] n 1.
. (14.91)

T3 (x) = xT2 (x) 14 T1 (x) = x3 34 x T4 (x) = xT3 (x) 41 T2 (x) = x4 x2 + 1

8

x [1, 1].
.
1 1 1
Tn (1) = 2n1
cos(n arccos 1) = 2n1
cos 0 = 2n1
,

1 1 (1)n
Tn (1) = 2n1
cos(n arccos(1)) = 2n1
cos(n) = 2n1
.
. n 1, 2k1
2n k = 1, . . . , n (0, ),
2k1
xk = cos( 2n ) (1, 1) , ,
:
1 < xn < xn1 < . . . < x2 < x1 < 1.
,
1 1
( ) ( 2k1 )
Tn (xk ) = 2n1
cos(n arccos xk ) = 2n1
cos n 2k1
2n =
1
2n1
cos 2 = 0,

xk n Tn , Tn
n, Tn x1 , . . . , xn .
.

|Tn (x)| = 1
2n1
| cos(n arccos x)| 1
2n1
x [1, 1]. (14.92)

n 1

Tn (x) = n sin(n
2n1

arccos x)
1x2
x [1, 1].

nk k = 1, . . . , n 1 (0, ),
tk = cos( nk ) (1, 1). t0 tn ,

1 = tn < xn < tn1 < xn1 < . . . < x2 < t1 < x1 < t0 = 1.

, k = 1, . . . , n 1

Tn (tk ) = 2n1
arccos tk )
n sin(n
= n
2n1
sin(k)
= 0,
1tk 2 1tk 2

t1 , . . . , tn1 n 1 Tn ,
Tn n 1, Tn t1 , . . . , tn1 .
, k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, n

1 1
( ) (1)k
Tn (tk ) = 2n1
cos(n arccos tk ) = 2n1
cos n nk = 1
2n1
cos(k) = 2n1
. (14.93)

648
 . , n 1 P n
1.
1
2n1
= max{|Tn (x)| | 1 x 1} max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1}. (14.94)

(14.92) (14.93).
( ) (14.94),

max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1} < 1

2n1
. (14.95)

Tn P n 1,
Tn P n 1.
, (14.93) (14.95)

Tn (tk ) P (tk ) = 1
2n1
P (tk ) > 0 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, n
(14.96)
Tn (tk ) P (tk ) = 2n1 P (tk ) <
1
0 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, n.

(tn , tn1 ), . . . , (t1 , t0 ) -

Tn P , Tn P n , Tn P
n 1, . Tn P -
(14.96).
(14.94).
. P n
1 (14.94). ,

max{|P (x)| | 1 x 1} = 1
2n1
. (14.97)

, (14.96)

Tn (tk ) P (tk ) = 1
2n1
P (tk ) 0 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, n
Tn (tk ) P (tk ) = 2n1 P (tk )
1
0 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, n.

Tn P n ,
, Tn P n 1, .
Tn P . , P n
1 (14.97) Tn .
5.4.4. a1 < . . . < an . (x a1 )2 + +
(x an )2 |x a1 | + + |x an |.
: f (x) = (x a1 )2 + + (x an )2

f (x) = 2nx 2(a1 + + an ) = 2n(x A),

A = a1 ++a
n
n
.
f (x) < 0 x < A f (x) > 0 x > A. f

(, A] [A, +) , , A.
f (x) = |x a1 | + + |x an |

f (x) = nx + (a1 + + an ) (, a1 ]

f (x) = nx (a1 + + an ) [an , +).

,

f (x) = (2k n)x (a1 + + ak ak+1 an ) [ak , ak+1 ].

649
, k < n2 , f (, ak+1 ] , k > n2 , f
[ak , +). , k = n2 , f [ak , ak+1 ].
.
n , k = n1
2 f (, ak+1 ]
[ak+1 , +), f ak+1 .
n , k = n2 f (, ak ],
[ak , ak+1 ] [ak+1 , +), f
[ak , ak+1 ].
5.4.5. (1 + x1 )x (0, +).
: f (x) = (1 + x1 )x f (x) = (1 + x1 )x (log(1 + x1 ) x+1
1
).

f (x) > 0 log(1 + x ) x+1 > 0.
1 1

h(x) = log(1 + x1 ) x+1

1
h (x) = x(x+1)
1
2 < 0 x > 0. h

(0, +) , limx+ h(x) = 0, h(x) > 0

x > 0.
f (x) > 0 x > 0, f (0, +).
5.4.6. a > 0 xa e2ax
[0, +) .
: fa (x) = xa e2ax fa (x) = xa1 e2ax (a x). fa
[0, a] [a, +) , ,
fa (a) = (ea)a .
, h(a) = (ea)a h (a) = (ea)a (log a + 2).
h (0, e2 ] [e2 , +), h
e2 .
fa (x) = xa e2ax [0, +) a = e2
2
fe2 (e2 ) = ee .
5.4.7. a sin x = ax.
: a = 0, sin x = ax = 0 x = k k Z.
, a = 0.
sin x = ax x = 0,
= 0. , x , x
. , m (0, +),
2m + 1.

sin x
f (x) = x =a (0, +).

f
f (x) = x cos xsin x
x2

(0, +). f (0) = 1, f [0, +).

, .
f [0, +) , 2, 3, 4, . . .
[0, ), (, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), . . . .

h(x) = x cos x sin x
h (x) = x sin x -
[0, ), (, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), . . . , , h
[0, ], [, 2], [2, 3], [3, 4], . . . . , -
h(0) = 0 h , 2, 3, 4, . . . .

650
 (, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), . . . h ,
1 , 2 , 3 , . . . ,

0 < < 1 < 2 < 2 < 3 < 3 < 4 < 4 < . . . (14.98)

h (0, 1 ), (1 , 2 ), (2 , 3 ), (3 , 4 ), . . . . f
[0, 1 ], [1 , 2 ], [2 , 3 ], [3 , 4 ], . . .
0, 2 , 4 , . . . 1 , 3 , 5 , . . .
f .
,
sin 2k sin 2k+1
u2k = f (2k ) = 2k , l2k+1 = f (2k+1 ) = 2k+1

() f .
(14.98) f
[0, ), (, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), . . . , u2 , u4 , . . .
l1 , l3 , . . . .
. f [0, ] f (0) = 1, f () = 0,
a 0 < a 1 f (x) = a [0, ). ,
[2k, (2k + 1)] f [2k, 2k ]
[2k , (2k +1)], a = u2k f (x) = a (2k, (2k +1)),
x = 2k , a 0 < a < u2k f (x) = a
(2k, (2k + 1)) ( 2k ). , [(2k + 1), (2k + 2)]
f [(2k + 1), 2k+1 ] [2k+1 , (2k + 2)]
a = l2k+1 f (x) = a ((2k + 1), (2k + 2)),
x = 2k+1 , a l2k+1 < a < 0 f (x) = a
((2k + 1), (2k + 2)) ( 2k+1 ).
.

l1 < l3 < l5 < . . . < 0 < . . . < u6 < u4 < u2 < 1.

u2 < 1 .
u2k+2 < u2k 2k (2k, (2k + 1)) 2k+2 ((2k + 2), (2k + 3)).
2k+2 2 (2k, (2k + 1))
sin 2k+2 sin(2k+2 2) sin(2k+2 2)
u2k+2 = 2k+2 = 2k+2 < 2k+2 2 = f (2k+2 2) u2k .

2k+2 2 (2k, (2k + 1)) u2k

f (2k, (2k + 1)).
l2k+1 < l2k+3 .
,
u2k 0 l2k+1 0.
sin
u2k = sin2k 2k 2k+1
l2k+1 = 2k+1 n +.
, a > 0. f (x) = a (0, +) -
a -
1, u2 , u4 , . . . . , u2k 0, a > 0 a 1 -
a = u2k () k a
1, u2 , u4 , . . . . , a > 0, [0, ),
(2, 3), (4, 5), . . . .
a 1, f (x) = a (0, +). ( [0, +)
0.)
1 > a > u2 , f (x) = a (0, )
.

651
 u2k > a > u2k+2 , f (x) = a (0, )
(2, 3), . . . , (2k, (2k + 1))
2k + 1 .
a = u2k , f (x) = a (0, ),
(2, 3), . . . , ((2k 2), (2k 1)) (2k, (2k + 1))
2k .
a 0 / (
) (+, 1], (1, u2 ), u2 , (u2 , u4 ), u4 , (u4 , u6 ), . . . -
f (x) = a : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . .
a < 0, a
0 / (, l1 ), l1 , (l1 , l3 ), l3 , (l3 , l5 ), . . .
f (x) = a : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .
5.4.10. 4.6.3 5.1.2. I f : I R M 0,
> 0 |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x | x , x I. > 1,
f I.
: 4.6.3 f I. -
, 5.1.2 f (x) = 0
x I. f I.
5.4.11. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
f (x) x (a, b).
f (a) + (x a) f (x) x [a, b].
, c (a, b] f (a)+(ca) = f (c), f (a)+(xa) = f (x)
x [a, c].
: g(x) = f (x) f (a) (x a) [a, b] g (x) =
f (x) 0 x (a, b). g [a, b], g(x) g(a) ,
, f (x) f (a) + (x a) x [a, b].
, c (a, b] f (a) + (c a) = f (c).
g(c) = 0 , g [a, b] g(a) = 0, g
0 [a, c]. f (a) + (x a) = f (x) x [a, c].
5.4.12. f : [1, 4] R [1, 4], f (1) = 7 f (x) 3
x (1, 4). f (4) 2.
a 2 f f (4) = a.
: (1, 4) f (4)f (1)
41 = f () 3. f (4) f (1) + 3(4 1) = 2.
a 2, f (x) = a
3 (x 1) 73 (4 x) -
.
5.4.13. [] f (x) = arccos x + arcsin x. f (x) = 0
x (1, 1). arccos x + arcsin x = 2 x [1, 1].
: f (x) = 1x
1
2
1
+ 1x 2
= 0 x (1, 1).
f [1, 1], [1, 1]. f (x) = f (0) =
2 + 0 = 2 x [1, 1].

x3
5.4.14. x 3 < arctan x < x x > 0.
: f (x) = arctan x x.

f (x) = 1+x
1 x2
2 1 = 1+x2 < 0 x > 0.

652
 f [0, +)
arctan x x = f (x) < f (0) = 0 x > 0
, , arctan x < x x > 0.
3
f (x) = arctan x x + x3 .

f (x) = 1+x
1 2 x4
2 1 + x = 1+x2 > 0 x > 0.
f [0, +)
x3
arctan x x + 3 = f (x) > f (0) = 0 x > 0
x3
, , arctan x > x 3 x > 0.
y a xa
5.4.16. 0 < x < y. axa1 < yx < ay a1 , a < 0 a > 1.
: (x, y)
y a xa
yx = a a1 .
x a a
axa1 < y yx < ay a1 axa1 < a a1 < ay a1 .
a > 1, xa1 < a1 < y a1 ,
xa1 (0, +).
a < 0, xa1 > a1 > y a1 ,
xa1 (0, +).
n
5.4.17. x > 0 ex > 1 + 1! x
+ + xn! .
n
x < 0 ex > 1 + 1!x
+ + xn! , n , ex <
xn
1 + 1! + + n! , n .
x

: . .
ex 1 x > 0 x > 0.
n
n N ex 1 1! x
xn! > 0 x > 0.
n xn+1 n
f (x) = ex 1 1! x
xn! (n+1)! ex 1 1! x
xn! > 0
x > 0, [0, +). f (x) > f (0) = 0 ,
n xn+1
, ex 1 1!
x
xn! (n+1)! > 0 x > 0.
. .
1 ex 1 x > 0 x < 0.
n
n N ex 1 1! x
xn! > 0 (, 0), n ,
n
ex 1 1!
x
xn! < 0 (, 0), n .
n xn+1 n
f (x) = ex 1 1! x
xn! (n+1)! ex 1 1!
x
xn!
x < 0, (, 0], n + 1 ,
(, 0], n . f (x) > f (0) = 0 x < 0,
n + 1 , f (x) < f (0) = 0 x < 0, n + 1 .
5.4.19. 0 < a < b x a, x = 0. (1 + xa )a < (1 + xb )b .
a
: (1 + xa )a < (1 + xb )b (1 + xa ) b < 1 + xb ,
a
t = xa , (1 + t) b < 1 + ab t. ,
k = ab ,
(1 + t)k < 1 + kt.
0 < a < b, x a x = 0 -
k t : 0 < k < 1, t 1 t = 0.
f (t) = (1 + t)k 1 kt.
( )
f (t) = k(1 + t)k1 k = k (1 + t)k1 1 ,

653
 f (t) > 0, 1 < t < 0, f (t) < 0 0 < t.
f [1, 0] [0, +).

f (t) < f (0) = 0 t 1, t = 0.

5.4.20. [] A > 0 n N.
nA+x

n+1 n
.
(n+1) A x
[] n a1 , . . . , an 0 Cauchy
- ,

n a a
1 n
1
n (a1 + + an ),

a1 = . . . = an .
: [] f (x) = nA+x f (x) = n(xA)
. -
(n+1) n+1 An x (n+1)2
n+1
an xn+2
, f (x) < 0 (0, A) f (x) > 0 (A, +). f
(0, A] [A, +). , A -
f (0, +) f (x) > f (A) = 1 x > 0 x = A.
[] n = 1 Cauchy a1 a1 , , .

n n a1 an n1 (a1 + + an )
a1 = . . . = an .
a1 , . . . , an , an+1 0 .
. A = a1 ++a n
n
> 0 an+1 > 0.
f [] f (an+1 ) 1 , ,
nA+an+1 n
n+1 n+1
A an+1 .

, An a1 an
a1 ++an +an+1
n+1 n+1a1 an an+1 . (14.99)

-
: f (an+1 ) 1 An a1 an . [],
an+1 = A , ,
a1 = . . . = an . (14.99)
a1 = . . . = an = an+1 .
. A = a1 ++a n
= 0 an+1 > 0. a1 = . . . = an = 0 ,
a1 ++an +an+1
n

, n+1 > n+1 a1 an an+1 = 0.
. A = a1 ++a n
> 0 an+1 = 0. , , a1 ++a n +an+1
>

n+1 a a a
n n+1
1 n n+1 = 0.
. A = a1 ++a n
= 0 an+1 = 0. a1 = . . . = an = 0 ,
a1 ++an +an+1 n
, n+1 = n+1 a1 an an+1 = 0.
, , (14.99) , , a1 =
. . . = an = an+1 .
5.4.21. a, b 0 p, q > 1 1
p + 1
q = 1. Young,

ab p1 ap + 1q bq .

ap = bq .
: f : [0, +) R f (x) = p1 xp x + 1
q

f (x) = xp1 1.

654
 f (x) < 0, 0 < x < 1, f (x) > 0, 1 < x. , f
[0, 1] [1, +), f (x) > f (1) = 0
x 0 x = 1 , ,
1 p
px x+ 1
q >0 x 0 x = 1.

, x = 1.
a
, a, b > 0. x = bq/p

1 ap
p bq + 1
q a
bq/p

, ,
1 p
pa + 1q bq abqq/p = ab
a
bq/p = 1 , , ap = bq .
a > 0, b = 0 a = 0, b > 0, , , ab < p1 ap + 1q bq .
, a = b = 0, ab = p1 ap + 1q bq .
, ab p1 ap + 1q bq , ,
ap = bq .
5.4.22. a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn 0 p, q > 1 1
p + 1
q = 1.
[] Hlder,
( )1/p ( q )1/q
a1 b1 + + an bn a1 p + + an p b1 + + bn q .

s, t 0 0
sak p = tbk q k = 1, . . . , n.
21 + 12 = 1, Cauchy,
( )1/2 ( 2 )1/2
a1 b1 + + an bn a1 2 + + an 2 b1 + + bn 2 ,

Hlder.
[] Minkowski,
( )1/p ( )1/p ( p )1/p
(a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p a1 p + + an p + b1 + + bn p .

s, t 0 0
sak = tbk k = 1, . . . , n.
: []

A = (a1 p + + an p )1/p , B = (b1 q + + bn q )1/q .

A = 0 B = 0, a1 = . . . = an = 0 b1 = . . . = bn = 0, ,
Hlder , , 0 = 0.
s, t 0 0 sak p = tbk q k = 1, . . . , n.
, a1 = . . . = an = 0, s = 1, t = 0 , b1 = . . . = bn = 0,
s = 0, t = 1.
, A, B > 0. Young 5.4.21
ak bk
A , B
1 ak p 1 bk q
AB p Ap + q B q
ak bk
k = 1, . . . , n. (14.100)
,
1 a1 p ++an p 1 b1 q ++bn q
1
AB (a1 b1 + + an bn ) p Ap + q Bq = 1
p + 1
q =1

655
, ,

a1 b1 + + an bn AB = (a1 p + + an p )1/p (b1 q + + bn q )1/q

Hlder.

p q
(14.100). 5.4.21, aAkp = bBkq
p q
k = 1, . . . , n. , aAkp = bBkq k = 1, . . . , n, s, t > 0
sak p = tbk q k = 1, . . . , n. , s = A1p , t = B1q .
, s, t > 0 sak p = tbk q k = 1, . . . , n,
p q
aAkp = bBkq k = 1, . . . , n.
, , Hlder , ,
s, t 0 0 sak p = tbk q
k = 1, . . . , n.
p = q = 2, n Cauchy .
2
. k=1 ak = 0, a1 = . . . = an = 0
Cauchy , , 0 = 0.
n
, k=1 ak 2 > 0. t
( n )
2 2
( n ) ( n ) n
2 = 2 2 2
k=1 ak t + 2 k=1 ak bk t + k=1 bk k=1 (ak t + 2ak bk t + bk )
(14.101)
= nk=1 (tak + bk )2 0.

( nk=1 ak 2 )t2 + 2( nk=1 ak bk )t + ( nk=1 bk 2 )
0.

( nk=1 ak bk )2 nk=1 ak 2 nk=1 bk 2 ,

Cauchy.
Cauchy , ( nk=1 ak 2 )t2 + 2( nk=1 ak bk )t + ( nk=1 bk 2 )
t0 (14.101) t = t0 ,
t0 ak + bk = 0 , , t0 ak = (1)bk k = 1, . . . , n.
.
n n ( n )2 1 n ( n )
k=1 bk j=1 (ai bj bi aj ) .
2 2 2
k=1 ak k=1 ak bk = 2 i=1

0,
n
n Cauchy.
Cauchy , i=1 ( j=1 (ai bj bi aj )2 ) = 0 , -
, ai bj = aj bi i, j. s, t
0 sak = tbk k.
[]

(a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p = a1 (a1 + b1 )p1 + + an (an + bn )p1

+ b1 (a1 + b1 )p1 + + bn (an + bn )p1

Hlder a1 (a1 + b1 )p1 + + an (an + bn )p1

b1 (a1 + b1 )p1 + + bn (an + bn )p1

(a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p
( )1/q
(a1 p + + an p )1/p (a1 + b1 )(p1)q + + (an + bn )(p1)q
( )1/q
+ (b1 p + + bn p )1/p (a1 + b1 )(p1)q + + (an + bn )(p1)q
( )1/q
= (a1 p + + an p )1/p (a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p
( )1/q
+ (b1 p + + bn p )1/p (a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p

656
 ((a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p )1/q ,
Minkowski. , ((a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p )1/q = 0,
((a1 + b1 )p + + (an + bn )p )1/q = 0 ak , bk
0 Minkowski , , 0 = 0.
, ,
Minkowski Hlder
.
5.4.23. a1 , . . . , an , w1 , . . . , wn > 0 w1 + + wn = 1.
f (p) = (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p R \ {0}.
limp0 (w1 a1 p + + wn an p )1/p = a1 w1 an wn .
: Hlder 5.4.22.
g(x) = w1 a1 x + + wn an x
log(g(x))1/x = log g(x) g(x)1
g(x)1 x .
5.4.24. f : A R, A A f () > 0. -
f (), f (x) > f ()
f (x) < f () . f ;
{
x + 2x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
f (x) = f (0) = 1. -
0, x = 0
a > 0 f (a, a). -
5.6 5.7.
: limx f (x)f
x
()
= f () > 0, f (x)f
x
()
> 0 .
f (x) > f () f (x) < f ()
, f .

( )
f (0) = limx0 f (x)f
x0
(0)
= limx0 1 + 2x sin x1 = 1.

, , a > 0 f (a, a). f (x) 0

x (a, a). , 1 + 4x sin x1 2 cos x1 0 x (a, a) x = 0.
, xn = 2n 1
n N, xn 0,

xn (0, a). , f (xn ) = 1 < 0 n .
, , , , f () > 0 ( f
), (b, c) (b, c)
f () f (, c) f
(b, ), (b, c) (b, c) f
(b, c).
5.4.25. f : I R I. I
f , f I.
: f I.
4.4.19 f -- I. -
, a, b I a < b f (a) = f (b).
f [a, b] , I
, , [a, b] f ,
f [a, b] a, b.
f (a) = f (b), f [a, b]. [a, b]
f .
f I.
5.4.26. f : I R I f (x) = 0

657
x I. 5.3.9[] f -- I.
f I.
f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0
x I.
: . f -- I,
4.4.19 f I.
. a, b I a < b.
f [a, b] a, b. , f -
(a, b), f (x) = 0. f (a) < f (x) < f (b)
x (a, b) f (b) < f (x) < f (a) x (a, b). , f
I, x1 , x2 , x3 I x1 < x2 < x3
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) > f (x3 ) f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) < f (x3 ).
[a, b] = [x1 , x3 ].
. , -
.
. .
, f f (x) = 0 x
I, f (x) > 0 x I f (x) < 0
x I.
. a, b I a < b f (a) < 0 < f (b)
f (b) < 0 < f (a), 5.3.23
(a, b) f () = 0 . f (x) > 0 x
I f (x) < 0 x I.
5.4.27. f, g : (a, b) R (a, b), a < 0 < b. , ,
f (x) = g(x), g (x) = f (x) x (a, b) f (0) = 0, g(0) = 1.
;
f (x)2 + g(x)2 = 1 x (a, b).
F, G ( F f G g),
F (x) = f (x) G(x) = g(x) x (a, b).
: (F (x) f (x))2 + (G(x) g(x))2 .
5.4.28. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b) k > 0
|f (x)| k|f (x) f (a)| x (a, b). f
[a, b].
: . x0 (a, b] f (x0 ) > f (a).
g(x) = f (x) f (a) g(a) = 0 g(x0 ) > 0. ,
4.2.10, [a, x0 ) g() = 0
g(x) > 0 x (, x0 ]. , f () = f (a) f (x) > f (a)
x (, x0 ].
, h(x) = (f (x) f (a))ekx

h (x) = f (x)ekx k(f (x) f (a))ekx = (f (x) k(f (x) f (a))ekx

= (f (x) k|f (x) f (a)|)ekx 0 x (, x0 )

h [, x0 ]. h(x0 ) h() = 0 , , f (x0 ) f (a)

.
x0 (a, b] f (x0 ) < f (a).
( g(x) = f (x) f (a) ...),
[a, x0 ) f () = f (a) f (x) < f (a) x (, x0 ].

658
, h(x) = (f (x) f (a))ekx

h (x) = (f (x) k(f (x) f (a))ekx = (f (x) + k|f (x) f (a)|)ekx 0 x (, x0 )

h [, x0 ]. h(x0 ) h() = 0 , , f (x0 ) f (a)

.
x0 (a, b] f (x0 ) = f (a) , , f [a, b].
. c (a, b] a < c < a + k1 .
M 0 |f (x) f (a)| M x [a, c].

|f (x) f (a)| k n (c a)n M x [a, c] n N. (14.102)

, (14.102) x = a.
x (a, c] (a, x)

|f (x) f (a)| = |f ()|(x a) k|f () f (a)|(c a) k(c a)M

(14.102) n = 1.
(14.102) n N.
x (a, c] (a, x)

|f (x) f (a)| = |f ()|(x a) k|f () f (a)|(c a) k n+1 (c a)n+1 M

(14.102) n + 1.
, k(ca) < 1, (14.102) n +,
|f (x) f (a)| = 0 , , f (x) = f (a) x [a, c].
, [a, b] [x0 , x1 ], . . . , [xm1 , xm ] < k1
x0 = a xm = b.
c = x1 , f [x0 , x1 ]. -
, [x1 , x2 ] f
. , f
[xk , xk+1 ] [a, b].
5.4.29. l M = (x0 , y0 ) . -
M l M l
dist(M, l).
l x = , dist(M, l) = | x0 |.
l y = x + , dist(M, l) = |x0 + y0 |/(1 + 2 )1/2 .
: l x = , l K = (, y)
M ( x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 .
( x0 )2 = | x0 |
y = y0 , K (, y0 ) l.
l y = x + , l K = (x, x + )
M (x x0 )2 + (x + y0 )2 .
,
f (x) = (x x0 )2 + (x + y0 )2 . f
( 0
)
f (x) = 2(x x0 ) + 2(x + y0 ) = 2(1 + 2 ) x x0 +y
1+ 2 .

, f
(, a] [a, +), a =
x0 +y0
1+2
, (x x0 )2 + (x + y0 )2 x = a

(a x0 )2 + (a + y0 )2 = |x 0 +y0 |
(1+2 )1/2
.

659
 5.4.30. l
. -
;
: A, B ,
( A B) K, L, M
AK, LM KL, M B , ,
.
x AK, LM y KL, M B,
2x + 2y = l xy.
, , x, y > 0 xy -
2x + 2y = l.
, x (0, 2l ) f (x) = x( 2l x).
f f (x) = 2l 2x. f (0, 4l ]
[ 4l , 2l ), 4l f
l2
f ( 4l ) = 16 .

.
5.4.31.
A1 d1 A2 -
d2 . ()
v1 v2
. A1
A2 .
: M1 A1 M2 A2
.
A1 A2 -
A1 M , ,
M A2 .
x1 , x2 , x M1 , M2 , M ,
M (x x1 ) + d1 A2 M
A1 2 2

(x x2 ) + d2 .
2 2

(xx1 )2 +d1 2 (xx2 )2 +d2 2
f (x) = v1 + v2 .

f

v2 (xx1 ) (xx2 )2 +d2 2 +v1 (xx2 ) (xx1 )2 +d1 2
f (x) = xx1 + xx2 = .
v1 (xx1 )2 +d1 2 v2 (xx2 )2 +d2 2 v1 v2 (xx1 )2 +d1 2 (xx2 )2 +d2 2

x1 < x2 .
f (x) < 0 (, x1 ] f (x) > 0 [x2 , +).
(x1 , x2 ) f (x) = 0

v2 (x x1 ) (x x2 )2 + d2 2 = v1 (x2 x) (x x1 )2 + d1 2

d2 2 v2 2 d1 2 v 1 2
(xx2 )2
(xx1 )2
= v1 2 v2 2 . (14.103)
2 2 2 2
2 (xx )2
d2 v2 d1 v 1
, ( ) h(x) = (xx 2) 1
(x1 , x2 ) + x1 x2 .
x0 (x1 , x2 ) h(x) < v1 2 v2 2 (x1 , x0 ) h(x) >
v1 2 v2 2 (x0 , x2 ) h(x0 ) = v1 2 v2 2 .

660
 f (x) < 0 (x1 , x0 ) f (x) > 0 (x0 , x2 ).
, f (, x0 ] [x0 , +)
M M0
x0 .
x0 (14.103). ,
x0 . M0
M1 M2 1 . M0 M1 M0 A1
2 . M0 M2 M0 A2 , (14.103)

cos 1 v1
cos 2 = v2 .

5.4.33. a b c > a + b.


.
;
: d a d,

2a2 (1 ad ).
,
x a a.
b c x b. , x
[a, c b].
,
( ) ( )
E(x) = 2a2 1 xa + 2b2 1 cxb
a x c b.

3 (cx)2 b3 x2
E (x) = 2 xa2 2 (cx)
3 3
b a
2 = 2 x2 (cx)2

(0, c) E (x) > 0 0 < x < ca3/2

a3/2 +b3/2
E (x) < 0
ca3/2 ca 3/2
< x < c. E (0, c) a3/2
a3/2 +b3/2 +b3/2
.
.
ca3/2 ca3/2
a < a3/2 +b3/2
< c b, a3/2 +b3/2

[0, c] .

( ca3/2 ) ( 3/2 3/2 )2 )
E a3/2 +b3/2
= 2 a2 + b2 (a +b c .
3/2
ca
a3/2 +b3/2
a, a ( -
a)
( )
E(a) = 2b2 1 cab
.
3/2
c b a3/2
ca
+b3/2
, c b (
b)
( )
E(c b) = 2a2 1 cba
.

,

. d a

661
, , f b,
( ) ( )
E(d, f ) = 2a2 1 ad + 2b2 1 fb
.
d + , , f +

limd,f + E(d, f ) = 2(a2 + b2 ).

, E(d, f ) < 2(a2 + b2 ) d, f , : -

.
4(a2 + b2 ) .
: -
, ,
.
{
xk , x 0
5.5.1. f (x) = k N. n N, f (n) .
x , x 0
k

: k 2,
f (x)f (0) f (x)f (0)
limx0 x0 = limx0 xk1 = 0, limx0+ x0 = limx0+ xk1 = 0,

f (0) = 0. , , k = 1, 1 1, ,
f (0).
{ {
kx k1 , x 0 (x) = kx
k1 , x > 0
k 2 : f (x) = k = 1 : f
kx , x 0
k1 kx , x < 0
k1

k = 1, , , x = 0.
k 3,
f (x)f (0)
limx0 x0 = limx0 k(k 1)xk2 = 0,

f (x) f (0)
lim = lim k(k 1)xk2 = 0,
x0+ x0 x0+

f (0) = 0. , , k = 2, 2 2, ,
f (0).
{
k(k 1)xk2 , x 0
k 3 : f (x) =
k(k 1)x , x 0
k2

{
k(k 1)xk2 , x > 0
k = 1, 2 : f (x) =
k(k 1)xk2 , x < 0
k = 2, , , x = 0.
,
{
k(k 1) 2x, x 0
f (k1) (x) =
k(k 1) 2x, x 0
{
k(k 1) 2 1, x > 0
f (k) (x) =
k(k 1) 2 1, x < 0

662
 {
0, x > 0
n>k : f (n) (x) =
0, x < 0
x+2
5.5.2. n- , 1 ,
x2 1 x2 +1
sin(5x) sin(7x) n.
: x+2
x2 1
= 12 1
x+1 + 3 1
2 x1 ,
n n! 3(1)n n!
dn x+2
dxn x2 1 = (1)2 1
(x+1)n+1
+ 2
1
(x1)n+1
.

, i. -
x21+1 = (xi)(x+i) xi 2i x+i
1 1 1 1 1
= 2i

dn (1)n n! (1)n n! (1)n n!

1
dxn x2 +1 = 2i
1
(xi)n+1
2i
1
(x+i)n+1
((x + i)n+1 (x i)n+1 )
= 2i(x2 +1)n+1
(1)n n! ( n+1 (n+1) n+1k k (n+1) n+1k )
= 2i(x2 +1)n+1 k=0 k x i n+1k=0 k x (i)k
(1)n n! ( ) n+1k k
= 2i(x2 +1)n+1
2 0kn+1,k n+1
k x i
n
(1) n! ( n+1
) n2m i2m
= (x2 +1)n+1 0mn/2 2m+1 x
(1)n n! ( )
m n+1 xn2m .
= (x2 +1)n+1 0mn/2 (1) 2m+1

, k 2m + 1.
sin(5x) sin(7x) = 21 cos(5x 7x) 12 cos(5x + 7x) =
2 cos(2x) 2 cos(12x).
1 1

d2m 22m (1)m 122m (1)m

dx2m
(sin(5x) sin(7x)) = 2 cos(2x) 2 cos(12x),

d2m+1 22m+1 (1)m+1 122m+1 (1)m+1

dx2m+1
(sin(5x) sin(7x)) = 2 sin(2x) 2 sin(12x).
dn tan x
5.5.5. dxn = Pn (tan x) n, Pn
n + 1.
: . n = 1
d tan x 1
dx = (cos x)2
= (tan x)2 + 1 = P1 (tan x),

P1 (t) = t2 + 1.
dn tan x
n N dxn = Pn (tan x), Pn
n + 1.

dn+1 tan x
dxn+1
= d
dx Pn (tan x) = Pn (tan x) d tan x 2
dx = Pn (tan x)((tan x) + 1) = Pn+1 (tan x),

Pn+1 (t) = Pn (t)(t2 + 1) n + 2.

{
x|x| + x2 sin(1/x), x = 0
5.5.7. 0 f (x) =
0, x = 0
:
( )
f (0) = limx0 f (x)f (0)
x0 = limx0 |x| + x sin x1 = 0.
,

f (x) = x2 + x2 sin x1 = x2 (1 + sin x1 ) 0 = f (0)(x 0) + f (0) 0 < x,

f (x) = x2 + x2 sin x1 = x2 (1 sin x1 ) 0 = f (0)(x 0) + f (0) x < 0.

663
 0 f .
. f 0. ,


2x + 2x sin(1/x) cos(1/x), 0 < x

f (x) = 0, x = 0


2x + 2x sin(1/x) cos(1/x), x < 0
( )
f (x)f (0)
limx0 x0 = limx0 2 + 2 sin x1 1
x cos x1
.
5.5.8. n N, I, f : I R. f (n) (x) = 0
x I f n 1.
: .
f (x) = 0 x I f I.
n N : f (n) (x) = 0 x I f
n 1.
: f (n+1) (x) = 0 , , (f )(n) (x) = 0 x I f
n 1 f
n.
5.5.9. n N, n 2, I f : I R f (n1)
I f (n) I. f n + 1 I,
f (n) I.
: .
, f I, f
I.
n N : f n + 1 I, f (n)
I.
, f n+2 x1 , . . . , xn+2 I x1 < x2 < . . . < xn+1 < xn+2 ,
f n + 1 I (
(xk , xk+1 )) , , f (n+1) = (f )(n) I.
5.5.10. f [a, b] (a, b). f (a) =
f (b) = 0 c (a, b) f (c) > 0, (a, b) f () < 0.
: 1 (a, c) 2 (c, b)
f (c)
f (1 ) = f (c)f (a)
ca = f (c)
ca > 0, f (2 ) = f (b)f (c)
bc = bc < 0.

, (1 , 2 ) , , (a, b)
f (2 )f (1 )
f () = 2 1 < 0.

5.5.11. f (a, b) f (x)f (x) 0

x (a, b). f (x)f (x) = 0 (a, b), f
.
: x1 x2 x1 < x2 f (x)f (x) = 0.

f (x1 )f (x1 ) = f (x2 )f (x2 ) = 0.

g = f f (a, b)

g (x) = f (x)f (x) + (f (x))2 0 x (a, b),

664
 g (a, b). , g(x1 ) = g(x2 ) = 0, g 0
[x1 , x2 ]. , ,

f (x)f (x) + (f (x))2 = g (x) = 0 x [x1 , x2 ]

, f (x)f (x) 0 x [x1 , x2 ], f (x) = 0

x [x1 , x2 ]. f [x1 , x2 ].
g = f f 0 [x1 , x2 ]
.

( 2 )
f (x) = 2f (x)f (x) = 0 x [x1 , x2 ].

f 2 [x1 , x2 ].

f 2 (x) = c x [x1 , x2 ]

c 0.
c = 0, f (x) = 0 x [x1 , x2 ], f [x1 , x2 ].
c > 0, f [x1 , x2 ] ,

[x1 , x2 ], [x1 , x2 ]. f (x) = + c x [x1 , x2 ]

f (x) = c x [x1 , x2 ].
f [x1 , x2 ].
5.5.12. f [1, 1], (1, 1). f (1) =
f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1 f (0) = 0, (1, 1) f () = 3.
: p(x) = ax3 +bx2 +cx+d
p(1) = p(0) = 0 p(1) = 1, p (0) = 0.
-
:
a + b c + d = 0, d = 0, a + b + c + d = 1, c = 0.
a = b = 21 , c = d = 0 , ,
p(x) = 21 x3 + 12 x2 .
g = f p, [1, 1]
(1, 1)

g(1) = g(0) = g(1) = 0, g (0) = 0.

1 (1, 0) 2 (0, 1) g (1 ) = g (2 ) = 0.
1 (1 , 0) 2 (0, 2 ) g (1 ) = g (2 ) = 0. , (1 , 2 ) ,
, (1, 1) g () = 0 , , f () = p () = 3.
5.5.13. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (a, b).
(a, f (a)) (b, f (b))
f , (a, b)
f () = 0.
: a < c < b (a, f (a))
(b, f (b)) f (c, f (c)). (c, f (c))
, :
f (b)f (a)
f (c) = ba (c a) + f (a).

f (c)f (a) f (b)f (c)

ca = bc .

665
 1 (a, c) 2 (c, b) f (1 ) = f (2 ) , , (1 , 2 )
f () = 0.
5.5.14. I f : I R I.
f (x) 0 x I f (x) = 0
x I, I f () = 0.
: x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0.
f (x) 0 x I, x1 , x2 f , I
, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0.
f 0 [x1 , x2 ], f (x) = 0 x [x1 , x2 ].
, f [x1 , x2 ], f
[x1 , x2 ] (x1 , x2 ). , x0 (x1 , x2 )
f (x0 ) = 0.
x1 < x0 < x2 f (x1 ) = f (x0 ) = f (x2 ) = 0. 1 (x1 , x0 )
2 (x0 , x2 ) f (1 ) = f (2 ) = 0. (1 , 2 ) f () = 0.
5.5.15. 5.3.11[]. a < b n N,
P (x) = (x a)n (x b)n . P (n)
n, n (a, b).
: P 2n 2n : a
n b n. 5.3.11[] P ,
2n 1, 2n 1 : a
n 1, b n 1 (a, b) 1.
, P (x) = 2n(x a)n1 (x b)n1 (x a+b 2 ),
a+b
2 .
. P ,
2n 2, 2n 2 : a n 2, b n 2
(a, b) 1 . , P ,
2n 3, 2n 3 : a n 3,
b n 3 (a, b) 1
.
, P (n) ,
2n n = n, 2n n = n : a n n = 0, b
n n = 0 n (a, b) 1 .
5.5.16. I, J f : I J f 1 : J I, I = f () J.
f f () = 0, f 1
(f 1 ) () = f ()/(f ())3 .
: f ,
. , f , f () = 0, f (x) = 0
. f -- .
, y x = f 1 (y),
(f 1 ) (y)(f 1 ) () (1/f (x))(1/f ())
limy y = limx f (x)f ()
(f (x)f ())/(x)
= limx 1
f (x)f () (f (x)f ())/(x) = f ()/(f ())3 .

5.5.19. [] x1 , . . . , xn y1 , . . . ,myn .
k = 1, . . . , n n 1 Qk (x) = 1mn,m=k xxx k xm
,
m 1 n k.
Qk (x) ;
Q(x) = y1 Q1 (x) + + yn Qn (x) n 1
: Q(x1 ) = y1 , . . . , Q(xn ) = yn .

666
[] x1 , . . . , xn I f : I R.
Q1 (x), . . . , Qn (x) [],
Q(x) = f (x1 )Q1 (x) + + f (xn )Qn (x).
f (n1) I f (n) I,
(n)
x I I f (x) Q(x) = f n!() (x x1 ) (x xn ).
: [] Qk (x) x1 , . . . , xk1 , xk+1 , . . . , xn , xm
xk .
, Qm (xk ) = 0, m = k, Qk (xk ) = 1,

Q(xk ) = nm=1 ym Qm (xk ) = yk .

, Q n 1 : Q(x1 ) = y1 , . . . , Q(xn ) = yn .
P n 1 ,
n 1 n : y1 , . . . , yn . , P Q
.
Q n 1 Q(x1 ) = y1 , . . . , Q(xn ) = yn .
[] x = xk k = 1, . . . , n, -
I
f (n) ()
f (x) Q(x) = n! (x x1 ) (x xn ) (14.104)

x = xk 0 = 0.
, x = xk k = 1, . . . , n.

n!(f (x)Q(x))
A = (xx 1 )(xxn )
(14.105)

h(t) = f (t) Q(t) A
n! (t x1 ) (t xn ). (14.106)
x , A
.
h x1 , . . . , xn . , -
A, h : x. h n + 1
I.
5.5.9 I
h(n) () = 0. Q n 1, Q(n) () = 0,
h(n) () = 0 (14.106) f (n) () = A. , (14.105)
(14.104).
( )
5.5.20. Leibniz, (f g)(n) = nk=0 nk f (k) g (nk) n N.
: . () ()
n = 1 (f g) = f g + f g = 10 f (0) g (1) + 11 f (1) g (0) .
( )
n N (f g)(n) = nk=0 nk f (k) g (nk) .

667

n ( )n (k) g (nk) )
(f g)(n+1) = k=0 k (f
n (n) (k) (n+1k) n (n) (k+1) (nk)
= k=0 f g + k=0 k f g
(n) (0) k(n+1) n (n) (k) (n+1k)
= 0 f g + k=1 k f g
n1 (n) (k+1) (nk) (n) (n+1) (0)
+ k=0 f g + f g
(n+1) (0) k(n+1) n (n) n(k) (n+1k)
= 0 f g + k=1 k f g
n ( n ) (k) (n+1k) (n+1) (n+1) (0)
+ k=1 k1 f g + n+1 f g
(n+1) (0) (n+1) n ((n) ( n )) (k) (n+1k) (n+1) (n+1) (0)
= 0 f g + k=1 k + k1 f g + n+1 f g
(n+1) (0) (n+1) n (n+1) (k) (n+1k) (n+1) (n+1) (0)
= 0 f g + k=1 k f g + n+1 f g
n+1 (n+1) (k) (n+1k)
= k=0 k f g .
( ) ( n ) (n+1)
nk + k1 = k , -
:
(n ) ( n ) n!((n+1k)+k) (n+1)! ( )
n! n!
k + k1 = k!(nk)! + (k1)!(n+1k)! = k!(n+1k)! = k!(n+1k)! = n+1
k .

5.5.22. f (x) = ex .
2

f (n) (x) = (1)n Hn (x)ex x, Hn (x)

2

n. : H1 (x) = 2x, H2 (x) = 4x2 2, H3 (x) = 8x3 12x.

Hn+1 (x) = Hn (x) + 2xHn (x) x.
n f (x) = 2xf (x) Leibniz 5.5.20
Hn+2 (x) = 2xHn+1 (x) 2(n + 1)Hn (x) x.
Hn+1 (x) = 2(n + 1)Hn (x) x.
xn Hn (x) 2n .
Hn (x) 2xHn (x) + 2nHn (x) = 0 x.
: . n = 1 f (x) = 2xex = H1 (x)ex ,
2 2

H1 (x) = 2x.
n N f (n) (x) = (1)n Hn (x)ex x, Hn (x)
2

n.

f (n+1) (x) = (1)n Hn (x)ex 2(1)n xHn (x)ex = (1)n+1 Hn+1 (x)ex ,
2 2 2

Hn+1 (x) = Hn (x) + 2xHn (x) n + 1.

. n 2
( ) ( ) ( )
f (n+1) (x) = 2 nk=0 nk x(k) f (nk) (x) = 2 n0 xf (n) (x) 2 n1 f (n1) (x)
= 2xf (n) (x) 2nf (n1) (x).

(1)n+1 Hn+1 (x)ex = 2x(1)n Hn (x)ex 2n(1)n1 Hn1 (x)ex

2 2 2

, , Hn+1 (x) = 2xHn (x) 2nHn1 (x) x. n 1

Hn+2 (x) = 2xHn+1 (x) 2(n + 1)Hn (x) x.
. n+1 n
Hn+1 (x) + 2xHn+1 (x) = 2xHn+1 (x) 2(n + 1)Hn (x)
Hn+1 (x) = 2(n + 1)Hn (x) x.
. x H1 (x) = 2x 2.

668
 n xn Hn (x) 2n .
Hn+1 (x) = Hn (x) + 2xHn (x) -
xn+1 Hn+1 (x) 2 2n = 2n+1 .
.

Hn (x) = Hn+1 (x) + 2xHn (x) + 2Hn (x) = 2(n + 1)Hn (x) + 2xHn (x) + 2Hn (x)
= 2xHn (x) 2nHn (x).

5.5.23. f : (a, b) R (a, b) a < < b. f (x)

f () x (a, b), f .
: < x < b, (, x) f (x)f ()
x = f () f ()

f (x) f ()(x ) + f ().

a < x < , (x, ) f (x)f ()

x = f () f ()

f (x) f ()(x ) + f ().

f .
5.5.25. , 0, I f, g : I R I.
f + g : I R max{f, g} : I R I.
I, J f : I J I g : J R J. g
J, g f : I R I.
I F , f : I R
I. x I F (x) = sup{f (x) | f F}. F (x) R
x I, F : I R I.
: . x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.

f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ), g((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)g(x1 ) + tg(x2 ).

(f + g)((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)(f + g)(x1 ) + t(f + g)(x2 ).

f + g I.
h = max{f, g},

f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)h(x1 ) + th(x2 ), g((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)h(x1 ) + th(x2 )

h((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)h(x1 ) + th(x2 ).
h I.
. x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 0 < t < 1. f
I,
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ).
y1 = f (x1 ) J, y2 = f (x2 ) J y = f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) J,
y (1 t)y1 + ty2 . , g J,

g(y) g((1 t)y1 + ty2 ) (1 t)g(y1 ) + tg(y2 ).

g(f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 )) (1 t)g(f (x1 )) + tg(f (x2 )),

669
 g f I.
. x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 0 < t < 1. f F

f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) (1 t)F (x1 ) + tF (x2 )

F ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)F (x1 ) + tF (x2 ),
F I.
5.5.26. I f : I R.
f (x)f ()
f I I x
x I \ {}.
f (b )f (a )
f I b a f (b)f (a)
ba a, a , b, b I,
a a, b b , , a = b a = b .
: . f I x1 , x2 I \ {} x1 < x2 .
x1 < < x2 ,
x2 x
f (x) x2 x1 f (x1 ) + xx1
x2 x1 f (x2 )

x = f (xx11)f
()
f (xx22)f

()
.
x1 < x2 < , , x2 x
x2 , f (xx11)f

()
f (xx22)f

()
.
< x1 < x2 , , x1 x
x1 , f (xx11)f

()
f (xx22)f

()
.
f (t)f (x)
x1 , x2 , x I x1 < x < x2 . tx
t I \ {x},
f (x1 )f (x) f (x2 )f (x)
x1 x x2 x .
x
f (x) xx22x 1
f (x1 ) + xxx 1
2 x1
f (x2 ) -
.
. . f ,
a, a , b, b I, a a, b b
f (b )f (a ) f (b)f (a ) f (b)f (a)
b a ba ba

b = a
f (b )f (a ) f (b )f (a)
b a b a f (b)f
ba
(a)

b = a. ( b = a b = a.)
(a )
, f (bb)f a f (b)f
ba
(a)
a = a =
f I.
5.5.28. a, b R a < b f : (a, b) R (a, b).
limxb f (x).
, , b R f b, f (a, b]
limxb f (x) f (b).
: (a, b). 5.5.26
f (x)f
x
()
(, b), l = limxb f (x)f
x
()

+.
f (x)f ()
limxb f (x) = limxb x (x ) + f () = l(b ) + f ()

670
 +.
, , , b R f b.
f (a, b], x (, b)
x
f (x) bx
b f () + b f (b)

limxb f (x) f (b).

, limxb f (x) f (b). f (a, b] (
(a, b)) x1 , x (a, b) x1 < x

f (x) bx
bx
1
f (x1 ) + xx
bx1 f (b).
1

, x (x, b)
x x
f (x) x x1 f (x1 ) + xx1
x x1 f (x ),

( x x
)
f (x) limx b xx1
x x1 f (x1 ) + x x1 f (x ) = bx
bx1 f (x1 ) + xx1
bx1 limx b f (x )
bx xx1
bx1 f (x1 ) + bx1 f (b).

5.5.29. f I x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 .
x0 x1
f (x0 ) = xx22 x 1
f (x1 ) + xx20 x 1
f (x2 ) x0 (x1 , x2 ),
x
f (x) = xx22x 1
f (x 1 ) + xx1
x2 x1 f (x 2 ) x (x1 , x2 ).
: f x (x1 , x2 ) (x, f (x)) -
l (x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 )).
, (x, f (x)) l.
(x, f (x)) l.
(x0 , f (x0 )) l.
, x0 < x < x2 ( ) (x, f (x)) -
l. , , (x0 , f (x0 ))
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x, f (x)) . (x, f (x)) l.
x1 < x < x0 , (x, f (x)) l.
5.5.30. f : (a, b) R (a, b). x1 , x2 (a, b)
x1 < x2 (x1 , x2 ) f (xx22)f
x1
(x1 )
= f (), f
(a, b). ;
: f -
.
5.5.31. f : (0, b) R (0, b). limx0 f (x) = 0, f (x)
x
(0, b). limx0 f (x) < 0, f (x)
x
(0, b).
: x1 , x2 (0, b) x1 < x2 .
x (0, x1 ). 5.5.26
f (x1 )f (x ) f (x2 )f (x )
x1 x x2 x .

limx0 f (x) = 0, x 0+, f (x 1) f (x2 )

x1 x2 x
f (x)

(0, b).
, l = limx0 f (x) < 0. 5.5.26
f (x )f (x1 ) f (x2 )f (x1 )
x x1 x2 x1 .

671
 x 0+, lf (x1 )
x1 f (x2 )f (x1 )
x2 x1 l = .
f (x2 )f (x )
, , x 0+ f (xx11)f
x
(x )
x2 x
f (x1 )l f (x2 )l
x1 x2 .

x2 f (x1 ) x1 f (x2 ) l(x2 x1 ) < 0.

f (x1 ) f (x2 ) f (x)
, x1 < x2 x (0, b).
5.5.32. f : I R I x1 , x2 I
x1 < x2 t (0, 1) f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ), f
I.
: f : I R I
x1 , x2 I x1 < x2 f ( x1 +x 2
) f (x1 )+f (x2 )
, f I.
{ 2 2
1, x 0
f (x) = f -
0, x > 0
R. f R;
: . f I.
a, b I a < b s 0 < s < 1 f ((1 s)a + sb) >
(1 s)f (a) + sf (b).
g(t) = f ((1 t)a + tb) (1 t)f (a) tf (b)
[0, 1] g(0) = g(1) = 0 g(s) > 0.
4.2.10 t1 [0, s) t2 (s, 1]
g(t1 ) = g(t2 ) = 0

g(t) > 0 t (t1 , t2 ). (14.107)

x1 = (1 t1 )a + t1 b, x2 = (1 t2 )a + t2 b (14.108)
x1 , x2 [a, b] x1 < x2 . ,
t (0, 1) t (t1 , t2 )

(1 t)x1 + tx2 = (1 t )a + t b. (14.109)

t1 , x1 , t2 , x2 t, t -

1 a 2 a x1 1 a
t1 = xba , t2 = xba , t = x2ba t + xba . (14.110)
, g(t1 ) = g(t2 ) = 0 (14.108)

f (x1 ) = (1 t1 )f (a) + t1 f (b), f (x2 ) = (1 t2 )f (a) + t2 f (b)

(1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) = (1 t1 + tt1 tt2 )f (a) + (t1 tt1 + tt2 )f (b).

, (14.110),

(1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 ) = (1 t )f (a) + t f (b). (14.111)

, (14.109), (14.111) (14.107) t (0, 1)

f ((1t)x1 +tx2 )(1t)f (x1 )tf (x2 ) = f ((1t )a+t b)(1t )f (a)t f (b) = g(t ) > 0

.
f I.

672
 t = 12 .
. 0. ,
. , f (1) = 1, f (0) = 1, f (1) = 0
(
f 21 (1) + 21 1) = f (0) > 21 f (1) + 12 f (1).

f . , x1 < x2 0 0 <
x1 < x2 , t 0 < t < 1 f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
: 1 = 1 0 = 0, . x1 0 < x2 , t
0 < t < 1 0 < (1 t)x1 +tx2 f ((1t)x1 +tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 )+ tf (x2 )
0 1 t . t 0 < (1 t)x1 + tx2
x2xx 1
1
< t 0 < x2xx
1
1
< 1.
5.5.33. [] , f R,
R.
: f (x) u x.
x1 < x2 . 5.5.26, x x1 < x2 < x
f (x2 )f (x1 ) f (x)f (x1 ) M f (x1 )
x2 x1 xx1 xx1 .

x +, f (xx22)f
x1
(x1 )
0 f (x2 ) f (x1 ).
, x x < x1 < x2
f (x2 )f (x1 ) f (x)f (x1 ) M f (x1 )
x2 x1 xx1 xx1

, x , f (xx22)f x1
(x1 )
0 f (x2 ) f (x1 ).
f (x2 ) f (x1 ) f (x2 ) f (x1 ) f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), f
R.
5.5.34. a < 0 a > 1.
((1 t)x1 + tx2 )a < (1 t)x1 a + tx2 a 0 < x1 < x2 0 < t < 1.
xa > a a1 (x ) + a x, > 0 x = .
: xa (0, +).
xa (, a )
.
5.5.38. Young 5.4.21 : -
log x (0, +) x1/p
[0, +) p > 1.
: a, b 0 p, q > 1 p1 + 1q . ab p1 ap + 1q bq .
a = 0 b = 0, a, b > 0. , -
, ap = bq , , ap = bq
ab < p1 ap + 1q bq .
, log x (0, +), t = 1q , 1 t = p1
0 < t < 1,
( )
log p1 ap + 1q bq > p1 log(ap ) + 1q log(bq ) = log(ab).

ab < p1 ap + 1q bq .
x1/p

x1/p 1/p < p1 (1/p)1 (x )

673
 x = , x1/p (, 1/p )
.
x = ap = bq

a bq/p < p1 b1 ap p1 bq/p

a < p1 b1 ap + 1q bq/p ab < p1 ap + 1q bq .

5.5.39. f : I R I. x1 , . . . , xn I w1 , . . . , wn > 0
w1 + + wn = 1, Jensen,

f (x1 w1 + + xn wn ) f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn .

, n = 2, Jensen
.
, f I, Jensen
x1 = . . . = xn .
f () I;
a1 , . . . , an > 0. x1/q [0, +)
q q p p
q > 1 x1 = ab11 p , . . . , xn = abnn p w1 = aA1p , . . . , wn = aAnp , A =
(a1 p + + an p )1/p , Hlder 5.4.22[].
.
- 5.4.20
log x (0, +). .
: . . n = 2 Jensen

f (x1 w1 + x2 w2 ) f (x1 )w1 + f (x2 )w2 .

t = w2 , 1 t = w1 0 < t < 1,
f ((1 t)x1 + tx2 ) (1 t)f (x1 ) + tf (x2 )
f I. , f ,
x1 = x2 .
, n f (x1 w1 + + xn wn ) f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn
x1 , . . . , xn I w1 , . . . , wn > 0 w1 + + wn = 1. , f
, x1 = . . . = xn .
x1 , . . . , xn , xn+1 I w1 , . . . , wn , wn+1 > 0 w1 + +wn +wn+1 = 1,

un+1 = 1 wn+1 = w1 + + wn
w1
un+1 , wn+1 > 0 un+1 + wn+1 = 1. , un+1 , . . . , uwn+1
n
> 0
w1
un+1 + + wn
un+1 = w1 ++wn
un+1 = 1.

n = 2 n
(( )
f (x1 w1 + + xn wn + xn+1 wn+1 ) = f x1 uw 1
+ + xn u
wn
un+1 + xn+1 wn+1 )
( )
n+1 n+1

f x1 uw 1
+ + xn uwn+1
n
un+1 + f (xn+1 )wn+1
( )
n+1

f (x1 ) uw 1
n+1
+ + f (xn ) uwn+1n
un+1 + f (xn+1 )wn+1
= f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn + f (xn+1 )wn+1 .

, f .
x1 = . . . = xn = xn+1 = x,

f (x1 w1 + + xn wn + xn+1 wn+1 ) = f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn + f (xn+1 )wn+1

674
 f (x) = f (x) , .
, . -
/ . n = 2
n

x1 uw 1
n+1
+ + xn uwn+1
n
= xn+1 , x1 = . . . = xn

, , x1 = . . . = xn = xn+1 .
. = x1 w1 + + xn wn .
x1 , . . . , xn I, I.
, .
I, x1 , . . . , xn I,
x1 = . . . = xn = . f (x1 ) = . . . = f (xn ) = f () , ,
f (x1 w1 + + xn wn ) f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn f () f ()
.
I,
f (, f ()). , f (x)
(x ) + f () x I. f (xk ) (xk ) + f ()
k = 1, . . . , n
( )
f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn (x1 )w1 + + (xn )wn
+ f ()(w1 + + wn ) (14.112)
= (x1 w1 + + xn wn ) + f () = f ().

f I f (x1 w1 + + xn wn ) =
f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn , f () = f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn .
, I, x1 = . . . = xn .
I, (14.112)
( )
f (x1 )w1 + + f (xn )wn = (x1 )w1 + + (xn )wn + f ()(w1 + + wn ).

, f (xk ) = (xk ) + f () k = 1, . . . , n ,
f (, f ()) ,
xk = k = 1, . . . , n.
. f , -
.
. a1 , . . . , an > 0 p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1. x1/q
q q p p
[0, +), x1 = ab11 p , . . . , xn = abnn p w1 = aA1p , . . . , wn = aAnp ,
A = (a1 p + + an p )1/p , Jensen
(b q a p )
bn q an p 1/q a1 p bn an p
a1 p Ap + + an p Ap a bp/q Ap + + a p/q Ap
1 1 1
1 n

(b1 q ++bn q )1/q
Ap/q
a1 b1 ++an bn
Ap

(a1 p + + an p )1/p (b1 q + + bn q )1/q a1 b1 + + an bn .
x1/q ,
q q
Jensen , ab11 p = . . . = abnn p .
. a1 , . . . , an > 0. log x (0, +),
x1 = a1 , . . . , xn = an w1 = . . . = wn = n1 , Jensen
( )
log a1 n1 + + an n1 (log a1 ) n1 + + (log an ) n1

675


a1 ++an
n n a a .
1 n

Jensen -
, a1 = = an .
5.5.41. f : I R I,
f .
: 4.1.17. f , 5.11
f+ I f+
I f .
( 1 )
5.6.2. limx0 log(1+x) x1 , limx0 (x + ex )1/x , limx1+ log x log(x 1),
x 1 x(x1/x 1)
limx0+ xx , limx+ log x .
: () ().
( 1 )
limx0 log(1+x) x1 = limx0 xlog(1+x) 11/(1+x)
x log(1+x) = limx0 log(1+x)+x/(1+x)
1/(1+x)2 1
= limx0 1/(1+x)+1/(1+x)2
= limx0 2+x = 12 .

1 . (x + ex )1/x = e(1/x) log(x+e

x)

x)
limx0 log(x+e
x , 00 .
log(x+ex ) 1+ex
limx0 x = limx0 x+ex = 2,

limx0 (x + ex )1/x = e2 .
(0+)().
log(x1) 1/(x1)
limx1+ log x log(x 1) = limx1+ 1/ log x = limx1+ 1/(x(log x)2 )
x(log x)2 (log x)2 2 log x
= limx1+ x1 = limx1+ x1 = limx1+ x = 0.

. limx0+ xx
00 xx = ex log x .
log x 1/x
limx0+ x log x = limx0+ 1/x = limx0+ 1/x2
= limx0+ x = 0.

, limx0+ xx = e0 = 1 limx0+ xx 1 00 .
x

xx 1 = e(x 1) log x , limx0+ (xx 1) log x

x x

0().
xx 1 xx (log x+1)
limx0+ (xx 1) log x = limx0+ 1/ log x = limx0+ 1/(x(log x)2 )
= limx0+ xx+1 (log x + 1)(log x)2
= limx0+ x(log x + 1)(log x)2
( )
= limx0+ x(log x)3 + x(log x)2 .

limx0+ x log x = 0 limx0+ x(log x)n = 0 n N.

,

limx0+ x(log x)n = lim (x1/n log x)n = nn lim (x1/n log(x1/n ))n
x0+ x0+
= nn lim (y log y)n = 0.
y0+

( )
limx0+ (xx 1) log x = limx0+ x(log x)3 + x(log x)2 = 0

676
, , limx0+ xx 1 = e0 = 1.
x

. limx+ x1/x (+)0 .

x1/x = e(log x)/x limx+ logx x
+
+ .
limx+ logx x = limx+ x1 = 0,
limx+ x1/x = e0 = 1.
limx+ x(xlog x1) (+)0.
1/x

, , .
x(x1/x 1) e(log x)/x 1 ey 1
limx+ log x = limx+ (log x)/x = limy0 y = 1.
( 1cos x )
5.6.5. a, b limx0 x4
+ ax2 + b = 0.
:
( 1cos x )
+ ax2 + b = limx0 1cos x+ax2 +bx4 3
limx0 x4 x4
= limx0 sin x+2ax+4bx
4x3
2
= limx0 cos x+2a+12bx
12x2
x+2a
= b + limx0 cos12x2 .

, limx0((cos x + 2a) = 1 +)2a. 1 + 2a = 0, b + limx0 cos12x

x+2a
2 = + ,
, limx0 1cos x 2
+ ax + b = + .
x4
1 + 2a = 0, a = 12 .
( )
limx0 1cosx4
x
+ ax2 + b = b + limx0 cos12x
x+2a
2 = b + limx0 cos x1
12x2
= b limx0 sin x
24x =b 1
24

1
b = 24 .
x x

2
5.6.6. limx+ e +eex , limx+ xx+1 -
l Hopitl; ,
l Hopitl;
: l Hopitl -
+
+
:
ex +ex ex ex ex +ex ex ex
limx+ ex = limx+ ex = limx+ ex = limx+ ex = ...

:

x2 +1 x x2 +1 x
limx+ x = limx+ x2 +1
= limx+ x = limx+ x2 +1
= ...

:
ex +ex
limx+ ex = limx+ (1 + e2x ) = 1,

x2 +1
( )
1 1/2
limx+ x = limx+ 1 + x2
= 1.
5.6.8. f, g : (0, 1) R (0, 1) limx0+ f (x) =
limx0+ g(x) = 0, g(x), g (x) = 0 x (0, 1)
(x)
limx0+ fg(x)
(x)
limx0+ fg (x) .
: f (x) = x2 sin x1 g(x) = x (0, 1).

f (x)
limx0+ g(x) = limx0+ x sin x1 = 0

677
 ( )
f (x)
limx0+ g (x) = limx0+ 2x sin x1 cos x1 = limx0+ cos x1
.
5.6.9. f : ( , + ) R, a < < b.
f (), limh0+ f (+h)f (h)
2h = f ().
l Hopitl.
f (), limh0+ f (+h)2f ()+f (h)
h2
= f ().
f (), limh0 f (+2h)2fh2(+h)+f () = f ().
dn y
dxn n- y = f (x).
: :
( () )
limh0+ f (+h)f
2h
(h)
= 12 limh0+ f (+h)f
h
()
+ f (h)f
h = 12 (f () + f ()) = f ().

l Hopitl (
h).
.
f (+h)f (h)
limh0+ f (+h)2f ()+f (h)
h2
= limh0+ 2h = f ().
f (+2h)2f (+h)+f () 2f (+2h)2f (+h) (+h)
limh0 h2
= limh0 2h = limh0 f (+2h)f h
( () () )
= limh0 f (+2h)f
h f (+h)f
h
( () () )
= limh0 2 f (+2h)f
2h f (+h)f
h

= 2f () f () = f ().
5.5.4 x = h

y = f ( + h) f ()

2 y = (y)
. : (y)() = f ( + h) f ()
(y)( + h) = f ( + 2h) f ( + h)

2 y = (y)( + h) (y)() = f ( + 2h) 2f ( + h) + f ().

3 y = (2 y)( + h) (2 y)()
= (f ( + 3h) 2f ( + 2h) + f ( + h)) (f ( + 2h) 2f ( + h) + f ())
= f ( + 3h) 3f ( + 2h) + 3f ( + h) f ().
,
( )
n y = nk=0 (1)nk nk f ( + kh).

( 5.5.20.)

n y (n) ()
limx=h0 (x) n = f

d y n
(n) ().
dx n f

l Hopitl. ,
, ,
n ( )
nk n k n1 = 0,
n ( )
nk n k n = n!
k=1 (1) k k=1 (1) k

678
 .
n y 1 n
( )
nk n f ( + kh)
limx=h0 (x) n = limh0 hn k=0 (1) k
1 n nk
(n )
= limh0 nhn1 k=1 (1) k kf ( + kh)
n ( )
= limh0 n(n1)hn2 k=1 (1)nk nk k 2 f ( + kh)
1

1 n ( )
nk n k 3 f ( + kh)
= limh0 n(n1)(n2)hn3 k=1 (1) k

1 n ( )
nk n k n1 f (n1) ( + kh)
= limh0 n(n1)2h k=1 (1) k
1 n
(n) n1 (n1)
= limh0 n!h k=1 (1) nk
k k (f ( + kh) f (n1) ())
1 n
( )
nk n k n f
(n1) (+kh)f (n1) ()
= limh0 n! k=1 (1) k kh
1 n nk
(n ) n f (n1) (+kh)f (n1) ()
= n! k=1 (1) k limh0
1 n nk
(nk ) n (n) kh
= n! k=1 (1) k k f ()
= f (n) ()

5.6.10. 0 < k < 1 n N.

n
1 + 1! x
+ + xn! = kex . xn ,
(xn ) .
( n)
: fn (x) = ex 1 + 1! x
+ + xn! .

( n) ( )
fn (x) = ex 1 + 1! + + xn! + ex 1 + 1! xn1
= ex xn! < 0
n
x x
+ + (n1)!

x > 0.
fn [0, +). , fn (0) = 1 limx+ fn (x) = 0.
limx+ ex xk = 0 k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
fn (0, +) (0, 1) , f ,
k (0, 1) xn > 0 fn (xn ) = k.
, k (0, 1) xn+1 > 0
fn+1 (xn+1 ) = k.
fn (x) < fn+1 (x) x > 0 :
( n) ( )
fn (x) = ex 1 + 1! + + xn! < ex 1 + 1!
n xn+1
x x
+ + xn! + (n+1)! = fn+1 (x).

, xn+1 > 0

fn (xn+1 ) < fn+1 (xn+1 ) = k = fn (xn ).

fn , fn (xn+1 ) < fn (xn ) xn < xn+1 .

5.6.11. [] a < < b f : (a, b) R n1
(a, b). f (n) (),
( (1) (n1)
)/ (n)
limx f (x) f () f 1!() (x )1 f (n1)!() (x )n1 (x )n = f n!() .

n = 1, f ().
n = 2, n = 3.
n k
n k
k=0 bk (x)
[] limx k=0 bk (x)
(x)n = limx (x)n R. bk = bk
k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
n f (k) ()
[] [] , , f (n) () R. Pn (x) = k=0 k! (x )k

679
 f (x)P (x)
P (x) n limx (x)n = 0.
[] f : (1, 1) R (1, 1)
(
(
))x 0

f (0) = 1, f (0) = 0, f (0) = 1, limx+ f a/ x =e a2 /2
.
: [] l Hopitl
f (1) () f (n1) ()
f (x)f () 1!
(x)1 (n1)! (x)n1
lim (x)n
x
f (2) () f (n1) ()
f (1) (x)f (1) () 1!
(x)1 (n2)! (x)n2
= limx n(x)n1
f (3) () f (n1) ()
f (2) (x)f (2) () 1!
(x)1 (n3)! (x)n3
= limx n(n1)(x)n2

f (n1) ()
f (n2) (x)f (n2) () (x)1
= limx 1!
n(n1)3(x)2
f (n1) (x)f (n1) ()
= limx n(n1)32(x)
f (n) ()
= n! .

n = 2 n = 3, :
f ()
f (x)f ()f ()(x) f () f (x)f ()f ()(x) (x)2 f ()
limx (x)2
= 2 , limx (x)3
2
= 6 .
n k
n k
k=0 bk (x) k=0 bk (x)
[] limx (x)n = limx (x)n R
n
k=0 (bk bk )(x)
k
limx (x)n = 0. (14.113)

(14.113) limx (x )n = 0

limx nk=0 (bk bk )(x )k = 0

b0 = b0 .
(14.113) x
n
k=1 (bk bk )(x)
k1
limx (x)n1
= 0. (14.114)

, (14.114) limx (x )n1 = 0

limx nk=1 (bk bk )(x )k1 = 0

b1 = b1 .
, b2 = b2 , b3 = b3 ...
[] f (n) () R, []
f (1) () f (n1) () f (n) ()
f (x)f () 1!
(x)1 (n1)! (x)n1 n! (x)n
limx (x)n =0

n f (k) ()
limx f (x)P (x)
(x)n = 0 Pn (x) = k=0 k! (x ) .
k

, [] Pn .
[] g(t) = log(f (t)) :
f (0) f (0)f (0)(f (0))2
g(0) = 0, g (0) = f (0) = 0, g (0) = (f (0))2
= 1.

680
 g(t)
[] g n = 2 limt0 t2
= 12
( ) g(t) 2
limx+ x log f ( ax ) = limx+ xg( ax ) = a2 limt0 t2
= a2 .
( ( ))x
= limx+ ex log(f (a/ x)) = ea /2 .
2
, limx+ f a/ x
5.6.12. 5.6.11 .
a < < b f 2m 1 (a, b)
f (2m) (). f (1) () = . . . = f (2m1) () = 0,
f , f (2m) () > 0, f , f (2m) () < 0.
a < < b f 2m (a, b)
f (2m+1) (). f (1) () = . . . = f (2m) () = 0 f (2m+1) () = 0,
f .
: 5.6.11 f (1) () = . . . = f (n1) () = 0
f (n) (),
limx f (x)f ()
(x)n = f
(n) (). (14.115)
, n = 2m, (14.115)
f (x)f ()
limx (x)2m
= f (2m) ().

f (x)f ()
f (2m) () > 0, (x)2m
> 0 f (x) > f () ,
f . f (2m) () < 0, f(x)
(x)f ()
2m < 0 f (x) < f ()

, f .
, n = 2m + 1, (14.115)
f (x)f ()
limx (x)2m+1
= f (2m+1) ().

f (x)f ()
f (2m+1) () > 0, (x) 2m+1 > 0 . f (x) > f ()

f (x) < f () ,
f (x)f ()
f . f (2m+1) () < 0, (x) 2m+1 < 0 .

f (x) < f () f (x) > f ()

, f .
5.6.14. f, g : [0, 1) R [0, 1)
0 f (0)g (0) = f (0)g (0). Cauchy,
x (0, 1) (0, x) (f (x) f (0))g () = (g(x) g(0)f ().
= (x) x, limx0 (x) 1
x = 2.
:
f (x)f (0)f (0)x f (0) f ()f (0)
limx0 x2
= 2 , lim0 = f (0). (14.116)

g.
, , (x) , ,
0 x 0.
(14.116) g 0
g f 0
(f (x)f (0))g ()f (0)g ()x f (0)g (0) (g(x)g(0))f ()g (0)f ()x g (0)f (0)
limx0 x2
= 2 , limx0 x2
= 2 .

(f (x) f (0))g () = (g(x) g(0)f (),

(0)g () (0)f (0)

limx0 g (0)f ()f
x = f (0)g (0)g
2 . (14.117)

681
, (14.116) g
g (0)f ()f (0)g (0) f (0)g ()f (0)g (0)
lim0 = f (0)g (0), lim0 = g (0)f (0).

,
g (0)f ()f (0)g ()
lim0 = f (0)g (0) g (0)f (0).

f (0)g (0) = f (0)g (0), g (0)f ()

f (0)g () = 0 0 , , (14.117),
limx0 x = 12 .
5.6.15. f (a, +) limx+ (f (x) + f (x)) = .
limx+ f (x) = limx+ f (x) = 0.
: g(x) = ex f (x) l Hopitl.
g (x) ex f (x)+ex f (x)
limx+ (ex ) = limx+ ex = limx+ (f (x) + f (x)) = .

limx+ g(x)
ex = , , limx+ f (x) = .
, limx+ (f (x) + f (x)) = limx+ f (x) = 0.
5.6.16. limx0+ xm e1/x = 0 m N.
{
e1/x , x > 0
h(x) = h -
0, x 0
{
P2n (1/x)e1/x , x > 0
R , n, h(n) (x) = P2n
0, x 0
2n. , h(n) (0) = 0 n.
{
e2/(1x ) , 1 < x < 1
2

g(x) = g
0, |x| 1
R.
: .
ym
limx0+ xm e1/x = limy+ ey = 0.

, , . -
P (x) = an xn + + a1 x + a0 ,
( )
limx0+ P x1 e1/x = 0.

,
(1)
limx0+ P x e1/x = limx0+ (an xn e1/x + + a1 x1 e1/x + a0 e1/x ) = 0.

. x > 0, h (x) = x12 e1/x = P2 ( x1 )e1/x , P2 (t) = t2

. , h 0,

limx0+ h(x)h(0)
x0 = limx0+ 1
x e1/x = 0, limx0 h(x)h(0)
x0 = limx0 0 = 0
{
P2 (1/x)e1/x , x > 0
h (0) = 0. h R h(1) (x) =
0, x 0
, n N h n
{
(n) P2n (1/x)e1/x , x > 0
h (x) =
0, x 0

682
 P2n 2n.
, x > 0
(1)
h(n+1) (x) = x12 P2n ( x1 )e1/x + 1
P ( 1 )e1/x
x2 2n x
= P2n+2 x e1/x ,

P2n+2 (t) = t2 P2n (t) t2 P2n (t) 2n + 2. ,

h(n) (x)h(n) (0) (1)
limx0+ x0 = limx0+ 1
x P2n x e1/x = 0,

h(n) (x)h(n) (0)

limx0 x0 = limx0 0 = 0.
(h(n) ) (0) = 0, h(n) R, h n + 1
R,
{
(n+1) P2n+2 (1/x)e1/x , x > 0
h (x) =
0, x 0

. g R -
R. ,
( 2)
g(x) = h 1x2 x.

, 1 < x < 1, 1x
2
> 0 h( 1x 2/(1x 2 2)
, |x| 1,
2 2 ) = e
2 2
1x
2 0 h( 1x
2 ) = 0.
5.7.3. Taylor Lagrange
sin(1o ) sin(31o ) .

: 1o = 0 + 180 , 31o = 6 + 180 .
5.7.4. f : [a, b] R [a, b]
(a, b), f (a) = f (b) = 0 |f (x)| M x (a, b).
2 +(xb)2
|f (x)| M (xa)2(ba) x (a, b).
: a < x < b. 1 (a, x) 2 (x, b)
( ) (
f (a) = f (x) + f (x)(a x) + f 2
1
(a x)2 , f (b) = f (x) + f (x)(b x) + f 2
2)
(b x)2 .

f (a) = f (b) = 0
f (2 ) f (1 )
0 = f (x)(b a) + 2 (b x)2 2 (a x)2 .

 2 ) f (1 ) 
|f (x)|(ba) =  f ( 2
2 +(xb)2
2 (bx)
2
2 (ax)
M 2 M
2 (bx) + 2 (ax)
2 = M (xa) 2 .

5.7.5. f : [a, b] R [a, b]

2
(a, b). f (a) = f (b) = 0, (a, b) |f (b) f (a)| (ba)
4 |f ()|.

: 1 (a, a+b
2 ) 2 ( 2 , b)
a+b

( a+b ) ( ) f (1 ) ( a+b )2
f 2 = f (a) + f (a) a+b
2 a + 2 2 a ,
( a+b ) ( a+b f (2 ) ( a+b )2
f 2 = f (b) + f (b) 2 b) + 2 2 b .
f (a) = f (b) = 0
f (2 ) (ba)2 f (1 ) (ba)2
0 = f (b) f (a) + 2 4 2 4 .

683

|f (1 )|+|f (2 )| (ba)2 2
|f (b) f (a)| 2 4 |f ()| (ba)
4
= 1 = 2 , , |f (1 )| |f (2 )| |f (1 )| |f (2 )|.
5.7.6. f : [a, b] R [a, b] 0 < m
f (x) 0 < f (x) M x [a, b]. , f (a) < 0 < f (b),
(a, b) f () = 0. .
Newton
f (x) = 0.
(xn ) x1 (, b], x1 = b,
xn+1 = xn ff(x n)
(xn ) n.
(xn ) xn .

n (, xn ) xn+1 = 2ff (x()
n)
(xn )2 .
(M )2n1
n 0 < xn 2mM 2m (x1 ) .

x 2 = 0
2

2 [1, 2]. x1 = 2
x2 , x3 , x4 .
2. n xn
2 ;
: f . , 1 , 2 (a, b) 1 < 2 ,
(1 , 2 ) f () = 0. , f (x) > 0
x [a, b].
,

f (x) < 0 a x < f (x) > 0 < x b.

, [a, ) f , f
, f (a) < 0, f (x) < 0 [a, ). , (, b] f
, f (b) > 0, f (x) > 0 (, b].
. x1 (, b], f (x1 ) > 0 , f (x1 ) > 0, -

x2 = x1 ff(x1)
(x1 ) < x1 .

, (, x1 ) f () = f (x1 )f ()
x1 = f (x1 )
x1 , f
,
f (x1 ) f ()(x1 )
x2 = x1 f (x1 ) = x1 f (x1 ) > x1 (x1 ) = .

, , < x2 < x1 .
, n N < xn+1 < xn .
, f (xn+1 ) > 0 f (xn+1 ) > 0,
f (xn+1 )
xn+2 = xn+1 f (xn+1 ) < xn+1 .

, (, xn+1 ) f () = f (xn+1 )f ()
xn+1 = f (xn+1 )
xn+1 , f
,
f (xn+1 ) f ()(xn+1 )
xn+2 = xn+1 f (xn+1 ) = xn+1 f (xn+1 ) > xn+1 (xn+1 ) = .

< xn+2 < xn+1 .

(xn ) (, b].
(xn ) , xn , b.

684
 f, f f (xn ) f () f (xn ) f (). ,

= ff()
()

f () = 0. , = , xn .
. (, xn )
f ()
0 = f () = f (xn ) + f (xn )( xn ) + 2 ( xn )2 ,
f ()
f (xn )(xn ) f (xn ) = 2 (xn )2
f (xn ) f ()
xn+1 = xn f (xn ) = 2f (xn ) (xn )2 .

0 < xn+1 M
2m (xn )2 n.
(M )2n1
0 < xn 2m M 2m (x1 ) .
. f (x) = x 2 f (x) = 2x 2 f (x) = 2
2

x [1, 2].
m = 2 M = 2. , f (1) = 1 f (2) = 2 [1, 2]
2 f (x) = 0.
x1 = 2,
f (2) f (3/2)
x2 = 2 f (2) = 3
2 = 1.5, x3 = 3
2 f (3/2) = 17
12 = 1.41666 . . . ,

f (17/12)
x4 = 17
12 f (17/12) = 577
408 = 1.414215686 . . . .

( )2n1 ( )2n1 / n1
0 < xn 2 2 12 (2 2) < 2 12 (2 1) = 1 22 1 n.

, 0 < x1 2 < 1, 0 < x2 2 < 12 , 0 < x3 2 < 18 0 <

x4 2 < 128 1
< 1012 . , x4 2 ()

. , x4 = 1.414215686 . . . 2 = 1.41421356237 . . .
.
xn 2 ,
,
xn 2 < 1105
10

2
1
22n1 10105

, 22 1 1010 . n = 18 x18
n1 5
,
2 () .
f (n+1) ()
(n+1)! (x )
5.7.7. Taylor Lagrange n+1 , -
, x. = (x), , f (n+2) ()
= 0, limx+ (x) 1
x = n+2 .
: Taylor 5.6.11
n + 2.
5.7.8. [] f : (a, +) R (a, +).
, u0 = sup{|f (x)| | x > a}, u1 = sup{|f (x)| | x > a}, u2 = sup{|f (x)| | x > a},
u1 2 4u0 u2 .
[] f : R R R. , u0 = sup{|f (x)| | x R},

685
u1 = sup{|f (x)| | x R}, u2 = sup{|f (x)| | x R}, u1 2 2u0 u2 .
[] f : (0, +) R. f (0, +) limx+ f (x) = 0, -
limx+ f (x) = 0.
: [] x > a h > 0 (x, x + h)
f () 2
f (x + h) = f (x) + f (x)h + 2 h .

|f (x)|h |f (x + h)| + |f (x)| + 21 |f ()|h2 2u0 + 12 u2 h2 ,

, , u1 h 2u0 + 21 u2 h2 h > 0.
u2 = 0, u1 h 2u0 h > 0, u1 0
u1 = 0. u21 4u0 u2 0 = 0.
u1 = 0, u1 2 4u0 u2 .
u1 > 0 u2 > 0, u1 h 2u0 + 12 u2 h2 h = uu12
u1 2 4u0 u2 .
[] x h > 0 1 (x h, x) 2 (x, x + h)
f (1 ) 2 f (2 ) 2
f (x h) = f (x) f (x)h + 2 h , f (x + h) = f (x) + f (x)h + 2 h .

f (2 )f (1 ) 2
f (x + h) f (x h) = 2f (x)h + 2 h .

|f (2 )|+|f (1 )| 2
2|f (x)|h |f (x + h)| + |f (x h)| + 2 h 2u0 + u2 h2 ,

, , u1 h u0 + 21 u2 h2 h > 0.
u1 2 2u0 u2 [].
[] u2 = sup{|f (x)| | x > 0} > 0.
2
limx+ f (x) = 0, N > 0 |f (x)| < 4(u2 +1) x > N .

u0,N = sup{|f (x)| | x > N }, u1,N = sup{|f (x)| | x > N }, u2,N = sup{|f (x)| | x > N }

2
u0,N 4(u2 +1) u2,N u2 , []
2
u1,N 2 4u0,N u2,N 4 4(u2 +1) u2 < 2

u1,N < . , |f (x)| < x > N limx+ f (x) = 0.

5.7.9. n Z, n 0, f, g : [, c] R, n [, c]
f (n) , g (n) [, c] (, c). x (, c]
(, x)
( (k)
) ( (k)
)
f (x) nk=0 f k!() (x )k g (n+1) () = g(x) nk=0 g k!() (x )k f (n+1) ().

: x (, c]
n f (k) (t) n g (k) (t)
F (t) = f (x) k=0 k! (x t)k , G(t) = g(x) k=0 k! (x t)k . (14.118)

686
 F (x) = f (x) f (x) = 0 G(x) = g(x) g(x) = 0.
h(t) = G()F (t) F ()G(t) h() = h(x) = 0,
(, x) h () = 0 , ,

F ()G () = G()F (). (14.119)

(14.118)
n f (k+1) (t) n f (k) (t) (n+1) (t)
F (t) = k=0 k! (x t)k + k=1 (k1)! (x t)k1 = f n! (x t)n

, ,
(n+1) (t)
G (t) = g n! (x t)n .
(14.119) .

14.6 6.
6.1.1. f : [a, b] R.
[a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ), f -
[a, b].
, [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ), f
[a, b].
: . = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
(f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; ) lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk } uk =
sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk }.


(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )

0.
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = 0,
0 , , lk = uk k = 1, . . . , n.
k {f (x) | xk1 x xk } .
f [xk1 , xk ] [a, b].
. = .
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ), (f ; a, b; ) =
(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = (f ; a, b; )
f [a, b].
6.1.2. f : [a, b] R. , f [a, b],
[a, b] (f ; a, b; ) = +.
: [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) < +.
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} uk = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk },
n
k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) < +

uk < + k = 1, . . . , n.
u = max{u1 , . . . , un }.
, x [a, b] k x [xk1 , xk ] , , f (x) uk u.
f (x) u x [a, b], f [a, b].
6.1.3. f : [c, d] R l = inf{f (x) | c x d}, u = sup{f (x) | c x d}.
(f ; c, d) = u l.

687
 0 (f ; c, d) + (f ; c, d) < + f
[c, d].
(f ; c, d) = sup{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]}.
: < u + l < +. < u + < l +.
, l u.
0 u l +.
, , ul < + u < + l < , ,
< l. , u l < + f
[c, d].
, s, t [c, d] f (s) f (t) u l, u l
{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]}.

sup{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]} u l = (f ; c, d). (14.120)

, U = sup{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]}, s, t [c, d]

f (s) f (t) U f (s) U + f (t). U + f (t) {f (s) | s
[c, d]} , , u U +f (t) t [c, d]. , U < +,
u U f (t) t [c, d], u U {f (t) | t [c, d]}.
, u U l u l U . , U = +, u l U .

(f ; c, d) = u l sup{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]}. (14.121)

(14.120) (14.121) (f ; c, d) = sup{f (s) f (t) | s, t [c, d]}.

{
x, x [0, 1] Q
6.2.3. f : [0, 1] R f (x) =
0, x [0, 1] \ Q
1 1 1
f (x) dx = 0 0 f (x) dx = 2 .
0
: = {0 = x0 , . . . , xn = 1} [0, 1].
[xk1 , xk ] x f (x) = 0. ,
f 0, f [xk1 , xk ] 0. ,
lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk } = 0.

(f ; 0, 1; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 0(xk xk1 ) = 0
, ,
1
f = sup{(f ; 0, 1; ) | [a, b]} = sup{0} = 0.
0

{f (x) | xk1 x xk } = {f (x) | xk1 x xk , x Q} {f (x) | xk1 x xk , x

/ Q}
= {0} {x | xk1 x xk , x
/ Q}.

1.4.1 uk = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk } = xk .

(f ; 0, 1; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 xk (xk xk1 )
x +x
nk=1 k 2 k1 (xk xk1 ) = 21 nk=1 (xk 2 xk1 2 )
= 21 (xn 2 x0 2 ) = 12 .

, 1
2 {(f ; 0, 1; ) | [a, b]}
1
2 inf{(f ; 0, 1; ) | [a, b]}.

688
, [0, 1] n ,
xk = nk k = 0, 1, . . . , n
n n n
(f ; 0, 1; ) = k=1 xk (xk xk1 ) = k 1
k=1 n n = 1
n2 k=1 k = n+1
2n = 1
2 + 1
2n .

, > 0 n N 2n 1
< , ,
1
(f ; 0, 1; ) < 2 + . > 0
{(f ; 0, 1; ) | [a, b]} < 12 + ,
1
0f = inf{(f ; 0, 1; ) | [a, b]} = 12 .

6.2.4. f [a, b] [a, b], (n )

(n ), (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) 0. f
b b
[a, b] (f ; a, b; n ) a f (f ; a, b; n ) a f .
:
b b
(f ; a, b; n ) f af (f ; a, b; n ) (14.122)
a

, ,
b b
0 af f (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n )
a
b b
n. n +, a f f = 0, f
a
[a, b].
, (14.122)
b
(f ; a, b; n ) a f (f ; a, b; n )

, ,
b
0 (f ; a, b; n ) a f (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n )

b
0 a f (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n ) (f ; a, b; n )
b
n. , , n +, (f ; a, b; n ) f
b a
(f ; a, b; n ) a f .
6.2.5. f [a, b] f (r) = 0 r
b
[a, b]. a f = 0.
: = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b].
[xk1 , xk ] . f 0
[xk1 , xk ], 0 {f (x) | xk1 x xk }.
lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk } uk = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk },

lk 0 uk .

,

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) 0, (f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) 0.

, , [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) 0 (f ; a, b; ). (14.123)

689
, f [a, b]
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (f ; a, b; ). (14.124)

, > 0. -
[a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < .
b
, , (14.123) (14.124) | f 0| <
b a
, > 0, a f = 0.
6.2.6. f, g, h : [a, b] R f (x) g(x) h(x) x [a, b].
b b
f h [a, b] a f (x) dx = a h(x) dx, g
b b b
[a, b] a g(x) dx = a f (x) dx = a h(x) dx.
: > 0. , [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < 2 , (h; a, b; ) (h; a, b; ) < 2 .

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < 2 , (h; a, b; ) (h; a, b; ) < 2 . (14.125)

,
b b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (f ; a, b; ), (h; a, b; ) a h (h; a, b; ). (14.126)
b b
(14.125), (14.126) a f= a h

(h; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . (14.127)

, = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} lk , uk f -
[xk1 , xk ] lk , uk g lk , uk h.
x [xk1 , xk ] lk f (x) g(x) h(x) uk , lk uk -
, , {g(x) | xk1 x xk }.
lk lk uk uk k , , -
xk xk1 k = 1, . . . , n,

(f ; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) (h; a, b; ).

(14.127)

(g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < .

g [a, b].
b b b
, f (x) g(x) h(x) x [a, b], a f a g a h.
b b b b b
a f = a h a f = a g = a h.
6.2.7. f : [a, b] R. f [c, b] c
b b
a < c < b, f [a, b] a f (x) dx = limca+ c f (x) dx.
: f , M > 0 |f (x)| M
x [a, b].
c (a, b) c a < 4M
.
f [c, b], = {c = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[c, b]
(f ; c, b; ) (f ; c, b; ) < 2 . (14.128)

690
 = {a} = {a, c = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b].
n + 1 [a, b]: [a, c] n [c, b]
. , l = inf{f (x) | a x c} u = sup{f (x) | a x c},

(f ; a, b; ) = l(c a) + (f ; c, b; ), (f ; a, b; ) = u(c a) + (f ; c, b; )

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = (u l)(c a) + (f ; c, b; ) (f ; c, b; ),

(14.128)

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < (u l)(c a) + 2 . (14.129)

x [a, c] M f (x) M M l u M .
u l 2M , c a < 4M

, (14.129)

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <
2 +
2 = .

f [a, b].
,
c
M (c a) l(c a) a f u(c a) M (c a).
c
| a f | M (c a) <
4 , ,
b   
 f b f =  c f < .
c a a 4

, , > 0 = 4M
> 0 c (a, b) ca <
b b b b
| c f a f | < . a f = limca+ c f .
b
6.2.8. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x) dx > 0,
( ) [c, d] [a, b] f (x) > 0 x [c, d].
b b
: f = a f > 0.
a
b
f = sup{(f ; a, b; ) | [a, b]},
a
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] (f ; a, b; ) > 0.
, lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk } k = 1, . . . , n,
n
k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ) > 0.

lk 0 k = 1, . . . , n, (f ; a, b; ) 0.
k lk > 0.
, x [xk1 , xk ] f (x) lk > 0.
6.2.9. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
[a1 , b1 ] (a, b) 0 < b1 a1 < 1 sup{f (x) | a1 x
b1 } inf{f (x) | a1 x b1 } < 1.
([an , bn ]) 0 < bn an < n1 , [an+1 , bn+1 ] (an , bn )
sup{f (x) | an x bn } inf{f (x) | an x bn } < n1 n.
(an , bn ) n. f .
[a, b]
f . , f [a, b].

691
: [c, d] [a, b] > 0.
f [a, b], [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < (d c). (14.130)

c, d -,
, (14.130) , c, d
. (
). (, c, d ,
.)
, = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}, c = xp d = xq p, q 0 p <
q n. , lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk } uk = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk }
k = 1, . . . , n, (14.130)
q n
k=p+1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) k=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
(14.131)
= (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < (d c).

uk lk k = p + 1, . . . , q,
q q
k=p+1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) k=p+1 (xk xk1 ) = (xq xp ) = (d c),

(14.131) .
k = p + 1, . . . , q uk lk < .
[xk1 , xk ] [c, d] , , -
[u, v] (xk1 , xk ) (c, d) v u < . , ,

sup{f (x) | u x v} inf{f (x) | u x v}

sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk } inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk }
= uk lk < .

, , : [c, d] [a, b]
> 0 (u, v) [c, d]

0 < v u < , sup{f (x) | u x v} inf{f (x) | u x v} < .

.
. [c, d] = [a, b] = 1
[u, v] [a1 , b1 ]. [a1 , b1 ] (a, b)

0 < b1 a1 < 1, sup{f (x) | a1 x b1 } inf{f (x) | a1 x b1 } < 1.

1
, [c, d] = [a1 , b1 ] = 2 -
[u, v] [a2 , b2 ]. [a2 , b2 ] (a1 , b1 )

0 < b2 a2 < 21 , sup{f (x) | a2 x b2 } inf{f (x) | a2 x b2 } < 12 .

([an , bn ])
n [an+1 , bn+1 ] (an , bn )

0 < bn an < n1 , sup{f (x) | an x bn } inf{f (x) | an x bn } < n1 . (14.132)

[an , bn ] n.
. , n [an+1 , bn+1 ] (an , bn )

(an , bn ) n. (14.133)

692
, > 0. n N n1 < (an , bn ).
x (an , bn ) inf{f (t) | an t bn } f (x) sup{f (t) | an t bn } ,
(14.133), inf{f (t) | an t bn } f () sup{f (t) | an t bn } , ,
(14.132)
|f (x) f ()| sup{f (x) | an x bn } inf{f (x) | an x bn } < 1
n < .
|f (x)f ()| < x (an , bn ). (14.133)
|f (x) f ()| < , f .
. [c, d]
[a, b], [c, d] [a, b] , -
, [c, d] f .
( ) [a, b]
f f [a, b].

6.3.1. x3 x, 1/(x3 x), x3 x ;
: x3 x R, [a, b].
1/(x3 x) R\{0, 1}, [a, b]
0, 1. , [a, b]
b < 1 1 < a < b < 0 0 < a < b < 1 1 < a.
x3 x [1, 0] [1, +),
[a, b] . , [a, b]
1 a < b 0 1 a.
6.3.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b].
f [A, B], A = f (a), B = f (b), f 1 : [A, B] [a, b]
[A, B].
b B
a f (x) dx + A f 1 (y) dy = bB aA.
0 a < b 0 A < B, .
: .
40 f [a, b] [A, B]
f 1 [A, B] [a, b]. -
. : f 1
, -
f f 1
f . ,
f 1 , y,
, x, .

b B
, a f abN M A f 1
ABN M .

693
 aM ABN b,
0bN B 0aM A, Bb Aa.
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn } [a, b]. ,

a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xk1 < xk < . . . < xn1 < xn = b.

yk = f (xk ), , f ,

A = y0 < y1 < . . . < yk1 < yk < . . . < yn1 < yn = B.

= {y0 , y1 , . . . , yn1 , yn } [A, B].

f , [xk1 , xk ]

lk = f (xk1 ) = yk1 , uk = f (xk ) = yk ,

n
(f ; a, b; ) = k=1 yk1 (xk xk1 ),
n (14.134)
(f ; a, b; ) = k=1 yk (xk xk1 ).

f 1 (yk ) = xk k f 1 , ,
,

(f 1 ; A, B; ) = nk=1 xk1 (yk yk1 ),
(14.135)
(f 1 ; A, B; ) = nk=1 xk (yk yk1 ).

(14.134), (14.135)
n
(f ; a, b; ) + (f 1 ; A, B; ) = k=1 yk1 (xk xk1 )

+ nk=1 xk (yk yk1 )
n n
= k=1 yk1 xk yk1 xk1
n k=1
n (14.136)
+ k=1 xk yk k=1 xk yk1

= nk=1 yk1 xk1 + nk=1 xk yk
= xn yn x0 y0 = Bb Aa.

, (14.134), (14.135)

(f ; a, b; ) + (f 1 ; A, B; ) = Bb Aa. (14.137)

> 0. [a, b]

0 (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . (14.138)

(14.136), (14.137) (14.138)

0 (f 1 ; A, B; ) (f 1 ; A, B; ) < . (14.139)

, ,
b
(f ; a, b; ) a f (f ; a, b; ), (14.140)
B
(f 1 ; A, B; ) A f 1 (f 1 ; A, B; ). (14.141)
(14.138), (14.140)
b
0 a f (f ; a, b; ) < (14.142)

694
 (14.139), (14.141)
B
0 (f 1 ; A, B; ) A f 1 < . (14.143)

(14.142), (14.143),
(b B ) ( )
< a f + A f 1 (f ; a, b; ) + (f 1 ; A, B; ) < ,

(14.136) ( b B 1 ) 
 (Bb Aa) < .
a f + A f
b B
> 0, a f + A f 1 = Bb Aa.
6.4.2. [c, d] [a, b]. f [a, b] f (x) 0
b d
x [a, b], a f c f .
: a < c < d < b.
c
f (x) 0 x [a, c], a f 0.
b
, f (x) 0 x [d, b], d f 0.
b c d b d d
a f = a f + c f + d f 0 + c f + 0 = c f.

a = c < d < b, a < c < d = b a = c < d = b

( ).
6.4.3. f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. max{f, g} :
[a, b] R [a, b].
g|
: max{f, g} = f +g+|f
2 .

6.4.4. 0 (sin x)n+1 dx 0 (sin x) dx n N, -
n

.
: x [0, ] 0 sin x 1 , , (sin x)n+1 (sin x)n .
2
6.4.5. , 3e2 1/2 xex dx 32 e1 .
: xex ex xex = (1x)ex
[ 21 , 1] [1, 2]. 1e1 = e1
12 e1/2 2e2 , 2e2 .
2e2 xex e1 x [ 12 , 2] , ,
( ) 2 ( )
2e2 2 12 1/2 xex dx e1 2 21 .
x+x t 1
1+x t
6.4.7. limx+ x 1+t2
dt, limx0+ 2x 1x 1+t2 dt.
: . , ,

.
t 1t2
. 1+t 2 (1+t2 )2 > 0 (1, 1)

< 0 (, 1) (1, +).

[1, 1] (, 1] [1, +).
x +, x 1,

[x, x + x].
,

x+ x
1+(x+ x)2
t
1+t2
x
1+x2
t [x, x + x].

695

x+ x x+x
1+(x+ x)2
x x t
1+t2
dt x
1+x2
x.
x 1
x+x t
limx+ x 1+t2
dt = 0.

. x 0+, 0 < x 1,
2 [1 x, 1]
t
1+t
[1, 1 + x]. [1 x, 1 + x] 1
[1 x, 1 + x] 1 x
1 + x.
1 x , 0 < x 1,
1x
1+(1x)2
t
1+t2
1
2 t [1 x, 1 + x].

1+x
1x
1+(1x)2
2x t
1x 1+t2 dt 1
2 2x
, , 1+x
1x
1+(1x)2
1
2x
t
1x 1+t2 dt 1
2

x 0 < x 1.

1
1+x t
limx0+ 2x 1x 1+t2 dt = 12 .

.
, x > 0 0, [1 x, 1 + x],
1, , t 1
, ,
t
1+t2
12 .
, x > 0 0,
1+x t 1+x 1
2x 1x 1+t2 dt 2x 1x 2 dt = 2 .
1 1 1
(14.144)

1
, 2
1+x
1
2x
t
1x 1+t2 dt 1
2 x 0 + . (14.145)

,
1+x 1+x 1+x
1
2x
t
1x 1+t2 dt 1
2 = 1
2x
t
1x 1+t2 dt 1
2x
1
1x 2 dt.
1+x
( 12 1
2x
1
1x 2 dt; -
(14.144).)
1+x t 1+x ( t )
1
2x 1x 1+t 2 dt 1
2 = 1
2x 1x 1+t 2 1
2 dt,

 1+x  1+x  
 1 t
dt 12  1  t
12  dt. (14.146)
2x 1x 1+t2 2x 1x 1+t2

 
 t
12  = (t1)2
(t1)2
t [1 x, 1 + x],
1+t2 2(1+t2 ) 2

696
 (14.146)
 1 1+x t  1+x x
 1 x2
2x 1x 1+t2 dt 2 (t 1)2 dt =
1 1 2
4x 1x 4x x u du = 6 .

(14.145).
b b
6.4.8. f, g [a, b] a f = a g. (a, b)
f () = g().
b
: h = f g [a, b] a h = 0.
(a, b) h() = 0.
( ) h(x) = 0 x (a, b).
h (a, b), h(x) > 0 x (a, b)
h(x) > 0 x (a, b). .
.
h a, b h(x) > 0 x (a, b),
h(a) = limxa+ h(x) 0 h(b) = limxb h(x) 0. h(x) 0
x [a, b].
b
, a h = 0, h(x) = 0 x [a, b] h
. , h [a, b] h(x) > 0
x (a, b).
(a, b) h() = 0 , , f () = g().
6.4.10. x [x] 21 .
k+1 k+(1/2)
k Z. k (x [x] 21 ) dx = 0, k (x [x] 12 ) dx = 18
k+1
k+(1/2) (x [x] 2 ) dx = 8 .
1 1
b
18 a (x [x] 12 ) dx 81 a, b a < b.
: 36 4.1.3.
. k Z, [k, k + 1] x [x] 21
x k 12 k + 1.
k+1 k+1
k (x [x] 12 ) dx =
k (x k 21 ) dx = 0,
k+(1/2) k+(1/2)
k (x [x] 12 ) dx = k (x k 21 ) dx = 18 , (14.147)
k+1 k+1
k+(1/2) (x [x] 2 ) dx = k+(1/2) (x k 2 ) dx = 8 .
1 1 1

. k Z k a < k + 1 ( [a] = k).

k a k + 21 , , x [x] 12 0 x [k, k + 12 ],
a k+(1/2)
0 k (x [x] 12 ) dx k (x [x] 21 ) dx = 18 .

, k + 21 a < k + 1, , x [x] 12 0 x [k + 12 , k + 1),

a k+1 k+1
0 k (x [x] 21 ) dx = a (x [x] 12 ) dx k+(1/2) (x [x] 21 ) dx = 18 .

,
a
0 k (x [x] 12 ) dx 18 . (14.148)

, l Z l b < l + 1 ( [b] = l),

l+1 b
0 b (x [x] 12 ) dx = l (x [x] 21 ) dx 18 . (14.149)

697
 a < b, k l (14.147)
l+1 l n+1
k (x [x] 2 ) dx =
1
n=k n (x [x] 12 ) dx = ln=k 0 = 0.

,
b l+1 a l+1
a (x [x] 1
2 ) dx = k (x [x] 1
2 ) dx k (x [x] 1
2 ) dx b (x [x] 21 ) dx
a l+1
= k (x [x] 12 ) dx b (x [x] 21 ) dx,

(14.148), (14.149)
b
81 a (x [x] 12 ) dx 18 .
n+1 1
p xp dx np
1 1
6.4.11. [] 0 < p < 1, (n+1) n
n N.
(n+1)1p n1p
p n1p n N.
1
(n+1) 1p
1p
(xn ), xn = nk=1 k1p n1p n,
.

np1 nk=1 k1p 1p 1
.
m 1
[] log n k=n k n1 + log m
m+1
n n, m N n m.
p N,
1
n+1 + 1
n+2 + + 1
pn1 + 1
pn log p.

[] (yn ), yn = 1 12 + 13 + (1)n1 n1 n.
2.5 (yn ) . xn = nk=1 k1 log n n,
y2n = x2n xn + log 2 n , , y2n log 2.

1 1
2 + 1
3 + (1)n1 n1 log 2.

: [] 1
(n+1)p 1
xp 1
np x [n, n + 1]
n+1
1
(n+1)p n
1
xp dx 1
np .

(n+1)1p n1p
1
(n+1)p 1p 1
np . (14.150)

,
( n+1 (n+1)1p ) ( n n1p
)
xn+1 xn = 1
k=1 kp 1p 1
k=1 kp 1p
(n+1)1p n1p
= 1
(n+1)p 1p 0

(14.150). (xn ) .
(14.150) k n k = 1, . . . , n

(n+1)1p 11p 1p
1p xn + n1p

1p
1
xn .
(xn ) , , .
,
np1 nk=1 k1p = np1 xn + 1p
1
1p
1
.

698
[] k N 1
k+1 1
x 1
k x [k, k + 1]
k+1
1
k+1 k
1
x dx k1 ,

1
k+1 log(k + 1) log k k1 .
k = n, . . . , m 1 k =
n, . . . , m, m 1
n
log m+1 k=n k n + log n .
1 m

n + 1 n pn m,

log pn+1
n+1
1
n+1 + 1
n+2 + + 1
pn1 + 1
pn 1
n+1
pn
+ log n+1 .

1
n+1 + 1
n+2 + + 1
pn1 + 1
pn log p.
[]

y2n = 1 1
2 3 4
1
+ 1
+ + 1
2n1 1
2n
( )
= 1 + + 13 + 14
1
2 + + 1
2n1 + 1
2n 2 12 + 41 + + 2n
1
( ) (14.151)
= 1 + + 13 + 14
1
2 + + 1
2n1 + 1
2n 1 + 12 + + n1

n+1 + n+2
1 1 1
= + 2n .

[] p = 2 y2n log 2.
, y2n1 = y2n + 2n1
log 2 + 0 = log 2.
yn log 2.
, (14.151)
( )
y2n = 1 + 12 + 13 + 14 + + 2n1
1 1
+ 2n 1+ 1
2 + + 1
n
= x2n + log(2n) xn log n = x2n xn + log 2.

6.4.12. f : [a, b] R |f (x ) f (x )| M |x x |
x , x [a, b].
d 
 c f (x) dx f (d)(d c) M (dc)
2
2 [c, d] [a, b].
b n 
 a f (x) dx n f (a + k n ) M (ba)
2
ba ba
n , ,
ba n
b k=1 2n
k=1 f (a + k n ) a f (x) dx.
ba
n
: .
d   
 f (x) dx f (d)(d c) =  d (f (x) f (d)) dx d |f (x) f (d)| dx
c c c
d (dc)2
M c (d x) dx = M 2 .

. xk = a + k ba n k = 0, 1, . . . n
[xk1 , xk ] k = 1, . . . n.
 xk 
 ba  2

xk1 f (x) dx f (xk ) n M (ba)

2n2
k = 1, . . . n.

b   ( xk )
 f (x) dx ba n f (xk ) =  n ba 
a n k=1 k=1 xk1 f (x) dx f (xk ) n
 xk 
nk=1  xk1 f (x) dx f (xk ) ba
n

2 2
nk=1 M (ba)
2n2
= M (ba)
2n .

699
 n b
ba
n k=1 f (xk ) a f (x) dx.
x
6.4.13. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. : limx+ f (t) dt = 0
[a, b).
: f [a, b], M |f (x)| M
x [a, b]. x
x
| f | M (x ), a < x b, , , limx+ f = 0.
6.4.14. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] g : [a + c, b + c] R
g(x) = f (x c) x [a + c, b + c]. g
b+c b b+c b
[a + c, b + c] a+c g(x) dx = a f (x) dx , , a+c f (x c) dx = a f (x) dx.
[] f : R R > 0, f (x + ) = f (x) x.
f [, + ].
f [a, b] a, b a < b.
b b+ a+ b+
a f (x) dx = a+ f (x) dx a f (x) dx = b f (x) dx a, b
a < b.
: [] > 0.
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . (14.152)

, [a + c, b + c]
xk = xk + c k = 0, . . . , n. uk , lk f [xk1 , xk ]
uk , lk g [xk1 , xk ]

uk = uk , lk = lk k = 1, . . . , n. (14.153)

uk = sup{g(x) | xk1 x xk } = sup{f (x c) | xk1 x xk }

= sup{f (x) | xk1 x + c xk } = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk } = uk

(14.153).
(14.153)

(g; a+c, b+c; ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = nk=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ) (14.154)

, ,
(g; a + c, b + c; ) = (f ; a, b; ). (14.155)
(14.152), (14.154), (14.155)

(g; a + c, b + c; ) (g; a + c, b + c; ) = (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) <

g [a + c, b + c].
,
b b+c
(f ; a, b; ) a f (f ; a, b; ), (g; a + c, b + c; ) a+c g (g; a + c, b + c; ).

(14.152), (14.154), (14.155)

 b+c b 
 g 
a+c a f < .
b+c b
> 0, a+c g = a f .
[] . [] [, + ] [ +

700
n, + (n + 1) ] n Z f (x)
g(x) = f (x n ) = f (x) f
[ + n, + (n + 1) ] n Z
+(n+1) +
+n f= f n Z.

. n, m Z + n a b < + (m + 1) .
n m [a, b] [ + n, + (m + 1) ],
[ + n, + (n + 1) ], . . . , [ + m, + (m + 1) ]. f
,
, , [a, b].
. [] [a, b] [a + , b + ]
f (x) g(x) = f (x ) = f (x)
b+ b
a+ f = a f.

,
a+ b+ b+ b b+ b+ b+
a f+ a+ f= a f= a f+ b f= a+ f+ b f
a+ b+
a f= b f.
b
6.4.15. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x)g(x) dx = 0
g : [a, b] R [a, b], f
. , f [a, b], f (x) = 0
x [a, b].
b
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. a f (x)g(x) dx = 0
g : [a, b] R [a, b] g(a) = g(b) = 0, f
. , f [a, b], f (x) = 0 x [a, b].
b
: [] a f g = 0 g [a, b] f
b
[a, b], a f 2 = 0.
[] f [a, b] f () > 0.
[c, d] [a, b] d c > 0, [c, d] f (x) f () 2
x [c, d].
g [a, c] [d, b], 1
c+d c+d c+d
2 [c, 2 ] [ 2 , d]. g [a, b]
b
g(a) = g(b) = 0. a f g = 0.
,
b d f () d
a fg = c fg 2 c g >0

.
f () < 0 f
.
6.4.16. 6.3.2.
f : [0, +) R [0, +), f (0) = 0
limx+ f (x) = +. f [0, +)
f 1 : [0, +) [0, +) [0, +).
a b
ab 0 f (x) dx + 0 f 1 (y) dy a, b > 0
f (a) = b.
xp1 p > 1
Young 5.4.21 ( 5.5.38).

701
: . 6.3.2
a f (a)
0 f+ 0 f 1 = af (a). (14.156)

, f (a) < b. f 1 [f (a), b],

f 1 (y) > f 1 (f (a)) = a y (f (a), b]. ,
b 1
f (a) f > a(b f (a)),

(14.156)
a b a f (a) b
0 f+ 0 f 1 = 0 f+ 0 f 1 + f (a) f
1 > af (a) + a(b f (a)) = ab.

, f (a) > b. f 1 [b, f (a)],

f 1 (y) < f 1 (f (a)) = a y [b, f (a)). ,
f (a)
b f 1 < a(f (a) b),

(14.156)
a b a f (a) f (a)
0 f+ 0 f 1 = 0 f+ 0 f 1 b f 1 > af (a) a(f (a) b) = ab.

. p > 1 p1 + 1q = 1, xp1 y q1 .
a, b > 0
a b
ab 0 xp1 dx + 0 y q1 dy = p1 ap + 1q bq

b = ap1 , , bq = ap .
6.4.18. f, g : [a, b] [0, +) [a, b] p, q > 1 1
p + 1
q = 1.
[] Hlder :
b (b ) (b
p dx 1/p
)1/q
a f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x)) a (g(x))
q dx .

s, t 0 0
s(f (x))p = t(g(x))q x [a, b].
21 + 12 = 1, Schwarz, Buniakowsky,
b (b ) (b
2 dx 1/2
)1/2
a f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x))
2
a (g(x)) dx ,

Hlder.
[] Minkowski :
(b )1/p ( b )1/p ( b )1/p
a (f (x) + g(x))p dx a (f (x))p dx + a (g(x))p dx .

s, t 0 0
sf (x) = tg(x) x [a, b].
b 1 b 1
: [] A = ( a (f (x))p dx) p B = ( a (g(x))q dx) q . A = 0 B = 0,
. A, B = 0, Young
5.4.21 f (x) g(x)
A , B . Schwarz, Buniakowsky
.
:
(b ) 2 ( b ) (b ) b
a (g(x)) dx = a (tf (x) + g(x)) dx 0
2 2 2
a (f (x)) dx t + 2 a f (x)g(x) dx t +

702
 t.
:
b b (b )2 1 b ( b )
a (f (x)) dx a (g(x)) dx = 2 a a (f (t)g(s) g(t)f (s))2 ds dt.
2 2
a f (x)g(x) dx
b b b
[] a (f (x) + g(x))p dx = a f (x)(f (x) + g(x))p1 dx + a g(x)(f (x) + g(x))p1 dx
b
Hlder a f (x)(f (x) + g(x))p1 dx
b p1 dx.
a g(x)(f (x) + g(x))
6.4.19. [] f : [a, b] [c, d] [a, b] g :([c, d] R)
[c, d]. Jensen : g E(f ; a, b) E(g f ; a, b)
( 1 b ) b
a f (x) dx ba a g(f (x)) dx.
1
, , g ba
g , , [c, d], f
[a, b].
1
b
: = E(f ; a, b) = ba a f (x) dx.
b
c f (x) d x [a, b], c(b a) a f (x) dx d(b a) , ,
c d.
, .
= c = d, f c d, , [a, b]. , f
[a, b] , , g f g() [a, b].
( 1 b ) b
a f (x) dx ba a g(f (x)) dx g() g() .
1
g ba
c < < d, g (, g()).
, g(y) (y)+g() y [c, d].
g(f (x)) (f (x) ) + g() x [a, b]
b b
a g(f (x)) dx a (f (x) ) dx + g()(b a)
(b ) (14.157)
= a f (x) dx (b a) + g()(b a) = g()(b a).
( 1 b ) b
a f (x) dx ba a g(f (x)) dx.
1
g ba
( 1 b )
g [c, d] g ba a f (x) dx =
b b
ba a g(f (x)) dx, a g(f (x)) dx = g()(b a).
1

, = c = d, f [a, b].
c < < d, (14.157)
b b
a g(f (x)) dx = a (f (x) ) dx + g()(b a).

, g(f (x)) = (f (x) ) + g() x [a, b] ,

g (, g()) ,
f (x) = x [a, b].
f [a, b].
6.4.20. f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) 0
(b )1/n
x [a, b]. A u = max{f (x) | a x b} a (f (x))n dx u.
(b )1/n
: u = 0, f 0 [a, b] a (f (x))n dx = 0 0.
, u > 0.
[a, b] f () = u > 0 , > 0 2u, f
[c, d] [a, b] d c > 0 [c, d]
u
2 < f (x) x [c, d]. (14.158)

, (d c)1/n 1 n +, n0
1
2u < (d c)1/n n n0 . (14.159)

703
, (14.158), (14.159), f 0 [a, c] [d, b]
f u [a, b],
(b )1/n (d )1/n ( )( )
u n
a (f (x)) dx c (f (x))n dx u 2 1
2u > u n n0 .
(b )
n dx 1/n
a (f (x)) u.
x
6.4.21. f : [a, b] R [a, b] |f (x)| a |f (t)| dt
x [a, b]. f 0 [a, b].
: M |f (x)| M x [a, b].

n (xa)n
|f (x)| M n! x (a, b] n Z, n 0. (14.160)

(14.160) n = 0.
(14.160) n 0.
x n+1 x n+1 (xa)n+1
|f (x)| a |f (t)| dt M n! a (t a)n dt = M (n+1)! x (a, b].

(14.160) .
, x (a, b], n + (14.160)
|f (x)| = 0 f (x) = 0. f , f (0) = 0.
n n
. (xa)
n! 0 .

1 6.4.22.
f : [0, 1] R [0, 1] 0,
0 f (x ) dx f (0).
n

: M |f (x)| M x [0, 1].

> 0 2M , f 0, > 0

|f (x) f (0)| 2 x [0, ]. (14.161)
(1 n
4M ) 0, n0
( )
n
1 4M n n0 . (14.162)

(14.161), (14.162) |f | M [0, 1]

n n0
1 
 f (xn ) dx f (0) 1 |f (xn ) f (0)| dx
0 0
1 4M
1
= 0 |f (xn ) f (0)| dx + 1 |f (xn ) f (0)| dx
4M
1 4M
1
0
2 dx + 1 4M 2M dx
( )
2 1 4M
+ 2M 4M
< 2 + 2 = .
1
0 f (xn ) dx f (0).
b
6.4.23. [] f, g : [a, b] R [a, b]. f (x) dx +
a
b b b b b
g(x) dx (f (x) + g(x)) dx a (f (x) + g(x)) dx a f (x) dx + a g(x) dx.
a a
: (6.12) (6.13) 1.2.16[].
6.4.24. f : [a, b] R 0 , . . . , m a = 0 < < m = b
f (k1 , k ) k = 1, . . . , m. f
[a, b]. : k .

704
: 6.2.7.
{
(1)[1/x] , 0 < x 1
6.4.25. f : [0, 1] R, f (x) = f
0, x = 0
1
[0, 1] 0 f (x) dx.
: |f (x) = | 1| = 1 x (0, 1] f (0) = 0. f
[0, 1].
1
( n+1 , n1 ] n N f (1)n . ,
c (0, 1] n n+1 1
< c n1 , f
[c, n1 ], ( n1 , n1
1
], . . . , ( 12 , 1]. , f
[c, 1].
6.2.7 f [0, 1]
1 1
0 f = limc0+ c f.

1
, ( n+1 )
1 1
1/(n+1) f 0 f. (14.163)

,
1 n 1/k n ( ) n ( (1)k (1)k+1 )
1/(n+1) f = k=1 1/(k+1) f= k=1 (1)
k 1
k 1
k+1 = k=1 k + k+1
n (1)k n k+1 n (1)k n+1 (1)k
= k=1 k + k=1 (1)
k+1 = k=1 k + k=2 k
n (1)k (1)n+1
= 2 k=1 k + 1 + n+1 2 log 2 + 1,

1 6.4.11[].
(14.163) 0 f = 1 2 log 2 = log 4e .
6.4.26. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b]
> 0 g, h : [a, b] R
b b
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b] a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
[] f : [a, b] R . > 0
g, h : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b]
b b
a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0
g, h : [a, b] R [a, b] g(x) f (x) h(x)
b b
x [a, b] a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < .
: > 0 g, h : [a, b] R [a, b]
b b
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b] a h a g < .
> 0 g, h [a, b]
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b]
b b
a h a g < 2 . (14.164)

, , [a, b]

(g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < 4 , (h; a, b; ) (h; a, b; ) < 4 .

(g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < 4 , (h; a, b; ) (h; a, b; ) < 4 . (14.165)

705

b b
(g; a, b; ) a g (g; a, b; ), (h; a, b; ) a h (h; a, b; ). (14.166)

(14.164), (14.165), (14.166)

( b )
(h; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) = (h; a, b; ) a h
(b b ) (b )
+ a h a g + a g (g; a, b; ) (14.167)

< 4 + 2 + 4 = .

6.2.6 ( (14.127))
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b]

(g; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) (h; a, b; ). (14.168)

(14.167), (14.168) (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < f -

[a, b].
[] [],
. ,
[] [] [].
[] f [a, b] > 0.
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < . (14.169)

lk , uk [xk1 , xk ], lk f (x) uk
x [xk1 , xk ].
, g, h [a, b] . [a, x1 )
g(x) = l1 h(x) = u1 . (xn1 , b] g(x) = ln
h(x) = un . k = 2, . . . , n 1, (xk1 , xk ) g(x) = lk h(x) =
uk . , k = 2, . . . , n 1, xk g(xk ) = max{lk , lk+1 }
h(xk ) = min{uk , uk+1 }.
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b]
b n xk n
a g = k=1 xk1 g= k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; )
b n xk n
a h = k=1 xk1 h= k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ).
b b
(14.169) a h a g < .
[] f , = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
c1 , . . . , cn f (x) = ck (xk1 , xk ).
> 0.

[a = x0 , 0 ], [1 , 1 ], . . . , [n1 , n1 ], [n , xn = b]

[k , k ] xk .

; < 4(n+1)M ,
M > 0 |f (x)| M x [a, b].
,

[0 , 1 ], [1 , 2 ], . . . , [n2 , n1 ], [n1 , n ].

706
 [k1 , k ] (xk1 , xk ).
, h [a, b] f (x) h(x)
x [a, b]
b b
a h a f < 2.

(14.170)
[k1 , k ] h(x) = ck . ,
[k1 , k ] (xk1 , xk ), h f .
f (x0 ) c1 , [x0 , 0 ] h(x) = c1 . , , c1 < f (x0 ),
[x0 , 0 ] h h(x0 ) = f (x0 ) h(0 ) = c1 .
f (xn ) cn , [n , xn ] h(x) = cn . , , cn < f (xn ),
[n , xn ] h h(n ) = cn h(xn ) = f (xn ).
, k = 1, . . . , n 1 h [k , k ] . ck ck+1
f (xk ) ck+1 , h [k , xk ] h(k ) = ck
h(xk ) = ck+1 h(x) = ck+1 [xk , k ]. ck+1 ck
f (xk ) ck , h [xk , k ] h(xk ) = ck
h(k ) = ck+1 h(x) = ck [k , xk ]. , ck < f (xk )
ck+1 < f (xk ), h [k , xk ] h(k ) = ck
h(xk ) = f (xk ) [xk , k ] h(xk ) = f (xk ) h(k ) = ck+1 .
h [a, b]
f (x) h(x) x [a, b].
, , [a = x0 , 0 ], [1 , 1 ], . . . , [n1 , n1 ], [n , xn = b]
h(x) f (x) 2M .
b b b 0 n1 k xn
a h a f = a (h f ) = x0 (h f ) + k=1 k (h f ) + n (h f )

2M (0 x0 ) + n1 k=1 2M (k k ) + 2M (xn n )

< 2M (n + 1) 4(n+1)M = 2 .

g [a, b] g(x)
f (x) x [a, b]
b b
a f a g < 2.

(14.171)
(14.170), (14.171)
b b (b b ) (b b )
a h a g = a h a f + a f a g < .

[] f [a, b] > 0.
[] g1 , h1 [a, b]
b b
g1 (x) f (x) h1 (x) x [a, b] a h1 a g1 < 2 .
, [] h [a, b]
b b
h1 (x) h(x) x [a, b] a h a h1 < 4 . , g [a, b]
b b
g(x) g1 (x) x [a, b] a g1 a g < 4 .
, g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b]
b b (b b ) (b b ) (b b )
a h a g = a h a h 1 + a h1 a g1 + a g1
a g < 4 + 2 + 4 = .

6.4.27. [] f : [a, b] [c, d] [a, b] g : [c, d] R

[c, d]. g f : [a, b] R [a, b].
{ n, An [a, b] Am An = m, n m = n. -
[] ,
1/n, x An n
f (x) = f
0, x [a, b] x
/ An n
b
[a, b] a f (x) dx = 0.
[] An = { 2k1
2n | 1 k 2
n1 } n. A [0, 1] n
n

707
Am An = m, n m = n. + c, d [0, 1] c < d
x +n=1 nA c < x < d. , n=1 An [0, 1].
[]
.
f : [0, 1] [0, 1]
{ [] An []. -
1, 0 < y 1
g : [0, 1] R g(y) = f , g ,
0, y = 0
g f : [0, 1] R [0, 1].
: [] > 0.
g [c, d], > 0

|g(y ) g(y )| <

4(ba) y , y [c, d] |y y | < . (14.172)

, g [c, d], M > 0

|g(y)| M y [c, d]. (14.173)

= min{ , 8M

}.
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < 2 . (14.174)

uk , lk f [xk1 , xk ] uk , lk -
g f .
k = 1, . . . , n . A k -
uk lk < B k,
uk lk .
k A, x , x [xk1 , xk ] lk uk f (x ) f (x ) uk lk ,
, |f (x ) f (x )| uk lk < , (14.172)

|g(f (x )) g(f (x ))| <

4(ba) .

( 3 6.2)

uk lk
4(ba) k A. (14.175)

k B, , (14.173), x , x [xk1 , xk ] |g(f (x )) g(f (x ))|

|g(f (x ))| + |g(f (x ))| 2M , , ,

uk lk 2M k B. (14.176)

, (14.174)

2 > kB (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) kB (xk xk1 ),

kB (xk xk1 ) < . (14.177)
(14.175), (14.176), (14.177)

((g f ); a, b; ) ((g f ); a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )

= kA (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) + kB (uk lk )(xk xk1 )

4(ba)

kA (xk xk1 ) + 2M kB (xk xk1 )

4(ba) (b a) + 2M
4 +
4 < .

708
 g f [a, b].
[] > 0.
n0 n01+1 < 2(ba)
. , A = A1 An0
N A.

, N < 2N
A , A a
b .
a, b = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
uk , lk f [xk1 , xk ].
k = 1, . . . , n . M k
[xk1 , xk ] A.
M N . L k,
[xk1 , xk ] A.
k M , f (x) 1 x [xk1 , xk ]

uk 1 k M. (14.178)

k L, f (x) 1
n0 +1 x [xk1 , xk ]

uk 1
n0 +1 k L. (14.179)

(14.178), (14.179)

(f ; a, b; ) = kM uk (xk xk1 ) + kL uk (xk xk1 )

kM (xk xk1 ) + n01+1 kL (xk xk1 ) < N 2N

+ 1
n0 +1 (b a) < .

, f (x) 0 x [xk1 , xk ] lk 0 k,

(f ; a, b; ) = nk=1 lk (xk xk1 ) 0.

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < f [a, b].

2n 1
[] 1 k 2n1 , 0 < 2k1
2n 2n < 1. An (0, 1) n.
2n An 2m Am , 2n = 2m 2
n < m 2k1 2l1 2k1 2l1 mn (2k1) =

2l 1 An Am = .
, c, d [0, 1] c < d. n 2n1 1
< d c k =
1
[2n1 c + 2 ] + 1.
2(2n1 c+ 12 )1 2((2n1 c+ 12 )+1)1
c= 2n < 2k1
2n 2n =c+ 1
2n1
< d.

2k1
2n An (c, d).
[] x A, f (x) > 0 g(f (x)) = 1. x [0, 1] \ A, f (x) = 0
g(f (x)) = 0.
, = {0 = x0 , . . . , xn = 1} [0, 1] uk , lk
g f [xk1 , xk ].
, [], A [0, 1], [xk1 , xk ]
A g f 1.
g f 1, uk = 1.
( ) . ( ??.)
A , [xk1 , xk ] A
g f 0. g f 0,
lk = 0.

(g f ; 0, 1; ) = k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) = 0, (g f ; 0, 1; ) = k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = 1.

709
 1 1
[0, 1], (g f ) = 0 0 (g f ) = 1,
0
g f [0, 1].
6.4.28. f : [a, b] R |f (x)| M x [a, b].
b (ba)2 M
| a f (x) dx f ( a+b
2 )(b a)| 4 .
x +x
xk = a + k ba
n k = 0, . . . , n k =
k1
2
k
k = f (k ) k = 1, . . . , n,

b 
 f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba  1 (ba) M .
2

a n 4 n

: . f ( -
0) P (x) = f (), = a+b
2 . .
x [a, b] x

f (x) P (x) = f (x) f () = f ()(x ).

|f (x) P (x)| M |x | x [a, b].
b
a P (x) dx = f ()(b a),
b   
 f (x) dx f ()(b a) =  b (f (x) P (x)) dx M b |x | dx = (ba)2 M
.
a a a 4

. [xk1 , xk ],
 xk 
 ba  (ba)2 M
xk1 f (x) dx k n 4n2
k.

b x1 xn
a f (x) dx = x0 f (x) dx + + xn1 f (x) dx

b 
 f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba  n (ba)2 M =
2 (ba)2 M
a n 4n 4n .

6.4.29. f : [a, b] R |f (x)| M x [a, b].

b 3M
| a f (x) dx f (a)+f
2
(b)
(b a)| (ba)
12 .
xk = a + k ba
n yk = f (xk ) k = 0, . . . , n,
b ( yn ) ba 

 f (x) dx y0 + y1 + + yn1 + 1 (ba)3 M
.
a 2 2 n 12 n2

: . f 1,
f a b .
f (b)f (a)
P (x) = f (a) + ba (x a)

.
x (a, b) c

f (x) P (x) = c(x a)(x b).

g(t) = f (t) P (t) c(t a)(t b) [a, b].

g(a) = g(x) = g(b) = 0, (a, b) g () = 0. ,

g (t) = f (t) 2c c = f 2() . , , x (a, b) (a, b)

f (x) P (x) = f 2() (x a)(x b).

710

|f (x) P (x)| M
2 (x a)(b x) x [a, b].
( x (a, b), , , x = a x = b.)
b
, a P (x) dx = f (a)+f
2
(b)
(b a)
b    b
 f (x) dx f (a)+f (b) (b a) =  b (f (x) P (x)) dx (ba)3 M
a (x a)(b x) dx
M
a 2 a 2 = 12 .

. [xk1 , xk ],
 xk yk1 +yk ba 

3M

xk1 f (x) dx 2 n (ba)

12n3
k.

,
b ( ) 
 f (x) dx y0 + y1 + + yn1 + yn ba  n (ba) 3M = (ba) 2M .
3 3

a 2 2 n 12n 12n

6.4.30. f : [a, b] R |f (x)| M x [a, b].

b (ba)3 M
| a f (x) dx f ( a+b
2 )(b a)| 24 .
x +x
xk = a + k ba
n k = 0, . . . , n k =
k1
2
k
k = f (k ) k = 1, . . . , n,

b 
 f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba  1 (ba)2 M .
3

a n 24 n
: . f 1,
f = a+b
2 f .

P (x) = f () + f ()(x )
Taylor .
x [a, b] x
f ()
f (x) = f () + f ()(x ) + 2 (x )2

, ,

|f (x) P (x)| M
2 (x )2 x [a, b].
b
a P (x) dx = f ()(b a),
b    b
 f (x) dx f ()(b a) =  b (f (x) P (x)) dx M
)2 dx = (ba)3 M
a a 2 a (x 24 .

. [xk1 , xk ]
 xk  (ba)3 M
 ba 
xk1 f (x) dx k n 24n3 k.

,
b 
 f (x) dx (1 + + n ) ba  n (ba) 3M =
3 (ba)3 M
a n 24n 24n2
.

6.4.31. [] f : [a, b] R |f (4) (x)| M x [a, b].

b (ba)5 M
2 ) + f (b)) 6 |
| a f (x) dx (f (a) + 4f ( a+b ba
2880 .
x +x
xk = a + k ba n yk = f (xk ) k = 0, . . . , n k =
k1
2
k
k = f (k )
k = 1, . . . , n,
b ( ) 
 f (x) dx y0 + yn + 2(y1 + + yn1 ) + 4(1 + + n ) ba  1 (ba)4 M .
5

a 6n 2880 n

711
: . ,
f a, = a+b
2 b f .

P (x) = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)(x ) + c3 (x a)(x )(x b),

c0 , c1 , c2 , c3

f (a) = c0
f () = c0 + c1 ( a)
f (b) = c0 + c1 (b a) + c2 (b a)(b )
f () = c1 + c2 ( a) + c3 ( a)( b)

( .) f
P .
x (a, b), x = . c

f (x) P (x) = c(x a)(x )2 (x b).

g(t) = f (t) P (t) c(t a)(t )2 (t b) [a, b].

g(a) = g() = g(x) = g(b) = 0 g () = 0. Rolle
(a, b) g (4) () = 0. g (4) () = f (4) () 24c ,
f (4) ()
, c = 24 . x (a, b), x = (a, b)

f (4) ()
f (x) P (x) = 24 (x a)(x )2 (x b),

|f (x) P (x)| M
24 (x a)(x )2 (b x) x [a, b].

( x (a, b), x = , x = a, x = x = b.)

[]
b P (a)+4P ()+P (b) f (a)+4f ()+f (b)
a P (x) dx = 6 (b a) = 6 (b a)

b  b 
 f (x) dx f (a)+4f ()+f (b)
(b a) =  a (f (x) P (x)) dx
a 6
b (ba)5 M
M24 a (x a)(x ) (b x) dx =
2
2880 .

. [xk1 , xk ]

 xk 
 ba  (ba)5 M
xk1 f (x) dx (yk1 + 4k + yk ) 6n 2880n5
k.

,
b ( ) 
 f (x) dx (y0 + 41 + y1 ) + + (yn1 + 4n + yn ) ba  n (ba) M
5 (ba)5 M
a 6n 2880n5
= 2880n4
.

6.4.32. a < b f : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) > 0

b
x [a, b]. a f > 0.
: 6.2.9.
n ( ) b
6.5.1. [] f [a, b]. ba
n k=1 f a+k ba
n a f.

712
 pn p
[] p 2. 1
k=n+1 k 1
1 x dx = log p.
: [] n = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] n -
. , xk = a + k ba n k = 0, . . . , n.
xk xk1 = n k, w(n ) = ba
ba
n 0.
n n
n . , k = xk = a + k ba n k = 1, . . . , n.
w(n ) 0 f [a, b], (f ; a, b; n , n )
b
a f
n ( )
(f ; a, b; n , n ) = nk=1 f (k )(xk xk1 ) = ban
ba
k=1 f a + k n .
ba n
[] pn 1
k=n+1 k n
ba
k=1 f (a+k n )
[]. 1
pn k=n+1 k pn n = (p 1)n . ,
pn 1 pnn 1 1 (p1)n 1 p1 (p1)n 1
k=n+1 k = k=1 n+k = n k=1 k
1+ n
= (p1)n k=1 p1 .
1+k (p1)n

m = (p 1)n
pn 1 p1 m 1
k=n+1 k = m k=1 1+k p1 .
m
m
ba
m
ba
k=1 f (a + k m )
f (x) = x1 [1, p]. , m + n +,
p1 m p 1
limn+ pn 1
k=n+1 k = limm+ m k=1
1
p1 = 1 x dx = log p.
1+k m

6.5.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b] (n )

b
[a, b] w(n ) 0. (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.
: 6.6, n n
n

(f ; a, b; n ) n1 < (f ; a, b; n ; n ) (f ; a, b; n ).
b b
(f ; a, b; n ; n ) a f (x) dx, (f ; a, b; n ) a f (x) dx.
6.5.3. f : [a, b] R [a, b]
> 0 > 0 1 , 2 [a, b] w(1 ) < ,
w(2 ) < 1 , 2 1 , 2 , ,
|(f ; a, b; 1 ; 1 ) (f ; a, b; 2 ; 2 )| < .
: f [a, b] > 0.
> 0 [a, b] w() <
b
|(f ; a, b; ; ) a f | < 2 .
1 , 2 [a, b] w(1 ) < , w(2 ) <
b
1 , 2 1 , 2 , , |(f ; a, b; 1 ; 1 ) a f | < 2
b
|(f ; a, b; 2 ; 2 ) a f | < 2
 b 
|(f ; a, b; 1 ; 1 ) (f ; a, b; 2 ; 2 )| (f ; a, b; 1 ; 1 ) a f 
 b 
+ (f ; a, b; 2 ; 2 ) f  a

< 2 + 2 = .
, > 0 > 0 1 , 2
[a, b] w(1 ) < , w(2 ) < 1 , 2 1 , 2 ,

713
, |(f ; a, b; 1 ; 1 ) (f ; a, b; 2 ; 2 )| < .
(n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0.
, , n [a, b] n -
, w(n ) = ba n 0.
n n n . ( -
, n .)
, > 0. . n0
w(n ) < n n0 . n, m n0 w(n ) < w(m ) < ,
, ,

|(f ; a, b; n ; n ) (f ; a, b; m ; m )| < n, m n0 .
( )
(f ; a, b; n ; n ) Cauchy , -
, . I

(f ; a, b; n ; n ) I. (14.180)

, , > 0. , , , 2 .
[a, b] w() < -
.
n , ,

w(n ) < |(f ; a, b; n ; n ) I| < 2 . (14.181)

w(n ) 0 (14.180).
, w() < w(n ) <

|(f ; a, b; ; ) (f ; a, b; n ; n )| < 2 .

(14.181)

|(f ; a, b; ; ) I| |(f ; a, b; ; ) (f ; a, b; n ; n )| + |(f ; a, b; n ; n ) I|

< 2 + 2 = .

> 0 > 0 [a, b] w() <

|(f ; a, b; ; ) I| < . -
b
f [a, b] a f = I.
6.5.5. Jensen ,
6.4.19[], f [a, b] ( g ), -
, 5.5.39.
: = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] -
= {1 , . . . , n } .

x x
k = k bak1 k = 1, . . . , n,
1 , . . . , n > 0 1 + + n = 1.
5.5.39
( x0 ) x1 x0
g x1ba f (1 ) + + xn x
ba f (n ) ba g(f (1 )) + +
n1 xn xn1
ba g(f (n ))

, , ( )
g 1
ba (f ; a, b; , )
f ; a, b; , ).
1
ba (g (14.182)
b
c f (x) d x [a, b], c ba 1
a f (x) dx d
1
b
g ba a f (x) dx.

714
, 6.4.27[], g f [a, b].
, (k ) [a, b] w(k ) 0 ,
k, k k .
6.15,
b b
ba (f ; a, b; k , k ) ba a f (x) dx, ba (g f ; a, b; k , k ) ba a g(f (x)) dx.
1 1 1 1

( 1 b ) b
a f (x) dx ba a g(f (x)) dx.
1
(14.182) g ba
. , ,
g ;
6.5.6. xy- x = x(t)
y = y(t), t [a, b] x, y : [a, b] R
[a, b]. = {t0 = a, t1 , . . . , tn1 , tn = b}
[a, b] xy-
(xk , yk ) = (x(tk ), y(tk )) k= 0,1, . . . , n 1, n.
, , l( ) = nk=1 (xk xk1 )2 + (yk yk1 )2 .
{ }
, l() = sup l( ) | [a, b] .
1 x = x1 (t) y = y1 (t) [a, b]
2 x = x2 (t) y = y2 (t) [b, c] x1 (b) = x2 (b),
y1 (b) = y2 (b),
{
{ x = x(t) y = y(t) [a, c],
x1 (t), t [a, b] y1 (t), t [a, b]
x(t) = y(t) =
x2 (t), t [b, c] y2 (t), t [b, c]

1 2 1 + 2 .

, l(1 + 2 ) = l(1 ) + l(2 ).
f : [a, b] R [a, b]. xy-
y = f (x), x [a, b] (,
x = t y = f (t) [a, b]). f : [a, b] R
b
[a, b], l() = a 1 + (f (x))2 dx.

: . = 1 + 2 .
1 [a, b] 2 [b, c].
= 1 2 [a, c] ( - b).
1 , 2 = 1
2
l(1 ) + l(2 ) = l( ).

l(1 ) + l(2 ) l().

l() < +, 1 l(1 ) l() l(2 ) , ,

l(1 ) l() l(2 ). 2 l(2 ) l() l(1 ) , , l(2 )
l() l(1 ).
l(1 ) + l(2 ) l(). (14.183)
l() = +, (14.183) .
, [a, c] . -
= {b} [a, c].
, ,

l( ) l( ).

715
 : 1 [a, b] 2 [b, c].

l( ) l( ) = l(1 ) + l(2 ) l(1 ) + l(2 )

, ,

l() l(1 ) + l(2 ). (14.184)

(14.183), (14.184) l() = l(1 ) + l(2 ).

. :
b
(b a)2 + (f (b) f (a))2 a 1 + (f )2 . (14.185)

= {x0 = a, . . . , xn = b} [a, b]
xy- (xk , f (xk ))
k = 0, . . . , n.

(b a)2 + (f (b) f (a))2 l( ) = nk=1 (xk xk1 )2 + (f (xk ) f (xk1 ))2 .

, k k (xk1 , xk ) f (xk ) f (xk1 ) = f (k )(xk xk1 )

(b a)2 + (f (b) f (a))2 l( ) = nk=1 1 + (f (k ))2 (xk xk1 ).

, , [a, b]

( )
(b a)2 + (f (b) f (a))2 l( ) = 1 + (f )2 ; a, b; ; .

(n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0
(n )
( )
(b a)2 + (f (b) f (a))2 l(n ) = 1 + (f )2 ; a, b; n ; n n.

6.4.27[], 1 + (f )2
[a, b]
( ) b
l(n ) = 1 + (f )2 ; a, b; n ; n a 1 + (f )2 . (14.186)

(14.185).
, = {x0 = a, . . . , xn = b} [a, b] -
(14.185) [xk1 , xk ] k = 1, . . . , n.

l( ) = nk=1 (xk xk1 )2 + (f (xk ) f (xk1 ))2
xk b
nk=1 xk1 1 + (f )2 = a 1 + (f )2 .

[a, b],
b
l() a 1 + (f )2 . (14.187)

, (14.186), l(n ) l() n

b
a 1 + (f )2 l().
b
(14.187) l() = a 1 + (f )2 .

716
14.7 7.
7.1.1. 2x + 3x2 R.
2x + 3x2 R 1 2. ;
: x2 + x3 2x + 3x2 R.
R , x2 + x3 + c, c
, 2x + 3x2 R.
2 1, 12 + 13 + c = 2
c = 4. 2x + 3x2 R 2 1
x2 + x3 4.
7.1.2. F (x) F (log x) = 1 x (0, 1]
F (log x) = x x [1, +) F (0) = 1.
: :
t = log x x = et .
x (0, 1], t (, 0] , x
[1, +), t [0, +).
, F (0) = 1, , ,
F (t) = 1 t (, 0] F (t) = et t [0, +).
F (t) = 1 t (, 0) F (, 0],
c1 F (t) = t + c1 t (, 0].
, F (t) = et t (0, +) F [0, +),
c2 F (t) = et + c2 t [0, +).
c1 = 1 + c2 = F (0) = 1 , ,
{
t + 1, t 0
F (t) =
et , t 0

F 0 F (0) = 1.
: G(x) = F (log x).
{ {
0, x 0 2x sin(1/x) cos(1/x), x = 0
7.1.3. -
1, x > 0 0, x = 0
0 -
R R.
: . F f R. , F = f R.
F (x) = 0 x (, 0) F (, 0],
c1 F (x) = c1 x (, 0].
, F (x) = 1 x (0, +) F [0, +),
c2 F (x) = x + c2 x [0, +).
c1 = F (0) = c2 , c = c1 = c2 ,
{
c, x 0
F (x) =
x + c, x 0

, , F (0) = 0 F+ (0) = 1, F 0.
, F (0) = f (0) = 0.
. f ,

( 2 )
x sin x1 = 2x sin x1 cos x1 x = 0

717

{
x2 sin x1 , x = 0
F (x) =
0, x = 0

F (0) = 0 F , ,
0, :
F (0) = limx0 x2 sin x1 = 0.
, F (x) = f (x) x = 0, x = 0

F (0) = limx0 F (x)F (0)

x0 = limx0 F (x)
x = limx0 x sin x1 = 0 = f (0).
F f R.
7.1.4. 1 x R. -
1 x R 2 1.
;
x 2
: 0 (1 t) dt = x x2 1 x R.
2
R , x x2 + c, c
R, 1 x R.
2
1 2, 2 22 + c = 1
c = 1. 1 x R 1
2
2 x x2 1.

f (x) dx = g(x) dx + x 3.
7.1.5. 2

f (x) dx g(x) dx ;

: f (x) dx g(x) dx x2 3 + c = x2 + c,
c R.
b
7.1.6. f [a, b]. [a, b] a f = f .

:
x a f + b f = 0
x
F (x) = a f + b f x [a, b].
F [a, b] f [a, b].
b b ( b )2
, F (a) = a f F (b) = a f , F (a)F (b) = a f 0.
[a, b] F () = 0.
7.1.7. f (x) = x [x] 12 6.4.10.
f R 1.
x
F (x) = 0 f (t) dt R -
1 [0, 1). F R
[x].
x
G(x) = 0 (F (t) + 12 1
) dt R
1.
f ; F f ;
f f -
F . ;
: [x] x < [x] + 1 [x] + 1 x + 1 < ([x] + 1) + 1.
[x] + 1 ,
[x + 1] = [x] + 1.
x f (x + 1) = (x + 1) [x + 1] 1
2 = x [x] 1
2 = f (x), f
R 1.

718
, ( ),
x x+1 x+1 1 x+1 1 x
0 f (t) dt + x f (t) dt = 0 f (t) dt = 0 f (t) dt + 1 f (t) dt = 0 f (t) dt + 0 f (t) dt

x+1 1
x f (t) dt = 0 f (t) dt. (14.188)
(14.188) 1.
x+1 1
x f (t) dt = 0 f (t) dt = 0
, ,
x+1 x x+1
F (x + 1) = 0 f (t) dt = 0 f (t) dt + x f (t) dt = F (x) + 0 = F (x),

F R 1.
x [0, 1),
x x x2 x
F (x) = 0 (t [t] 21 ) dt = 0 (t 12 ) dt = 2 .

, x x [x] [0, 1) , [x] F

1,
(x[x])2 (x[x])
F (x) = F (x [x]) = 2 . (14.189)

, (14.188) F
x+1 1
0 F (t) dt = 12 .
1
x F (t) dt =

x+1 1
x 1
x+1 x+1 1
G(x + 1) = 0 (F (t) + 12 ) dt = 0 (F (t) + 12 ) dt + x F (t) dt + x 12 dt
= G(x) 1
12 + 1
12 = G(x),

G R 1.
f [k, k+1), k :
[k, k + 1) f f (x) = x k 21 .
k f ,
( )
limxk f (x) = limxk x (k 1) 21 = 12 ,
( )
limxk+ f (x) = limxk+ x k 12 = 12 = f (k).
(k, k + 1) ( k ) (14.189)
d (xk)2 (xk)
F (x) = dx 2 =xk 1
2 = f (x).

F f (k, k + 1).
, k ,
F (x)F (k) F (x) (xk+1)2 (xk+1) xk+1 1
limxk xk = limxk xk = limxk 2(xk) = limxk 2 = 2
= limxk f (x)

F (x)F (k) F (x) (xk)2 (xk)

limxk+ xk = limxk+ xk = limxk+ 2(xk) = limxk xk1
2 = 12
= limxk+ f (x).

719

7.2.1. f (x) dx = F (x)+c F (x) = f (x) f -
1
. x log x dx = log(log x) + c (1, +).
d 1
1
: dx log(log x) = x log x (1, +), x log x dx =
log(log x) + c .
x
7.2.2. f : R R R a a f (t) dt = sin x 23
x. ;
x
x f : R R
R 0 f (t) dt = ex x;
0 f (t) dt = ex 1. ;
x
: . f R a f (t) dt = sin x 23
x, , f (x) = cos x x.
x x
f (x) = cos x a f (t) dt = sin x sin a, a f (t) dt =

sin x 23 x sin a = 23 .
, f (x) = cos x, a, 3 + k2 23 + k2
k Z.
x
. 0 f (t) dt = ex x,
x = 0. x
, 0 f (t) dt = ex 1 x = 0.
x
, f R 0 f (t) dt = ex 1 x, -
, f(x) = ex x.
x x
f (x) = ex , , 0 f (t) dt = 0 et dt = ex 1 x.
7.2.3. I f : I R I. f (x) = 0
b (x)
x I, a ff (x) dx = log ff (a)
(b)
a, b I.
f (x) = 0 x I f I.
: f I, f (x) > 0
x I f (x) < 0 x I.
(x)
f (x) > 0 x I, dx d
log(f (x)) = ff (x) x I
b f (x) f (b)
a f (x) dx = log(f (b)) log(f (a)) = log f (a) a, b I.

f (x) < 0 x I, dx
d
log(f (x)) = ff (x)
(x)
x I
b f (x) f (b)
a f (x) dx = log(f (b)) log(f (a)) = log f (a) a, b I.
f (b)
. f (a) .
7.2.4. f : I R I a I.
x
a f (t) dt I, f 0 I.
x
: a f (t) dt I, , , f (x) = 0
x I.

7.2.5. f : (0, +) R f (x) = 1 +

1 x
x 1 f (t) dt x > 0.
x
: f (x) = 1 + x1 1 f (t) dt x > 0, f (0, +),
x

x 1 f (t) dt (0, +). , ,
1 f (t) dt x (0, +).
x(f (x) 1) = 1 f (t) dt x > 0, , , -
f (x) 1 + xf (x) = f (x) , , f (x) = x1 x > 0.
f (x) = log x + c x > 0, xc (0, +).
f (x) = 1 + x1 1 f (t) dt x = 1 f (1) = 1 c = 1.
x
, f (x) = 1 + x1 1 f (t) dt x > 0, f f (x) = log x + 1
x > 0.

720
,
x f f (x) = log x + 1 x > 0 f (x) =
1 + x1 1 f (t) dt x > 0.
,

1 x
x
1 x d
x 1 f (t) dt = 1 (log t + 1) dt = x 1 dt (t log t) dt = log x = f (x) 1

x > 0.
7.2.6. I f : I R
g(x)
I. , g, h : A I F : A R F (x) = h(x) f (t) dt
x A.
g, h x A, F x.
g, h x A f g(x), h(x),
F x F (x) = g (x)f (g(x)) h (x)f (h(x)).
x2 x t2 2t x2 t
1 et +2t2
dt, x et dt .
x2 2
f : [0, +) R [0, +) 0 f (t) dt = 12x x R.
: . s0 I
g(x) g(x) h(x)
F (x) = h(x) f (t) dt = s0 f (t) dt s0 f (t) dt x A.
g(x) s
s0 f (t) dt s0 f (t) dt g,
h(x)
A. s0 f (t) dt, F
A.
. .
2 2t
. f (t) = ett +2t 2 R, F (x) =
x2 x t2 2t
1 et +2t2
dt R

F (x) = (2x 1) (xx2x)

2 2 2(x2 x)
x
x.
e +2(x2 x)2
t
f (t) = et (, 0) (0, +). x, x2
(, 0) (0, +)
x2 t
(0, +). F (x) = x et dt (0, +)
x2
F (x) = 2x ex2 ex
x
x > 0.
2 x
7.2.7. limx+ ex 0 et dt.
2

1
x t2
a > 0 b, c, d limx0+ ex bcxdx 2 0
dt = 1.
a+t
: l Hopitl
2 x x2
limx+ ex 0 et dt = limx+ e x2 = 0.
2

2xe
x 2
limx0+ (ex b cx dx2 ) = 1 b limx0+ 0 ta+t dt = 0.
x t2
, b = 1, limx0+ ex bcxdx
1
2 0

a+t
dt = 0 , , b = 1.
, l Hopitl
1
x t2 1 2 x2
dt = limx0+ ex c2dx x = 1a limx0+
limx0+ ex 1cxdx 2 0 a+t a+x ex c2dx .

l Hopitl . , ,
0 c = 1,
, , c = 1,
x2 2x
limx0+ ex 12dx = limx0+ ex 2d .

721
 , l Hopitl .
0 2d = 1,
, , 2d = 1,
2x 2
limx0+ ex 1 = limx0+ ex = 2.
1
b = c = 1 d = 2

1
x 2 x2
1 = limx0+ t dt = 1 limx0+ = 1 limx0+ 2x
ex 1x(1/2)x2 0 a+t a ex 1x a ex 1

= 1 limx0+ 2
= 2
a ex a

, , a = 4.
x
7.2.8. a = b, limx 1
x 0 sin(at) sin(bt) dt = 0.
:
x x x sin((ab)x) sin((a+b)x)
0 sin(at) sin(bt) dt =
1
2 0 cos((a b)t) dt 1
2 0 cos((a + b)t) dt = 2(ab) 2(a+b)

x sin((ab)x) sin((a+b)x)
limx 1
x 0 sin(at) sin(bt) dt = limx 2(ab)x limx 2(a+b)x = 0 0 = 0.

7.2.9. [] 6.5[] .
x
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. x f (t) dt 0 x , x [a, b]
x < x , f (x) 0 x f .
x
: [] F (x) = a f x [a, b].
x2 a x1 < x2 b. , f (x) 0 x [x1 , x2 ],

x1 f 0,
x2 x1 x2 x1
F (x2 ) = a f= a f+ x1 f a f = F (x1 ).

F [a, b].
b
, F (a) = 0 F (b) = a f = 0, F 0 [a, b].
f (x) = F (x) = 0 x [a, b] f .
x
[] F (x) = a f x [a, b].
a x1 < x2 b.
x x x x
F (x2 ) = a 2 f = a 1 f + x12 f a 1 f = F (x1 ).

F [a, b].
f (x) = F (x) 0 x [a, b] f .
7.2.10. f [0, +) f (x) = 0 x > 0
x
(f (x))2 = 2 0 f x 0. (14.190)

f (x) > 0 x > 0.

f (0, +).
f (x) = x x 0.
: . (14.190) f (0) = 0.
f (0, +) f (x) = 0 x > 0,
f (x) > 0 x > 0 f (x) < 0 x > 0.
x
f (x) < 0 x > 0, 0 f 0 x > 0,

722
(14.190) (f (x))2 0 x > 0 , , f (x) = 0 x > 0.
, f (x) > 0 x > 0.
. f (x) 0 x 0, (14.190)

x
f (x) = 2 0 f x 0. (14.191)

,
x x > 0. f [0, x] f (t) 0
x t [0, x].
0 f 0 , f 0 [0, x], 0 f > 0.

x . x > 0, f (x) > 0, (14.190)
0 f > 0.
, , x
0 f >0 x > 0.
, f (0, +),
( x )
0 f = f (x) x > 0.

, y y > 0. (14.191)
f x > 0
f (x)
f (x) = 2 x = x
f (x)
=1 x > 0,
2 0 f 2 0 f

(14.191).
. f [0, +) -
c f (x) = x + c x 0.
x = 0 0 = 0 + c, c = 0 f (x) = x x 0.
7.2.11. f [0, a]
{ f [0, a]
(f (x))2 /x, 0 < x a
f (0) = 0. g : [0, a] R g(x) =
0, x = 0
[0, a].
x
g(x) 0 (f )2 .
x
(f (x))2 x 0 (f )2 x [0, a]. (14.192)

(f (a))2 = a 0 (f )2 , f (x)
a
x (0, a].
a 2
(f (a)) = a 0 (f ) f (0) = 2, f (x) = 2x x [0, a].
2

2xf (x)f (x)(f (x))2

: . x (0, a] g (x) = x2
.
x = 0,
(f (x))2 ( f (x)f (0) )2
g (0) = limx0+ g(x)g(0)
x0 = limx0+ x2
= limx0+ x0 = (f (0))2 .

g [0, a]
{
2xf (x)f (x)(f (x))2
x2
, 0 < x a
g (x) = 2
(f (0)) , x = 0

. ( )
: (x )
g (x) 0 (f )2
g (x) (f (x))2 .

723
 , , x = 0, x (0, a]

2xf (x)f (x)(f (x))2
x2
(f (x))2

2xf (x)f (x) (f (x))2 x2 (f (x))2

0 (xf (x) f (x))2 .
,
(x )
g (x) 0 (f )2 x [0, a].

. (14.192) x = 0 x (0, a]
x
g(x) 0 (f )2 .
x
h(x) = 0 (f )2 g(x) x [0, a].
, , h (x) 0 x [0, a].
h [0, a], h(x) h(0) = 0 x (0, a].
(14.192) x (0, a].
a
. (f (a))2 = a 0 (f )2 , h(a) = 0.
, h
x [0, a] h(0) = h(a) = 0, h
0 [0, a]. 0 (f )2 g(x) = h(x) = 0 x [0, a]. ,
(f (x))2 = g (x) x [0, a].
x (0, a]
2xf (x)f (x)(f (x))2
(f (x))2 = x2

(xf (x) f (x))2 = 0

xf (x) f (x) = 0
( f (x) )
x = 0.

c f (x)
x = c , , f (x) = cx x (0, a].
x = 0, c.
. f (x) = cx
x = 0, c = f (0) = 2.
7.2.12. f : [0, +) R f : [0, +) R [0, +)
f (0) = 0.
x
ef (x)/x x1 0 ef (t) dt x > 0.
a
a > 0 ef (a)/a = a1 0 ef (t) dt, c
f (x) = cx x [0, a].
x
: h(x) = 0 ef (t) dt xef (x)/x x (0, +).

(x)
h (x) = ef xf (x)f
x
(x) f (x)/x
e ef (x)/x
( ( ) ) (14.193)
= ef (x)/x ef (x)f (x)/x f (x) f (x)
x 1 0.

et t + 1 t = f (x) f (x)
x .
, h (0, +) ,
0
limx0+ h(x) = 0 ef (t) dt 0 limx0+ e(f (x)f (0))/(x0) = 0 0ef (0) = 0,

724
 x
h(x) 0 , , ef (x)/x x1 0 ef (t) dt x > 0.
a
a > 0 ef (a)/a = a1 0 ef (t) dt, h(a) = 0 h
0 (0, a], h (x) = 0 x (0, a].
(14.193) et = t + 1 t = 0

f (x) f (x)
x =0 x (0, a].
( f (x) )
x = 0 x (0, a].
, c f (x) x = c , , f (x) = cx
x [0, a]. , , x = 0.
7.2.13. I f : I R
x
I. a I F (x) = a f (t) dt x I.
limyx+ f (y) R, F+ (x) = limyx+ f (y).
: -
.
. limyx+ f (y) = l R.
, , > 0. > 0 |f (t) l| < 2 t (x, x + ).
, , y (x, x + ).

|f (t) l| <
2 t (x, y].

y 
 (f (t) l) dt (y x) < (y x).
x 2

 F (y)F (x)   
 l = 1 F (y) F (x) l(y x)
yx yx
y 
= 1  f (t) dt x f (t) dt l(y x)
yx a a
y   
= 1  f (t) dt l(y x) = 1  y f (t) dt y l dt
yx x yx x x
y 
= 1  (f (t) l) dt < .
yx x

, , > 0 > 0 y (x, x + )

 F (y)F (x) 
 l < . limyx+ F (y)F (x) = l, F+ (x) = l.
yx yx
. limyx+ f (y) = +.
2 t (x, x + ).
M > 0. > 0 f (t) > M
, , y (x, x + ).

f (t) > M
2 t (x, y]

y
x f (t) dt M
2 (y x) > M (y x).
(y x ) y
F (y)F (x)
yx = 1
yx a f (t) dt a f (t) dt = 1
yx x f (t) dt > M.
F (y)F (x)
, M > 0 > 0 y (x, x + ) yx > M.
F+ (x) = limyx+ F (y)F
yx
(x)
= +.
, limyx+ f (y) = , .
7.2.14. p, r : I R I. y(x)

y + p(x)y = r(x) (14.194)

725
 I y (x) + p(x)y(x) = r(x) x I.
x
p(t) dt
x0 I (x) = e x(0 x )I, (14.194) I
x
1
y(x) = (x) x0 (t)r(t) dt + c x I .
: x
(x) = p(x)e
p(t) dt
x0 = p(x)(x) x I.
, , (x) > 0 x I, I
:
y (x) + p(x)y(x) = r(x)
(x)y (x) + p(x)(x)y(x) = (x)r(x)
(x)y (x) + (x)y(x) = (x)r(x)
((x)y(x)) = (x)r(x)
x
(x)y(x) = x0 (t)r(t) dt + c,
c I.
7.2.15. 5.3.19. p, q : I R I.
y(x)
y + p(x)y + q(x)y = 0 (14.195)
I y (x) + p(x)y (x) + q(x)y(x) = 0 x I.
. x0 I y0 , y0
y(x) y + p(x)y + q(x)y = 0 I y(x0 ) = y0 y (x0 ) = y0 .
y1 (x) y2 (x) (14.195) I.
[] 7.2.14 W (y1 , y2 )(x)
y + p(x)y = 0 I.
[] (i) W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x I (ii) W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0
x I. (i)
I. (ii)
I, y1 (x) y2 (x) I
. 5.3.19, (ii),
.
[] (ii) []. y(x) (14.195) I
x0 I.
1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = y(x0 )
1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = y (x0 )
1 2 . , W (y, 1 y1 + 2 y2 ) = 0
x I y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) x I. (14.195) I
1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) .
y1 (x) y2 (x) (14.195) I. , ,
, . ,
2.
: [] x I
( )
W (y1 , y2 ) (x) = y1 (x)y2 (x) y1 (x)y2 (x) = y1 (x)y2 (x) y1 (x)y2 (x)
( ) ( )
= y1 (x) p(x)y2 (x) q(x)y2 (x) p(x)y1 (x) q(x)y1 (x) y2 (x)
( )
= p(x) y1 (x)y2 (x) y1 (x)y2 (x)
= p(x)W (y1 , y2 )(x).

726
[] [] 7.2.14
r(x) = 0 x I, c I
x
p(t) dt
W (y1 , y2 )(x) = ce x0 x I,
x0 o I.
: (i) c = 0, W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x I (ii) c = 0,
W (y1 , y2 )(x) = 0 x I.
(ii) y1 , y2
I.
, y2 (x) = ky1 (x) x I, x I

W (y1 , y2 )(x) = y1 (x)y2 (x) y1 (x)y2 (x) = ky1 (x)y1 (x) ky1 (x)y1 (x) = 0

.
, (i).

1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = 0
1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = 0

0, - . ,
1 , 2 , 0, .
y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) I ,
[], y(x) (14.195) y(x0 ) = 0 y (x0 ) = 0.
, 0 , ,
,
1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) = 0 x I.
1 = 0, y1 (x) = 12 y2 (x) x I , 2 = 0, y2 (x) =
21 y1 (x) x I.
[]

1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = y(x0 )

1 y1 (x0 ) + 2 y2 (x0 ) = y (x0 )

1 2 , 0.

W (y, 1 y1 + 2 y2 )(x0 ) = y(x0 )(1 y1 + 2 y2 ) (x0 ) y (x0 )(1 y1 + 2 y2 )(x0 ) = 0,

[] W (y, 1 y1 + 2 y2 )(x) = 0 x I.
, [], y(x) 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x)
I. x0 ,
y(x) = 1 y1 (x) + 2 y2 (x) x I.
7.2.17. 5.6.16.
x
f : R R f (x) = c 1 g(t) dt x.
c f R,
0 (, 1], 1 [1, +) [1, 1].
: g R, 0
(, 1] [1, +) g(x) > 0 x (1, 1).
, c, f R f (x) = cg(x)
x. f R.
, x
f (x) = c 1 g(t) dt = 0 x 1

727

x 1 x 1
f (x) = c 1 g(t) dt = c 1 g(t) dt + c 1 g(t) dt = c 1 g(t) dt x 1.
1 1
1 g(t) dt , c = 1/( 1 g(t) dt)
f (x) = 1 x 1.
, f (x) = cg(x) > 0 x (1, 1), f [1.1].
x
7.2.19. f : [a, b] R [a, b]. fn (x) = (n1)! 1
a (x
t)n1 f (t) dt x [a, b] n.
f1 (x) = f (x) fn+1 (x) = fn (x) x [a, b] n.
fn (n) (x) = f (x) x [a, b] n.
x
fn+1 (x) = a fn (t) dt x [a, b] n.
f [a, b] -
(n + 1)- (f (b), f1 (b), . . . , fn (b)).
x
: . f1 (x) = a f (t) dt f1 (x) = f (x).
: fn+1 (x) = fn (x).
Newton:
x n ( )
fn+1 (x) = n!
1 d
(x t)n f (t) dt = 1 d
k=0 (1) nk n xk x tnk f (t) dt
(dx a
1 n
( ) n! dx

nk k n xk1 x tnk f (t) dt +
n
k a
( )
nk n xk xnk f (x)
)
= n! k=1 (1) k a k=0 (1) k
(
1 n
( )
nk n n1 xk1 x tnk f (t) dt + xn f (x)
n ( ))
nk n
= n! k=1 (1) k1 a k=0 (1) k
(
1 n (n1)(k1)
(n1) k1 x (n1)(k1)
= n! k=1 (1) n k1 x a t f (t) dt
)
+ xn f (x)(1 + (1))n
1 n1 ( )
(n1)k n1 xk x t(n1)k f (t) dt
= (n1)! k=0 (1) k a
x
= (n1)! a (x t)
1 n1 f (t) dt = fn (x).

, . f0 = f , n = 0 fn+1 (x) =
fn (x) f1 (x) = f (x). , , f fn+1 (x) =
fn (x) n 0. , g(x) = xf (x),
x
fn+2 (x) = (n+1)!
1
dx a (x t)
d n+1 f (t) dt
( x x )
dx x a (x t) f (t) dt a (x t) tf (t) dt
1 d n n
= (n+1)!
( 1 x
1 x
)
dx x n! a (x t) f (t) dt n! a (x t) g(t) dt
1 d n n
= n+1
( )
dx xfn+1 (x) gn+1 (x)
1 d
= n+1
( )
= n+11
fn+1 (x) + xfn (x) gn (x)
( 1 x x
n! a (x t) f (t) dt + x (n1)! a (x t)
1 n 1 n1 f (t) dt
= n+1
x )
(n1)!
1
a (x t)
n1 tf (t) dt
( 1 x x )
= n+11
n! a (x t)n f (t) dt + 1
(n1)! a (x t)n f (t) dt

1 x

a (x t) f (t) dt = fn+1 (x).
= n! n

.
fn+1 (x+h)fn+1 (x) ( x+h x )
h
1 1
= n! h a (x + h t)n f (t) dt a (x t)n f (t) dt
( x+h
n f (t) dt x (x + h t)n f (t) dt
1 1
= n! (x + h t)
x a
h
x a ) (14.196)
+ a (x + h t)n f (t) dt a (x t)n f (t) dt

1 1 x+h

n f (t) dt + 1 x (x+ht) (xt) f (t) dt.
n n
= n! h x (x + h t) n! a h

728
 M 0 |f (t)| M t [a, b]
|x + h t| |h| t x x + h
 1 x+h 
 (x + h t)n f (t) dt |h|n M |h|
= M |h|n . (14.197)
h x |h|

,
(x+ht)n (xt)n
h = n n1

x + h t x t || b a , ,
 (x+ht)n (xt)n 
 n(x t)n1  = n| n1 (x t)n1 |
h
 n2 k 
= n| (x t)| k=0 (x t)n2k 
(14.198)
n|h| n2
k=0 || |x t|
k n2k

n(n 1)|h|(b a)n2 .

,
fn+1 (x+h)fn+1 (x)
1 1 x+h
h fn (x) = n! h x (x + h t)n f (t) dt
(
1 x (x+ht)n (xt)n
)
+ n! a h n(x t)n1 f (t) dt

, (14.196), (14.197) (14.198),

 fn+1 (x+h)fn+1 (x) 
 fn (x) M 1 x
n! |h| + n! a n(n 1)|h|(b a)
n n2 |f (t)| dt
h
M (ba)n1
n! |h|
M n + (n2)! |h|.

fn+1 (x) = limh0 fn+1 (x+h)fn+1 (x)
= fn (x).
h
. ,

fn (1) (x) = fn1 (x), fn (2) (x) = fn1 (1) (x) = fn2 (x), fn (3) (x) = fn2 (1) (x) = fn3 (x)

...
. :
x x
a fn (t) dt = a fn+1 (t) = fn+1 (x) fn+1 (a) = fn+1 (x).

. .
(f (b), f1 (b)),
. f (b)f1 (b) < 0.
, , f (b) < 0 f1 (b) > 0. (a, b)

f () = f1 () = f1 (b)f1 (a)
ba = f1 (b)
ba > 0.

f (b) < 0 f () > 0, f [a, b].

f (b) > 0 f1 (b) < 0 .
, f n 1.
k (n + 2)- (f (b), f1 (b), . . . , fn+1 (b)).
g(x) = f1 (x) x [a, b].
x x
g1 (x) = a g(t) dt = a f1 (t) dt = f2 (t),
x x
g2 (x) = a g1 (t) dt = a f2 (t) dt = f3 (t)

729
... , , gn (x) = fn+1 (x) x [a, b] n 1.
, : k (n + 2)-
(f (b), g(b), . . . , gn (b)).
. f (b)g(b) 0, k (n + 1)-
(g(b), . . . , gn (b)), g k
[a, b]. , x0 , x1 , . . . , xk

a < x0 < x1 < . . . < xk1 < xk b

g .
j g(xj1 ) < 0 g(xj ) > 0, j (xj1 , xj )

f (j ) = g (j ) =
g(xj )g(xj1 )
xj xj1 > 0.

, j g(xj1 ) > 0 g(xj ) < 0, j (xj1 , xj )

f (j ) < 0.
, g(a) = 0, g(x0 ) > 0, 0 (a, x0 ) f (0 ) > 0 ,
g(x0 ) < 0, 0 (a, x0 ) f (0 ) < 0.
f x0 , x1 , . . . xk
(a, b) f k
[a, b].
. f (b)g(b) < 0, k 1 (n + 1)-
(g(b), . . . , gn (b)), g
k 1 [a, b]. , x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1

a < x0 < x1 < . . . < xk2 < xk1 b

g .
, , x0 , x1 , . . . xk1
(a, b) f . ,
, k 1 f .
, f (b) > 0 g(b) < 0.
[xk2 , xk1 ] k1 .
g(xk1 ) < 0, f (k1 ) < 0 , f (b) > 0, f -
[a, b]. g(xk1 ) > 0, f (k1 ) > 0 , g(b) < 0, k (xk1 , b)
f (k ) < 0, f [a, b].
f k [a, b].
, f (b) < 0 g(b) > 0, f k -
[a, b].
f k [a, b].
7.2.20. I F : I R I F : I R

b I.

a F (x) dx = F (b) F (a) a, b I.
: . a, b I a < b > 0.
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, ]

(F ; a, b; ) (F ; a, b; ) < .

uk lk supremum infimum F [xk1 , xk ].

k (xk1 , xk ) F (xk ) F (xk1 ) = F (k )(xk xk1 ),

lk (xk xk1 ) F (xk ) F (xk1 ) uk (xk xk1 ).

730
 k = 1, . . . , n

(F ; a, b; ) F (b) F (a) (F ; a, b; ).

b
(F ; a, b; ) a F (x) dx (F ; a, b; )

 
F (b) F (a) b F (x) dx (F ; a, b; ) (F ; a, b; ) < .
a
 b  b
F (b) F (a) a F (x) dx < > 0, a F (x) dx = F (b) F (a).
b < a a = b .
. a, b I a < b > 0. > 0
[a, b] w() <
b
|(F ; a, b; , ) a F (x) dx| < .
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] w() < .
k = 1, . . . , n k (xk1 , xk ) F (xk ) F (xk1 ) = F (k )(xk xk1 )
, ,

(F ; a, b; , ) = nk=1 F (k )(xk xk1 ) = nk=1 F (xk ) F (xk1 ) = F (b) F (a).

, w() < ,
 
F (b) F (a) b F (x) dx = |(F ; a, b; , ) b F (x) dx| < .
a a
b
, a F (x) dx = F (b) F (a).
7.2.21. , f I,
x I f (x) f+ (x), f (x)
f+ (x).
[] I f : I R I. g : I R x I
g(x) f+ (x) f (x). g
b
I a g(x) dx = f (b) f (a) a, b I.
b b
, a f (x) dx = f (b) f (a) a f+ (x) dx = f (b) f (a) a, b I.
[] I f : I R. f I
I.
: [] f I.
x1 , x2 I, x1 < x2 ,

g(x1 ) f+ (x1 ) f (x2 )f (x1 )

x2 x1 f (x2 ) g(x2 ),

g I. g -
I.
a, b I a < b > 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]
(g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < .
uk lk supremum infimum g [xk1 , xk ].
g , uk = g(xk ) lk = g(xk1 ),
f (xk )f (xk1 )
lk = g(xk1 ) xk xk1 g(xk ) = uk .

731

n n f (xk )f (xk1 )
(g; a, b; ) = k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) k=1 xk xk1 (xk xk1 )
n
k=1 uk (xk xk1 ) = (g; a, b; ).

,
(g; a, b; ) f (b) f (a) (g; a, b; ).

b
(g; a, b; ) a g(x) dx (g; a, b; )

 
f (b) f (a) b g(x) dx (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < .
a
 b  b
f (b) f (a) a g(x) dx < > 0, a g(x) dx =
f (b) f (a). b < a a = b .
[] f I. xg : I R []
I ,
x , f (x) f (a) = a g(t) dt a, x I.
f (x) = a g(t) dt + f (a) x I.
, g : I R I , ,
I. x
f (x) = a g(t) dt + c x I, a I,
I.
x1 , x2 I, x1 < x2 x (x1 , x2 ). g ,
x
f (x) f (x1 ) = x1 g(t) dt g(x)(x x1 ),
x2
f (x2 ) f (x) = x g(t) dt g(x)(x2 x).

x2 x x2 x
( ) ( )
xx1
x2 x1 f (x1 )+ x2 x1 f (x2 ) x2 x1 f (x)g(x)(xx1 ) + xxx 1
2 x1
f (x)+g(x)(x2 x) = f (x)

, , f I.
1

7.3.1. tan x dx, dx, (sin x)3 dx, (sin x)4 dx,
1
1+ex
1+cos x dx.
: x y = cos x

sin x 1  
 
tan x = cos x dx = y dy y=cos x = (log |y| + c) y=cos x = log | cos x| + c.

( 2 + k, 2 + k), k Z,
. , k , tan x = log(cos x) + c
, k , tan x = log( cos x) + c
.
x y = ex
1 1 

1+ex dx = (1+y)y dy y=ex .

, 1
(1+y)y = 1
y 1
1+y
 y 
1
(1+y)y dy = 1
y dy 1
1+y dy = log |y| log |1 + y| + c = log  1+y  + c.

732
, (  y  )
1
1+ex dx = log  1+y  + c  x = log ex x + c.
y=e 1+e
1 ex
1+e x dx = log 1+ex + c R.
1
(1+y)y dy, , y
x
(0,
+)
1 y =1 e . , y

1
(1+y)y dy = y dy 1+y dy = log y log(1 + y) + c = log 1+y + c -
.
x y = cos x
 ( )
(sin x)3 dx = (1 y 2 ) dy y=cos x = 13 y 3 y + c y=cos x = 31 (cos x)3 cos x + c.

(sin x)3 dx = 31 (cos x)3 cos x + c R.
(sin x)2 = 1cos(2x)
2
x y = 2x

(sin x)4 dx = 14 (1 cos(2x))2 dx = 18 (1 cos y)2 dy y=2x .

(1 cos y)2 dy = dy 2 cos y dy + (cos y)2 dy = y 2 sin y + (cos y)2 dy.

(cos y)2 = 1+cos(2y)

2 y
u = 2y
 
(cos y)2 dy = 12 (1 + cos(2y)) dy = 14 (1 + cos u) duu=2y = 41 (u + sin u + c)u=2y
= 21 y + 14 sin(2y) + c.

(1 cos y)2 dy = y 2 sin y + 12 y + 14 sin(2y) + c = 32 y 2 sin y + 41 sin(2y) + c

, ,
( )
(sin x)4 dx = 81 23 y 2 sin y + 14 sin(2y) + c y=2x = 38 x 41 sin(2x) + 1
32 sin(4x) + c.

R.

1 + cos x = 2(cos x2 )2 x y = x2
 
1 1
1+cos x dx = 2
1
(cos(x/2))2
dx = (cos1y)2 dy y=(x/2) = (tan y + c)y=(x/2) = tan x2 + c.

x dx = tan 2 + c ((2k 1), (2k + 1)),
1 x
1+cos
k Z, .

7.3.2. x3 ex dx,
2

2 x)
arcsin x dx, (cosxx)2 dx, (x2x+1)2 dx, arctan(e
ex dx.
: x y = x2
3 x2 
x e dx = 12 yey dy y=x2 .

,
y dy y
yey dy = dy dy = ye
y de dy = yey ey dy = yey ey + c
y
dy e

733
 
x3 ex dx = 21 (yey ey + c)y=x2 = 21 x2 ex 12 ex + c.
2 2 2

R.

d arcsin x
dx arcsin x dx = x arcsin x x
arcsin x dx = dx dx = x arcsin x x dx.
dx 1x2

,
 
x
1x2
dx = 12 1
y dy y=1x2 = ( y + c)y=1x2 = 1 x2 + c

, ,
arcsin x dx = x arcsin x + 1 x2 + c.
[1, 1].

d tan x
x
(cos x) 2 dx = x dx dx = x tan x dx
dx tan x dx = x tan x tan x dx
= x tan x + log | cos x| + c

7.3.1. (cosxx)2 dx = x tan x + log | cos x| + c
( 2 + k, 2 + k), k Z, .

x2 d 1 dx 1
(x2 +1)2
dx = 12 x dx x2 +1
dx = 2(x2x+1) + 12 dx x2 +1
dx

= 2(x2x+1) + 12 x21+1 dx = 2(x2x+1) + 12 arctan x + c.

R.

arctan(ex ) 
ex dx = arctan y
y2
dy y=ex .

arctan y
y2
dy = d 1
dy y arctan y dy = arctan
y
y
+ 1 d arctan y
y dy dy = arctan
y
y
+ 1
y(y 2 +1)
dy


1
y(y 2 +1)
dy = y
y 2 (y 2 +1)
dy = 1
2
1
u(u+1) duu=y2 .
,
(1 )  u 
1
u(u+1) du = u 1
u+1 du = log |u| log |u + 1| + c = log  u+1  + c.

(  u  )
log  u+1 +c 2
1
y(y 2 +1)
dy = 1
2 u=y 2
= 1
2 log y2y+1 + c
arctan y 2
y2
dy = arctan
y
y
+ 12 log y2y+1 + c
, ,
arctan(ex ) ( )
+ 12 log y2y+1 + c y=ex = arctan(e
2 x)
arctan y e2x
ex dx = y ex + 21 log e2x +1
+ c.
x) x) 2x
arctan(e dx = arctan(e + 1 log e + c R.
ex ex 21 e2x +1
u(u+1) du, , u -
(0, +) u = y 2 = e2x . ,

734
 (1 )
u u+1 du = log u log(u + 1) + c = log u+1 + c
1 1 u
u(u+1) du =
.

7.3.3. x41+1 dx, x51+1 dx, x61+1 dx.
: , -
, :
( )( 2 51 )
x4 +1 = (x2 + 2 x+1)(x2 2 x+1), x5 +1 = (x+1) x2 5+1 2 x+1 x + 2 x+1 ,

x6 + 1 = (x2 + 1)(x2 + 3 x + 1)(x2 3 x + 1).
x
7.3.4. 1+sinsinx+cos x dx.
: . x u = tan x2 ,

2u 2
sin x = 1+u 2, cos x = 1u
1+u2
, 2
dx = 1+u 2 du,


sin x
1+sin x+cos x dx = 2u
(1+u)(1+u2 )
duu=tan(x/2) .
:
2u
(1+u)(1+u2 )
= 1
1+u2
+ u
1+u2
1
1+u .

, 2u
(1+u)(1+u2 )
du = arctan u + 12 log(1 + u2 ) log |1 + u| + c

( )
sin x
1+sin x+cos x dx = arctan u + 12 log(1 + u2 ) log |1 + u| + c u=tan(x/2)
   
= arctan(tan x2 ) log  cos x2  log 1 + tan x2  + c
 
= arctan(tan x ) log  sin x + cos x  + c.
2 2 2

.
sin x 2 sin(x/2) cos(x/2) sin(x/2) sin(x/2)
= = = 1 .
1+sin x+cos x 2(cos(x/2))2 +2 sin(x/2) cos(x/2) cos(x/2)+sin(x/2) 2 sin((x/2)+(/4))
x
x y = 2 + 4 ,
sin(y/4) 1 sin ycos y 1 cos y
sin x
1+sin x+cos x = 1
2 sin y = 2 sin y = 1
2 2 sin y .

( cos y )
 ( )
1  
sin y dy y=(x/2)+(/4) = y log | sin y| + c y=(x/2)+(/4)
sin x
1+sin x+cos x dx =
 ( )  
= x
2 log  sin x2 + 4  + c = x2 log  sin x2 + cos x2  + c.

.
1
1
7.3.5. x2 x2 dx, 5x1+3 x+1
dx.

: x2 x 2 = (x 12 )2 ( 23 )2
x t = 23 (x 21 )
1 
1 dx = dt  2 .
x x2
2 t 1
2 t= (x 1 ) 3 2

x (, 1) (2, +). x (, 1), t

(, 1) , x (2, +), t (1, +).

735

t (1, +), t u = t + t2 1. u

(1, +) t2 1 = u 2u1 dt = u2u1
2 2
2 du

1  

t2 1
dt = u1 duu=t+t2 1 = (log u + c)u=t+t2 1 = log(t + t2 1) + c.

,
( ) ( )
1
x2 x2
dx = log(t + t2 1) + c t= 2 (x 1 ) = log x 1
2 + x2 x 2 + c.
3 2

(2, +).
t (, 1), t u = t t2 1. u

(, 1) t2 1 = u 2u1 dt = u2u1
2 2
2 du

1 1  
dt = du 
2 1 = ( log |u| + c) u=t t2 1 = log(t +
t2 1) + c.
t 1
2 u u=t t

,
( ) ( )
1
x2 x2
dx = log(t + t2 1) + c t= 2 (x 1 ) = log x + 1
2 + x2 x 2 + c.
3 2

(, 1).

x t = x 1

1
5 x1+3 x+1
dx = 2 5t+3t t2 +2 dtt=x1 .

, 
2 t

5t+3 t2 +2
dt = 2 2 s

5s+3 s2 +1
dss=t/2 .

, s u = s + s2 + 1 ,

s = u 2u1 ,
2 2 2
s2 + 1 = u 2u+1 , ds = u2u+1
2 du,


2 2 s

5s+3 s2 +1
ds = 1
2
u4 1
(4u2 1)u2
duu=s+s2 +1 .
. , , x
[1, +), t s [0, +) u [1, +).
7.3.7. [] f (sin x) [0, 2 ], f (cos x)
/2 /2
[0, 2 ] 0 f (sin x) dx = 0 f (cos x) dx.
/2
, 0 (sin x)2 dx.
:
f (cos x) = f (sin( 2 x))
x [0, 2 ], f (cos x) y =
2 x
f (sin y) [0, 2 ].
, x y = 2 x
/2 /2 /2
0 f (cos x) dx = 0 f (cos( 2 y)) dy = 0 f (sin y) dy.

f (t) = t2
/2 /2
0 (sin x)2 dx = 0 (cos x)2 dx.

/2 /2 /2 /2
2 0 (sin x)2 dx = 0 (sin x)2 dx + 0 (cos x)2 dx = 0 dx = 2 .

736
 /2
, 0 (sin x)2 dx = 4 .

7.3.9. [] In (x) = xn ex dx n Z, n 0.
In+1 (x) = xn+1 ex (n + 1)In (x) In (x).
:
x n+1
In+1 (x) = xn+1 ex dx =xn+1 de dx = xn+1 ex dxdx ex dx
dx (14.199)
= xn+1 ex (n + 1) xn ex dx = xn+1 ex (n + 1)In (x).
, (14.199)
xn+1 x
1
(n+1)! In+1 (x) = (n+1)! e 1
n! In (x)

:
xn x
1
n! In (x) = n! e 1
(n1)! In1 (x)
xn x xn1 x
= n! e (n1)! e + 1
(n2)! In2 (x)
xn x xn1 x xn2 x
= n! e (n1)! e + (n2)! e 1
(n3)! In3 (x)

xn x xn1 x xn2 x
= n! e (n1)! e + (n2)! e + (1)n1 1!
x x
e + (1)n 0!1 I0 (x)
xn x xn1 x xn2 x
= n! e (n1)! e + (n2)! e + (1)n1 1!
x x
e + (1)n 0!1 ex + c.

I0 (x) = ex dx = ex + c.
/2
7.3.11. In = 0 (sin x)n dx n Z, n 0.
In+2 = n+1
n+2 In .
(2n1)(2n3)31
I0 = 2 I1 = 1. I2n = 2n(2n2)42 2 I2n+1 =
2n(2n2)42
(2n+1)(2n1)53 n 1.
(246(2n)) 2
2 = (35(2n1)) 2 (2n+1) I
I2n
2n+1
n 1 (n + 1)In In+1 = 2
n 0.
I2n+1 I2n I2n1 = 2n+1 2n I2n+1 1 I2n+1 1 + 2n n 1
I2n 1

, , I2n
I2n+1 1.
( 246(2n2)2n )2
1
Wallis, 2n+1 135(2n3)(2n1) 2 .
( ) n
(2n)! n
2n
n 4 n = (n!) 4n
2 1 .
: .
/2 /2
In+2 = 0 (sin x)n+2 dx = 0 (sin x)n+1 d cos x
dx dx
/2 x)n+1
= 0 d(sindx cos x dx
/2 /2
= (n + 1) 0 (sin x)n (cos x)2 dx = (n + 1) 0 (sin x)n (1 (sin x)2 ) dx
/2 /2
= (n + 1) 0 (sin x)n dx (n + 1) 0 (sin x)n+2 dx
= (n + 1)In (n + 1)In+2

(n + 2)In+2 = (n + 1)In . (14.200)
. (14.200)
2n1 (2n1)(2n3) (2n1)(2n3)31 (2n1)(2n3)31
I2n = 2n I2n2 = 2n(2n2) I2n4 = ... = 2n(2n2)42 I0 = 2n(2n2)42 2

737

2n 2n(2n2) 2n(2n2)42 2n(2n2)42
I2n+1 = 2n+1 I2n1 = (2n+1)(2n1) I2n3 = ... = (2n+1)(2n1)53 I1 = (2n+1)(2n1)53 .

.
(246(2n))2 I2n
2 = (35(2n1))2 (2n+1) I2n+1
(14.201)
I2n I2n+1 .
( (n)+ 2)In+2 In+1 = (n + 1)In+1 In n 0.
(14.200)
(n + 1)In+1 In , ,

(n + 1)In+1 In = I1 I0 = 2 .

. (sin x)n+1 (sin x)n n 0 x [0, 2 ],

/2 /2
In+1 = 0 (sin x)n+1 dx 0 (sin x)n dx = In .

, (14.200),

I2n+1 I2n I2n1 = 2n+1

2n I2n+1 .

1 I2n
I2n+1 1+ 1
2n
I2n
I2n+1 1.

. (14.201)
( 246(2n2)2n )2
1
2n+1 135(2n3)(2n1) 2 . (14.202)

n 2,
. 2n+1
( 246(2n2)2n )2
1
n 135(2n3)(2n1)

135(2n3)(2n1)
n 246(2n2)2n 1 .

246 (2n2)2n = 2n n!
(2n)!
n (2n n!)2 1 .

7.3.12. n N , xn ex dx = Pn1 (x)ex +
2 2

ex dx, Pn1 (x) n 1.
n! 2
2n1 (n/2)!

: .
n = 2

x2
x2 ex dx = 12
x dedx dx = 21 xex + dx x2 dx = 1 xex2 + ex2 dx.
2 2
dx e 2
x2
n N xn ex dx = Pn1 (x)ex + 2n1n!
2 2
(n/2)!
e dx,
Pn1 (x) n 1.
x2
xn+2 ex dx = 12 xn+1 dedx dx = 12 xn+1 ex + dxn+1 x2
2 2 1
2 dx e dx
n x2
= 12 xn+1 ex + n+1
2
2 x e dx

= 21 xn+1 ex + x2 ex dx
2 n+1 n+1 n! 2
2 Pn1 (x)e + 2 2n1 (n/2)!

= Pn+1 (x)ex + ex dx,
2 (n+2)! 2
2n+1 ((n+2)/2)!

738
 Pn+1 (x) = 21 xn+1 + n+1
2 Pn1 (x) n + 1.
7.3.16. :
f : [a, b] R [a, b] g : [a, b] R
b b
[a, b], [a, b] a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx.
[a, b]
b 
m > 0 (x) m x [a, b].  a sin((x)) dx m
4
.
x
: . G(x) = a g(t) dt.
G (x) = g(x) x [a, b],
b b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = a f (x)G (x) dx = f (b)G(b) a f (x)G(x) dx. (14.203)

, f [a, b], f (x) 0 x [a, b].

x1 , x2 [a, b] G(x1 ) G(x) G(x2 )
f (x)G(x1 ) f (x)G(x) f (x)G(x2 ) x [a, b].
b b b
a f (x)G(x1 ) dx a f (x)G(x) dx a f (x)G(x2 ) dx,

b
(f (b) f (a))G(x1 ) a f (x)G(x) dx (f (b) f (a))G(x2 ). (14.204)

f (a) < f (b),

b
G(x1 ) 1
f (b)f (a) a f (x)G(x) dx G(x2 ),

[a, b]
b
1
f (b)f (a) a f (x)G(x) dx = G()

b
f (x)G(x) dx = (f (b) f (a))G().
a (14.205)
b
f (a) = f (b), (14.204) a f (x)G(x) dx = 0, (14.205)
[a, b].
, (14.203) (14.205)
b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (b)G(b) (f (b) f (a))G()
= f (a)G() + f (b)(G(b) G()) (14.206)
b
= f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx.

f [a, b], .
.
b b 1
a sin((x)) dx = a (x) (x) sin((x)) dx.

f (x) = 1(x) g(x) = (x) sin((x)) x [a, b].

f g [a, b]. ,
, [a, b]
b 1
1
b
a sin((x)) dx = (a) a (x) sin((x)) dx + (b) (x) sin((x)) dx

= cos(())cos((a))
(a) cos((b))cos(())
(b)

739
, ,
b 
 sin((x)) dx | cos(())cos((a))|
+ | cos((b))cos(())|
2
+ 2
= 4
a | (a)| | (b)| m m m.

7.3.17. a < b Qn (x) = (x a)n (x b)n n.

1 (n) (x) n.
P0 (x) = 1 Pn (x) = n!(ba) n Qn

Pn (x) n.
b
a P (x)Pn (x) dx = 0 P (x) < n.
b b
a Pn (x)Pm (x) dx = 0, m = n, a (Pn (x))2 dx = 2n+1 ba
.

n P (x) n c0 , . . . , cn P (x) =
k=0 ck P k (x) x , , c0 , . . . , cn ck =
2k+1 b
ba a P (x)Pk (x) dx.
b
P (x) n : a Q(x)P (x) dx = 0 Q(x)
< n. c P (x) = cPn (x) x.
: .
. Qn (x) 2n, Qn (n) (x) n.
.

Qn (k) (a) = Qn (k) (b) = 0 k = 0, . . . , n 1

Qn (n) (a) = Qn (n) (b) = n!

, P (x) k < n. -
:
b
(n) (x) dx = b P (x)Q (n1) (x) dx
a P (x)Qn a n
......... (14.207)
b
= (1)k+1 a P (k+1) (x)Qn (nk1) (x) dx = 0,

P (k+1) (x) .
b
. m < n, , [], a Pn (x)Pm (x) dx = 0
Pm (x) Pn (x). n < m
m, n.
, m = n. (14.207) k = n 1 P (x) = Qn (n) (x)
0
b
(n) (x)Q (n) (x) dx = (1)n b Q (2n) (x)Q (0) (x) dx = (1)n (2n)! b Q (x) dx,
a Qn n a n n a n

b b n(n1)21 b
a Qn (x) dx = a (x a) (x b) dx = (1) (n+1)(n+2)(2n1)2n a (x b) dx
n n n 2n

n(n1)21 (n!) 2
= (1)n+1 (n+1)(n+2)(2n1)2n(2n+1) (a b)2n+1 = (1)n (2n+1)! (b a)2n+1 .

b b (n!)2
a Qn (n) (x)Qn (n) (x) dx = (1)n (2n)! a Qn (x) dx = 2n+1 (b a)2n+1
, ,
b (n!)2
2
a (Pn (x)) dx = 1
(n!)2 (ba)2n 2n+1
(b a)2n+1 = ba
2n+1 .

. n = 0 P (x) 0.
P (x) = c0 = c0 P0 (x) x.

740

n P (x) n c0 , . . . , cn
P (x) = nk=0 ck Pk (x) x.
P (x) n + 1, P (x) = R(x) + an+1 xn+1 , R(x)
n. , Pn+1 (x) n + 1, Pn+1 (x) =
S(x) + bn+1 xn+1 , S(x) n.
an+1 an+1 an+1
P (x) = R(x) + bn+1 (Pn+1 (x) S(x)) = R(x) bn+1 S(x) + bn+1 Pn+1 (x).

R(x) abn+1
n+1
S(x) n, c0 , . . . , cn
n
R(x) bn+1 S(x) = k=0 ck Pk (x) x. , cn+1 = abn+1
an+1 n+1
,
n+1
P (x) = k=0 ck Pk (x) x.

, n, P (x) n c0 , . . . , cn
P (x) = k=0 ck Pk (x) x.
,
b n b b 2 ba
a P (x)Pk (x) dx = j=0 cj a Pj (x)Pk (x) dx = ck a (Pk (x)) dx = ck 2k+1 .
b
. P (x) n : a Q(x)P (x) dx = 0
Q(x) < n. n
, c0 , . . . , cn P (x) = k=0 ck Pk (x) x.
, Pk (x) k < n < n,
b
ck = 2k+1
ba a P (x)Pk (x) dx = 0 0 k < n.

P (x) = cn Pn (x) x.
b
7.3.18. f [a, b] f (a) = f (b) = 0 a (f (x))2 dx = 1.
b b b
a xf (x)f (x) dx = 21 a x2 (f (x))2 dx a (f (x))2 dx > 41 .
:
b b 2 b b
a xf (x)f (x) dx = 1
2 a x d(fdx
(x))
dx = 12 dx 2
a dx (f (x)) dx = 12 a (f (x))
2 dx = 12 .

Schwarz, Buniakowsky 6.4.18

|xf (x)| |f (x)|
b  (b )2 b 2 b
 xf (x)f (x) dx2 a x (f (x))2 dx a (f (x))2 dx.
a |xf (x)||f (x)| dx
1
4 = a
b b (x))2 dx
a x2 (f (x))2 dx a (f = 41 ,
b (b )1/2 ( b )1/2
a |xf (x)||f (x)| dx = a x2 (f (x))2 dx 2
a (f (x)) dx (14.208)

b 
 xf (x)f (x) dx = b |xf (x)||f (x)| dx. (14.209)
a a

(14.208) s, t 0 0

sx2 (f (x))2 = t(f (x))2 x [a, b]. (14.210)

(14.209) xf (x)f (x) 0 x [a, b]
b
xf (x)f (x) 0 x [a, b]. a xf (x)f (x) dx = 41 ,

xf (x)f (x) 0 x [a, b].

741

, (14.210) , 0 ( = s = t)
0

xf (x) = f (x) x [a, b].

= 0, = 0, xf (x) = 0 x [a, b],

b
a xf (x)f (x) dx = 4 .
1

> 0, , = 2 ,

f (x) + 2xf (x) = 0 x [a, b].

( )
2
ex f (x) = 0 x [a, b],
2
ex f (x) [a, b].
2
, f (a) = 0 ex f (x) = 0 f (x) = 0 x [a, b].
b
, , a xf (x)f (x) dx = 14 .
b b
a x2 (f (x))2 dx a (f (x))2 dx = 14 , ,
b 2 2
b 2 1
a x (f (x)) dx a (f (x)) dx > 4 .
n n
7.3.19. 1 log x dx nk=2 log k 2 log x dx + log n n 2.

n
n
n!
1e .
: . log x , k = 1, . . . , n 1

log k log x log(k + 1) x [k, k + 1]

k+1
log k k log x dx log(k + 1).
k = 2, . . . , n 1
n1 n
k=2 log k 2 log x dx.

, k = 1, . . . , n 1
n n1 n
1 log x dx k=1 log(k + 1) = k=2 log k.

n n n
1 log x dx k=2 log k 2 log x dx + log n.

n log n n + 1 log(n!) n log n n 2 log 2 + 2 + log n,

n + 1 log(n!) n log n n 2 log 2 + 2 + log n,

n
2 log 22 log n
1 + 1
n log n
n!
1 n + n .

n
n
log n
n!
1, n
n!
1e .
7.3.20. [] m, n Z m n am , . . . , an .
[x]
A : [m, n] R A(x) = k=m ak x [m, n].
A. A ;
f : [m, n] R [m, n]. x [m, n]

742
[x] x
k=m ak f (k) = A(x)f (x) m A(t)f (t) dt.
[] [] m = 1, ak = 1 k f (x) = x1p , -
n
nk=1 k1p = np11
+ p 1 x[x]
p+1 dx n p.
n 1 n
[] [], k=1 k = log n + 1 1 x[x] dx n.
n 1 x2
xn = k=1 k log n n, (xn ) .
[] m, n Z m n f : [m, n] R [m,
nn]. -
[], Euler, nk=m f (k) = m f (x) dx +
n f (m)+f (n)
m f (x)(x [x] 2 ) dx +
1
2 .
[] m, n Z m n f : [m, n] R [m, n].
x
(x) = m (t [t] 12 ) dt x [m, n]. , [],
n n n f (m)+f (n)
k=m f (k) = mf (x) dx m f (x)(x) dx + 2 .
x
[] (x) = 1 (t [t] 2 ) dt x [1, +). [] m = 1
1
n
f (x) = log x, log(n!) = (n + 21 ) log n n + 1 + 1 (x)
x2
dx n.
[] 6.4.10 (x) [],[].
n!
xn = en nn+(1/2) n, , [], (xn ) -
.
xn 2 246(2n2)(2n) 2 1/2
x2n =
135(2n3)(2n1) ( n ) n , Wallis
2
7.3.11, xxn2n 2.
, Stirling, n!
2 en nn+(1/2)
1.
m
: [] x [m, m + 1), [x] = m A(x) = k=m ak = am .
x [m + 1, m + 2), [x] = m + 1 A(x) = m+1 k=m ak = am + am+1 .

, , x [j, j +1), m j n1, [x] = j A(x) = jk=m ak =
am + + aj .
, x = n, A(x) = nk=m ak = am + + an .
, A [m, n]
m + 1, . . . , n. m + 1 j n aj = 0, f j aj .
, m j n 1,
j+1 j+1
j A(t)f (t) dt = (am + + aj ) j f (t) dt = (am + + aj )(f (j + 1) f (j))

, x [j, j + 1) , , j = [x],
x
x
j A(t)f (t) dt = (am + + aj ) j f (t) dt = (am + + aj )(f (x) f (j)).

743

x
[x]1 k+1 x
m A(t)f (t) dt = k=m k A(t)f (t) dt + [x] A(t)f (t) dt
[x]1
= k=m (am + + ak )(f (k + 1) f (k))
+ (am + + a[x] )(f (x) f ([x]))
[x]1 [x]1
= k=m (am + + ak )f (k + 1) k=m (am + + ak )f (k)
+ (am + + a[x] )(f (x) f ([x]))
[x] [x]1
= k=m+1 (am + + ak1 )f (k) k=m (am + + ak )f (k)
+ (am + + a[x] )(f (x) f ([x]))
[x]1
= k=m+1 (am + + ak1 )f (k) + (am + + a[x]1 )f ([x]) am f (m)
[x]1
k=m+1 (am + + ak )f (k) + (am + + a[x] )(f (x) f ([x]))
[x]1
= k=m+1 ak f (k) am f (m) a[x] f ([x]) + (am + + a[x] )f (x)
[x]
= k=m ak f (k) + (am + + a[x] )f (x)
[x]
= k=m ak f (k) + A(x)f (x)
, ,
[x] x (t) dt.
k=m ak f (k) = A(x)f (x) m A(t)f (14.211)
[] (14.211) , m = 1 ak = 1
k, [x]
A(x) = k=1 1 = [x].
1
f (t) = tp x = n
n 1 1
n [x]
k=1 kp = np1
+p 1 xp+1 dx. (14.212)
[] p = 1 (14.212)
n 1 n [x] n x[x]
k=1 k = 1 + 1 x2
dx = log n + 1 1 x2
dx
n x[x]
xn = 1 1 x2
dx.
x [x] 0 x,
n+1 x[x]
xn+1 xn = n x2
dx 0
(xn ) .
, x [x] < 1 x,
n
xn 1 1 1
x2
dx = 1
n > 0.
(xn ) .
[] (14.211) ak = 1 k
[x]
A(x) = k=m 1 = [x] m + 1,
x = n
n n
k=m f (k) = (n m + 1)f (n) m ([x] m + 1)f (x) dx
n
= (n m + 1)f (n) m (x m + 21 )f (x) dx
n
+ m (x [x] 12 )f (x) dx
(14.213)
= (n m + 1)f (n) (n m + 21 )f (n) + 12 f (m)
n n
+ m (x m + 12 ) f (x) dx + m (x [x] 21 )f (x) dx
n n
= m f (x) dx + m f (x)(x [x] 21 ) dx + f (m)+f
2
(n)
.

744
 j+1
[] 6.4.10 j , j (x [x] 12 ) dx = 0.
, k ,
k j+1
(k) = m (t [t] 12 ) dt = k1
j=m j (t [t] 21 ) dt = 0.

, k ,
k+1 k+1
k f (x)(x [x] 12 ) dx = k f (x) (x) dx
k+1
= f (k + 1)(k + 1) f (k)(k) k f (x)(x) dx
k+1
= k f (x)(x) dx.

n (x)(x
n1 k+1
mf [x] 12 ) dx = k=m k f (x)(x [x] 21 ) dx
k+1 n
= n1
k=m k f (x)(x) dx = m f (x)(x) dx.

, (14.213)
n n n (x)(x) dx f (m)+f (n)
k=m f (k) = m f (x) dx mf + 2 . (14.214)

[] (14.214) m = 1 f (x) = log x

n n n (x) log n
k=1 log k = 1 log x dx + 1 x2
dx + 2

, ,
n (x)
log(n!) = (n + 21 ) log n n + 1 + 1 x2
dx.
n!
[] xn = en nn+(1/2)

n (x)+(1/8) n n (x)+(1/8)
log xn = 1 x2
dx 1
8
1
1 x2 dx = 1 x2
dx 1
8 + 1
8n . (14.215)

6.4.10 81 (x) 1
8

0 (x) + 1
8 1
4 x 1.
n (x)+(1/8)
, yn = 1 x2
dx,
n+1 (x)+(1/8)
yn+1 yn = n x2
dx 0

n n
(x)+(1/8)
yn = 1 x2
dx 1
4
1
1 x2 dx = 1
4 1
4n < 14 .
(yn ) , , . yn y,
(14.215)
log xn y 81
(xn ) x = ey(1/8) > 0.
(xn )
xn 2 246(2n2)2n
x2n = 135(2n3)(2n1) ( n2 )1/2 ,

, Wallis 7.3.11,
xn 2

x2n 2.

745

xn x x2n x x > 0, x = 2
n!
2 en nn+(1/2)
= xn
2
1.

7.3.21. [] n N Pn (x) = 1 n
n! x (1 x)n .
0 Pn (x) 4n1n! x [0, 1].
, k, Pn (k) (0) Pn (k) (1) .
[] , = ml m, l N.

Qn (x) = l2n nk=0 (1)k Pn (2k) (x) 2n2k .
Qn (0) Qn (1) .
( )
2 m2n Pn (x) sin(x) = dx d
Qn (x) sin(x) Qn (x) cos(x) x.
1
Qn (1) + Qn (0) = m2n 0 Pn (x) sin(x) dx.
, n , 0 < Qn (0) + Qn (1) < 1
. .
: [] . 0 x(1 x) 41 x [0, 1].
. Leibniz 5.5.20
1 k
(k) n (j)
Pn (k) (x) = n! j=0 j (x ) ((1 x) )
n (kj) . (14.216)
, .
j > n, (xn )(j) = 0 , k j > n, ((1 x)n )(kj) = 0.
j = n, (xn )(j) = n! , k j = n, ((1 x)n )(kj) = (1)n n!.
j < n, (xn )(j) 0 x = 0 , k j < n, ((1 x)n )(kj)
0 x = 1.
x = 0 (14.216)
j = n. k n.
( )
1 k

n )(kn) 
Pn (k) (0) = 0 k < n Pn (k) (0) = n! n n!((1 x) x=0
k n.
(k ) 
n ((1 x)n )(kn) x=0
( ) 
, Pn (k) (0) = nk ((1 x)n )(kn) x=0 .
Pn (k) (0) .
Pn (k) (1) .
[] . 0 k n,
l2n 2n2k = l2n m2n2k l2k2n = m2n2k l2k
.
n n
Qn (0) = l2n k=0 (1)
k P (2k) (0) 2n2k
n = k=0 (1)
k P (2k) (0)m2n2k l2k
n

, Pn (2k) (0) [].

, Qn (1) .
.

Qn (x) + 2 Qn (x) = l2n nk=0 (1)k Pn (2k+2) (x) 2n2k

+ 2 l2n nk=0 (1)k Pn (2k) (x) 2n2k

= l2n n+1 k=1 (1)
k1 P (2k) (x) 2n2k+2
n
2n
n k (2k) (x) 2n2k+2
+l k=0 (1) Pn

= l2n n+1 k
k=1 (1) Pn
(2k) (x) 2n2k+2

+ l2n nk=0 (1)k Pn (2k) (x) 2n2k+2
= l2n (1)n+1 Pn (2n+2) (x) + l2n Pn (x) 2n+2
= l2n Pn (x) 2n+2 = 2 m2n Pn (x).

746

( )
d
dx Qn (x) sin(x) Qn (x) cos(x) = Qn (x) sin(x) + 2 Qn (x) sin(x)
= 2 m2n Pn (x) sin(x).
.
1 ( )
2 m2n 0 Pn (x) sin(x) dx = Qn (1) sin(1) Qn (1) cos(1)
( )
Qn (0) sin(0) Qn (0) cos(0)
= Qn (1) + Qn (0)
1
Qn (1) + Qn (0) = m2n 0 Pn (x) sin(x) dx.
. []
Pn (x) sin(x) > 0 x (0, 1),
Qn (1) + Qn (0) > 0.
, []
1 2n 1 2m2n
Qn (1) + Qn (0) = m2n 0 Pn (x) sin(x) dx m 4n n! 0 sin(x) dx = 4n n! 0

n +.
n 0 < Qn (0) + Qn (1) < 1. , ,
, Qn (0) + Qn (1) .
7.3.22. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].
b b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0, lim a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.

[] [] f : [a, b] R [a, b].

[] 6.4.26 []
f : [a, b] R [a, b].

: [] > ba .
b b b
a f (x) cos(x) dx = a
f (x) cos(x) dx + f (x) cos(x) dx
b

b b
= a+ f (x ) cos(x) dx + b f (x) cos(x) dx.

b b a+
a f (x) cos(x) dx = a+ f (x) cos(x) dx + a
f (x) cos(x) dx.

b
1 b
( )
a f (x) cos(x) dx = 2 a+ f (x) f (x ) cos(x) dx


1 b
a+ (14.217)
+ 2 b f (x) cos(x) dx + 12 a f (x) cos(x) dx.

f [a, b], M 0 |f (x)| M

x [a, b].
> 0. f [a, b], > 0
|f (x ) f (x )| < (ba)

x , x [a, b] |x x | < .
, > max{ , 2M , ba

}.
< , |f (x) f (x )| <

(ba) x [a + , b]. ,

> ba , (14.217)
b  b  
 f (x) cos(x) dx 1 f (x) f (x ) dx + 1 b |f (x)| dx + 1 a+ |f (x)| dx
a 2 a+

2 b
2 a

1
2 (ba) (b a) + 21 M + 12 M =
2 + M
< .

747
 b
lim+ a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0.
b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0 , ,
b
lim a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0 .
[] a = 0 < . . . < m = b c0 , . . . , cm f (x) = ck x
(k1 , k ) k = 1, . . . , m. , = 0,
b m k m sin(k )sin(k )
a f (x) cos(x) dx = k=1 ck k1 cos(x) dx = k=1 ck .

b  m
 f (x) cos(x) dx
k=1 |ck |,
2
a ||
b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0.
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0.
6.4.26[], g, h : [a, b] R
b b
g(x) f (x) h(x) x [a, b] a h(x) dx a g(x) dx < 2 .
b b b
a |f (x) g(x)| dx = a (f (x) g(x)) dx a (h(x) g(x)) dx < 2 .
b 
[], 0 > 0 | a g(x) cos(x) dx <
2
> 0 . > 0
b  b  b 
| a f (x) cos(x) dx | a (f (x) g(x)) cos(x) dx + | a g(x) cos(x) dx
b b 
a |f (x) g(x)| dx + | a g(x) cos(x) dx < 2 + 2 = .

, 6.4.26[], g, h,
[] .
7.3.23. [] f : [a, b] R [a, b] f
[a, b]. M 0
b  b 
 f (x) cos(x) dx M min{1, 1/||},  f (x) sin(x) dx M min{1, 1/||}.
a a

f [a, b].
, , f (a) = f (b) = 0,
b b
lim a f (x) cos(x) dx = 0, lim a f (x) sin(x) dx = 0.

, f [a, b].
: .
b b
a f (x) cos(x) dx = f (b) sin(b) f (a) sin(a) a f (x) sin(x) dx, (14.218)

b  b
|| a f (x) cos(x) dx |f (b)| + |f (a)| + a |f (x)| dx. (14.219)
, b 
 f (x) cos(x) dx b |f (x)| dx. (14.220)
a a
b b
, M = max{|f (b)| + |f (a)| + a |f (x)| dx, a |f (x)| dx}, (14.219),
(14.220) b 
 f (x) cos(x) dx M min{1, 1/||}.
a
.
(14.218) f . ,

(f (x) sin(x)) = f (x) cos(x) + f (x) sin(x)

748
 , , 7.2.20,
b
a (f (x) sin(x)) dx = f (b) sin(b) f (a) sin(a)

(14.218). b 
 a f (x) cos(x) dx M min{1, 1/||} f
.
. (14.218)
7.3.22[,].
7.3.24. [] f : [a, a] R [a, a] 0
: R R (x) 0
x,
lim+ (x) dx = 1.
1
a x
lim0+ a ( )f (x) dx = f (0).

: f [a, a], M > 0 |f (x)| M

x [a, b].
, (x) 0 x, 0 1 < 2 ,
2 1 1 2 1
2 (x) dx = 2 (x) dx + 1 (x) dx + 1 (x) dx 1 (x) dx,

(x) dx , , [0, +).

, lim+ (x) dx = 1,

(x) dx 1 > 0. (14.221)

> 0. 0 > 0

1 (x) dx < 4M
0 . (14.222)

, > 0

|f (x) f (0)| <

4 x [a, a] |x| < . (14.223)

0 < < min{ 0 , a0 }

a a

a ( )f (x) dx f (0) = (x)f (x) dx f (0)

1 x

a

a a
=
a

(x)(f (x) f (0)) dx + f (0)
a

(x) dx f (0),

1 a  a ( a )
 ( x
)f (x) dxf (0)  a (x)|f (x)f (0)| dx+|f (0)| 1 a (x) dx . (14.224)
a

a
> 0 , (14.222)
( a )
|f (0)| 1 a (x) dx < M 4M

= 4 . (14.225)

,
a 0


a (x)|f (x) f (0)| dx = 0(x)|f (x) f (0)| dx
0
+ a (x)|f (x) f (0)| dx (14.226)

a
+ 0 (x)|f (x) f (0)| dx.

749
 0 < , (14.223)

|f (x) f (0)| <

4 x [0 , 0 ]. (14.227)

, (14.226), (14.227), (14.221) (14.222)

a 0 a

a

(x)|f (x) f (0)| dx
4 0(x) dx + 2M a 0 (x) dx + 2M 0 (x) dx

( a )

4 + 2M a (x) dx 0 0 (x) dx
( )

4 + 2M 1 0 0 (x) dx 4 + 2M 4M

= 34.

, (14.224), (14.225)
1 a  3
 
a ( )f (x) dx f (0) < 4 + 4 =
x

1
a x
lim0+ a ( )f (x) dx = f (0).
7.3.25. I f, g : I R I f , g : I R
I.
b
b
a f (x)g (x) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) a f (x)g(x) dx a, b I.

: (f g) = f g + f g
I, 7.2.20
b
b
a (f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)) dx = a (f g) (x) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a).
x
7.3.26. [] v, w : [a, b] R [a, b] f (x) = a v(t) dt,
x b
g(x) = a w(t) dt x [a, b]. a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b).
[] I v, w : I R
I f, g : I R v, w, , I.
b
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a) a, b I.

: [] (i) v(x), w(x) 0 x [a, b]. f , g

[a, b].
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] n .

xk
g(xk1 )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) xk1 v(x)g(x) dx g(xk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )),
xk
f (xk1 )(g(xk ) g(xk1 )) xk1 f (x)w(x) dx f (xk )(g(xk ) g(xk1 )).
k = 1, . . . , n,
n ( )
k=1 g(xk1 )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) + f (xk1 )(g(xk ) g(xk1 ))
b
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx
( )
nk=1 g(xk )(f (xk ) f (xk1 )) + f (xk )(g(xk ) g(xk1 )) .

n
f (b)g(b) k=1 (f (xk ) f (xk1 ))(g(xk ) g(xk1 ))
b
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx

f (b)g(b) + nk=1 (f (xk ) f (xk1 ))(g(xk ) g(xk1 ))

750

b 
 (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx f (b)g(b)
a
(14.228)
nk=1 (f (xk ) f (xk1 ))(g(xk ) g(xk1 )).

v, w [a, b], u 0 v(x) u 0 w(x)

u x [a, b].
xk
0 f (xk ) f (xk1 ) = xk1 v(x) dx u(xk xk1 ) = u(ba)
n

, , 0 g(xk ) g(xk1 ) u(ba)

n .
(14.228)
b 
 (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx f (b)g(b) u2 (ba)2
a n

, n,
b
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b). (14.229)

(ii) v(x) 0 x [a, b]

(14.229) w(x) = 1, g(x) = xa
b b
a v(x)(x a) dx + a f (x) dx = f (b)(b a). (14.230)
, , v , , [a, b], l
v(x) l x [a, b].
v (x) = v(x) l f (x) = f (x) l(x a).
v (x) 0 x [a, b], (14.230)
b b
a v (x)(x a) dx + a f (x) dx = f (b)(b a)

b b
a v(x)(x a) dx + a f (x) dx = f (b)(b a). (14.231)

(iii) , v, w [a, b],

l v(x) l w(x) l x [a, b].
v (x) = v(x) l w (x) = w(x) l
f (x) = f (x) l(x a) g (x) = g(x) l(x a).
v (x), w (x) 0 x [a, b], (14.229)
b
a (v (x)g (x) + f (x)w (x)) dx = f (b)g (b).

(14.231) ( v, f w, g)
b
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b). (14.232)
x
xa, b I a < b. f (x) = a v(t) dt + c
[]
g(x) = a w(t) dt + d x I.
, (14.232) f (x) c, g(x) d
b
a (v(x)g(x) + f (x)w(x)) dx = f (b)g(b) f (a)g(a).

7.3.27. [] a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn R b1 bn 0. sk = a1 + +ak
k = 1, . . . , n,

b1 min{sk | 1 k n} b1 a1 + + bn an b1 max{sk | 1 k n}.

751
[] f : [a, b] R [a, b] g : [a, b] R [a, b].
[a, b]
b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx.

: []

b1 a1 + + bn an = b1 s1 + b2 (s2 s1 ) + + bn (sn sn1 )

(14.233)
= (b1 b2 )s1 + + (bn1 bn )sn1 + bn sn .

l = min{sk | 1 k n} u = max{sk | 1 k n}, (14.233)

b1 a1 + + bn an (b1 b2 )u + + (bn1 bn )u + bn u = b1 u

b1 a1 + + bn an (b1 b2 )l + + (bn1 bn )l + bn l = b1 l.
b
[] (i) f , f (a) > f (b) = 0 a f (x)g(x) dx 0.
> 0. = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}

(g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) < . (14.234)

uk lk supremum infimum g [xk1 , xk ].

b n xk n xk
a f (x)g(x) dx = k=1 xk1 f (x)g(x) dx k=1 uk xk1 f (x) dx.
x
k f (x) dx
xk1
ak = uk (xk xk1 ) bk = xk xk1 0,
b n
a f (x)g(x) dx k=1 bk ak .

f ,
x xk+1
k f (xk ) dx
xk1 f (xk ) dx
bk bk+1 .
xk
xk xk1 = f (xk ) = xk+1 xk

, [], k0
b n k0
a f (x)g(x) dx k=1 bk ak b1 k=1 uk (xk xk1 ). (14.235)

(14.234)
k0 n
k=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) k=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 )
= (g; a, b; ) (g; a, b; ) <

(14.235)
b ( k0 ) ( k0 xk )
a f (x)g(x) dx b1 k=1 lk (xk xk1 ) + b1 k=1 xk1 g(x) dx +
(x ) (14.236)
= b1 a k0 g(x) dx + .
x
, G(x) = a g(t) dt x [a, b].
G [a, b], [a, b] G(x) G()
x [a, b]. (14.236)
b
a f (x)g(x) dx b1 (G() + ).

752
 x x
1 f (x) dx 1 f (a) dx
b1 = a x1 a a x1 a = f (a) G() G(a) = 0,
b
a f (x)g(x) dx f (a)(G() + )
b
1
f (a) a f (x)g(x) dx G() + .
b
> 0, 0 f (a)1
a f (x)g(x) dx G() ,
G(a) = 0,
b
G(a) f (a)
1
a f (x)g(x) dx G().
b
[a, b] G() = f (a)
1
a f (x)g(x) dx , ,
b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx, (14.237)

f (b) = 0.
b
(ii) , f , f (a) > f (b) = 0 a f (x)g(x) dx < 0.
b b
g = g a f (x)g (x) dx = a f (x)g(x) dx > 0.
[a, b] (14.237) g g. ,
b b
a f (x)g (x) dx = f (a) a g (x) dx + f (b) g (x) dx

, , b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx. (14.238)
(iii) , f f (a) = f (b) = 0.
, , f 0 [a, b] (14.238) [a, b].
(14.238) [a, b] f -
f (b) = 0.
(iv) f f (b) = 0.
f = f f (b), [a, b] f (b) = f (b) f (b) = 0.
, [a, b] (14.238) f f . ,
b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx

(14.238).
(v) , f .
f = f , [a, b]. [a, b]
(14.238) f f . ,
b b
a f (x)g(x) dx = f (a) a g(x) dx + f (b) g(x) dx

(14.238).
7.3.29. ex , log x, xa a -
.
: ex . P0 (x)+P1 (x)ex + +Pn (x)enx = 0 x (a, b),
P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) , n 1 Pn (x)
n n N Pn (x)
.
n- .
log x. P0 (x) + P1 (x) log x + + Pn (x)(log x)n = 0 x (a, b),
0 a < b, P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) , n 1 Pn (x)
. x = et et -
(log a, log b).

753
 arctan x. P0 (x) + P1 (x) arctan x + + Pn (x)(arctan x)n = 0 x (a, b),
P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) , n 1 Pn (x) -
n n N Pn (x) -
. , ,
Pn (x) = xk + ak1 xk1 + . , -
x2 + 1 -
kx ak1 .
tan x. tan x (a, b) ( 2 , 2 )
log x arctan t.
xa a. P0 (x) + P1 (x)xa + + Pn (x)xna = 0 x (a, b),
P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) , n 1 Pn (x) -
n n N Pn (x) -
. , ,
Pn (x) = xk + ak1 xk1 + . , -
x
k + na.
7.3.30. 6.5.6 .
y = ax2 .
x2 y2
a2
+ b2
= 1 .
: x = x, y = y(x) = ax2
x [x1 , x2 ]
x2 1
2ax2
x1 1 + 4a2 x2 dx = 2a 2ax1 1 + x2 dx.

x u = x + 1 + x2 -

u2 (u2 +1)2 (
1 u2 2 u1 2 u2 2 u1 2
)
1
8a u1 u3
du = 8a 2 + 2 log uu21 + 4(u 1 u2 )
2 ,

u1 = 2ax1 + 1 + 4a2 x1 2 u2 = 2ax2 + 1 + 4a2 x2 2 .
-
x = x, y = y(x) = a a x2 x [x1 , x2 ] [a, a].
b 2

x2 2 2
x1 1 + a2 (ab 2xx2 ) dx.

x t = arccos xa
t
t12 a2 (sin t)2 + b2 (cos t)2 dt, (14.239)
t1 = arccos xa1 , t2 = arccos xa2 [t2 , t1 ] [0, ].
, t u = tan 2t

u2 4u2 (1u2 )2 u2 b2 u4 +(4a2 2b2 )u2 +b2
u1 a (1+u2 )2 + b (1+u2 )2 1+u2 du = 2 u1
2 2 2
(1+u2 )2
du, (14.240)

u1 = tan t21 = ax a+x2 [u2 , u1 ] [0, +].
t2 ax2
1
a+x1 , u2 = tan 2 =
.
. , a = b,
( a) , (14.239),
t t
a t12 (sin t)2 + (cos t)2 dt = a t12 dt = a(t1 t2 ).

754
 .
( a = b), -
(14.240), :
u2
a2 u4 +2a2 u2 +a2
u2 ( )
2 u1 (1+u2 )2
du = 2a 1
u1 1+u2 du = 2a arctan u1 arctan u2 = a(t1 t2 ).

14.8 8.
+ + 2n +3n
8.1.2. n=1 n log(1 + n1 ), n=1 2n+1 +3n+1 .
:
2n +3n 3n (2/3)n +1 1 (2/3)n +1
n log(1 + n1 ) = log(1 + n1 )n log e = 1, 2n+1 +3n+1
= 3n+1 (2/3)n+1 +1
= 3 (2/3)n+1 +1 13 .

= 0, .
8.1.3.
,
+ 2 n+2 + 4 n3 + 2
(
n=1 3 ) , (
n=1 3 ) , n=1 3n1 ( ).
:
+ ,
2 n
n=3( 3 ) , ,
+ 2 n
n=0 ( 3 ) . ,
+ + + 2
2 n+2
n=1 ( 3 ) = 2 n
n=3 ( 3 ) = 2 n
n=0 ( 3 ) 2 n
n=0 ( 3 ) = 1
1(2/3) 1 2
3 ( 23 )2 = 89 .

+ ( 34 )n3 = + 3 2 4 n1
n=1 ( 4 ) ( 3 ) , ,
+ 4 n1 n=1
n=1 ( 3 ) +,
+ 4 n3 +
n=1 ( 3 ) = ( 34 )2 4 n1
n=1 ( 3 ) = ( 34 )2 (+) = +.
+ 1 + 1 n1 + 2
n=1 3n1 = n=1 ( 3 ) , n=1 3n1
+
+ 2 1 n1
1
n=1 3n1 =2 n=1 ( 3 )
= 2 1(1/3) = 3.
+ 1x2n
8.1.4. x + x
n=1 (1+x)n1 , n=1 1+x2n
;
: x = 1. x = 0,
.
x = 0, + 1 n1
n=1 ( 1+x )
, , | x+1 | < 1 , , x < 2 x > 0.
1

x < 2 x 0.
2n
1x
1+x2n
0.
1x2n 1x2n (1/x)2n 1
|x| < 1, 1+x2n
10
1+0 = 1. |x| > 1, 1+x2n
= (1/x)2n +1
01
0+1 = 1.
1x2n
|x| = 1, = 0, .
1+x2n
x = 1.

8.1.5. + n=1 (bn bn+1 ) ,
, limn+ bn
limn+ bn .
limn+ bn :
+
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) = b1 limn+ bn .
+ +
+ 1
n=1 n(n+1) ,
1
n=1 n(n+1)(n+2) , n=1 (1)
n1 2n+1 .
n(n+1)

755
: n-

sn = (b1 b2 ) + (b2 b3 ) + + (bn1 bn ) + (bn bn+1 ) = b1 bn+1 .

, (sn ) (bn ) , ,

limn+ sn = b1 limn+ bn+1 = b1 limn+ bn .

+n=1 (bn bn+1 ) limn+ bn

+
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) = b1 limn+ bn .

1 limn+ bn .

1
n(n+1) = n1 n+1
1
. n1 0, + n=1 n(n+1)
+ + ( 1 )
1
n=1 n(n+1) = n=1 n 1
n+1 = 1 0 = 1.
1
n(n+1)(n+2) = 12 ( n(n+1)
1
(n+1)(n+2)
1 1
). n(n+1) 0,

+ 1 +
( 1 ) 1(1 ) 1
n=1 n(n+1) (n+1)(n+2) = 2 2 0 = 4 .
1 1
n=1 n(n+1)(n+2) = 2

,
(1 ) (1)n1 (1)n
2n+1
(1)n1 n(n+1) = (1)n1 (n+1)+n
n(n+1) = (1)
n1
n + 1
n+1 = n n+1 .

(1)n1
n 0,
+ + ( (1)n1 (1)n )
n=1 (1)
n1 2n+1 =
n(n+1) n=1 n n+1 = 1 0 = 1.
+ 1
8.1.6. , , n=1 xn , x2k1 = k x2k =
k1 k.
: (sn ) ,

s2k = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + + x2k3 + x2k2 + x2k1 + x2k

=11+ 1
2 1
2 + + 1
k1 1
k1 + 1
k 1
k = 0,

s2k1 = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + + x2k3 + x2k2 + x2k1

=11+ 1
2 1
2 + + 1
k1 1
k1 + 1
k = k1 .
s2k 0 s2k1 0 , , sn 0. 0.
+
8.1.7. x = y. + k=1 (a2k + xa2k1 ) k=1 (a2k + ya2k1 ) -
, + a
n=1 n .
+
: + , k=1 a2k1 . -
, k=1 a2k .
+,
+
+
n=1 a n k=1 a 2k1 k=1 a2k .
{
x2
n1 x/(1 x), |x| < 1
8.1.8. + n=1 1x2n =
1/(1 x), |x| > 1
: n- . -
:
x
s1 = 1x2
,

756
 x x2 x(1+x2 ) x2 (x+x3 )+x2 x+x2 +x3
s2 = 1x2
+ 1x4
= 1x4
+ 1x4
= 1x4
= 1x4
,
x x2 x4 x+x2 +x3 x4
s3 = 1x2
+ 1x 4 + 1x8 = 1x4
+ 1x 8

(x+x2 +x3 )(1+x4 ) x4 (x+x2 +x3 +x5 +x6 +x7 )+x4 x+x2 +x3 +x4 +x5 +x6 +x7
= 1x8
+ 1x8 = 1x8
= 1x8
.
, , n-
n 1
x+x2 ++x2
sn = 1x2
n .

, ,
.

2 ++x2n 2 n
1x2 1
sn = x 1+x+x1x 2n = x (1x)(1x 2n ) ,

, |x| < 1, sn , |x| > 1, sn 1x

x
1x
1
.
{
1
2, n = k
8.1.9. k N xn = n k +
2
n=1 xn .
0, n = k
: sn n- ,
( 1 )
sn = 2k32 2k
1
nk+1 + nk+2 + + n+k1 + n+k
1 1 1
n k + 1

sn 3
2k2
. 1
n2 k2
= 1 1
2k ( nk 1
n+k ).
8.1.11.
v. , d,
vd . , ,
:
, ,
. , , -
. . ,
, ( )
, .

.
: d/2 d
v = 2v . -
d2
d/4 d d
v = 4v . , 4
d/8 d
v = 8v . .

+ 1/2
d
2v + d
4v + d
8v + = d
v
1 n
n=1 ( 2 ) = d
v 1(1/2) = vd .

. , vd ,
.
8.1.12. .
, ,
.
: (sn ).

757
 (xn ) x1 = s1 xn = sn sn1 n 2.
n 2

x1 + x2 + + xn1 + xn = s1 + (s2 s1 ) + + (sn1 sn2 ) + (sn sn1 ) = sn .

(sn ) + n=1 xn -
(sn ).

8.2.1. + 1
n=1 n(n+1) 8.1.5,
+ 1
n=1 n2 .
: 1
(n+1)2
1
n(n+1) n 1,
+ + +
1
n=2 n2 = 1
n=1 (n+1)2 1
n=1 n(n+1) = 1.
+ 1
(- ) n=1 n2 .
+ ( 2 )
8.2.2. , n +1n ,
+ ( ) + + ( ) n=1
n=1 ( e 1), n=1 n 1 cos n .
1 n 1
n=1 log 1 + n2 ,
: n- 0,
2 +1)n2
n2 + 1 n = (n
n2 +1+n
1
= n2 +1+n 0.

n- 12 1
= 2n . ,
+ 1 n +n
n=1 n n-
.
n2 +1n
1/n
n
= n2 +1+n = 1 2 12 .
1+(1/n )+1

0 < 12 < +, +.
+ 1
n=1 n = +,
+ ( 2 )
n=1 n + 1 n = +.
1
n- log(1 + x) x = n2

0.
log(1+x) 1
limx0 x = limx0 1+x = 1.

,
log(1+(1/n2 ))
1
1/n2

, 0 < 1 < +, + 1
n=1 n2
+ 1
. , n=1 n2 < +,
+ ( 1
)
n=1 log 1 + n2 < +.

.
ex 1
limx0 x = limx0 ex = 1,

n e1
e1/n 1
1/n = 1/n 1.
+ 1
n=1 n .
+
n=1 ( e 1) = +.
n

758

1cos x sin x
limx0 x2
= limx0 2x = 21 ,

1cos(1/n) n(1cos(1/n))
12 ,
1/n2 1/n 12 .

0 < 21 < +, + 1
n=1 n
. + ( )
n=1 n 1 cos n = +.
1

: , ,
Taylor:
+
(1)n1 n
log(1 + x) = x 12 x2 + 13 x3 + = n xn=1
+ 1 n
ex = 1 + x + 2! x + 3! x + = n=0 n! x
1 2 1 3
+ (1)n 2n
cos x = 1 2! x + 4! x =
1 2 1 4
n=0 (2n)! x .

x 0, x 1
x,
xa
limx0 x = limx0 xa1 = 0 a > 1.

, x 2 x2
x 0.
, x 1
x 2, , ,

log(1 + x) x, ex 1 x, 1 cos x 1
2 x2

x 0.
( )
8.2.3. a + n=1 n
a 1
n
1
n+1
.

a, b a > b > 0, + 1
n=2 na nb .
: xn n- ,
( )
n+1 n na
xn = na 1
n
1
n+1
= na
n n+1
= .
n n+1( n+1+ n)

xn
a
yn = n = 1
.
n n( n+ n) 2n(3/2)a

xn yn

2n 2 a = ( ) 1.
3
xn na 2
yn = n n+1( n+1+ n) 1+(1/n) 1+(1/n)+1

+
0 < 1 < +, n=1 yn
.
{
+ 1 + 1 < +, 3
2 a>1
n=1 yn = 2 n=1 n(3/2)a
= +, 3
2 a1

a < 1
2 + a 12 .

759
 1 1
na nb
= na (1nba )
,
1/(na nb )
1/na = 1
1nba
1.
+ 1
0 < a 1, + 1
n=2 na , n=2 na nb . , ,

- , + 1
n=2 na nb = +.
+ 1 + 1
1 < a, n=2 na , n=2 na nb .
135(2n1)
8.2.4. + n=1 258(3n1) .
135(2n1)
: 258(3n1) ( 23 )n n.
+ 1
8.2.5. + 1
n=1 n2 +1 , n=2 n log n
+ 1
n=2 n(log n)2 . .
+ . ,
.
: .
f : [1, +) R f (u) = u21+1 . f
,
+ 1 t
1 u2 +1
du = limt+ 1 u21+1 du = limt+ (arctan t arctan 1) = 4 < +.
: + 1
n=1 n2 +1 < +.

+ 1 + 1
1 u2 +1
du + n=1 n2 +1 12 +1 + 1
1 1
u2 +1
du

4 + n=1 n2 +1 2 + 4 .
1 1

:
+ 1 + 1
n=1 n2 +1 n=1 n2 < +.

,
.
. -
1
[2, +) f (u) = u log u
:
+ 1 t 1 log t 1
2 u log u du = limt+ 2 u log u du = limt+ log 2 y dy
( )
= lim log(log t) log(log 2) = +.
t+

+ 1
n=2 n log n = +.

n+1 1 n n
u log u du k=2 k log k 2 log 2 + 2
1 1 1
2 u log u du
n
log log(n+1)
log 2 1
k=2 k log k 1
log 4 + log log n
log 2 .
[2, +) f (u) =
1
u(log u)2
:
+ 1
t
1
log t 1
2 u(log u)2
du = limt+ 2 u(log u)2 du = limt+ log 2 y 2 dy
( )
= limt+ log1 2 log1 t = log1 2 < +.

760
 + 1
n=2 n(log n)2 < +

+ +
2
1
u(log u)2
du +
n=2 n(log n)2
1 1
2(log 2)2
+ 2
1
u(log u)2
du
+
, , 1
log 2 1
n=2 n(log n)2 1
2(log 2)2
+ 1
log 2 .

+ k + 2k + 2k + 1
k=0 22k +1
1
k=0 2 (2k )2 +1 = k=0 22k = k=0 2k < +.
+ 1
n=1 n2 +1
.

+ k 1 + 1 1 + 1
k=1 2 2k log(2k ) = k=1 k log 2 = log 2 k=1 k = +,

+ 1
n=2 n log n +.
,
+ k 1 + 1 1 + 1
k=1 2 2k (log(2k ))2 = k=1 k2 (log 2)2
= (log 2)2 k=1 k2 < +,
+ 1
n=2 n(log n)2 .
+ 1
8.2.6. n=2 n(log n)p , p > 1, +,
p 1.
1
: p > 0, x(log x)p [2, +).
{
x 1
log(log x) log(log 2), p = 1
2 t(log t)p dt = (log x)1p (log 2)1p
1p , p = 1

, ,
{
+ 1
x 1
+, p 1
2 t(log t)p dt = limx+ 2 t(log t)p dt = (log 2)1p
p1 , 1 < p

, + n=2 n(log n)p , p > 1, , 0 < p 1.
1

p 0, + + 1
p
n=2 n(log n)p (log 2)
1
n=2 n = +,
+
n=2 n(log1 n)p .
+ 1
8.2.7. a > 0. n=1 an nb
a = 1, b > 1
a > 1 + .
: :
 1/(an+1 (n+1)b )  ( )
 n b
= 1 n b
a1 .
1/(a n ) a n+1

, a < 1, , a > 1,
+ .
a = 1. n=1 n1b , b > 1, -
, b 1.
.
n
|1/(an nb )| a1

761
 .
8.2.9. p > 1.
+ 1
p1 n=k np kp + (p1)kp1 k.
1 1 1
(p1)k

k p1 + n=k np p1 ( k +).
1 1

limp1+ (p 1) + 1
n=k np = 1 k.
: .
.

8.2.10. x > 0. 2 arctan x1 + n=1 n2 +x2 1+x2 + 2 arctan x .
x x 1
+ x
limx+ n=1 n2 +x2 = 2 .

limx+ +
n=1 fn (x) =
+
n=1 lim x+ n f (x) ;
: .
.
: .
, :

limx+ + x
n=1 n2 +x2 = 2

+ +
x
n=1 limx+ n2 +x2 = n=1 0 = 0.

8.2.11. xn >0 n a 1. + n=1 xn ,
a
+
n=1 x n
a, + xn
n=1 1+xn a .
+
: n=1 xn , xn 0.
a
. a = 1. a > 1, xxnn = xn a1 0
+ + a
, n=1 xn , n=1 xn .
a a + a
. xn /(1+x n )
= 1
a 1 n=1 xn , -
+ xn a x a 1+x
n n
n=1 1+xn a .
8.2.12. xn 0 n.
+ xn
+ n=1 xn , n=1 n .
+ +
n=1 xn , n=1 xn xn+1 . , ,
(xn ) , . +
+ n=1 xn + n=1 xn xn+1
.

xn
: ab 12 a2 + 21 b2 n 12 xn + 1 1
2 n2 n. ,
+ xn + +
n=1 n 1
2 n=1 xn + 1
2
1
n=1 n2 < +,

xn
+n=1 n .

xn xn+1 12 xn + 21 xn+1 n. ,
+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
n=1 xn xn+1 2 n=1 xn + 2 n=1 xn+1 = 2 n=1 xn + 2 n=2 xn < +.

, (xn ) , xn+1 xn xn+1
n. , + + +
n=2 xn = n=1 xn+1 n=1 xn xn+1 < +.
1
xn = 1, n , xn = n4
, n . ,
(xn ) : 1, 214 , 1, 414 , 1, 614 , . . . .

762

+ n=1 xn + - (xn )

0. , + n=1 xn xn+1 .
2 n2 , ,
1 1 1
, n , xn xn+1 = (n+1) 4 , xn xn+1 = (n+1)

n , xn xn+1 = n14 , xn xn+1 = n12 . ,
+ +
n=1 xn xn+1
1
n=1 n2
< +.

8.2.13. [] xn , yn > 0 n xxn+1 yn+1

yn .
+ + n
n=1 yn , n=1 xn .
[] xn > 0 n.
0 < a < 1 xxn+1 a, + xn .
xn+1
n + n=1
a > 1 xn a, n=1 xn .
: [] ( xynn ) , , .
[] [] yn = an n.
xn yn .

8.2.14. [] (xn ) xn 0 n. + n=1 xn < +,
nxn 0.

+n=1 np = + 0 p 1.
1

xn +xn+2
[] 8.1.5. (xn ) xn+1 n
2
xn 0. + n=1 n(xn 2xn+1 + xn+2 ) = x1 .
: [] n 2, [ n2 ] 1 , (xn ) ,
( [ ] ) ( )
x[n/2] + + xn xn + + xn = n n2 + 1 xn n n2 + 1 xn n2 xn .

, , n 2
+
0 nxn 2(x[n/2] + + xn ) 2 k=[n/2] xk .
+
[ n2 ] +, k=[n/2] xk 0 nxn 0.
+
( n1p )
, , 1
n n1p 0,
n=1 np ,
.
[] xn+1 xn +x2
n+2
xn xn+1 xn+1 xn+2 .
, xn 0 xn xn+1 0 (xn xn+1 )
0 0.
8.1.5 xn 0 +
n=1 (xn xn+1 )
, , +
n=1 (xn xn+1 ) = x1 .

, - ,
[]
n(xn xn+1 ) 0. (14.241)
+
, sn n=1 n(xn 2xn+1 + xn+2 ).
n
sn = k=1 k(xk 2xk+1 + xk+2 ) = nk=1 k(xk xk+1 ) nk=1 k(xk+1 xk+2 )
n
= k=1 k(xk xk+1 ) n+1
k=2 (k 1)(xk xk+1 )
n
= (x1 x2 ) + k=2 k(xk xk+1 ) nk=2 (k 1)(xk xk+1 ) n(xn+1 xn+2 )

= (x1 x2 ) + nk=2 (xk xk+1 ) n(xn+1 xn+2 )
= (x1 x2 ) + (x2 xn+1 ) n(xn+1 xn+2 ) = x1 xn+1 n(xn+1 xn+2 ).

763
 xn 0 (14.241) sn x1
+
n=1 n(xn 2xn+1 + xn+2 ) = x1 .
+ +
8.2.16. xn n zn n.
y+ n=1 xn n=1 zn
, n=1 yn .
+
: - + n=1 (zn xn ) n=1 (yn xn ).
8.2.17. m1 , m2 , m3 , . . .

3 . + n=1 mn
1

.
: 8 (mn ) [1, 10), 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9.
[10, 102 ) 8 9 ,
8 9 . ,
, , [10k , 10k+1 ) 8 9k (mn ).
, , mn [10k , 10k+1 )
mn 10k , mn 8 9 10k = 8( 10 ) . ,
1 1 1 k 1 9 k

+ + ( 9 )k
1
n=1 mn k=0 8 10
1
= 8 1(9/10) = 80.

8.2.18.+ xn > 0 n + n=1 xn .
rn = k=n xk n.
p 1, rxm+1
m+1
p ++ r p r
xn 1
p1 r
rn+1
p m, n m < n
+ xn n m+1 m+1

n=1 rn p .
0 < p < 1, xn
rn p 1
1p (rn
1p rn+1 1p ) n

+ xn
n=1 rn p .
: . p = 1
+
rn = + k=n xk = xn + k=n+1 xk = xn + rn+1 > rn+1

n. , (rn ) , m < n
xm+1 xm+1 xm+1 ++xn rm+1 rn+1 rn+1
rm+1 + + xn
rn rm+1 + + xn
rm+1 = rm+1 = rm+1 =1 rm+1 .

+ n=1 xn , rn 0. , , m 1,
rm+1 > 0, n > m rn+1 < rm+1 2 . ,
, m 1 n > m
xm+1 rn+1
rm+1 + + xn
rn 1 rm+1 >1 1
2 = 12 .
( m+1 ) +
limm,n+ xrm+1 + + xn
rn = 0, xn
n=1 rn .
p > 1.
. p = 21

rn+1
rn ( rn + rn+1 )( rn rn+1 )
xn

rn = rn =
rn 2( rn rn+1 ) n. (14.242)
+
rn 0, 8.1.5 n=1 ( rn rn+1 ) -
, , +
n=1 ( rn rn+1 ) = r1 .
+ xn
, (14.242) n=1 rn .
0 < p < 1.

764
 +
8.2.19. [] xn > 0 n n=1 xn .
sn = nk=1 xk n.

+ xn
n=1 1+xn .
xm+1
p 1, sm+1 p + + sn p
xn
1
sn p1
sm
sn p m, n m < n

+n=1
xn
sn p .
( 1 )
sn p p1 sn1 p1 n 2
xn 1 1
p > 1, sn p1

+ xn
n=1 sn p .

: . , , +n=1
xn
1+xn .
xn
1+x n
0, 1 + 1
xn = 1+xn
xn +, x n 0. ,
xn
xn /(1+xn ) = 1 + xn 1

, , +
n=1 xn . .
. p = 1, (sn ) ,
xm+1 xm+1 xm+1 ++xn sn sm
sm+1 + + xn
sn sn + + xn
sn = sn = sn =1 sm
sn .

+ n=1 xn , sn +. m 1
n > m sn > 2sm . , , m 1
n > m
xm+1
sm+1 + + sn 1 sn > 1 2 = 2 .
xn sm 1 1

( m+1 )
limm,n+ xsm+1 + + xsnn = 0, + xn
n=1 sn .
p < 1.
. p = 2
sn sn1 sn sn1
xn
sn 2
= sn 2
sn sn1 = 1
sn1
n 2. 1
sn (14.243)
( 1 )
s1n 0 8.1.5 +n=2 sn1 sn
1

+ ( )
n=2
1
sn1 1
sn = 1
s1 = 1
x1 .

, (14.243) +n=1
xn
sn 2
.
p > 1.

8.2.20. [] xn > 0 n
+ +n=1 xn .
(yn ) yn + n=1 xn yn .

[] xn > 0 n +n=1 xn .
(yn ) yn 0 + x
n=1 n ny .
+
: [] rn = k=n x k n. rn 0
8.2.18 + xn

n=1 rn . yn =
1 n,
rn
+
yn + n=1 xn yn .
.
n1 rn1 1. rn 0. ( -
) n2 > n1 rn2 213 . n3 > n2 rn3 313 .
. (nk )
rnk 1
k3
k.
(yn ) . yn = 0 1 n < n1 .
yn = 1 n1 n < n2 . yn = 2 n2 n < n3 . .
, k,
yn = k nk n < nk+1 .

765
 yn +. , M > 0 yn k = [M ] + 1 > M
n nk .
,
+ n1 1 + ( nk+1 1 )
n=1 xn yn = n=1 xn yn + k=1 n=nk xn yn
1 1 ( nk+1 1 )
= nn=1 xn 0 + + k=1 n=nk xn k
( nk+1 1 ) + + 1
= +k=1 k n=nk xn k=1 krnk k=1 k2 < +.

[] sn = nk=1 xk n. sn +
8.2.19 + xn 1
n=1 sn . yn = sn n,
+
yn 0 n=1 xn yn .
[], .
n1 sn1 1. sn +. n2 > n1
sn2 sn1 2. sn sn1 +. ( )
n3 > n2 sn3 sn2 3. .
(nk )

s n1 1 snk+1 snk k + 1 k.

(yn ) . yn = 1 1 n n1 .
yn = 21 n1 < n n2 . yn = 13 n2 < n n3 . .
, k,

yn = 1 1 n n1 yn = 1
k+1 nk < n nk+1 .

yn 0. , > 0 yn k+11 1
= [1/]+1 < n > nk .
,
+ n1 + ( nk+1 )
n=1 xn yn = n=1 xn yn + k=1 n=nk +1 xn yn
1 ( nk+1 )
= nn=1 xn 1 + +k=1
1
n=nk +1 xn k+1
( nk+1 )
= sn1 + + 1
k=1 k+1 n=nk +1 xn
+
= sn1 + + k=1 k+1 (snk+1 snk ) 1 +
1
k=1 1 = +.

8.2.21. an , bn 0 n p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+ q
[] + p
n=1 an < + n=1 bn < +, Hlder ,
+ ( + ) ( + q )1/q
p 1/p
n=1 an bn n=1 an n=1 bn .

s, t 0 0

+ san p = tbn q
n.
n=1 an < + +
2 2 1 1
n=1 bn < +, 2 + 2 = 1,
Cauchy,
+ ( + 2 )1/2 ( + 2 )1/2
n=1 an bn n=1 an n=1 bn ,
Hlder.
: . n + Hlder
5.4.22. .
( + p )1/p ( + q )1/q
. A = n=1 an B = n=1 bn . A = 0 B = 0,
. A, B > 0, Young
5.4.21 aAn , bBn .
( + 2 ) 2 ( + )
Cauchy. n=1 an t + 2 n=1 an bn t +

766
( + ) +
n=1 bn
2 = n=1 (tan + bn )2 0 t.
+
8.2.22. f : [1, +) [0, +) [1, +) n=1 f (n) = +
t
limt+ 1 f (u) du .
: [1, 1+a1 ] , n 2, [nan , n+an ]
:

a1 + + n=2 2an < +. (14.244)

, a1 = 21 an = n12 n 2.
f [1, +) [1, +),
0 , f (n) = 1 n
+ a1 ] [n an , n] [n, n + an ].
[1, 1
n=1 f (n) = +
+
n=1 1 = +.
0 f (u) 1 u [1, 1 + a1 ] [n an , n + an ]
1+a n+a
0 1 1 f (u) du a1 , 0 nann f (u) du 2an n 2.

, t 1 k > t ( , k = [t] + 1)
t 1+a1 2+a2 k+a
1 f (u) du 1 f (u) du + f (u) du + + kakk f (u) du
2a2
(14.245)
a1 + 2a2 + + 2ak a1 + + n=2 2an .
t
f (u) 0 u 1, 1 f (u) du (
t
t) limt+ 1 f (u) du +. (14.244), (14.245)
t
limt+ 1 f (u) du a1 + + n=2 2an < +.

8.2.28. p N, p 2 p- k ( 0
k p 1). [0, 1) n- p-
k pn1 [a, b).
; ;
: n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
8.2.30. p N, p 2. x N n0 Z,
n0 0 x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 Z 0 x0 , x1 , . . . , xn0 p 1 xn0 1 x =
xn0 pn0 + + x1 p + x0 .
: n0 Z, n0 0 pn0 x < pn0 +1 . x0 =
x p[ xp ], x1 = [ xp ] p[ px2 ] , , xn = [ pxn ] p[ pn+1
x
] n N.
8.2.32. (pn ) N pn 2 n.
(an ) Z 0 an pn 1 n
an = pn 1. + an
n=1 p1 pn
[0, 1).
x [0, 1) (an ) Z 0 an
pn 1 n, an = pn 1 x = + an
n=1 p1 pn .
(an ).
: pn
p.
an = [p1 pn x] pn [p1 pn1 x] n.
n! + 258(3n1) + en (n+1)!
8.3.1. + n=1 nn , n=1 159(4n3) , n=1 nn .

767
 n! (n+1)!
: xn = nn xn+1 = (n+1)n+1
.
 xn+1 
 = (n+1)!nn
= nn
= 1
1
< 1.
xn n!(n+1)n+1 (n+1)n 1 n
(1+ n ) e

().
258(3n1) 258(3n1)(3n+2)
, xn = 159(4n3) xn+1 = 159(4n3)(4n+1)
 xn+1 
 = 3n+2
3
< 1.
xn 4n+1 4

().
en (n+1)! en+1 (n+2)!
, xn = nn xn+1 = (n+1)n+1

 xn+1  ( )
 =e (n+2)!nn n
(n+2)n n n
xn (n+1)!(n+1)n+1
= e (n+1)(n+1) n+2
n = e n+1 n+1 e1 1
e = 1.

.
+
8.3.2. + 3
n=1 n ,
n
n=1 ( n n+1)n .

:
( )3
n
|n3 | = n
n 1,

. ,
+,
+ 3 +
n=1 n n=1 1 = +.

 
n   nn
n
( n n+1)n
=
n n+1 1
2 < 1.

().
8.3.3. 12 + 13 + 212 + 312 + 213 + 313 + 214 + 314 +
2 + 1 + 23 + 22 + 25 + 24 + 27 + 26 + , .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

xn+1
: + n=1 xn , xn
1/3(n+1)/2 1/2(n/2)+1
= ( 23 )(n+1)/2 n ( 32 )n/2 1/3n/2 (
= 1
1/2(n+1)/2 ) 2
n . | xxn+1
n
| 0
+.

lim | xxn+1
n
| = 0 1 + = lim | xxn+1
n
|

, ,
.
n |xn | 1+(1/n)
1
n 13
2 ( )
n . n |xn | 12
1 .
3

lim supn+ n
|xn | = 1
2
<1

, , .
xn+1 1/2n1
+ n=1 xn , xn 1/2n =2
1/2n+1 1
n 1/2n2
= 8 n .

768
 ( )
| xxn+1 n
| 2
81 .
lim | xxn+1
n
| = 18 1 2 = lim | xxn+1
n
|,

.
n
|xn | 12 n 21(2/n)
1
n .
( )
n
|xn |
12 .

lim n |xn | = 12 < 1
, , .
+ (1)n
8.3.4. n=2 n log n ,
+ (1)n + n1 log n ,
+ (1)n1 n2 +
n=2 n(log n)2 , n=1 (1) n n=1 3n , n=1 (1)n1 sin n1 .
: , 8.2.5 8.2.6
+  (1)n1  + 1
n=2 n log n = n=2 n log n = +.
, ,
1
( n log n ) 0.
: ,

. , ,
, , .
,
. 8.2.5 8.2.6
.
, ( 8.2.6)
+  (1)n1  + 1
n=2 n(log n)2 = n=2 n(log n)2 < +.

.
. , -
( n(log1 n)2 ) 0.

+   + +
 n1 log n  = log n
log 2 1
n=1 (1) n n=2 n n=1 n = +.

f (x) = logx x 1 x < +

0 +.
{
1log x 0, 1 x e
f (x) = x2
0, e x

f [e, +). , limx+ logx x = limx+ logx x =
limx+ x1 = 0.
( )
logn n 0,
.
. .

 (1)n (n+1)2 /3n+1 
 n1 2 n
= (n+1)2
13 .
(1) n /3 3n2

769
  n (n+1)2 /3n+1 
lim  (1)
(1)n1 n2 /3n
 = 1 < 1, .
3

n
|(1)n1 n2 /3n | = ( n n)2 /3 13 .

lim n |(1)n1 n2 /3n | = 13 < 1, .
2
, ( 3nn )
0.
,
+   +
n1 sin 1  = 1
n=1 (1) n n=1 sin n = +.

, limx0 sinx x = 1 sin(1/n) 1 , 0 < 1 < +

+ 1 + 1
1/n

n=1 n = +, n=1 sin n = +.

, (sin n1 ) 0.
sin x [0, 2 ]
n1 . ,

0< 1
n+1 < 1
n <
2 1
sin n+1 < sin n1 .
+ (1)n1
8.3.5. n=1 3n+(1)n n .

: 3 + (1)n n n-
2 n 4 n .
1
21 1
42 + 1
23 1
44 + 1
25 1
46 + 1
27 1
48 + .

.
, :
2n 4n ( ) 4n.

+  (1)n1  + + 1 1 + 1
n=1 (3+(1)n )n
1
n=1 (3+(1)n )n = n=1 4n = 4 n=1 n = +.

,
n-
1
bn = (3+(1)n )n

0.
0 : ,
2n 4n,
0 bn 2n
1

, , bn 0.
, () .
:

b2k < b2k+1 > b2k+2

1 1 1
8k < 4k+2 > 8k+8 .
.
+.
(sn ) ,
( 1 ) ( 1 )
s2k = (b1 b2 ) + + (b2k1 b2k ) = 21 42
1
+ + 4k2 1
8k
( )
18 + + 8k
1
= 81 1 + + k1 .

770
, 1 + + k1 +, s2k +.
, s2k+1 = s2k + b2k+1 bn 0, s2k+1 +. sn +.
n1 (
8.3.6. + n=1 (1)
n
n 1) .

: n n 1 0, ( n n 1) ,

n+1 n + 1 n n. (n + 1)n nn+1 (1 + n1 )n n.

n 3, (1 + n1 )n < e 3. ( n n 1)
, .

( n n1)
1 log x
x x = e x [a, +) , ,
logx x [a, +). ,
logx x [e, +).
.

(1 + n1 )n n n 3 n n 1 n1 .
+  n1 (
 +
= + 1
n=3 (1) n
n 1) n=3 ( n 1)
n
n=3 n = +.

8.3.7. + n=1 1+xn |x| > 1.
1

: + n=1 1+xn , 1+xn 0.
1 1

x = 1, . x = 1, 1+x 1
n = 2 2 . , |x| < 1, 1+xn 1.
1 1 1

, |x| 1, . + 1 + 1 n
, , |x| > 1. + 1
n=1 1+xn n=1 xn = n=1 ( x )
| x | < 1.
1

1/(1+xn ) xn
1/xn = 1+xn = 1
1+(1/x)n 1.
+ 1
, n=1 1+xn .
8.3.8. [] 0 r < 1,
1r2 +
1 + 2 + n
n=1 r cos(nx) = 12r cos x+r2 , 2 n=1 r
n sin(nx) = 2r sin x
12r cos x+r2
.

[] (xn )
+ xn 0, +
n=1 xn cos(nx) x = m2
m Z n=1 xn sin(nx) x.
: [] 1 2r cos x + r2 cos a cos b =
2 cos(a + b) + 2 cos(a b) sin a cos b = 2 sin(a + b) + 2 sin(a b).
1 1 1 1

(
) .
cos x + i sin x = eix . cos(nx) + i sin(nx) = einx n. + n inx

+ ix n n=0 r e =
n=0 (re ) . ,
. ,
.
. , , .

[] (6.40) | nk=1 cos(kx)| sin(x/2) 1
| nk=1 sin(kx)|
sin(x/2) n x = m2 m Z. ,
1

Dirichlet.
n+1 1
8.3.9. 12 + 14 + + 2n 1
1 2x dx = log n + 1 n. ,
1 + x ex , 12 43 56 2n1
2n n+1 n.
1
n1 135(2n1) .
+ n=1 (1) 246(2n)

771
 n
1 + 1
3 + + 1
2n1 1+
1 2x1 dx = 1 + log 2n 1 n. ,
1

1 + x ex , 135(2n1)
246(2n) e 2n1 n.
1
n1 135(2n1) .
+ n=1 (1) 246(2n)
+ ( )2 + ( )3
n=1 (1)n1 135(2n1)
246(2n) , n=1 (1)n1 135(2n1)
246(2n)
;
: . 1
x [k, k + 1] k N
k+1
1
k k
1
x dx k N.
( ) n+1
1
2 + 1
4 + + 1
2n = 1
2 1+ 1
2 + + 1
n 1
2 1
1
x dx = log n + 1.
1 + x ex
( )( ) ( )
e 2 4 2n e log
1 1 1
1
2 34 2n1
2n = 1 2 1 4 1
1 1 1
2n
n+1 = 1 .
n+1

. xn = 135(2n1)
246(2n) , -
0 < xn n+1 xn 0. ,
1

xn+1 xn n. ,
135(2n1)(2n+1)
xn+1 = 246(2n)(2n+2) = xn 2n+1
2n+2 xn .
+
n=1 (1)n1 xn .
1
. 2x1 [k 1, k] k N, k 2
k
2k1 k1 2x1 dx k N, k 2.
1 1

n
1+ 1
3 + + 1
2n1 1+ 1
1 2x1 dx = 1 + log 2n 1.
1 + x ex
( ) ( ) 1 1
2
1 43 2n1
2n
= (1 + 1) 1 + 13 1 + 1
2n1 e1+ 3 ++ 2n1 e1+log 2n1 = e 2n 1.

135(2n1)
xn = 246(2n) 1
e 2n1
.
.
+   + +
 n1 135(2n1)  =
n=1 xn
1
1
n=1 (1) 246(2n) e 2 n=1 n
= +.
+
. + n=1 (1)
n1 x 2
n n=1 (1)
n1 x 3 .
n
,
.
+
8.3.11. (bn ) bn 0. s = n=1 (1)
n1 b
n
sn = b1 b2 + + (1) n1 bn . 0 (1) (s sn ) bn+1
n

n.
:
( + n )
(1)n (s sn ) = (1)n k=1 (1)
k1 b
k k=1 (1)
k1 b
k
n
+ k1
= (1) k=n+1 (1) bk
= bn+1 bn+2 + bn+3 bn+4 + bn+5 .

772
,
( )
(1)n (s sn ) = lim (bn+1 bn+2 ) + + (bn+2m1 bn+2m ) 0.
m+

(bn+1 bn+2 )+ +(bn+2m1 bn+2m ) 0 m,

0.
,
( )
(1)n (s sn ) = lim bn+1 (bn+2 bn+3 ) (bn+2m bn+2m+1 ) bn+1 .
m+

bn+1 (bn+2 bn+3 ) (bn+2m bn+2m+1 ) bn+1

0.
+ an
8.3.12. [] + an
n=1 np . n=1 np , p > p,
, p > p + 1.

[] + an
n=1 np0 . p1 , p2 p1 p0 p2
+ an
p2 p1 1 n=1 np , p < p1 , ,
p1 < p < p2 , , p > p2 .
( )
: [] p > p, np1 p 0.
+ an + an 1
n=1 np = n=1 np np p ,

Dirichlet ( Abel) + an
n=1 np
.
+ an an
n=1 np , ( np ) 0 . ,
M | np | M n. , p > p + 1,
an

+  an  +  an  1 + 1
   
n=1 np = n=1 np np p M n=1 np p < +.

[] {  + an }
A = p n=1 np ,
{  + a }
B = p n=1 np .
n

[] , p A, p > p
A.
, p B, p > p
B. , +
n=1 | np | < + p > p,
an

+ +
n=1 | np | n=1 | np |
an an
< +.

, , B A, , + an
n=1 np , .
A -, p0 A. , p < p0 1, p A. ,
+ an
n=1 np , p0 > p + 1 []
+ an
n=1 np0 .
, p1 = inf A.
p > p1 , p A p < p p A. (p1 , +) A. ,
, A [p1 , +),

A = (p1 , +) A = [p1 , +).

p1 , , , p < p0 1
A.
B , [] p > p0 + 1

773
 B.
p2 = inf B.
A,
B = (p2 , +) B = [p2 , +).
B A, p1 p2 . , p0 A p0
/ B, p1 p0 p2 .
p2 1 > p1 , p A p < p2 1, p + 1 < p2 .
p p + 1 < p < p2 . p A, p B ,
p < p2 . p2 1
p1 , , p2 p1 1.
/ A, +
, p < p1 , p an
n=1 np . p1 < p < p2 , p A
+ an
p/ B n=1 np . p > p2 , p B, + an
n=1 np
.

8.3.13. un u > 0 |x| < 1. + n=1 x
u1 ++un -

.
: . -
, Cesaro 2.3.41.

8.3.14. (bn ) bn l. sn = nk=1 (1)k1 bk
n, lim sn lim sn = |l|.
: (bn ) . .

s2k+2 = (b1 b2 ) + + (b2k1 b2k ) + (b2k+1 b2k+2 ) = s2k + (b2k+1 b2k+2 ) s2k ,
(s2k ) .
,
s2k+1 = (b1 b2 ) + + (b2k1 b2k ) + b2k+1 = s2k1 (b2k b2k+1 ) s2k1 ,
(s2k1 ) .
p = limk+ s2k R {+} q = limk+ s2k1 R {}.
s2k1 s2k = b2k l, q p = l.
l = 0, p = q R sn p = q. , lim sn lim sn = 0 = |l|.
l > 0, q > p lim sn = q lim sn = p, lim sn lim sn = q p = l = |l|.
l < 0, q < p lim sn = p lim sn = q, lim sn lim sn = pq = l = |l|.

+ 8.3.17. (bn ) bn > 0 n, bn 0

n=1 (1)n1 bn .
: (bn ) . bn = n1 ,
1
n , bn = 2n , n . , sn n-
+
n=1 (1) n1 bn , s2n + , , s2n1 = s2n b2n +.
+ 2
8.3.19. + n=1 xn n=1 xn .
+
: n=1 xn .
8.3.20. (an ) . , p
an+p = an n. , , (bn ) bn 0.

a1 + + ap = 0, + an bn .
n=1
a1 + + ap = 0, n=1 an bn +
+
n=1 bn .
+
: . sn n- n=1 an .
n kp n < (k + 1)p k Z, k 0
sn+p sn = an+1 + + an+p = (an+1 + + a(k+1)p ) + (a(k+1)p+1 + + an+p )
= (an+1kp + + ap ) + (a1 + + ankp ) = a1 + + ap = 0.

774
 (sn ) , , . ,
Dirichlet, +
n=1 an bn .
[] a = 1 p p = 0 an = an a n.
a ++a

(an )

a1 + + ap = a1 + + ap pa = 0.

[] +n=1 an bn
.

, an bn = an bn + abn n +
n=1 an bn
+
n=1 bn .
8.3.21. (xn ) yn = n(xn xn+1 ) n.
+
nxn a a = 0, + n=1 xn n=1 yn .
+ + +
n=1 xn n=1 yn , nxn 0 + n=1 xn = n=1 yn .
+ + 1
: nxn a a = 0, n=1 xn n=1 n . -
+
, sn tn n- + n=1 xn n=1 yn ,
, tn = sn nxn+1 n.

8.3.22. + n=1 xn > 0 -
n0 |xn1 + + xnk | < k () n1 , . . . , nk
n1 , . . . , nk n0 .
+
: n=1 |xn | < +.
, Cauchy, n0

|xm+1 | + + |xn | < m, n n > m n0 . (14.246)

, () n1 , . . . , nk n1 , . . . , nk n0 = n0 + 1 -
n1 < . . . < nk , (14.246)

|xn1 + + xnk | |xn1 | + + |xnk | < .

, > 0 n0 |xn1 + + xnk | <

k () n1 , . . . , nk n1 , . . . , nk n0 .
n0 , , 2 .
n, m n > m n0 xm+1 , . . . , xn . xn1 , . . . , xnk
0 xm1 , . . . , xml < 0. (, xn1 , . . . , xnk , xm1 , . . . , xml
xm+1 , . . . , xn .)

|xn1 + + xnk | <

2 |xm1 + + xml | <
2

|xm+1 | + + |xn | = |xn1 | + + |xnk | + |xm1 | + + |xml |
= xn1 + + xnk xm1 xml
= (xn1 + + xnk ) (xm1 + + xml )
= |xn1 + + xnk | + |xm1 + + xml |

< 2 + 2 = .
+
, (14.246) n=1 |xn | < +.

8.3.24. wn > 0 n +
n=1 wn = 1. f : I R
I an I n +
n=1 n wn ,
a
Jensen , ( + ) +
f n=1 an wn n=1 f (an )wn .

775
 f I, .
, , f () I,
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . .
: 5.5.39.
5.5.39, n +.

f (). ,
5.5.39.
8.3.25. 2.7.13, ,
, .
+
:
 xn+1  n=1 xn .
 
xn = 0 lim xn < 1. ,
xn = 0 n.
2.7.13[] (yn )

y1 = |x1 | yn = |x|xn1
n|
| n 2, lim
n y y lim y
1 n n

 
lim n
|xn | lim  xxn1
n 
< 1.

, .
.

8.3.26. + f : N N N. + n=1 xn
n=1 yn : y1 = x1 + + xf (1) yn = xf (n1)+1 + + xf (n)
n 2.
+
, + n=1 xn , n=1 yn .

+ , f : N N f (k) = 2k
n1 .
n=1 (1)
M f (k + 1) f (k) M k xn 0.
, + n=1 y n , +
n=1 xn .
+
: . n=1 xn =s.

+ sn n- + n=1 xn tn n-
n=1 yn , :

tn = y1 + + yn = (x1 + + xf (1) ) + + (xf (n1)+1 + + xf (n) )

(14.247)
= x1 + + xf (n) = sf (n) n.

f : N N , (sf (n) ) (sn ).

sn s tn = sf (n) s , , + n=1 yn = s.
. y1 = x1 + x2 = 1 + (1) = 0, y2 = x3 + x4 = 1 + (1) = 0 ,
+ yn = x2n1 +
, x2n = 1 + (1) = 0 n.
n=1 yn = 0 + n=1 xn .
+
. n=1 yn = t. , tn t.
(14.247) sf (n) t.
> 0. xn 0 sf (n) t, n0

|xn | <
M +1 |sf (n) t| <
M +1 n n0 . (14.248)

, n f (n0 ). k n0 f (k) n < f (k + 1).

, m = f (k) + 1, . . . , n m > f (k) f (n0 ) n0 . ,
f (k) + 1, . . . , n < f (k + 1) f (k) M . (14.248)

776


|sn t| = |sf (k) + xf (k)+1 + + xn t| |sf (k) t| + |xf (k)+1 | + + |xn |

<
M +1 +
M +1 + +
M +1 = M M+1 < .

n f (n0 ) |sn t| < , , sn t, + n=1 xn = t.
+
8.3.27. [] (bn ) n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +.
[] (an ), (bn ) sn = a1 + + an .
+
+ n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +, bn 0 (sn ) , n=1 an bn
.
[]
+ (bn )
n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +.
: [] (bn ) , ,
8.1.5
+ +
n=1 |bn bn+1 | = n=1 (bn bn+1 ) = b1 limn+ bn < +.

[] Dirichlet.
M |sn | M n.
> 0. n0
+
k=n |bk bk+1 | < 3M +1 n n0 .

(14.249)
 
 + 
k=n (bk bn+1 ) < 3M +1 n n0 . bn 0,

+
8.1.5 k=n (bk bn+1 ) = bn

|bn | <
3M +1 n n0 . (14.250)

, Abel, (14.249), (14.250)

n, m n > m n0
 n   n 
   
k=m+1 ak bk = k=m+1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 sm bm+1
n
k=m+1 |sk ||bk bk+1 | + |sn ||bn+1 | + |sm ||bm+1 |

M + k=m+1 |bk bk+1 | + M |bn+1 | + M |bm+1 |
M 3M+1 + M 3M+1 + M 3M+1 = 3M
3M +1 < .

Cauchy + n=1 an bn .
[] bn = cn dn n
(cn ), (dn )
.
[] + n=1 n|c cn+1 | < + +
n=1 |dn dn+1 | < +
+ + +
n=1 |bn bn+1 | n=1 |cn cn+1 | + n=1 |dn dn+1 | < +.
+
, n=1 |bn bn+1 | < +.
+ n bn+1 ) .
n=1 (b +
+
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) n=1 (bn bn+1 ) .
+
|x|+x |x|x
x+ = 2 x = 2
.
sn n- + n bn+1 ) un vn
n=1 (b
n- + +
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) .
(b b ) +
n=1 n n+1

sn = nk=1 (bk bk+1 ) = nk=1 (bk bk+1 )+ nk=1 (bk bk+1 ) = un vn

777

b1 bn+1 = un vn n.
bn = (vn1 + b1 ) un1 n 2.
, + +
n=1 (bn bn+1 ) n=1 (bn bn+1 ) -
+

, (un ) (vn ) .

 xn+1  8.3.28. yn > 0 xn =

[] 0 n
  yn+1 . + yn , + xn .
n=1 n=1
xn yn
(  )
[] xn = 0 n n  xxn+1  1 + 0.
n n
+ n=1 xn , (
> 1, , < 1.
 )
= 1 n log n  xxn+1 1+ 1 + 0.
+ n n n log n
n=1 xn , > 1, , < 1.
n1 nn .
+ n=1 (1) en n!
: [] 8.2.13[].
[] , [] yn = n1p , 1 < p < < p < 1.
1
, [] yn = n log n . ,
(  )
xn = (1) n1 nn  xn+1 
1 + n 0 = 12 .
en n! n xn
+8.3.29. |xn,m | yn
+ n, m limm+ x n,m = xn
+
n. n=1 yn < +, + +m n=1 x+
n,m , n=1 xn ,
, , , limm+ n=1 xn,m = n=1 xn = n=1 limm+ xn,m .
: n n n +
k=1 |xk,m | k=1 yk k=1 yk .

m +,
n +
k=1 |xk | k=1 yk .

+ +
k=1 |xk | k=1 yk < +
+
, , n=1 xn .
, > 0. n0
+
k=n0 +1 yk < 3 .

,
+ +
k=n0 +1 |xk | k=n0 +1 yk < 3 . (14.251)

, n0 n0
limm+ k=1 xk,m = k=1 xk ,

m0
 n0 n0 
 
k=1 xk,m m m0 .

k=1 xk < 3 (14.252)

, (14.251), (14.252) |xk,m | yk k, m

m m0
 + +   n0 n0  + +
 
k=1 xk,m k=1 xk k=1 xk,m k=1 xk + k=n0 +1 |xk,m | + k=n0 +1 |xk |

< 3 + 3 + 3 = .
+ +
limm+ k=1 xk,m = k=1 xk .

778
 +
8.3.30. + n=1 xn , n=1 nxn .
+
: n=1 nxn Dirichlet (
Abel).

8.4.1. 0 xm,n ym,n m, n. + m,n=1 ym,n
(, , ) ,
+m,n=1 xm,n . sx
+
m,n=1 xm,n sy

+m,n=1 ym,n , sx sy .
: m : 0 xm,n ym,n n.
m + +
n=1 xm,n n=1 ym,n .
+ ( + ) + ( + )
m=1 n=1 xm,n m=1 n=1 ym,n .
, + +
sx = m,n=1 xm,n m,n=1 ym,n = sy .
+ 1
8.4.2. m,n=1 (m+n)! .

: -
:
+ 1 + ( k 1
) + ( k 1
)
m,n=1 (m+n)! = k=1 l=1 ((kl+1)+l)! = k=1 l=1 (k+1)!
+ (k+1)1 + 1 + 1
= + k
k=1 (k+1)! = k=1 (k+1)! = k=1 k! k=1 (k+1)!
+ 1 + 1
= k=1 k! k=2 k! = 1.

8.4.3. + 1
m,n=1 mp nq
p, q > 1.
: .

8.4.4. + 1
m,n=1 (m+n)p
p > 2.
: .
8.4.5.
+
m,n=1 xm,n , xm,n = m+1 ( m+1 ) m+2 ( m+2 ) m, n.
1 m n 1 m+1 n

: .
+ + 1 +
n=1 m+1 ( m+1 )
m n 1 m+1 n
n=1 xm,n = n=1 m+2 ( m+2 )
m/(m+1) (m+1)/(m+2)
= 1
m+1 1(m/(m+1)) 1
m+2 1((m+1)/(m+2)) = m
m+1 m+1
m+2 .
m
, 8.1.5 m+1 1 m +,
+ ( + ) + ( m ) 1
m=1 m+1 m+2 = 2 1 = 2 .
m+1 1
m=1 n=1 xm,n =
, . 8.1.5
1
m+1 m n
( m+1 ) 0 m +
+ + ( ) ( 1 )n+1
m=1 xm,n = m=1
1 m n
m+1 ( m+1 ) 1 m+1 n
m+2 ( m+2 ) = 2 .

,
+ ( + ) + ( 1 )n+1 (1/2)2
n=1 m=1 xm,n = n=1 2 = 1(1/2) = 12 .

779
 ;
xk
8.4.6. + k=1 1+x2k
xk + (1)k1 x2k1
+
k=1 1+x2k = k=1 1x2k1
x (1, 1).
: xm,n = (1)m1 x(2m1)n |x| < 1.

8.4.7. +
m,n=1 mx
mn , , x |x| <
+ x m + x n
1, m=1 m 1x m = n=1 (1xn )2 .

: ,
.
+ + ( + ) + |x|m
n=1 |x|
mn mn
m,n=1 m|x| = m=1 m = m=1 m 1|x|m .

, + m
m=1 m|x| ,
.
m 1 m +.
1
1|x|
, , .
,
.
:
+ mn =
+ ( + mn ) + xm
m,n=1 mx m=1 m n=1 x = m=1 m 1x m.

:
+ m t
m=1 mt = (1t)2 |t| < 1. (14.253)

, 1 + t + t2 + + tm =
1tm+1
1t t, t
m +.
(14.253), :
+ mn =
+ ( + ) + xn
mn =
m,n=1 mx n=1 m=1 mx n=1 (1xn )2 .

+ xm + xn
, m=1 m 1xm = n=1 (1xn )2 .
+ +
xn g(x) = m=1 bm x x (R, R).
8.4.8. f (x) = m
n=1 an
+ +
m=1 bm f (x ) x (R1 , R1 ), R1 =
n
n=1 an g(x ) = m

min{R, 1}.
: x (R1 , R1 ), x = 0.
r 0 < |x| < r < R1 , r < 1 r < R.
+ n
n=1 an r
+ m
m=1 bm r , M

|an |rn M |bm |rm M n, m.

+ + |x|mn M2 + |x|mn+1
m,n=1 |an bm x
mn | M2 =
m,n=1 rn+m |x| m,n=1 rn+m
M2 + |x|m+n M2 + |x|m ( + |x|n )
|x| m,n=1 rn+m = |x| m=1 rm n=1 rn
M 2 + |x|m + |x|n
= |x| m=1 rm n=1 rn < +

780

+ m,n=1 an bm x
mn x (R , R ), x = 0. -
1 1
, x = 0.
, x (R1 , R1 )
+ n
+ ( + ) +
mn =
( + ) +
mn = m
n=1 an g(x ) = n=1 an m=1 bm x m=1 bm n=1 an x m=1 bm f (x ).
+ (1)n
8.5.2. x1 + + 1
k=1 x(x+1)(x+k) = e n=0 n!(x+n) x = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
5.2.14.
: 5.2.14
k (k) (1)l
1
x(x+1)(x+k) = 1
k! l=0 l x+l x R \ {0, 1, . . . , k}.

:
k (1)l
1
x(x+1)(x+k) = 1
l=0 (kl)!l! x+l x R \ {0, 1, . . . , k}. (14.254)

k = 0 -
1
x(x+1)(x+k) x1 .

+ + (1)n
1
k=0 x(x+1)(x+k) =e n=0 n!(x+n) x = 0, 1, 2, . . .

, ,
+ ( k (1)l ) + (1)n
k=0
1
l=0 (kl)!l! x+l =e n=0 n!(x+n) x = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (14.255)

(14.254).
+ (1)n
(14.255) Cauchy + 1
m=0 m! n=0 n!(x+n) , ,
+ 1
m=0 m! = e, (14.255) -
.

+ 1
m=0 m! , ,
x = 0, 1, 2, . . . 0, 1, 2, . . .
x 1. ,
+  (1)n  + + 1
n=0 n!|x+n| A +
1
n=0 n!(x+n) = n=0 n! < +,

A
- n |x + n| < 1.
xn
8.5.3. x f (x) = + n=0 n! . 8.5.2
a, b f (a + b) = f (a)f (b). , f (0) = 1 f (1) = e.
f : R R 0.
:
+ |x|n + |x|n 2|x|
|f (x) f (0)| n=1 n! n=1 2n1 = 2|x| x |x| < 2.

limx0 f (x) = f (0).

+ +
8.5.4. Mertens:
+ m=0 am n=0 bn


,
+ Cauchy k=0 ck -
+
k=0 ck = +
m=0 a m n=0 bn .
+ (1)n1
n=1 n . Cauchy
.

781

: Mertens. T = + n=0 |bn | < +.
sn = a0+ + an , tn
= b0 + + bn
+ un = c0 + + cn n.
+ +
, s = m=0 am , t = n=0 bn u = k=0 ck .

un = b0 sn + b1 sn1 + + bn1 s1 + bn s0 ,

un st = b0 (sn s) + b1 (sn1 s) + + bn1 (s1 s) + bn (s0 s) + (tn t)s

|un st| |b0 ||sn s| + |b1 ||sn1 s| + + |bn1 ||s1 s| + |bn ||s0 s| + |tn t||s|. (14.256)

M
|sn s| M n. (14.257)
, > 0. n0
+
|sn s| < 3T+1 , |tn t| < 3|s|+1

k=n |bk | <

3M +1 n n0 . (14.258)

(14.256), (14.257) (14.258) n 2n0 1 n0

|un st| (|b0 | + + |bnn0 |) 3T+1 + (|bnn0 +1 | + + |bn |)M +

3|s|+1 |s|
T
3T +1 +
3M +1 M+
3|s|+1 |s| < .

un st , , u = st.

. Cauchy +
k=2 ck ,

ck = (1)k k1l=1
1
l kl
k 2.

2ab a2 + b2 2 l k l l + (k l) = k
k1 2 2(k1)
|ck | = k1
l=1
1
l kl
l=1 k = k

, , ck 0.
8.6.1. 1 + 12 + 1
23
+ 1
22
+ 1
26
+ 1
25
+ 1
24
+ 1
210
+ 1
29
+
1
28
+ 217 + 2115 + 2114 + 2113 + 2112 + 2111 + .
: 1+ 12 + 212 + 213 + .
,
, 2.

8.6.3. + n=1 xn .
s
(n ) n = 1 n +n=1 n xn = s.

+s 0.
:
n=1 |xn | = +, n |x1 | + + |xn | s n1
n. ,

|x1 | + + |xn1 1 | < s, |x1 | + + |xn1 | s. (14.259)

( n1 =
1, |x1 | s.)
+
n=n1 +1 |xn | = +, n > n1 |xn1 +1 | + + |xn | |x1 | + + |xn1 | s
n2 n. ,

|xn1 +1 | + + |xn2 1 | < |x1 | + + |xn1 | s,

(14.260)
|xn1 +1 | + + |xn2 | |x1 | + + |xn1 | s.

782

+ n=n2 +1 |xn | = +, n > n2 |xn2 +1 | + + |xn | |x1 | |xn1 | +
|xn1 +1 | + + |xn2 | + s n3 n. ,

|xn2 +1 | + + |xn3 1 | < |x1 | |xn1 | + |xn1 +1 | + + |xn2 | + s,

(14.261)
|xn2 +1 | + + |xn3 | |x1 | |xn1 | + |xn1 +1 | + + |xn2 | + s.

.
(n ) . n = 1, . . . , n1 n = 1,
xn 0, n = 1, xn < 0. , n xn = |xn | n = 1, . . . , n1 .
n = n1 + 1, . . . , n2 n = 1, xn 0, n = 1, xn < 0. ,
n xn = |xn | n = n1 + 1, . . . , n2 . n = n2 + 1, . . . , n3 n = 1, xn 0,
n = 1, xn < 0. , n xn = |xn | n = n2 + 1, . . . , n3 . .
sn n- + n=1 n xn sn s.
(14.259), (14.260) (14.261) :

s sn1 < s + |xn1 |, s |xn2 | < sn2 s, s sn3 < s + |xn3 |.

s sn2k1 < s + |xn2k1 |, s |xn2k | < sn2k s k. (14.262)

, , (sn ) 1 n n1 ,
n1 n n2 , , n2k2 n n2k1
n2k1 n n2k . , (14.262)

s |xn2k2 | < sn < s + |xn2k1 | n2k2 n n2k1 ,

s |xn2k | < sn < s + |xn2k1 | n2k1 n n2k .

xn 0 ( + n=1 xn )
sn s.
(1)n1
8.6.4. 0 < p < +. + n=1 n
:
(i) -
,
(ii) n kn ln -
( kn + ln = n), klnn p.
1
2 log(4p).
: sn n- ,
( ) ( )
sn = 1 + 13 + + 2kn11 12 + 14 + + 2l1n
( ) ( )
= 1 + 12 + 13 + 14 + + 2kn11 + 2k1n 21 1 + 12 + + k1n (14.263)
( )
21 1 + 12 + + l1n .

kn + ln = n klnn p kn +
ln +. 2.4.6 (14.263)

sn log(2kn ) + 12 log kn + 12 log ln 0

, ,
sn 21 log(4 klnn ) 0.
sn 1
2 log(4p).

783
 8.6.5. fk : N N k. k fk
--, fk (N) fk (N) = k, k k = k +
k=1 fk (N) = N.
+
n=1 xn :

(i) k +m=1 xfk (m) .
+
(ii) sk = m=1 xfk (m) , + k=1 sk .
+ +
(iii) s = n=1 xn , k=1 sk = s. ,
+ ( + ) +
k=1 m=1 xfk (m) = n=1 xn .

: +
k,m=1 xk,m xk,m = xfk (m) k, m.
8.3.26

+ n=1 xn .

14.9 9.
nx n x2
9.1.1. fn (x) = 1+n 2 x2 gn (x) = 1+n2 x2 x. (fn ), (gn )
f , g R. f , g.
: x = 0, fn (0) = 0 0 gn (0) = 0 0 n +.
n2 x
x = 0, fn (x) = 1+nnx
2 x2 0 gn (x) = 1+n2 x2 x2 = x n +.
x 1
{
.. .. 0, x = 0
fn 0 R gn g R, g g(x) =
1/x, x = 0
. : x = 0
x = 0. x = 0, nx x. ,
x = 0. n0 = 0 0.
.
9.1.2. fn (x) = nx [ nx ] x = 0. (fn ) f
R \ {0}. f .
: [a] a < [a] + 1 nx 1 < [ nx ] nx .
x > 0, nx ( nx 1) < nx [ nx ] nx nx , , 1 nx < fn (x) 1.
fn (x) 1.
x < 0, nx ( nx 1) > nx [ nx ] nx nx , , 1 nx > fn (x) 1.
, fn (x) 1.
fn (x) 1 x R \ {0} , , (fn ) 1
R \ {0}.
..
9.1.3. fn (x) = nx [ nx ] x > 0. fn 0 (0, +).
: x > 0. n ,
nx (0, 1). (, n > x , , n
[x].) n [ nx ] ,
, fn (x) 0. , fn (x) 0.
. (fn ) -
(, 0).
, , x < 0. , n
, nx (1, 0).
n [ nx ] 1 , , fn (x) nx . , fn (x) +.
: .
{
min{nx, 1}, x 0
9.1.4. fn (x) = n. (fn ) -
max{nx, 1}, x 0

784
 f R. f .
: x = 0, fn fn (0) = 0 0.
x > 0, n nx 1 fn (x) = min{nx, 1} = 1 1.
, x < 0, n nx 1 fn (x) = max{nx, 1} =
1 1.

1, x > 0
..
fn f R, f f (x) = 0, x = 0


1, x < 0
..
, fn sign R.
{
1, x [a, b] Q
9.1.5. f : [a, b] R f (x) =
0, x [a, b] \ Q
. [a, b]{ Q = {rn | n N} [a, b] Q
1, x {r1 , . . . , rn }
n fn : [a, b] R fn (x) =
0, x [a, b] \ {r1 , . . . , rn }
..
fn f [a, b]. fn [a, b] ;
: x [a, b] Q, m x = rm .
n m fn (x) = 1 fn (x) 1.
x [a, b] \ Q, n fn (x) = 0 fn (x) 0.
..
, fn f [a, b].
fn [a, b] [a, b]
[a, b].
9.2.1. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = xenx x 0.
(fn ) f [0, +). f ;
.

fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = (1)n n xenx x 0.
..
: . f fn f [0, +).
: {
nx 0, x = 0
fn (x) = xe
0, 0 < x
..
fn 0 [0, +), fn 0 [0, +).

fn [0,+) = sup{|fn (x)| | x [0, +)} = sup{xenx | x [0, +)},

|fn (x)| = fn (x) = xenx [0, +).

:

fn (x) = enx nxenx = enx (1 nx).

, fn [0, n1 ] [ n1 , +).
|fn (x)| = fn (x) x = n1
( )
fn [0,+) = max{|fn (x)| | x [0, +)} = fn n1 = en 1
.

fn [0,+) 0, fn 0 [0, +).
41 fn . fn
x- [0, +),
x- 0 n +.

785
 . fn (0) = 0 0.
x > 0, limn+ xenxn +
+ .

x t 1
limt+ etx = limt+ 2 tetx
= 0.
( ) n
xenxn 0 , (1)n , fn (x) = (1)enxx n 0.
..
fn 0 [0, +). -

fn [0,+) = sup{|fn (x)| | x 0} = sup{ n xenx | x 0}.

n xenx , [0, n1 ]
[ n1 , +). x = n1 e1 n . ,

fn [0,+) = max{|fn (x)| | x 0} = 1

e n
0

fn 0 [0, +).
9.2.2. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = xn (1xn ) x [0, 1].
(fn ) 0 , , [0, 1].
.
: {
0, 0 x < 1
fn (x) = x (1 x )
n n
0, x = 1
..
fn 0 [0, 1].
fn [0,1] , |fn (x)| = fn (x) = xn (1 xn )
[0, 1].
:

fn (x) = nxn1 (1 xn ) nxn xn1 = nxn1 (1 2xn ).

1
1
fn [0, n ]
2
[ n
2
, 1].
|fn (x)| = fn (x) x = 1

n ,
2

( )
fn [0,1] = max{|fn (x)| | x [0, 1]} = fn 1

n
2
= 14 .

fn [0,1] 0, fn 0 [0, 1].
42 fn . fn
x- [0, 1],

786
 x- 1
4 n . , 1

n
2
1,
1
fn 4
(1, 41 ). , fn
1
[0,
n ] x-.
2

9.2.3. fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = 1+nx 1

x 0.
(fn ) f , , [0, +). f ;

, a > 0, fn f [a, +).
fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = enx x 0.
fn : [0, +) R fn (x) = nxenx x 0.
: .
{
1, x = 0
fn (x) = 1
1+nx
0, x > 0
..
fn f [0, +), f
{
1, x = 0
f (x) =
0, x > 0

fn f [0,+) ,
{
0, x = 0
|fn (x) f (x)| = 1
1+nx , x > 0

{  }
{|fn (x) f (x)| | x [0, +)} = {0} 1  x (0, +) = {0} (0, 1) = [0, 1).
1+nx

fn f [0,+) = sup[0, 1) = 1
fn f [0,+) 0.
, (fn ) f -
[0, +). fn [0, +), , (fn ) -
f [0, +), f [0, +). , f
0.

, a > 0, fn f
[a, +).
, { 1  } ( ]
{|fn (x) f (x)| | x [a, +)} = 1+nx  x [a, +) = 0, 1 .
1+na

787
 ( ]
fn f [a,+) = sup 0, 1+na
1
= 1
1+na
fn f [a,+) 0.
. x = 0 fn (0) = 1 1 x > 0 fn (x) = enx 0.
(fn ) f [0, +),
{
1, x = 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x

fn f [0,+) .
x = 0, |fn (0) f (0)| = |1 1| = 0. x > 0, |fn (x) f (x)| = enx . ,
( ) ( )
fn f [0,+) = sup {0} {enx | x (0, +)} = sup {0} (0, 1) = sup[0, 1) = 1.

fn f [0, +).
-
[0, +), fn [0, +)
f .
a > 0,

fn f [a,+) = sup{enx | x [a, +)} = sup(0, ena ] = ena 0.

fn f [a, +).
. x = 0 fn (0) = 0 0 x > 0 fn (x) = nxenx 0.
, (fn ) 0 [0, +).
fn [0,+) .
|fn (x)| = fn (x) = nxenx [0, n1 ]
[ n1 , +). x = n1
1e .
fn [0,+) = max{nxenx | x [0, +)} = 1e 0.
[0, +).
, ,
-
[0, +). , fn [0, +) f
[0, +).
, , a > 0 fn [a,+) = sup{nxenx | x [a, +)}.
|fn (x)| = fn (x) = nxenx [0, n1 ]
[ n1 , +). nxenx [a, +)
a n1 .
a < n1 , [a, n1 ] [ n1 , +),
[a, +) x = n1 1e .
n1 a, [a, +), [a, +)
x = a naena .
, n < a1 , fn [a,+) = 1e , n a1 , fn [a,+) = naena .
, , ,

fn [a,+) = naena 0.

fn 0 [a, +).
{
0, x < 1/(n + 1) 1/n < x
9.2.7. fn : R R fn (x) =
(sin(/x))2 , 1/(n + 1) x 1/n

788
 (fn ) f R f R.

f ; fn f R;
: x 0, fn (x) = 0 0. 0 < x, , n ,
..
n < x, fn (x) = 0 0. x fn (x) 0 , , fn 0 R.
1

fn R = sup{fn (x) | x R}.

2 1 2
x = 2n+1 n+1 < 2n+1 < n1 , fn ( 2n+1
2
) = 1.
( )
fn R = sup{fn (x) | x R} fn 2
2n+1 =1

, , R.
9.2.8. fn : [0, 1] R fn (x) = np x(1x2 )n x [0, 1].
(fn ) f
1 [0, 1]. p ;
1
p 0 fn (x) dx 0 f (x) dx ;
: .
{
0, x = 0
fn (x) = np x(1 x2 )n
0, 0 < x 1

np
, 0 < x < 1, b = 1
1x2
> 1 bn 0.
..
, fn 0 [0, 1].
.

fn [0,1] = sup{|fn (x)| | x [0, 1]} = sup{np x(1 x2 )n | x [0, 1]},

( )
fn (x) = np (1 x2 )n 2np+1 x2 (1 x2 )n1 = np (1 x2 )n1 1 (2n + 1)x2
1
fn [0, 1], [0, 2n+1 ]
1
[ 2n+1 , 1].
( ) p ( )
2n n
fn [0,1] = fn 1
2n+1
= n
2n+1 2n+1 .

( )
2n n
2n+1 = 1
(1+(1/2n))n 1 ,
e

1

+, p >
p 1 ( ) n
2
fn [0,1] = n 2 2n
12e , p = 1
2+(1/n) 2n+1

2
1
0, p < 2

, fn 0 [0, 1] p < 21 .
. ,
1
p 1

np 1 np
1 np
0 fn (x) dx = n 0 x(1 x ) dx = 2 0 (1 t) dt =
2 n n un du =
2 0 2n+2


+, p > 1
np1
= 2+(2/n) 1/2, p = 1


0, p < 1
1 1
0 fn (x) dx 0 0 dx = 0 p < 1.

fn 0 [0, 1] p

789
 1 1
fn (x) dx 0 0 dx. ,

0 1 1
fn 0 [0, 1] 0 fn (x) dx 0 0 dx.
9.2.9. fn : R R fn (x) = 1+nx x
2 x. (fn )
f R. f R fn (x) f (x),
x = 0, fn (0) f (0). (fn ) g R.
(fn ) g R.
: .
{
0, x = 0
fn (x) = x
1+nx2

0, x = 0
..
fn 0 R.
|x|
fn R , |fn (x)| = 1+nx 2 x. -
|fn (x)| , , supremum
[0, +). , x 0 |fn (x)| = 1+nx x
2 , -

, [0, 1n ] [ 1n , +).
( )
fn R = sup{|fn (x)| | x R} = fn 1n = 21 n 0

, , fn 0 R.
. 0 , , 0 = 0.
, {
1nx2 1, x = 0
fn (x) = (1+nx2 )2
0, x = 0
..
. fn g R, g
{
1, x = 0
g(x) =
0, x = 0

. . fn R g
R. (fn ) g R.
..
. fn g R. fn 0 R, 0 = g R.
.
. fn gR .
|fn (0) g(0)| = |1 1| = 0
{  }
{|fn (x) g(x)| | x R} = {0}  x = 0
|1nx2 |
(1+nx2 )2
{ 1nx2  } { nx2 1  2 }
= {0} (1+nx 
2 )2 0 < x n
2 1
(1+nx2 )2  x n1
{ 1nt  } { nt1  }
= {0} (1+nt) 
2 0 < t n
1
(1+nt)2  t n1

(0, n1 ] 1nt
(1+nt)2
{ (1+nt)
1nt
2 |0 < t n}
1
= [0, 1). [ n1 , n3 ]
nt1
(1+nt) 3
2 [ n , +) |t { (1+nt)
nt1
2 n}
1
= [0, 18 ].
, [ ]
{|fn (x) g(x)| | x R} = {0} [0, 1) 0, 81 = [0, 1).
fn gR = sup[0, 1) = 1 (fn ) g R.
1 n2 x2
9.2.10. fn : R R fn (x) = ne x. fn 0
..
fn 0 R. , a > 0, fn 0 (, a], [a, +)

790
 [a, a].
: .
{
n2 x2 0, x = 0
fn (x) = n1 e
0, x > 0

..
fn 0 [0, +).
, { 2 2  } ( ]
fn [0,+) = sup n1 en x  x [0, +) = sup 0, n1 = n1 ,
fn [0, +).

fn 0 [0, +).
, {
0, x = 0
fn (x) = 2nxe n2 x2

0, x > 0
..
fn 0 [0, +).
. () a > 0

fn [a,+) = sup{2nxen
2 x2
| x [a, +)}.

2nxen
2 x2

2nen 4n3 x2 en = 2nen

2 x2 2 x2 2 x2
(1 2n2 x2 ),

2nxen x [0, 12n ] [ 12n , +).

2 2

, a > 0 , n ,
0 < 12n a. , n , 2nxen x
2 2

[a, +),
fn [a,+) = 2naen a 0
2 2

, , fn 0 [a, +).
(, a] -
|fn (x)| = 2n|x|en x .
2 2

[a, a] , , |fn (x)| = 2n|x|en x

2 2

, n , 12n -
[0, a], 2nxen
2 x2
[0, 12n ]
[ 12n , a],

fn [a,a] = sup{2nxen
2 x2
| x [0, a]} = 2/e 0.

fn 0 [a, a].

9.2.13. A = B C fn f B C. fn f A.
: x A. x B x C,

|fn (x) f (x)| fn f B |fn (x) f (x)| fn f C ,

|fn (x) f (x)| max{fn f B , fn f C } x A.

791
 max{fn f B , fn f C } {|fn (x) f (x)| | x A},

fn f A max{fn f B , fn f C }.
. .
,
fn f A fn f B + fn C

, fn f B 0 fn f C 0, fn f A 0 fn f
A.

9.2.15. fn : A [a, b] fn f A. f : A [a, b]. , ,

g : [a, b] R [a, b], g fn g f A.
: a fn (x) b x A n, n +,
a f (x) b x A. f : A [a, b].
> 0.
g [a, b] , , [a, b]. > 0

|g(y ) g(y )| y , y [a, b] |y y | . (14.264)

, fn f A, n0

|fn (x) f (x)| x A n n0 . (14.265)

, (14.264) (14.265), fn (x) f (x)

y y , |g(fn (x)) g(f (x))| x A
n n0 .
, , > 0 n0 |g(fn (x)) g(f (x))|

x A n n0 . g fn g f A.

9.2.16. fn f A fn A, (fn )
A.
: Cauchy = 1.

9.2.17. fn f A. fn A,
f A.
: > 0.

fn f A, n0 fn0 f A < 3 .
fn0 A, > 0

|fn0 (x ) fn0 (x )| <

3 x , x A |x x | < .

x , x A |x x | <
|f (x ) f (x )| |f (x ) fn0 (x )| + |fn0 (x ) fn0 (x )| + |fn0 (x ) f (x )|
fn0 f A + |fn0 (x ) fn0 (x )| + fn0 f A <
3 +
3 +
3 = .
f A.
9.2.19. f : R R R f R.
( )
gn (x) = n f (x + n1 ) f (x) x, gn f R.
: > 0.
f R, > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x |x x | < . (14.266)

792
, 1
n . x (x, x + n1 )
( )
gn (x) f (x) = n f (x + n1 ) f (x) f (x) = f () f (x)

, | x| < 1
n , (14.266)

|gn (x) f (x)| = |f () f (x)| < .

x |gn (x) f (x)| < , gn f R . , ,

n 1 gn f R 0.

9.2.20. fn f A, (xn ) A, A xn . f
, fn (xn ) f ().
: f (xn ) f (), f
.

|fn (xn ) f ()| |fn (xn ) f (xn )| + |f (xn ) f ()|.

|fn (xn ) f (xn )| fn f A .

0 |fn (xn ) f ()| fn f A + |f (xn ) f ()|.

, fn f A 0 , f , f (xn ) f ().
fn (xn ) f ().
. fn
{
nx, 0 x n1
fn (x) = 1
nx , n x 1
1

..
fn 0 [0, 1] 0 0.
( n1 ) [0, 1] n1 0. fn ( n1 ) 0,
fn ( n1 ) = 1 n.

fn 0 [0, 1] .

9.2.21. [] fn f A, A yn = limx fn (x).
(yn ) limx f (x) = limn+ yn . ,

limx limn+ fn (x) = limn+ limx fn (x).

: > 0. n0

fn fm A
2 n, m n0 .

, n, m n0 , x A |fn (x) fm (x)| 2 ,

|yn ym | = limx |fn (x) fm (x)|

2 < .

(yn ) Cauchy , , .
, , yn y.
> 0. n0

fn f A <
3 |yn y| <
3 n n0 .

793
 x A , |fn0 (x) yn0 | <
3

|f (x) y| |f (x) fn0 (x)| + |fn0 (x) yn0 | + |yn0 y|

fn0 f A + |fn0 (x) yn0 | + |yn0 y|

< 3 + 3 + 3 = .

limx f (x) = y.
9.2.22. g : [0, 1] R [0, 1] fn (x) = xn g(x) x [0, 1].

fn 0 [0, 1] g(1) = 0.
..
: fn 0 [0, 1], fn 0 [0, 1] fn (1) 0. , g(1) = 0.
, g(1) = 0 > 0.
g 1, [a, 1] [0, 1] a < 1

|g(x)| = |g(x) g(1)| < x [a, 1].

, M > 0 |g(x)| M x [0, 1] , an 0,

n0
an < M n n0 .
, n n0

|fn (x)| = xn |g(x)| |g(x)| < x [a, 1]

|fn (x)| = xn |g(x)| an M <

M M = x [0, a].
, n n0 |fn (x)| < x [0, 1] fn [0,1] .

fn 0 [0, 1].

9.2.23. Pn f R. Pn ,
f . Pn f ;
: n0 Pn Pm R < 1 n, m n0 .
Pn Pm R < 1 , , |Pn (x) Pm (x)| < 1 x. ,
Pn Pm
R . , , n, m n0
Pn Pm . ,

Pn = Pn0 + cn n n0 , (14.267)

cn R.
..
Pn f R Pn f R x Pn0 (x) + cn =
Pn (x) f (x). , cn f (x) Pn0 (x). (cn )
f (x) Pn0 (x) , c, (cn )
x. f Pn0 c R. ,

f = Pn0 + c (14.268)

f .
, (14.267) (14.268) n n0

Pn = f + (cn c) = f + an ,

an = cn c 0.
..
9.2.24. fn : [a, b] R fn f [a, b].

794
 fn [a, b], f [a, b].

, , f [a, b], fn f [a, b].
: . x1 , x2 [a, b] x1 < x2 . n fn (x1 )
fn (x2 ) , fn (x) f (x) x, f (x1 ) f (x2 ). f
[a, b].
, f [a, b]. f
[f (a), f (b)].
> 0 [f (a), f (b)] < .
, , y0 , . . . , ym f (a) = y0 < y1 < . . . < ym1 < ym = f (b)

yk yk1 < 2 k = 1, . . . , m. (14.269)
x0 , . . . , xm a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xm1 < xm = b
f (xk ) = yk k = 0, . . . , m.
fn (xk ) f (xk ) k = 0, . . . , m, n0

|fn (xk ) f (xk )| <

2 n n0 k = 0, . . . , m. (14.270)

, x [a, b] x [xk1 , xk ] k = 1, . . . , m.
f fn , (14.269) (14.270) n n0

fn (x) f (x) fn (xk ) f (xk1 ) < f (xk ) +

2 f (xk1 ) = yk yk1 +
2 < ,

fn (x) f (x) fn (xk1 ) f (xk ) > f (xk1 )

2 f (xk ) = yk1 yk
2 > .
|fn (x) f (x)| < . x [a, b]

n n0 . fn f [a, b].
. f (a) < f (b).
f (a) = f (b). [a, b]
x1 , . . . , xn1 .
9.2.25. Dini: fn : [a, b] R
..
[a, b] f : [a, b] R [a, b]. fn f [a, b]

fn+1 (x) fn (x) x [a, b] n, fn f [a, b].

: fn f [a, b]. fn f [a,b] 0.
, > 0 (fnk ) (fn ) fnk f [a,b] >
k.
fnk f [a,b] = sup{|fnk (x) f (x)| | x [a, b]}, k
xk [a, b]

|fnk (xk ) f (xk )| > k. (14.271)

Bolzano - Weierstrass (xkl ) (xk )

xkl [a, b].
fn () f (), fnkl () f (). l0

|fnkl () f ()| < .

0

, fnkl f , , ,
0
> 0

|fnkl (x) f (x)| < x [a, b] |x | < . (14.272)

0

795
 fn+1 (x) fn (x) x [a, b] n, x [a, b]
|fn (x)f (x)| = fn (x)f (x) n, (14.272)

|fnkl (x) f (x)| < x [a, b] |x | < l l0 . (14.273)

, |xkl | < ,

|fnkl (xkl ) f (xkl )| <

(14.271).
b
9.3.2. f : [a, b] R [a, b] : a xn f (x) dx = 0
n Z, n 0. f = 0.
: > 0.
P (x) |P (x) f (x)| x [a, b].
b
, a f (x)P (x) dx = 0.

b b b b
0 a (f (x))2 dx = a f (x)(f (x) P (x)) dx a |f (x)||f (x) P (x)| dx a |f (x)| dx.
b 2
> 0, a (f (x)) dx = 0 f (x) = 0
x [a, b].
9.3.3. [] f : [1, +) R [1, +) limx+ f (x) -
. > 0 P (x) |P ( x1 )f (x)|
x 1.
: l = limx+ f (x). g : (0, 1] R g(t) = f ( 1t )
t (0, 1]. g (0, 1]. g(0) = l
Weierstrass g : [0, 1] R.
9.3.4. , n Z,
( n 0,
) Wn : R R :
W0 (x) = 0 Wn+1 (x) = Wn (x) + 12 x2 (Wn (x))2 x n 0.

n Wn (x) 2n Wn (x) |x| [1, 1].
{
0, a x
[a, b] (x) = , -
x , x b

, (Tn ) Tn [a, b].
g : [a, b] R 0 , . . . , m
a = 0 < < m = b g
(0 , 1 ), . . . , (m1 , m ).
g : [a, b] R [a, b]
g [k1 , k ] g(x) = k (x k1 ) + g(k1 ). , 1 = 1
k = k k1 k = 2, . . . , m.
g(x) = g(a) + 1 0 (x) + + m m1 (x) x [a, b].

(Pn ) Pn g [a, b].
f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0. g : [a, b] R
[a, b] |g(x) f (x)| x [a, b].
Weierstrass.
: . W1 (x) = 12 x2 , W1 (x)
( )
2 = 21 . Wn+1 (x) = Wn (x) + 21 x2 (Wn (x))2
Wn+1 (x) Wn (x).

796
 Wn (x) 2n .
Wn (x) .
, |x| 1.
an = Wn (x) (an )

a0 = 0 an+1 = an + 21 (x2 an 2 ) n 0.
a1 = 12 x2 , a2 = x2 18 x4 0 = a0 a1 a2 .
(an ) an an+1 . an
an + 12 (x2 an 2 ) an 2 x2 |an | |x|.
, , 0 an |x| n 0,
(an ) , , .
0 an |x| n = 0 n 0. |an | |x| ,
, an an+1 0 an+1 . , an+1 |x|
an + 21 (x2 an 2 ) |x| (|x| an )(2 |x| an ) 0.
an |x| an + |x| 2|x| 2.
(an ) , , . an l,
an+1 = an + 12 (x2 an 2 ) l = l + 12 (x2 l2 ), l = |x|. an 0
n, l 0 l = |x|.
..
, Wn (x) |x| x [1, 1]. , Wn (x) |x| [1, 1].
0 Wn (x) |x|
x [1, 1] ( 0 an |x| )

fn (x) = |x| Wn (x).
0 fn (x) |x| x [1, 1]
Wn (x)
( )
fn+1 (x) = fn (x) 1 |x| + 21 fn (x) .
(n )
0 = 1 n+1 = n 2+n
2+2n n 0.
n 0 n 0 n+1 n
n 0. (n ) 0 n l
l = 0. n 0.
, , 0 f0 (x) 0 x [1, 1].
0 fn (x) n x [1, 1].
|x| n+1 , 0 fn+1 (x) |x| n+1 . n+1 |x| 1,
fn (x)
( )
0 fn+1 (x) n 1 n+1 + 21 n = n+1 .
0 fn+1 (x) n+1 x [1, 1].
, , 0 fn (x) n x [1, 1]. -

fn [1,1] n , n 0, fn [1,1] 0 Wn (x) |x|
[1, 1].
. = max{ a, b }.
( )
Tn (x) = 12 (x ) + 2 Wn x
.

x
x [a, b], [1, 1] , ,
 
Tn (x) 12 (x ) + 2  x  = (x) [a, b].

797
 . g [k1 , k ]

g(k ) g(k1 ) = k (k k1 ).

, x [a, b]. x [k1 , k ] k = 1, . . . , m,

m k
g(a) + j=1 j j1 (x) = g(0 ) + j=1 j (x j1 )

= g(0 ) + 1 (x 0 ) + kj=2 (j j1 )(x j1 )

= g(0 ) + 1 (x 0 ) + kj=2 j (x j1 ) kj=2 j1 (x j1 )

= g(0 ) + 1 (x 0 ) + kj=2 j (x j1 ) k1
j=1 j (x j )
k1
= g(0 ) + 1 (x 0 ) + j=2 j (x j1 ) + k (x k1 )
k1
1 (x 1 ) j (x j )
j=2
k1
= g(0 ) + 1 (1 0 ) + j=2 j (j j1 ) + k (x k1 )

= g(1 ) + k1j=2 (g(j ) g(j1 )) + k (x k1 )
= g(k1 ) + k (x k1 ) = g(x).

.

m Tj,n (x) j (x) [a, b].
j (x) (Tj,n (x))
n Pn (x) = g(a) + j=1 j Tj1,n (x)
m
Pn (x) g(a) + j=1 j j1 (x) = g(x) [a, b].

. > 0. f [a, b], > 0

|f (x ) f (x )| < x , x [a, b] |x x | < .
[a, b] [k1 , k ] ,
k k1 < k = 1, . . . , m.
, g
g(k ) = f (k ) k = 0, . . . , m.
|g(x) f (x)| < x [a, b]. -
[k1 , k ].
. f : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0. , -
, g : [a, b] R
[a, b] |g(x) f (x)| 2 x [a, b]. ,
, P (x) |P (x) g(x)| 2
x [a, b].

|P (x) f (x)| |P (x) g(x)| + |g(x) f (x)|

2 +
2 = x [a, b].

14.10 10.
x sin(n2 x)
10.1.1. + n=1 n2
.
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.
: . , ( )
x. :
+  x sin(n2 x)  + +
 2
 |x|
= |x| 1
< +.
n=1 n n=1 n2 n=1 n2

798
 , , x.

x sin(n2 x)
s(x) = +n=1 n2
x
s R
+ x sin(n2 x) ..
n=1 n2
= s(x) R.

. + n=1 fn
A,
+ x A,

() n=1 fn (x) (, ). ,
s(x) = +n=1 nf (x) x A. s A
+ ..
n=1 fn s A + n=1 fn = s
A.
. a > 0. Weierstrass
[a, a].
 x sin(n2 x)  |x|
  2 a2 x [a, a]
n2 n n

, + +
a 1
n=1 n2 =a n=1 n2 < +,
+ x sin(n2 x)
n=1 n2
s [a, a]:
+ x sin(n2 x)
n=1 n2
= s(x) [a, a].

. s
2 x)
R, , x sin(nn2
R, s
R.
, s
[a, a]. s [a, a] s
R.
x0 . a0 x0
[a0 , a0 ], x0 (a0 , a0 ). ,
a0 > |x0 |.
, s [a0 , a0 ] , , s x0 .
: x0 [a0 , a0 ], , x0
[a0 , a0 ], s x0 .
s x0 , R.
sin(nx)
10.1.2. [] p > 2. + n=1 np .
s(x) R.
s(x) R s (x) R.

[] + x
n=1 (nx+1)2 .
s(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, s(x) [a, +).
s(x) (0, +).
s(x) 0 limx+ s(x) = 0 limx0+ s(x) = 1.
, s [0, +).
 
: [] .  sin(nx)
np
 1p x. ,
+ 1 n
sin(nx)
Weierstrass, n=1 np < + ( p > 2 > 1), + n=1 np
, s(x), R.

799
 . :
+ d sin(nx) + cos(nx)
n=1 dx np = n=1 np1 .
 
 cos(nx)
p1
 p1
1
x +
n=1 np1 < + ( p 1 > 1),
1
+ cos(nx)
n n
n=1 np1 , Weierstrass, , t(x),
R.
, , x (
R , , x) -
R. s(x) R

+ + +
s (x) = d
dx n=1
sin(nx)
np = d sin(nx)
n=1 dx np = cos(nx)
n=1 np1 x.

cos(nx)
np1
R + cos(nx)
n=1 np1 -
R, s (x) R.
[] . x [0, +).
x = 0, + n=1 0 = 0.
x > 0, + + x 1 + 1
n=1 (nx+1)2
x
n=1 n2 x2 = x n=1 n2 < +,

+ x
n=1 (nx+1)2 , - , .
x [0, +) ,

s(x) = + x
n=1 (nx+1)2 x [0, +),

s [0, +)
+ x ..
n=1 (nx+1)2 = s(x) [0, +).

. a > 0. Weierstrass [a, +).

 x 
 = x
n2xx2 = xn1 2 an1 2 x [a, +)
(nx+1)2 (nx+1)2
+ +
1 1 1
n=1 an2 = a n=1 n2 < +.
s [a, +).
. s [a, +),
x
a > 0, , (nx+1) 2 [a, +),

s [a, +).
x0 (0, +) , , a0 > 0 x0
[a0 , +). , a0 0 < a0 < x0 . s
[a0 , +), x0 .
s x0 (0, +), (0, +).
s,
,
+ d x + 1nx
n=1 dx (nx+1)2 = n=1 (nx+1)3 .

x = 0 : +
n=1 1 = +.
x > 0
+  1nx  + 1+nx + + +
n=1 (nx+1)3 n=1 (nx+1)2
1 1 1 1
n=1 (nx+1)3 = n=1 n2 x 2
= x2 n=1 n2 < +,

800

+ 1nx
n=1 (nx+1)3 .
t
(0, +) t

t(x) = + 1nx
n=1 (nx+1)3 x (0, +).

t s (0, +).
a > 0. Weierstrass -
[a, +):
d   1nx 
 x
2
=  1+nx 3 = 1
n21x2 n21a2 x [a, +)
dx (nx+1) (nx+1)3 (nx+1) (nx+1)2

, + +
1 1 1
n=1 n2 a2 = a2 n=1 n2 < +,
t
[a, +).
[a, +) (
x [a, +)), s
[a, +) s (x) = t(x) x [a, +).
, , a -
.
x0 (0, +). a0 > 0 x0
[a0 , +). s [a0 , +) s (x) = t(x)
x [a, +), s x0 s (x0 ) = t(x0 ).
x0 (0, +) , s (0, +)

s (x) = t(x) = + 1nx
n=1 (nx+1)3 x (0, +).

s (0, +) , , t -
(0, +), ,
t,
+ d 1nx + 2n2 x4n
n=1 dx (nx+1)3 = n=1 (nx+1)4 .

x > 0
+  2n2 x4n  + 2n2 x+4n + 4n2 x+4n + +
n=1 (nx+1)4 n=1 (nx+1)4
4n 4n
n=1 (nx+1)4
= n=1 (nx+1)3 n=1 n3 x3
4 + 1
= x3 n=1 n2 < +,
2n2 x4n
+n=1 (nx+1)4 .
u
(0, +) u
+ 2n2 x4n
u(x) = n=1 (nx+1)4 x (0, +).

u t (0, +).
a > 0. Weierstrass -
[a, +):
   2 x4n 
 d 1nx 
=  2n  2n2 x+4n
dx (nx+1)3 (nx+1)4 (nx+1)4
4n2 x+4n
(nx+1)4
= 4n
(nx+1)3
4n
n3 x3
4
n2 a3
x [a, +)

801
, + +
4 4 1
n=1 n2 a3 = a3 n=1 n2 < +,
u
[a, +).
[a, +) (
x [a, +)), t
[a, +) t (x) = u(x) x [a, +).
, x0 (0, +). a0 > 0 x0
[a0 , +). t [a0 , +) t (x) = u(x)
x [a, +), t x0 t (x0 ) = u(x0 ).
x0 (0, +) , t (0, +)
+
s (x) = t (x) = u(x) = 2n2 x4n
n=1 (nx+1)4 x (0, +).

s (0, +).
s
(0, +). , , . -
+ 1
n=1 n2 .
. s
[0, +) ( [a, +)) Weierstrass
[0, +). , , Mn | (nx+1)x
2 | Mn
+
x [0, +) Mn n=1 Mn . ,
, Mn , -
x d x 1nx
(nx+1)2
[0, +). dx (nx+1)2
= (nx+1) 3
x
(nx+1)2
[0, n1 ] [ n1 , +), -
x = n1 , 4n
1
. , Mn = 4n 1
Mn
+ + 1
. , n=1 Mn = n=1 4n .
Weierstrass [0, +).
: [0, +).
, Weierstrass,
. , Dirichlet
Abel, 10.1, -

Weierstrass.
. s 0 +,
s
.
x > 0 + x
n=1 (nx+1)2 - -
2 t 1
x
n . , f (t) = (tx+1)
x
[1, +) f (n) = (nx+1)2 n.
+ x + x
1 (tx+1)2
dt + n=1 (nx+1)2 (x+1)2 + 1
x x
(tx+1)2
dt. (14.274)
:
+ x + 1 1
1 (tx+1)2
dt = x (t+1)2
dt = x+1 .

(14.274) :
1
x+1 s(x) x
(x+1)2
+ 1
x+1 = 2x+1
(x+1)2
x > 0.

802
 limx+ s(x) = 0 limx0+ s(x) = 1.
s(0) = 0, s 0.
limx+ s(x) = 0
: + x 1 + 1
0 s(x) = + n=1 (nx+1)2
x
n=1 n2 x2 = x
A
n=1 n2 = x ,

A () + 1
n=1 n2 .
, +,
10.1.21[]: +,
[1, +) ( 1 -
a > 0) +

+ +
limx+ s(x) = limx+ + x
n=1 (nx+1)2 =
x
n=1 limx+ (nx+1)2 = n=1 0 = 0.

, , (, , 10.1.21[]).
> 0. [1, +), n0
 + 
 x  x [1, +).
n=n0 +1 (nx+1)2 < 2
n0 x
, limx+ n=1 (nx+1)2 = 0, N > 0
 n0 
 x  <
x [1, +) x > N.
n=1 (nx+1)2 2

 0   
|s(x)|  nn=1 x + + x  < 2 + 2 = x [1, +) x > N.
(nx+1)2 n=n0 +1 (nx+1)2

limx+ s(x) = 0.
. s [0, +),
x
(nx+1) 2 [0, +), s

[0, +). , s 0.

10.1.3. p > 0 + x
n=1 np (1+nx2 ) .
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) (, a]
[a, +).
s(x) R \ {0}.
limx s(x) = 0.
p > 12 . A s(x) R s(x)
0.
, p > 1, s(x) 0.
0 < p < 21 , limx0+ s(x) = +. p = 21 , limx0+ s(x)
s(x) R, 0.

: . x = 0 + n=1 0 = 0.
x = 0 :
+   + + |x| 1 + 1
  |x|
n=1 np (1+nx2 )
x
n=1 np (1+nx2 ) = n=1 np+1 x2 = |x| n=1 np+1 < +.

R s

s(x) = + x
n=1 np (1+nx2 ) x.

803
 . x (, a] [a, +)
 
 p x 2  = p |x| 2 p+1 |x|
np+1
1
np+1
1
.
n (1+nx ) n (1+nx ) n x2 |x| a

+ +
1 1 1
n=1 np+1 a = a n=1 np+1 < +,
Weierstrass s
(, a] [a, +).
. :
+ d x + 1nx2
n=1 dx np (1+nx2 ) = n=1 np (1+nx2 )2 .

x = 0 + 1
n=1 np , , p > 1.
x = 0 :
+  1nx2  + 1+nx2 +
n=1 np (1+nx2 )2 n=1 np (1+nx2 )2
1
n=1 np (1+nx2 )
1 + 1
+ 1
n=1 np+1 x2 = x2 n=1 np+1 < +.

R \ {0} t
1nx2
t(x) = +n=1 np (1+nx2 )2 x = 0.

, p > 1, t R.
, Weierstrass (, a] [a, +)
. |x| a
 1nx2 
 p  p 1+nx22 2 = p 1 2 p+1 1
np+11
.
n (1+nx2 )2 n (1+nx ) n (1+nx ) n x2 a2

+ +
1 1 1
n=1 np+1 a2 = a2 n=1 np+1 < +,
t (, a] [a, +).
x (, a] [a, +)
+ 1nx2
s (x) = t(x) = + d x
n=1 dx np (1+nx2 ) = n=1 np (1+nx2 )2 .

a > 0 , x R \ {0}.
, x0 = 0, a0 > 0 x0 (, a0 ]
[a0 , +). ( 0 < a0 < |x0 |.) , , s
x0 s (x0 ) = t(x0 ).

s (x) = t(x) = + 1nx2
n=1 np (1+nx2 )2 x = 0.

. x > 0
+ +
0 s(x) = + n=1 np (1+nx2 )
x
n=1
x
np+1 x2
= 1
x
1
n=1 np+1 = A
x,

A + 1
n=1 np+1 .
limx+ s(x) = 0 , s , limx s(x) = 0.
+, 10.1.21[].
[1, +) (
a > 0 1), +

+ +
limx+ s(x) = limx+ + x
n=1 np (1+nx2 ) =
x
n=1 limx+ np (1+nx2 ) = n=1 0 = 0.

804
, (, , 10.1.21[]).
> 0. [1, +), n0
 + 
 x  x [1, +).
n=n0 +1 np (1+nx2 ) < 2
0
, limx+ nn=1 x
np (1+nx2 )
= 0, N > 0
 n0 
 x  x [1, +) x > N.
n=1 np (1+nx2 ) < 2

 0   
|s(x)|  nn=1 x  +  + x  <
+ 2 = x [1, +) x > N.
np (1+nx2 ) n=n0 +1 np (1+nx2 ) 2

limx+ s(x) = 0.
1nx2
d x
. =

dx np (1+nx2 )
np (1+nx2 )2
x
np (1+nx2 )
(, n ], [ n , n ] [ 1n , +).
1 1 1

, 1n 1n 2np1n 2np1n , ,
2 ) = 0. 2n n
x 1
limx np (1+nx
2n1n , , , ,
 
 x  1
= 1
np (1+nx2 ) 2np n 2np+(1/2)

x R. p > 12 ,
+ 1
< +,
n=1 2np+(1/2)

Weierstrass + x
n=1 np (1+nx2 ) s -
R.
2 ) R, s(x),
x
np (1+nx
, R.
. p > 1,
Weierstrass.
x  1nx2 
 p  p 1+nx22 2 = p 1 2 1p .
n (1+nx2 )2 n (1+nx ) n (1+nx ) n
+ 1
n=1 np < +, t R. s
R.
x
. f (t) = tp (1+tx 2 ) [1, +) x > 0

+ + +
1 p
x
2
t (1+tx )
dt s(x) = n=1 p
x
n (1+nx ) 2 x
1+x 2 + 1
x
tp (1+tx2 )
dt. (14.275)
+ x
1 tp (1+tx2 )
dt
+ x 1
+ 1 1
+ 1
1 tp (1+tx2 )
dt = x12p x2 up (1+u) du = (1p)x12p x2(1p) 1+s1/(1p) ds. (14.276)

, 0 < x 1, (14.275) (14.276)

+ +
s(x) (1p)x
1
12p 1
1
1+s1/(1p)
ds (1p)x
1
12p 1
1
2s1/(1p)
ds = 2px112p

, , 0 < p < 12 , limx0+ s(x) = +.

p = 21 , (14.276)
+ + 1 ( )
2 ds = 2 2 arctan x
x
1 t1/2 (1+tx2 )
dt = 2 x 1+s

805
 (14.275) x > 0
( ) ( )
2 2 arctan x s(x) 1+xx
2 + 2 2 arctan x .

limx0+ s(x) = s
0.
, x > 0 0 s(x) 21 + .
s (0, +) , s s(0) = 0, s
R.

10.1.4. + 1
n=1 n2 +x2 .
s(x) R.
s(x) R. s(x);
limx s(x) = 0.
: . Weierstrass
 1 
 2 2  = 2 1 2 12 x
n +x n +x n

+ 1
n=1 n2 < +.
s R,

s(x) = + 1
n=1 n2 +x2 x.

2 R
1
. n2 +x
R, s R.
:
+ d 1 + 2x
n=1 dx n2 +x2 = n=1 (n2 +x2 )2 .

Weierstrass
 2x 
 2 2 2  = 2 22|x| 2 2 2 2|x| 1
x
(n +x ) (n +x )(n +x ) (n +x2 )2n|x| n3

+ 1
n=1 n3 < +.
t R,
2x
t(x) = +
n=1 (n2 +x2 )2 x.

n2 + x2 2n|x|. -

 ,

 2x  2|x|
(n2 +x2 )2 = (n2 +x2 )2 R , (
2x
), (n2 +x2 )2
[0, +).

d 2x 2(n2 +x2 )2 8x2 (n2 +x2 ) 2n2 6x2

dx (n2 +x2 )2 = (n2 +x2 )4
= (n2 +x2 )3
,

n3 . 9
1
8 3 n3

 2x 
 2 2 2 9 1
x.
(n +x ) 8 3 n3

806
, , Weierstrass
t R.
s R

s (x) = t(x) = + 2x
n=1 (n2 +x2 )2 x.

, s (x) x < 0 x > 0. s

(, 0] [0, +). s 0
.
2 u 1,
1
. x, f (u) = u2 +x
[1, +), , :
+ 1 + 1
1 u2 +x2
du + n=1 n2 +x2 12 +x2 + 1
1 1
u2 +x2
du.

x > 0 :
+ 1 + + ( )
1 u2 +x2
du = x 1/x 1
x2 t2 +x2
dt = 1
x
1
1/x t2 +1 dt = 1
x 2 arctan x1 .

( ) ( )
1
x 2 arctan x1 s(x) 1
12 +x2
+ 1
x 2 arctan x1 x > 0.
, limx+ s(x) = 0. s , limx s(x) = 0.

+ limx+ s(x) = 0 . > 0.

1
n=1 n2 , n0
+ 1
n=n0 +1 n2 < 2 .
n0 1
, limx+ n=1 n2 +x2 = 0, N > 0
n0 1
n=1 n2 +x2 < 2 x > N.

x > N
0 +
0 s(x) = nn=1 1
n2 +x2
+ + 1
n=n0 +1 n2 +x2 < 2 + n=n0 +1
1
n2
< 2 + 2 = x > N.

limx+ s(x) = 0.
, , 10.1.21[].
R,

+ +
limx s(x) = limx + 1
n=1 n2 +x2 =
1
n=1 limx n2 +x2 = n=1 0 = 0.

! x 1 ( [x] 1),
+ [x] +
0 s(x) = 1
n=1 n2 +x2 =
1
n=1 n2 +x2 +
1
n=[x]+1 n2 +x2
[x] 1 +
n=1 x2 +
1
n=[x]+1 n2
[x] + 1
x2
1
+ ([x]+1) 2 + [x]+1 t2 dt

x
x2
+ x12 + [x]+1
1
x1 + x12 + x1 .

limx+ s(x) = 0.
n1 x2 +n .
10.1.6. + n=1 (1) n2
x.
s(x) R.

807
 s(x);
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
: .
+   + + +
 n1 x2 +n  = x2 +n
n 1
n=1 (1) n2 n=1 n2 n=1 n2 = n=1 n = +,

x.
2 2
. + (1)n1 x n+n + (1)n1 nx2
+ n1 n =
+ n=1
n1 1 .
2 n=1
n=1 (1) n2 n=1 (1) n
.
( ) x R s

s(x) = + n1 x2 +n = ax2 + b
n=1 (1) n2
x,
+
a = n=1 (1)n1 n12 b = + n=1 (1)
n1 1 .
n
+ n1 x2
. n=1 (1) n2

 
(1)n x22  = x22 a22
n n n

x [a, a] ,
+ a2 + 1
n=1 n2 = a2 n=1 n2 < +,
n1 x2
Weierstrass +n=1 (1) n2
[a, a]. +
, +n=1 (1)
n1 n =
n2 n=1 (1)
n1 1 , x,
n
[a, a].
n1 x2 +n ,
, + n=1 (1) n2
[a, a].
(1)n1
10.1.7. + n=1

n
sin(1 + nx ).
s(x) R.
, a > 0, s(x) [a, a].
s(x) R.
: sin(1 + nx ) = sin 1 cos nx + cos 1 sin nx = sin 1 + sin 1 (cos nx 1) + cos 1 sin nx .
(1)n1 (1)n1 + (1)n1
+ n=1

n
sin(1 + nx ) + n=1

n
, n=1 n (cos nx 1)
+ (1)n1 2
n=1 n sin nx . 0 1 cos t t2 .
1
Weierstrass.
(1)n1
10.1.12. + n=1 n+x .
x [0, +).
t(x) [0, +).
t(x) [0, +).
limx0+ t(x) = log 2 limx+ t(x) = 0.
t(x) [0, +).
: . x 0
+  (1)n1  + 1 + +
 =
n=1 n+x
1 1
n=1 n+x n=1 n+[x]+1 = k=[x]+2 k = +,
+ 1
k=1 k .

808
 1
. fn (x) = (1)n1 gn (x) = n+x
[0, +) n N.
sn (x) = f1 (x)+ +fn (x) 1 0 x [0, +)
n , , (sn )
[0, +). , x [0, +) (gn (x)) ,

, gn (x) 0 [0, +). ,
 1 
|gn (x)| =  n+x = 1 1
n+x n x [0, +),

gn [0,+) n1 gn [0,+) 0.
(1)n1 +
+ n=1 n+x = n=1 fn (x)gn (x) t(x) -
[0, +):
+ (1)n1
n=1 n+x = t(x) [0, +).
.
+ d (1)n1 + (1)n
n=1 dx n+x = n=1 (n+x)2

(1) n
Weierstrass. | (n+x) 2 | = (n+x)2 n2
1 1
+ (1)n
x [0, +) + 1
n=1 n2 < +. n=1 (n+x)2 -
[0, +) t(x) [0, +). ,
(1)n
t (x) = +n=1 (n+x)2 x [0, +).

( )
[0, +)
+ (1)n1
t (x) = n=1 (n+x)3 x [0, +).
n1
. (1) n+x [0, +) ,
+ (1)n1
n=1 n+x t(x) [0, +), t(x)
[0, +).
+ (1)n1
limx0+ t(x) = t(0) = n=1 n = log 2.
+ (1)n1
, > 0. n=1 n+x t(x) [0, +),
n0
 + (1)n1 

x 0.
n=n0 +1 n+x 2
n0 (1)n1
, limx+ n=1 n+x = 0, N > 0
 n0 (1)n1 
 <
x > N.
n=1 n+x 2

 n1   (1)n1 
|t(x)|  n0 (1)  +  +
n=1 n+x n=n0 +1 n+x <
2 +
2 = x > N.

, limx+ t(x) = 0.
, 10.1.21[].
[0, +), +

(1)n1 + (1)n1 +
limx+ t(x) = limx+ + n=1 n+x = n=1 limx+ n+x = n=1 0 = 0.

809
 . k x 0
2k (1)n ( ) ( )
n=1 (n+x)2 = 1
(1+x)2
1
(2+x)2
1
(2k1+x)2
1
(2k+x)2
< 0,

. x 0
2k (1)n
t (x) = limk+ n=1 (n+x)2

(1)n
2k n=1 (n+x)2
, t (x) < 0 x 0. t
[0, +).
,
+ (1)n1
n=1 (n+x)3 , t (x) > 0 x 0, t
[0, +).

10.1.13. + n=1 (1)
n1 log(1 + x ).
n
s(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, s(x) [0, a].
s(x) [0, +).
s(x) t(x) 10.1.12;
: . fn (x) = (1)n1 gn (x) = log(1 + nx )
[0, +) n N.
x 0. sn (x) = f1 (x) + + fn (x)
1 0 n , , (sn (x))
. ,
+ (gn (x))
0.
x 0 n=1 (1) n1 log(1 + n ) = +
x
n=1 fn (x)gn (x) . ,
s [0, +)
( )
s(x) = + n=1 (1)
n1 log 1 + x
n x [0, +)

s [0, +).
. , a > 0.
sn (x) = f1 (x) + + fn (x) 1 0 x [0, a]
n , , (sn )
[0, a]. ( [0, +).) , x [0, a]

(gn (x)) , , gn (x) 0 [0, a]. (
[0, +).) ,
 ( ) ( )
|gn (x)| =  log 1 + nx  = log 1 + nx nx na x [0, a],

gn [0,a] na gn [0,a] 0.
+
+ n=1 (1)
n1 log(1 + x ) =
n n=1 fn (x)gn (x) s(x)
[0, a].
.
+ d + (1)n1
n=1 dx (1)
n1 log(1 + nx ) = n=1 n+x

10.1.12. 10.1.12.
(1x)xn
10.1.14. [] fn (x) = x [0, 1] n.
log(n+1)

Mn = fn [0,1] n + n=1 fn
+
[0, 1] n=1 Mn .

810


0, 0 x 1/(2n + 1) 1/(2n 1) x 1
[] fn (x) = (4n + 2)x 2, 1/(2n + 1) x 1/(2n)


2 (4n 2)x, 1/(2n) x 1/(2n 1)

n. Mn = fn [0,1] n +
n=1 fn
+
[0, 1] n=1 Mn .
: [] 10.1.
1 1
[] [ 2n+1 , 2n1 ] .

10.1.15. (xn ) + 1
n=1 xn ,
+ 1
xn +. n=1 xn x .
s(x) A = R \
{xn | n N}.
, a, s(x) A (, a].
n limxxn s(x) = + limxxn + s(x) = . , -
limx s(x) = 0.
s(x) (, x1 ) (xn , xn+1 ). , s(x)
.

: . xn +, xn > 0. + 1
n=1 xn ,
,
. , () x A,
xn > x, + 1
n=1 xn x , ,
. , :
1/(xn x)
1/xn = xn
xn x 1.
+ 1
+ 1
n=1 xn , n=1 xn x . -
+ 1
n=1 xn x s A, s

s(x) = + 1
n=1 xn x x A.
. a. xn > a, n0 xn0 > a
( xn > a n n0 ). n n0
 1 
 
xn x = xn x xn a x A (, a].
1 1

+
+ 1
n=n0 xn a < +, Weierstrass
1
0 xn x
n0 1 1 n=n
s(x) n=1 xn x A (, a]. + 1
n=1 xn x
s(x) A (, a].
s A. , x0 A. a0
x0 (, a0 ]. xn1x
x0 A (, a] x0
A (, a], s x0 .

. n0 . + 1
n=1 xn x
xn 1x . , (xn )
0
xn0 . .
A = A {xn0 } A .
, xn0 . ,
s(x) = (x) + 1
xn0 x x A.

1
limxxn0 s(x) = limxxn0 (x) + limxxn0 xn0 x = (xn0 ) + (+) = +

811
, , limxxn0 + s(x) = .
, a = x1 1 > 0. s
(, a], n0
 + 
 1 
x (, a].
n=n0 +1 xn x < 2
n0 1
, limx n=1 xn x = 0, N > 0
 n0 
 1 
<
x (, a] x < N.
n=1 xn x 2

 0   + 
|s(x)|  nn=1 1 
xn x +

n=n0 +1
1 
xn x <
2 +
2 = x (, a] x < N.

limx s(x) = 0.
, , 10.1.21[]. a =
x1 1 , (, a],

+ +
limx t(x) = limx + 1
n=1 xn x =
1
n=1 limx xn x = n=1 0 = 0.

.
+ d 1 + 1
n=1 dx xn x = n=1 (xn x)2 .

, ,
t
A. + 1
n=1 xn 2 < +. ,
A (, a] a.
, a s A (, a] s (x) = t(x)
x A (, a].
, x0 a0 x0 A
(, a0 ]. s (x0 ) = t(x0 ).

s (x) = t(x) = + 1
n=1 (xn x)2 x A.
s (x) > 0 x A, s (, x1 )
(xn , xn+1 ).
+
10.1.16. + n=1 xn cos(nx) n=1 xn sin(nx).
+
[] n=1 |xn | < +.
c(x) s(x) R. c(x) s(x) R
2.
cos(nx) sin(nx)
+ +n=1 np p > 1
+ n + n n=1 n p

n=1 r cos(nx) n=1 r sin(nx) 0 r < 1.

[] (xn ) , xn 0, xn 0 n, + n=1 xn = +.
+
n=1 xn cos(nx)
c(x)
(m2, (m + 1)2) m Z + n=1 n sin(nx)
x
s(x) R.
+
, (0, ], +n=1 xn cos(nx) n=1 xn sin(nx) c(x)
s(x) [m2 + , (m + 1)2 ] m Z. c(x)
s(x) (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z.

+ n=1 xn sin(nx) R nxn 0.
, [],
( n1 ) ( n log
1
n ).

812
 rn + rn
[] 0 r < 1. +
n=1 n cos(nx) n=1 n sin(nx)
R.
8.3.8[],
+ rn 1 1 + rn r sin x
n=1 n cos(nx) = 2 log 12r cos x+r2 , n=1 n sin(nx) = arctan 1r cos x .
rn + rn
[] + n=1 n cos(nx) n=1 n sin(nx)
r [0, 1],
+ 1
n=1 n cos(nx) = log(sin 2 ), x (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z
x

{
+ 1 ( x)/2, x (m2, (m + 1)2) m Z
n=1 n sin(nx) =
0, x = m2 m Z
.
: [] Weierstrass.
[] Dirichlet (-
) . (6.40). 8.3.8[].
+(6.40), ,
10.1. R n=1 xn sin(nx) :
nxn 0 10.1[]
,
n , sn ( n1 ) s(0) = 0,
sn (x) n- k=1 xk sin(kx).
[]
[].
[] [,] (
+ rn )
+ rn
[0, 1] n=1 n cos(nx) n=1 n sin(nx) -
r [0, 1].
10.1 fn (r) = rn gn (r) = cos(nx)
n gn (r) = sin(nx)
n , .
[0, 1],
r 1 [].
(1)n1 + (1)n1 arctan(nx2 )
10.1.18. +
n=1 n+1+cos x n=1 n+x2
.
R.
:
+ 10.1. -
n=1 (1)n1 arctan(nx2 ) -
. , x, () (arctan(nx2 ))
0 arctan(nx2 ) 2 .
10.1.20. fn : A R n |fn (x) fn+1 (x)| Mn
x A n. , +n=1 Mn < +, (fn )
A.

: f1 (x) + +n=1 (fn+1 (x) fn (x)) ;
+
10.1.21. []
+ A, n=1 f+n = s A
+
yn = limx fn (x). n=1 yn limx n=1 fn (x) = n=1 yn .
, +
limx + n=1 fn (x) = n=1 limx fn (x).

[] A A fn : A R
+
n=1 fn = s A \ {}. + n=1 fn () , s() =
+
f
n=1 n (), s : A R .

813
: sn = f1 + + fn tn = y1 + + yn
n 9.2.21.
10.1.22. Q = { {rn | n N} Q. n
0, x = rn
fn : R R fn (x) = + 1
n=1 1+n2 fn (x) . -
1, x = rn
R -
(a, b).
: x
/ Q, x rn ,
+ + 1 + 1
n=1 1+n2
1
n=1 1+n2 fn (x) = n=1 n2 < +.

x Q, x = rn0 n0 , + 1
n=1 1+n2 fn (x) , ,
+
+ 1 1
n=1 1+n2 1+n0 2 fn0 (x) = 1.
1
n=1 1+n2 fn (x)
.
s R.
, , s (a, b).
n0
 
s(x) n0 1  x (a, b).
n=1 1+n fn (x) < 1
2

, + 1
n=n0 +1 1+n2 fn (x) <1 x (a, b).
, (a, b) , n n0 + 1 rn
(a, b). , x = rn + 1
n=n0 +1 1+n2 fn (x)
1
1+n2 fn (x)
= 1 , -,
+
n=n0 +1 1+n2 fn (x) 1 .
1

{
0, x 0
10.1.23. I : R R, I(x) = (xn )
1, x > 0

xn = xm n, m n = m cn = 0 n + n=1 |cn | < +.
+
n=1 cn I(x xn ) s(x) -
R.
s(x) x, x = xn n.
, n, s(x) xn cn xn .
:
+ . + n |cn I(x xn )| |cn | x
n=1 |cn | < +, n=1 cn I(x xn ) s(x)
R.
. x = xn n, cn I(x xn )
x , , s x.

. + n=1 cn I(x xn )
cn0 I(x xn0 ). , R
xn0 .

s(x) = (x) + cn0 I(x xn0 ) x

limxxn0 s(x) = limxxn0 (x) + cn0 limxxn0 I(x xn0 ) = (xn0 ),

limxxn0 + s(x) = limxxn0 + (x) + cn0 limxxn0 + I(x xn0 ) = (xn0 ) + cn0 .

814
, s xn0 cn0 .
nx[nx]
10.1.24. + n=1 n2
.
A s(x) R. s(x)
1.
A s(x).
s(x).
x x = kl , k Z, l N gcd(k, l) = 1, s(x)

x la2 , a = + 1
m=1 m2 .
1
A s(x) [0, 1] 0 s(x) dx = a2 .
: . n 0 nx[nx] n12 x
+ 1 n2
n=1 n2 < +, Weierstrass
s R.
, n n(x+1)[n(x+1)] = nx+n[nx+n] = nx+n[nx]n =
nx [nx] x,
+ n(x+1)[n(x+1)] + nx[nx]
s(x + 1) = n=1 n2
= n=1 n2
= s(x) x.

s 1.
. x [x]
. n nx[nx]
n1 . ,
1 0, .
, , nx[nx]
n2
, ,
, s .
. , = kl , k Z, l N gcd(k, l) = 1.
nx [nx]
kl n1 . , kl = nq q
n = ml q = mk.
, n = ml m,

limx+ (nx [nx]) limx (nx [nx]) = 0 1 = 1

, n = ml m,

limx+ (nx [nx]) limx (nx [nx]) = 0.

, 10.1.21[],
( nx[nx] )
limx+ s(x) limx s(x) = +n=1 limx+ n2
limx nx[nx]
n2
limx+ (nx[nx])limx (nx[nx])
= +n=1 n2
+ 1 1 + 1
= m=1 (ml)2 = l2 m=1 m2 .

. nx[nx]
n2
[0, 1], , -
1, s [0, 1].
0 (x [x]) dx = 21 , x [x]
1 n n k n
0 (nx [nx]) dx = 1
n 0 (x [x]) dx = 1
n k=1 k1 (x [x]) dx = 1
n
1
k=1 2 = 1
2

1 + 1 +
0 s(x) dx = 1
n=1 n2 0 (nx [nx]) dx = 1
2
1
n=1 n2 .

815
 + an
10.1.25. + an
n=1 nx0 . n=1 nx .
s(x) [x0 , +).
+ an
limxx0 + + an
n=1 nx = n=1 nx0 .
s(x) (x0 , +).
+ an
: + an
n=1 nx =
1
n=1 nx0 nxx0 10.1.

10.1.26. + 1
n=1 nx . -
x > 1 + x 1.
: (1, +) R - Riemann :

(x) = + 1
n=1 nx x (1, +).
.
, a > 1, (x) [a, +).
(x) (1, +)
(log n)m
(m) (x) = (1)m + n=1 nx x (1, +) m N.
limx1+ (x) = + limx+ (x) = 1.
(x) (1, +).

: x > 1 () + n=1 nx x 1
1

+. ,

(x) = + 1
n=1 nx x > 1,

(1, +) + 1
n=1 nx
(1, +).
. a > 1. Weierstrass
[a, +). 1
 x  = 1x 1a x [a, +)
n n n
+ 1
n=1 na < +.
+
n=1 n1x [a, +).
. (1, +)
Weierstrass (1, +). ,
Mn | n1x | Mn x (1, +) Mn -

+ n=1 Mn . Mn ,
- n1x (1, +). -
(1, +), (1, +)
limx1+ n1x = n1 . , Mn = n1 Mn . ,
+ 1
+ n=1 Mn = n=1 n . Weierstrass
(1, +).
. (1, +), -
x0 (1, +). , a0 > 1 x0
[a0 , +), 1 < a0 < x0 . , n1x
[a0 , +) [a0 , +),
[a0 , +). , x0
[a0 , +), x0 .
(1, +).
:
+ d 1 + log n
n=1 dx nx = n=2 nx .

816
 (1, +)
[a, +) a > 1.
+ log n x (1, +)

+ 1
()
n=2 n x . ( n=1 nx
x > 1.)
f (u) = log u
ux [2, +). :

f (u) = 1x log u
ux+1
,

f [1, e1/x ] [e1/x , +).

1
n0 e x f
[n0 , +). e1/x > 1, n 0 2.
log n
, + n=2 nx , -
+ log n
n=n0 nx . , ,
+ log u
n0 ux du < +.
n0 log u
, 2 ux du , ,

+ log u
2 ux du < +.

x > 1 :
+ log u + 1x ( + )
2
1
ux du = 1x 2 (u ) log u du = 1x 1
21x log 2 2 ux dx
( 1x )
1
= 1x 21x log 2 + 21x < +.
+ log n
, , x > 1 () n=2 nx .
+ log n
t(x) = n=2 nx x > 1,
log n
t (1, +), + n=2 nx -
t (1, +).
, a > 1 Weierstrass [a, +).
 log n  log n
 x  = x logan x [a, +)
n n n
, , + log n
n=2 na < +.
+
n=2 nlog x
n
t [a, +).
[a, +) (x) = t(x)
x [a, +). (: x = a .)
(1, +), x0 (1, +).
, a0 > 1 x0 [a0 , +),
1 < a0 < x0 . [a0 , +) x0
[a0 , +), x0 (x0 ) = t(x0 ).
x (1, +)
log n
(x) = t(x) = + n=2 nx x > 1.

, -

+ d2 1 + d log n + (log n)2

n=2 dx2 nx = n=2 dx nx = n=2 nx ,

817
 t (1, +)
+ (log n)2
(x) = t (x) = n=2 nx x > 1.

, (1, +),
(1, +).
3 .
. 1+ +, -

+ 1 + 1 + 1
1 ux du n=1 nx 1 + 1 ux du x > 1

, ,
1
x1 (x) 1 + 1
x1 x > 1.
limx1+ (x) = +.
, x +. , ,
,
+ 1 + 1 + 1
ux du n=2 nx 2x + 2
1
2 ux du x > 1

, ,
1
(x1)2x1
(x) 1 1
2x + 1
(x1)2x1
x > 1.
limx+ ((x) 1) = 0 limx+ (x) = 1.
+ , , 10.1.21[].
[2, +) ( a > 1
2),
+ +
limx+ (x) = limx+ + 1
n=1 nx =
1
n=1 limx+ nx = 1 + n=2 0 = 1.

10.2.1. 5.6.10 xn +.
: 5.6.10
xn n
1+ xn
1! + + n! = kexn n (14.277)

(xn ) .
(xn ) + , , . (xn )
xn a R. 0 xn a n.
n
sn (x) = 1 + 1! x
+ + xn! , (sn )
xn
ex [0, a], + x
n=0 n! e (, +).

sn (xn ) ea . (14.278)
,

|sn (xn ) ea | |sn (xn ) exn | + |exn ea | sn exp [0,a] + |exn ea | 0.

(14.277) (14.278) kea = ea , , 0 < k < 1.

+
10.2.4. { + 1 n
n=1 n2n x ,
n
n=1 n!x ,
+ n 1/n, n
n=1 an x an = n

2 /n, n
.

818
  
n  1 
n2n = 2 n n 2 , lim | n21n | = 21 -
1
1 n
: .
2. + 1
x = 2 + 1 n
n=1 n2n 2 = n=1 n . x = 2 -
+ 1
n=1 n2n (2)n = + n=1 (1) n 1 -
n
. [2, 2).

. n |n!| = n n! +. lim n n! = + , ,
0. {0}.

. n , n |an | = n n 1. n
1

, n |an | = n n 2. lim
2 n
|an | = max{1, 2} = 2,
12 .
x = 12
( )
21 1 1
( )
1 1 2 3 ( )3 ( )4 5 ( )5 ( )6
1 2 + 2 2 + 23 12 + 41 12 + 25 12 + 16 12 +
( )
21 1 1
( )
23 1 3
( )
25 1 5
1 2 + 3 2 + 5 2 +
(14.279)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + 2 + 4 + 16 +
1 1 1 1

1 + 1
= 2 n=1 n = +.

x = 21 +.
x = 12
1 ( 1 )1 ( )
1 1 2
( )
23 1 3
( )
1 1 4
( )
25 1 5
( )
1 1 6
21 2 + 2 2 3 2 + 4 2 5 2 + 6 2 .

( )
1 1 2
( )
1 1 4
( )
1 1 6
( 1 )2 ( 1 )4 ( 1 )6
2 2 + 4 2 + 6 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + = 31 .

,
1 ( 1 )1 ( )
1 1 2
( )
23 1 3
( )
1 1 4
( )
25 1 5
( )
1 1 6
21 2 + 2 2 3 2 + 4 2 5 2 + 6 2
( 21 ( 1 )1 23 ( 1 )3 25 ( 1 )5 ) 1
1 2 + 3 2 + 5 2 + + 3
( ) (14.280)
= 1 + 13 + 15 + + 13
( )
12 + 14 + 16 + + 13 = 13 12 +
n=1 n = .
1

x = 21 .
( 21 , 21 ).
. -
- .
(14.279) (14.280). -
;

10.2.5. + n=0 an (x )
n
1
(an ) ; ( an ) ;

+ n=0 an (an ) ,
+ an (x )n 1.
n=0 +
+ n=0 an , n=0 an (x )
n

1.

: . |an | M ( n.
) n |an | n M
n. n |an | , nk
n , 1.

819
 ( )
n |an | 1 , , lim n |an | 1.
1.

| an | M n. |an | n M
1 n 1
n. -
( )
n
|a | , , , 1.
( ) n
n
|an | 1 , , lim n |an | 1.
1.
. R 1.
R > 1, + 1 .
R = 1.

. + n=0 an , an 0 (an ) -
. R 1. R > 1,
+ 1 ,
x = + 1. R = 1.
10.2.6. (an ) , a0 > 0 an 0 n.

+ n=0 an x 1.
n

x (1, 1) a0 (1 x) + an xn  < a0 .
+ n=0
n=0 an x = 0 x (1, 1).
n

: . (an ) + n
n=0 x -

+ x (1, 1), Abel ( )

n=0 an x x (1, 1). 1.
n

. (an ) 0,
0. an a 0. |x| < 1
   
a0 (1 x) + an xn  = a0 + an xn + + an xn+1 
n=0 n=0 n=0
 + 
=  + n=1 an x +
n
n=1 an1 x
n
  +
=  + n=1 (an1 an )x
n
n=1 |an1 an ||x|
n
+ +
n=1 |an1 an | = n=1 (an1 an ) = a0 a a0 .
 
 a0 (1 x) + n
n=0 an x a0 .

a0 (1 x) + n=0 an x
n  = a ,
0
. , a = 0,
an 0. , |an1 an ||x|n = |an1 an | n 1 ,
|x| < 1, |an1 an | = 0 , , an1 = an n 1.
(an ) . an 0, an = 0
n
 a0 = 0 . 
a0 (1 x) n=0 an xn  < a0 , +
 +
n=0 an x = 0 .
n

10.2.7. [] R > 0 + n=0 an (x ) s(x)
n

( R, + R).
(n)
s(m) (x) = m! + n=m m an (x )
nm x ( R, + R), m Z, m 0

s(m) () = m!am m Z m 0.
: m = 1 :
+ + + (n)
n=0 an dx (x ) = n=1 nan (x ) n=1 1 an (x )
d d n n1 = 1! n1 .
dx s(x) =

m
+ ( n )
s(m) (x) = m! n=m m an (x )nm .

820

( )
s(m+1) (x) = d (m)
dx s (x) = m! + n
n=m m an dx (x )
d nm
(n)
= m! +n=m m (n m)an (x )
nm1
+ ( n )
= (m + 1)! n=m+1 m+1 an (x )nm1 .
(n)
s(m) (x) = m! + n=m m an (x )
nm m.

x = x0 , : s(m) () = m!am .

10.2.8. R > 0 s(x) = + n=0 an x x (R, R).
n

s(x) (R, R) an = 0
n N.
s(x) (R, R) an = 0
n Z, n 0.
: . -
10.2.7[].

+
10.2.9.
+ n
n=0 an (x) R , n=0 an (x)
n
+
R n=0 (an + an )(x ) R.
n

, R = R , R = min{R , R } , R = R , R R = R .
R = R
R > R = R .
: . R1 = min{R , R }.
, ( R1 , + R1 )

+( R , +n R )
( R , + R ). x ( R1 , + R1 )
+ n=0 an (x )
+
n=0 an (x ) , , n=0 (an + an )(x ) .
n n

( R1 , + R1 ) ( R, + R), R1 R.
. , , R = R
R < R . ( R > R ). -
R = R .
R R , R1 = R . R > R
+ x ( R, +R)

+ ( R , +R ) [ R , +R ].
n n + n
n=0 (an +an )(x) n=0 an (x) n=0 an (x) .
, .
.
+
. , + n=0 x n
n=0 (1)x n . -

1, +.

10.2.10. R > 0 s(x) = + n=0 an (x) x (R, +R).
n

s(x), s() = 0 , , a0 = 0.
s(x) = 0 x ( R, + R) r 0 < r R s(x) = 0
x ( r, + r) x = . ,
s(x) ;
: s ( R, + R).
k N
ak = 0 k .
+ s(x) =
(x )k + a
n=0 k+n (x ) n x ( R, + R).
n=0 ak+n (x )
n

t(x) ( R, + R) t() = ak = 0.
13(2n1) n
10.2.12. + n=1 14(3n2) x ,
+ 13(2n1) n + ( 13(2n1) )2 n + ( 13(2n1) )3 n
n=1 24(2n) x , n=1 24(2n) x , n=1 24(2n) x .
: 10.1.

821
 8.3.9.
x 1 + k1 x2k1 x (1, 1),
10.2.14. 0 1+t 2 dt = k=1 (1) 2k1
2 . , x = 1.
1
1+t
: +
1 k,
1x = k=0 x

x (1, 1), x x2

1
1+x2
= + k 2k
k=0 (1) x x (1, 1).

0 x
x 1 + k x2k+1
0 1+t2 dt = k=0 (1) 2k+1 x (1, 1).
k x2k+1
, , + k=0 (1) 2k+1
x = 1. , x1 -
[1, 1] , , 0 1+t 2 dt
,
1 1
x 1 + k x2k+1
+ 2k+1
k (1)
0 1+t2
dt = limx1+ 0 1+t2 dt = limx1+ k=0 (1) 2k+1 = k=0 (1) 2k+1

1 1
x 1 + k x2k+1
+ k 12k+1
0 1+t2 dt = limx1 0 1+t2 dt = limx1 k=0 (1) 2k+1 = k=0 (1) 2k+1 .
x + k x2k+1
1
0 1+t2 dt = k=0 (1) 2k+1 x [1, 1].
x + 135(2k1)
10.2.15. 0 1 dt = 2k1
1t2 k=1 2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2 x
x (1, 1).
135(2k1)
arcsin x = +
k=1 2k1 (k1)!(2k1)2 x
2k1 x [1, 1].

: Newton a = 21 t2
x. x = 1.
+ k
10.2.17. k N. + n=0 an (x )
n
n=0 n an (x )
n

.

: lim n nk |an | = lim n |an |.
( )k
n nk |an | = n n n |an | n n 1, -
2.7.8.

10.2.19. + n=0 an x = s(x) x (1, 1). bn =
n
s(x)
a0 + a1 + + an n Z, n 0, + n
n=0 bn x = 1x
x (1, 1).
( ) n
Newton (1 + x) = + n=0 n x -
, .
: . Abel
8.3.2. :
n n n n
k=1 (bk bk1 )x = a0 + k=1 bk x
k k k k
n=0 ak x = a0 + k=1 bk1 x
n n1
= b0 + nk=1 bk xk n1k=0 bk x
k+1 =
k=0 bk x
k
k=0 bk x
k+1
n (14.281)
= k=0 bk xk nk=0 bk xk+1 + bn xn+1

= (1 x) nk=0 bk xk + bn xn+1 .

822
, m = [ n2 ] |x| < 1 :
n m n
|bn xn | m k=0 |ak ||x| +
n
k=m+1 |ak ||x| = |x|
n nm
k=0 |ak ||x| +
m
k=m+1 |ak ||x|
n

|x|nm m k=0 |ak ||x| +
k n
k=m+1 |ak ||x| 0 + 0 = 0.
k

0, n m n n2 = n2 +
+
mk=0 |ak ||x| ,
k
+
n=0 an xn .
0, m + , , n
n=0 an x .
+
bn xn 0, (14.281) n=0 bn xn
+ +
n=0 an x = (1 x)
n n
n=0 bn x .

. = m m N
(m) n
(1 + x)m = + n=0 n x

m.

10.2.20. p, q, 0, + n
n=0 an x . -
an+2 = pan+1 + qan n Z, n 0. x
+(a1 pa0 )x
a01pxqx 2 ( ,
) p, q.

: s(x) = + n
n=0 an x I.
an+2 = pan+1 + qan xn+2 :
+ n+2 = px
+ n+1 + qx2
+ n
n=0 an+2 x n=0 an+1 x n=0 an x .

s(x) a0 a1 x = px(s(x) a0 ) + qx2 s(x)

(1 px qx2 )s(x) = a0 + (a1 pa0 )x x I. (14.282)

.
q = 0, p = 0, 1px (14.282).
1 pa0 )x
p1 I, s(x) = a0 +(a 1px x I.
1 1
p I, , (14.282), p
, a1 = 0. , (14.282) (1px)s(x) = a0 (1px).
x I s(x) = a0 x I x = p1 . ,
I, s(x) = a0
x I ( x = p1 ).
q = 0. 1 px qx2
+(a1 pa0 )x
I, s(x) = a01pxqx 2 x I.
1pxqx I, q(x)(x)s(x) =
2

a0 + (a1 pa0 )x x I ( 1 px qx2 ).

, a0 + (a1 pa0 )x = pa0 (x ).
q(x )s(x) = pa0 x I x = .
I, q(x )s(x) = pa0 x I. ,
pa0
I, s(x) = q(x) x I. I, x =
pa0 = 0, q(x )s(x) = 0 x I. s(x) = 0
x I x = , I,
s(x) = 0 x I. ( , 1 px qx2
0.)

823
 a0 +(a1 pa0 )x
, , s(x) = 1pxqx2
I
a0 +(a1 pa0 )x
1pxqx2
.
,
, .
+(a1 pa0 )x
a01pxqx 2 ,
. , -
||. 1 , 2 ,
min{|1 |, |2 |}. i ( = 0),
2 + 2 . ,
0 ( )
. , , 2.1.10.
+
10.2.21. + m=0 am n=0 bn
Cauchy + k=0 ck
, + k=0 kc = +
m=0 ma +
n=0 nb .
+ m
+ n
: m=0 am x n=0 bn x -
(1, 1]. Cauchy + k
k=0 ck x
(1, 1].
+ (1, 1),
8.4 + c
k=0 k x k = +
m=0 m a x m n
n=0 bn x
x (1, 1). 10.8.

10.2.22. + n=0 an (x ) R 0 < R +
n

+
) R, + R),
( n( | | < R. m
+ ( n )
Z, m 0
n=m m n a ( ) nm , b =
m n=m m an ( )
nm

(i) + m=0 bm (x ) R | |
m
+
(ii) x |x | < R | | + n=0 an (x ) =
n
m=0 bm (x ) .
m
+ ( )
: m,n=0 cm,n an ( )nm , cm,n = m n
0 m n
cm,n = 0 0 n < m, 8.2 8.3.

10.2.23. + n=0 an (x )n R 0 < R +
a0 = 0. + + m=0 bm (x+ )m R 0 <

R + m=0 bm (x ) n=0 an (x ) = 1 x |x | <
m n

min{R, R }.

: Cauchy + an (x )n + m=0 bm (x ) .
m
+ n=0
Cauchy k=0 ck (x )k , ck = km=0 akm bm .
, , Cauchy
. ,
, + b (x ) m R ,
m=0 m
x |x | < min{R, R }
+ + +
k=0 ck (x ) = m=0 bm (x ) n=0 an (x ) = 1
k m n

c0 = 1, ck = 0 k 1.
bm :

a0 b0 = 1
a0 b1 + a1 b0 = 0
a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 = 0
........................ = 0

824
 b0 = a10 . ,
b1 = aa01 b0 . , b2 = aa20 b0 aa10 b1
. bm

b0 = 1
a0 bm = aam0 b0 a1
a0 bm1 m 1. (14.283)

bm + m=0 bm (x )
m

.

lim n |an | = R1 < +, , u > R1 , -

n |an | u. , n0 |an | un
n n0 .
{ |a |}
M = max 1, |a0 |, |au1 | , . . . , unn001
1

|an | M un n 0.

, (14.283)

|b0 | = 1
|a0 | M
|a0 | |bm | |a0 | (u |b0 |
M m + + u|bm1 |) m 1. (14.284)

N > 0 u > 0

|bm | N (u )m m 0. (14.285)

. |b0 | N - (14.284) -

|a0 | N.
M

, m 1, |bj | N (u )j j = 0, . . . m 1
|bm | N (u )m . , (14.284),
M m
|a0 | (u N + + uN (u )m1 ) N (u )m m 1

, ,
( u m
) |a0 |
u + + u
u M m 1
, ,
u 1(u/u )m |a0 |
u 1(u/u ) M m 1.
u
, u < 1,
u/u |a0 |
1(u/u ) M

, ,
|a0 |
u
u M +|a0 | .

, N u M
|a0 |
+|a0 |
u M|a | , (14.285). (14.285) m
|bm | m
N u
0
+|a0 |
m , , lim m |bm | u . , , u = u M|a 0|
,
+
m=0 bm (x ) R u1 =
m
|a0 | |a0 |
u M +|a0 | . , R u M +|a0 | u > R
1 1 1

R R M|a 0|
+|a0 | > 0.

825

10.2.24. , +
n=0 an x R, n0
n

N an = 0 n n0 (, ).
: 9.2.23.
xn+1
10.2.25. [] + n=1 n(n+1) .
, -
.
: xn (n1)n1
n 2 0 n = 0 n = 1.
 
n  
(n1)n = n n1 n n 1,
1 1

lim n | (n1)n
1
| = 1 1.
(1)n+1
x = 1 + n=1 n(n+1) ().
[1, 1].
s(x) ,
+ +
s (x) = d xn+1
n=1 dx n(n+1) = xn
n=1 n x (1, 1)

+ +
s (x) = d xn
n=1 dx n = n=1 x
n1 = 1
1x x (1, 1).
c s (x) = log(1 x) + c x (1, 1) ,
s (0) = 0, 0 = s (0) = log(1 0) + c, c = 0.

s (x) = log(1 x) x (1, 1).

, c s(x) = (1 x) log(1 x) + x + c x (1, 1).

s(0) = 0, 0 = s(0) = (1 0) log(1 0) + 0 + c, c = 0.

s(x) = (1 x) log(1 x) + x x (1, 1).

[1, 1], s(x)

1.
( )
s(1) = lim s(x) = lim (1 x) log(1 x) + x = 2 log 2 1
x1+ x1+
( )
s(1) = lim s(x) = lim (1 x) log(1 x) + x = 1.
x1 x1

{
+ xn+1 (1 x) log(1 x) + x, x [1, 1)
n=1 n(n+1) =
1, x = 1
+ 2n
10.2.26. s(x) = n=0 x x (1, 1).
M |s (x)| 1|x|
M
x (1, 1).
: Cauchy.

10.2.27. Tauber: +
n=0 an x
n

1 s(x)
(1, 1).
nan 0 limx1 s(x) = p, + n=0 an = p.
: n N xn = 1 1
n
n n +
k=0 ak s(xn ) = k=1 ak (1 xn k ) k=n+1 ak xn
k.

826
 1 xn k = (1 xn )(1 + xn + + xn k1 ) k(1 xn ),
 n  n +
 
k=0 ak s(xn ) (1 xn ) k=1 k|ak | + k=n+1 |ak |xn
k

= n1 nk=1 k|ak | + xn n+1 + k=n+1 |ak |xn
kn1 (14.286)

n1 nk=1 k|ak | + + k=n+1 |ak |xn
kn1 .

, > 0. nan 0, n0 n|an | < n n0 .

+ + 1 kn1
k=n+1 |ak |xn
kn1 <
k=n+1 k xn < n + k 1
k=0 xn = n 1xn =

n n0 . , (14.286)
0 n +.
, n1 nk=1 k|ak | 0 Cesaro
2.3.41. n

n (14.286) k=0 ak s(xn ) 0 , s(xn ) p,

k=0 ak p.

10.2.28. + n
n=0 an x 1 s(x)

(1, 1). an 0 n N,
+n=0 n limx1 s(x) .
a
+
: + n=0 an .
n
n=0 an x
1. , s(x) (1, 1] ( [1, 1]) 1.
, an 0 n N ,

limx1 s(x) = s(1) = + n=0 an .

, an 0 n N limx1 s(x) = s
.
s [0, 1). , 0 x1 < x2 < 1, ,
an 0 n N,
+
s(x1 ) = +n=0 an x1
n n
n=0 an x2 = s(x2 ).

, ,
+
s (x) = n=1 nan x
n1 0 x [0, 1).

, +
n=0 an x
n = s(x) s x [0, 1).
n n
k=0 ak x
k s x [0, 1).
n n
n
k=0 ak x s.
k
k=0 ak = limx1

- +n=1 an
s a0 , , .
+
n=0 an (x x0 )
R. m N,
10.2.29. n
+


n=0 an (x x0 ) , n=0 an (x x0 ) +
m n + mn
n=0 amn (x x0 ) .
n
( )m
: . n |amn|=
n
|an | .
( )m ( )m
lim n
|am
n | = lim
n
|an | = R1 = 1
Rm .

827

, + n=0 an (x x0 ) R .
m n m
+
. n=0 an (x x0 )mn + k=0 ck (x x0 ) , ck
k

0, k
m, an , k = mn
m. ( |ck |)
k

m 0, 0, ( k |ck |)
( )1/m
m mn |cmn | = mn |an | = n |an | . ,
( )1/m ( 1 )1/m
lim k
|ck | = lim n |an | = R .

, +n=0 an (x x0 )
mn R1/m .

. ( )m
lim n |anm | = lim nm |anm | .
( ) ( )
nm |anm | n |an | ,

lim nm |anm | lim n |an | = R1 .

( 1 )m
lim n
|anm | R = 1
Rm .

+ n=0 amn (x x0 ) R .
n m

+
n=0 amn (x x0 )n . + 2n+1
+ n=0 an (x x0 )
n
n=0 x m = 2. , a
n = 0, n
, an = 1, n .
+ +
n=0 an (x x0 )
n
+
R = 1 n=0 a2n (x x0 ) n=0 0x
n n

+.
10.3.1. Taylor -
( ) + 1 2n1 + 1 2n + n1 n + (1)n 2n
+n=1 1(2) x ,
n n
n=1 2n1 x , n=1 2n x , n=1 n! x , n=0 n! x ,
+ + (log a)n n + (2n)! n 147(3n2) xn .
1
n=1 (2n1)! x
2n1 , n=0 n! x , n=1 2n (n!)2 xn , + n=1 (1) 369(3n)

: :
+ ( ) + n +
n=1 1 (2) x = n=1 x
n n n x 2x 3x
n=1 (2x) = 1x + 1+2x = 1+x2x2 .
+ 1 2n 1 + 1 2n 1 1 1
n=1 2n x = 2 n=1 n x = 2 log 1x 2 = log
1x2
.
+ 1 2n1 + 1 n + 1 2n
n=1 2n1 x = n=1 n x n=1 2n x = log 1x 1
12 log 1x
1
2 = log
1+x
1x .
+ n1 n + 1 n1
+ 1 n
n=1 n! x = xe (e 1) = (x 1)e + 1.
x x x
n=1 n! x = x n=1 (n1)! x
+ (1)n 2n
= ex .
2
n=0 n! x
+ + 1 n 1 + 1 x
n=0 n! x 2 n=0 n! (x) = 2 (e e ) = sinh x.
1 2n1 = 1 n 1 x
n=1 (2n1)! x 2
+ (log a)n n x log a = ax .
n=0 n! x = e
+ (2n)! n + (1/2)
n=1 2n (n!)2 x = n=1 n (2x)n = (1 2x)1/2 1 = 12x 1
1.
+ (
+ 1/3 n )
n=1 (1)
n 147(3n2) xn =
369(3n) n=1 n x = (1 + x)1/3 1 = 3
1
1+x
1.

10.3.5. Taylor 0 sin(x3 ), (sin x)3 , sin x sin(3x), (sin x)6 +

1
(cos x)6 , log(1 + x + x2 ), 15x+6x2.

: sin(x3 ) x x3 Taylor 0 sin x.

(sin x)3 (sin x)3 = 12 sin x 14 sin(3x).
sin x sin(3x) sin x sin(3x) = 12 cos(2x) 12 cos(4x).

828
 (sin x)6 + (cos x)6 (sin x)6 + (cos x)6 = 58 + 83 cos(4x).
3
log(1 + x + x2 ) 1 + x + x2 = 1x1x .
1
15x+6x 2 .

(1)n1 + (1)n1
10.3.6. + n=1 (2n)2 1 , n=1 (2n+1)2 1 .
1 1
: (2n)2 1
.
(2n+1)2 1
{
e1/x , x > 0
10.3.7. 5.6.16 h(x) = -
0, x 0
R h(n) (0) = 0 n. 0
h(n) (0) n
0 Taylor + n=0 n! x 0 h;
;
h(n) (0) n
: + n=0 n! x -
(, +) .
Taylor h 0 h 0
0, h (R, R) R > 0
, , h(x) = 0 R < x < R. , , .
k cos(k 2 x)
10.3.8. f (x) = + k=1 e
+ f (n) (0) n
R Taylor n=0 n! x x = 0.

: k |ek cos(k 2 x)| ek x + k=1 e
k < +.

Weierstrass -
f (x) - R.

+ d k 2 k sin(k 2 x).
k=1 dx (e cos(k 2 x)) = + k=1 k e
2 k < +, -
, +k=1 k e
R , , f .

f (x) = + 2 k sin(k 2 x)
k=1 k e x.
, f R

f (2m) (x) = (1)m + 4m ek cos(k 2 x)
k=1 k x,
4m2 ek sin(k 2 x)
f (2m1) (x) = (1)m + k=1 k x.
+ p k
, , k=1 k e < + p.
, ,
4m ek ,
f (2m) (0) = (1)m +k=1 k f (2m1) (0) = 0,
+ f (n) (0) n
n=0 n! x
+ f (2m) (0) 2m + 1
( + 4m ek
)
m=0 (2m)! x = m=0 (2m)! k=1 k (x2 )m .

t = x2
+ 1 ( + 4m ek
)
m=0 (2m)! k=1 k tm . (14.287)

x = 0, -
t = 0 ,

829
 0,
t > 0.
+ k 4m ek . x4m ex
k=1 4m ek . ,
x = 4m + k=1 k
-,
+ 4m k
k=1 k e (4m)4m e4m .
(14.287) t 0
+ 1 ( + 4m k ) m + (4m)4m e4m m
m=0 (2m)! k=1 k e t m=0 (2m)! t . (14.288)
, t > 0,
t > 0. t > 0

(4m+4)4m+4 e4m4 tm+1 /(2m+2)! ( )4 ( )
1 4m (m+1)4
(4m)4m e4m tm /(2m)!
= 4e 1 + m (2m+1)(2m+2) +,

(14.288) + t > 0.
10.3.9. f : I R
I. f - I I r > 0
f (n) ()
( r, + r) I f (x) = + n=0 n! (x ) x ( r, + r).
n

, f - I I f
Taylor .
f : I R I.
f - I I
J I J M 0, > 0 |f (n) (x)| M n!n x J
n Z, n 0.
Bernstein: f : I R
I f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0.
f - I.
f : I R I
(1)n f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0. f -
I.
: . f : I R
I I J I J M 0,
> 0 |f (n) (x)| M n!n x J n Z, n 0.
I f
Taylor .
J I M 0, > 0. > 0
( , + ) J R > 0 R <
min{, } > 0.
x ( R, + R) Lagrange n f
(n+1)
Rn, (x, ) = f (n+1)!() (x )n+1 , o , x J.
,
 (n+1)  ( )n+1
|Rn, (x, )| =  f (n+1)!() (x )n+1  M Rn+1 = M R
n+1
0 n +.
, 10.11, f ( R, + R) Taylor
.
, I f -
Taylor I. I Taylor f
. R > 0
f (n) ()
f (x) = +n=0 n! (x )
n x ( R, + R).

830
 Taylor ( R, + R) ,
, , g, ( R, + R). ,
+ |f (n) ()|
g(x) = n=0 n! |x |n x ( R, + R).

> 0 < R g [ , + ].
, M 0 g(x) M x [ , + ].
|f (n) ()|
n! |x |n g(x) M , , x = +

|f (n) ()| M (n!

)n n Z, n 0.

, > 0 < k Z, k 0 x ( , + )

f (n) ()
f (k) (x) = + n=k n! n(n 1) (n k + 1)(x )
nk

+ |f (n) ()|
|f (k) (x)| n=k n! n(n 1) (n k + 1)|x |nk

M +n=k ( )n n(n 1) (n k + 1)( )
1 nk

+ ( )nk
M (1 )k n=k n(n 1) (n k + 1) .
+ n 1
k n=0 t = 1t ,
+
n=k n(n 1) (n k + 1)tnk = k!
(1t)k+1
|t| < 1

M
|f (k) (x)| M (1 )k k!
(1( / ))k+1
= k!
( )k .

J = ( , + ), M = M
= |f
(k) (x)| M k!
k
x J k Z, k 0.
. f : I R I
f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0.
I.
r > 0 [ r, + r] I x0 = + r.
r > 0 r < r 5.1 Lagrange:
n f (k) (x) f (n+1) ()
f (x0 ) = k=0 k! (x0 x)k + (n+1)! (x0 x)n+1 ,

x, x0 x ( r , + r ).
f (n+1) ()
(n+1)! (x0 x)n+1 0,

n f (k) (x)
k=0 k! (x0 x)k f (x0 ).
+ f (k) (x)
n , k=0 k! (x0 x)k - ,

+ f (n) (x)
n=0 n! (x0 x)n f (x0 ).
(n)
, f n!(x) (x0 x)n f (x0 ) n Z, n 0 x ( r , + r ).
x ( r , + r ) |x0 x| r r

|f (n) (x)| M n!n n Z, n 0,

831
 J = ( r , + r ) M = f (x0 ), = r r .
, f -
I.
. f : I R I
(1)n f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0.
I = {x | x I}, I 0,
g : I R
g(x) = f (x) x I .
g (n) (x) = (1)n f (n) (x) 0 x I n Z, n 0.
, g - I
f - I. .
x
10.3.10. [] = 0 k N. ((x)2 + 2 )k

1
0 Taylor
((x)2 + 2 )k
0 Taylor.
[] Taylor
.
: [] (x )2 + 2 : z =
+ i, w = i. (x )2 + 2 = (x z)(x w)
:
xz zw xw = 2iz 1(x/z) + 2iw 1(x/w) .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(x)2 + 2
= zw
,
,
.
, ,
( )
1 + x n
( )
1 + x n 1 +
( 1 ) n
1
(x)2 + 2
= 2iz n=0 z + 2iw n=0 w = 2i n=0 wn+1 z n+1 x .
1

= r cos , = r sin r = 2 + 2 > 0 [0, 2)
= 0 = ( = 0). z = r(cos + i sin ) w = r(cos i sin )

1
wn+1
z n+1
1
= 2i sin((n+1))
rn+1
.
,
1 1 + 2i sin((n+1)) n + sin((n+1)) n
(x)2 + 2
= 2i n=0 rn+1
x = n=0 rn+2 sin x .

, ,
. .
x (r, r)
sin((n+1))
x = r. , x = r + n=0 r2 sin
(1)n ,
, sin((n + 1)) 0. , , sin(n) 0.
sin((n + 1)) 0 sin(n) cos + cos(n) sin 0. sin(n) 0,
cos(n) sin 0 , sin = 0,
cos(n) 0. , sin(n) 0 cos(n) 0 ,
(sin(n))2 + (cos(n))2 = 1.
sin((n+1)) n
+ n=0 rn+2 sin x r
(r, r).
,

(x )2 + 2 = x2 2x + 2 + 2 = x2 2x cos + r2

832
 sin((n+1)) n
+ n=0 rn+2 sin x
1 x (r, r).
+ sin((n+1)) n
1
(x)2 + 2
= n=0 rn+2 sin x x (r, r). (14.289)

x = x r cos x (r, r)

sin((n+1)) n+1 sin((n+1)) cos n

x
(x)2 + 2
= + n=0 rn+2 sin x + n=0 rn+1 sin
x
sin(n) + sin((n+1)) cos n
= + n=1 rn+1 sin x r
n cos
n=1 rn+1 sin
x
+ ( sin(n) sin((n+1)) cos )
= cosr + n=1 rn+1 sin rn+1 sin
xn
cos((n+1)) n
= cosr + n=1 rn+1
x
+ cos((n+1)) n
= n=0 rn+1 x .
sin((n+1)) n
+ n=0 rn+2 sin x (r, r),
+ cos((n+1)) n
n=0 rn+1 x (r, r). , -
x
, (x) 2 + 2 . ,

cos((n+1)) n
x
(x)2 + 2
= +
n=0 rn+1
x x (r, r). (14.290)
.

+ x +
1
2 2
((x) + ) k = n=0 a n x n,
2 2
((x) + )k = n=0 bn x
n x (r, r) (14.291)

(r, r).
(14.291),

x
((x)2 + 2 )k+1
= 12 +
n=0 (n + 1)an+1 x
n x (r, r).

n=0 an xn -
, (r, r).
, (14.291)
2k 2 2k1 d x
((x)2 + 2 )k+1
= ((x)2 + 2 )k
+ dx ((x)2 + 2 )k
+
= (2k 1) + n
n=0 an x + n=0 (n + 1)bn+1 x
n
+
n=0 ((2k 1)an + (n + 1)bn+1 )x x (r, r)
= n

+
1
((x)2 + 2 )k+1
= n=0 cn x
n x (r, r), (14.292)

cn = (2k1)an2k
+(n+1)bn+1
n 0.
2

, + +
n=0 cn xn (r, r).

+ n=0 cn xn I, (r, r) I. -
n=0 cn x (x )2 + 2
n

+ n +
n=0 an x = ((x ) + ) x I.
2 2 n
n=0 cn x (14.293)

(r, r) I, (14.292), (14.293)

(14.291)
+ n +
n=0 an x = n=0 an x
n x (r, r).

833
, ,
I = (r, r).
x
k N ((x) 1
2 + 2 )k ((x)2 + 2 )k

(r, r) Taylor 0
Taylor (r, r), r = 2 + 2 .
[] = 0. , ,
+ 1 n
x = 1(x/) = x (||, ||).
1 1 1
n=0 n+1 x

k k 1.
1
, Taylor (x)
(||, ||).
. -
-
7.3.3.
( ) -
0 .
( )
0, .
10.4.5. a, b 0.
p > 0 q a cos x + b sin x = p cos(x q) x.
( )
: a cos x + b sin x = a2 + b2 a2a+b2 cos x + a2b+b2 sin x .

14.11 11.
11.1.1. [] x, y R d d(x, y) =
|xy|
(x y)2 d(x, y) = 1+|xy| . d R;
: . .
, d(x, y) 0 x, y R.
, d(x, y) = 0 x = y.
, d(x, y) = d(y, x) x, y R.
x, y, z R :

d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y). (14.294)

(14.294) (x y)2 (x z)2 + (z y)2

(z x)(z y) 0. , x, y, z
.
d R.
. d .
(14.294)
|xy| |xz| |zy|
1+|xy| 1+|xz| + 1+|zy| . (14.295)

(14.295), |x y| |x z| + |z y|

|xy| |xz|+|zy|
1+|xy| 1+|xz|+|zy| . (14.296)

u = |x y| v = |x z| + |z y|,

0uv u
1+u v
1+v .

834
 , , .
, (14.295) (14.296):
|xy| |xz|+|zy| |xz| |zy| |xz| |zy|
1+|xy| 1+|xz|+|zy| 1+|xz|+|zy| + 1+|xz|+|zy| 1+|xz| + 1+|zy| .

d R.
11.1.4. C([a, b]) f : [a, b] R.
, C([a.b]) = {f | f : [a, b] R }.
f C([a, b]) p- f C([a, b])
{( )1/p
b
|f (x)|p dx , 1 p < +
f p = a
max{|f (x)| | x [a, b]}, p = +

f = f [a,b] .
b
, f, g C([a, b]) f, g = a f (x)g(x) dx.
1 < p, q < + p1 + 1q = 1, |f, g| f p gq f, g
C([a, b]). p = 1, q = + p = +, q = 1.
p- .
dp : C([a, b])C([a, b]) R dp (f, g) = f gp f, g C([a, b]).
dp C([a, b]). dp p- dp (f, g)
p- f, g.
: . Hlder 6.4.18:
b  b
|f, g| =  a f (x)g(x) dx a |f (x)||g(x)| dx
(b )1/p ( b )
q dx 1/q = f g .
a |f (x)|p dx a |g(x)| p q

p = 1, q = + :
b  b b
|f, g| =  a f (x)g(x) dx a |f (x)||g(x)| dx a |f (x)| dxg[a,b] = f 1 g .

. 1 < p < +,
Minkowski 6.4.18:
(b )1/p ( b )1/p
f + gp = a |f (x) + g(x)| dx
p a (|f (x)| + |g(x)|)p dx
(b )1/p ( b )1/p
a |f (x)| dx
p + a |g(x)|p dx = f p + gp .

p = 1, :
b b
f + g1 = a |f (x) + g(x)| dx a (|f (x)| + |g(x)|) dx
b b
= a |f (x)| dx + a |g(x)| dx = f 1 + g1 .

, p = +, 9.2[].
. dp C([a, b]) .
p-
9.2 11.1 11.1.4.
11.1.6. (X, d) - W X.
d : X X R W W . , x, y W d(x, y)
d : W W R d(x, y) d : X X R.
d : W W R W .
d : W W R W (W, d)

835
 (X, d).
: .
(i) x, y W x, y X d(x, y) 0.
(ii) x, y W x, y X : d(x, y) = 0 x = y.
(iii) x, y W x, y X d(x, y) = d(y, x).
(iv) x, y, z W x, y, z X d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y).
11.2.1. - R
. R
.
: A = R. a A
r > 0 (a r, a + r) A. Q R \ Q R,
y Q z R \ Q a r < y < a + r a r < z < a + r. y, z A.
y , {y} . , z ,
{z} .
11.2.2. R; N, Q
R \ {1/n | n N}.
, .
: N. n N, n,
(nr, n+r) N , , n
N. N = .
x / N, x N. , x < 1,
, r = 1 x ( x 1), (x r, x + r) =
(2x 1, 1) N. , x
(n, n + 1) n N, , r = min{x n, n + 1 x} (
x n, n + 1), (x r, x + r) N.
N N. N = N.
x / N N, , ,
x N. , n N N,
(n r, n + r) N
N, n, N = N.
N . ,
- . ,
N (, , )
(, N N = ). , , N
N = N.
, N . , ,
N N = N (, N N).
Q. x Q, x, ,
(x r, x + r) Q. ,
. , x
Q. Q = .
x R Q, (x r, x + r)
. Q = R.
x R Q, (x r, x + r)
. Q = R.
Q . ,
N, - .
, Q
(, Q Q = ). , Q

836
Q = Q.
, Q . , ,
Q Q = Q
(, Q Q).
A = R \ { n1 | n N}.
{ } ( 1 1)
A = R \ n1 | n N = (, 0] + n=1 n+1 , n (1, +).

x < 0 A , r = x (,
x 0), (x r, x + r) = (2x, 0) A. , x > 1
A , r = x 1 (, x 1),
(x r, x + r) = (1, 2x 1) A. , x
1
( n+1 , n1 ), x A, , -
r = min{x n+1 1
, n1 x} (, x
n+1 , n ), (x r, x + r) ( n+1 , n ) , ,
1 1 1 1

A. , 0 A (r, r)
, (
) n n1 (r, r).

A = R \ {0} { n | n N} .
1
1
A . , , m
m N, ( m r, m + r)
1 1

A. x R A , , A = R.
x < 0, x > 1 x ( n+1 1
, n1 ) n N
A, , , x -
A , , Ac . , m 1
m N
A, ( m 1
r, m
1
+ r)
1
, m .
, 0 A (r, r)
, 0, , ,
n n N. A = {0} { n | n N}.
1 1

A . ,
0 A . ,
A (,
A A = ). , 0 A A.
, , A A = A.
A A = A. , A
(, A A).
11.2.3. {(x1 , 0) | a x1 b}, {(x1 , 0) | a < x1 < b}, {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 x2 1}
R2 ;
, .
: A = {(x1 , 0) | a x1 b}. A (a, 0), (b, 0).
A
, , A.
. : A
A A A .
: Ac Ac
Ac A .
A , A = A.
, A . A,
A. A
A. , A
. , , A

837
 . , A = .
, A -
A. , A . ,
A, A ( , -
) Ac , , A. A = A.
A = {(x1 , 0) | a < x1 < b}. A (a, 0), (b, 0),
.
A A :
A . , A = .
A : A A.
(b, 0). , ,
, A.
(b, 0). A A , (a, 0).
, A (a, 0), (b, 0)
A. , ,
A. A = {(x1 , 0) | a x1 b}.
, , A = {(x1 , 0) | a x1 b}.
A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 x2 1}. A
x1 x2 = 1. . ,
A (
).
.
A (x1 , x2 ) x1 x2 < 1. A
, (x1 , x2 ) x1 x2 = 1. A
(x1 , x2 ) x1 x2 > 1. , A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 x2 < 1}, A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 x2 1} = A
A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 x2 = 1}.
A , A = A. A A = A.
11.2.6. A -, R, sup A A.
: u = sup A R supremum.
r > 0, A (u r, u].
, u r A. (u r, u + r)
A , , u A.
11.2.8. [] I0 = [0, 1]. I1 =
[0, 31 ] [ 23 , 1]. , , , 13
I0 . I1 . ,
I2 = [0, 91 ] [ 29 , 31 ] [ 23 , 97 ] [ 89 , 1]. , I3 , I4 , . . . . , -
, In ,
: , , 31

. C = + n=1 In . To C Cantor.
In
;
C .
C , , C = .
C .
: . In 2n -
31n . In
2n 31n = ( 23 )n .
. In , -
. In . , C

838
.
. (a, b) C. (a, b) In n.
, b a ( 32 )n n. ( 32 )n 0.
. C , C C = {xn | n N}.
x1 C I1 . I1
x1 . I1
x1 . , x2 C I2 . I2 -
I1 x2
. I2
I1 x1 . . -
(In ) : (i) xn / In n, (ii) In+1
In

n (iii) In In n.
(ii) x
In . (iii) x In x
C. x In , , (i), x = xn n ,
, x / C. ( x C) C .

11.2.9. (X, d). r>0 Nx (r) = X r>0 Nx (r) =
{x} x X.

: Nx (r) , r > 0, X. , r>0 Nx (r)
X. , y X. r > 0
y Nx (r) , , d(y, x) < r. ,
r
d(y, x). y r>0 Nx (r) , ,
X r>0 Nx (r).
x Nx (r) r > 0, {x} r>0 Nx (r). , y

r>0 Nx (r). y Nx (r) , , d(y, x) < r r > 0. -

d(y, x) = 0, y = x. r>0 Nx (r) {x}.
11.2.11. (X, d), x X r > 0. Nx (r) N x (r).
Rd Nx (r) = N x (r).
Nx (r) = N x (r); , , - X
d Nx (1) N x (1).
: . y / N x (r). , d(y, x) > r.
s = d(y, x) r > 0 Ny (s). z Ny (s)
d(z, y) < s d(z, x) d(y, x) d(y, z) > d(y, x) s = r z / Nx (r). ,
Ny (s) Nx (r) = , y Nx (r). y / Nx (r).
Nx (r) N x (r).
. y N x (r). , y x2 r.
s > 0. t 0 < t < 1 (1 t)y x2 < s
z = (1 t)x + ty.
z x2 = ty x2 tr < r z Nx (r). , z y2 =
(1 t)y x2 < s z Ny (s).
s > 0 Ny (s) Nx (r) = , y Nx (r)
y Nx (r).
, N x (r) Nx (r).
Nx (r) N x (r) ,
.
.

Nx (1) = {y X | d (y, x) < 1} = {y X | d (y, x) = 0} = {x}.

839
 , Nx (1) = {x}.
, N x (1) = {y X | d (y, x) 1} = X.
, X , Nx (1) N x (1).
11.2.12. (X, d) A B X.
A \ B B \ A .
: A \ B = A B c B \ A = B Ac .
B c A \ B .
Ac B \ A .
11.2.13. (X, d) A X. A = A X \ A
A = A \ A .
: x A X \ A x A X \ A
x A X \ A x
A x A.
x A \ A x
A x A
x A x A.
11.2.14. (X, d) A, B, A1 , . . . , An X.
[] A B, A B A B.
[] (A ) = A (A) = A.
[] (A1 An ) = A1 An A1 An = A1 An .
: [] (i) . A A. A B, A
B. B
B, A B .
. x A . x A, r > 0
Nx (r) A. A B, Nx (r) B, x
B x B .
A B .
(ii) . B B. A B, B
A. A A,
A B.
. x A. x A, r > 0
Nx (r) A. A B, r > 0 Nx (r)
B x B, x B.
A B.
[] A , .
, A , , .
[] A1 An Ak k = 1, . . . , n, , []
(A1 An ) Ak k = 1, . . . , n. (A1 An )
A1 An .
A1 , . . . , An , A1 An . ,
k = 1, . . . , n Ak Ak , , A1 An A1 An .
(A1 An ) A1 An ,
A1 An (A1 An ) .
(A1 An ) = A1 An .
Ak A1 An k = 1, . . . , n, , []
Ak A1 An k = 1, . . . , n. A1 An A1 An .
A1 , . . . , An , A1 An . ,
k = 1, . . . , n Ak Ak , , A1 An A1 An .

840
 A1 An A1 An ,
A1 An A1 An .
A1 An = A1 An .
11.2.17. (X, d) A, B X.
A = B = A , (A B) = .
A B R A = B = (A B) = R.
: . x (A B) . r > 0 Nx (r) A B.
Nx (r) A, A = . y Nx (r) y B \ A.
A y / A, s > 0 Ny (s ) A = . Nx (r)
y Nx (r), s > 0 Ny (s ) Nx (r).
, s = min{s , s } > 0. Ny (s) Ny (s ) Ny (s) A = .
, Ny (s) Ny (s ) Ny (s) Nx (r) Ny (s) A B.
Ny (s) A = Ny (s) A B Ny (s) B. ,
B = .
. A = Q B = R \ Q.
11.2.19. (X, d), - A X x X.
x A d(x, A) = inf{d(x, y) | y A}.
d(x, A) = 0 x A.
: d(x, A) = 0. r > 0 y A d(y, x) < r
y Nx (r). x A, x A.
, x A. r > 0 y A y Nx (r)
d(y, x) < r. , d(x, A) 0 , 0 {d(x, y) | y A},
d(x, A) = 0.
11.2.20. (X, d), - A X r > 0. r-
A

NA (r) = {x X | y A d(y, x) < r} = {x X | Nx (r) A = }.

NA (r) = xA Nx (r).
, R NA (r) r > 0 A : {1}, [0, 1],
(0, 1), {0, 1}, N, Q;
NA (r) A NA (r).

A , A = + 1
n=1 NA ( n ). -
.
: .

NA (r) = {x X | y A d(y, x) < r}

= {x X | y A x Ny (r)} = yA Ny (r).

N{1} (r) = (1 r, 1 + r), N[0,1] (r) = N(0,1) (r) = (r, 1 + r).

, {
(r, r) (1 r, 1 + r), r 1
2
N{0,1} (r) = 1
(r, 1 + r), r > 2
, {
nN (n r, n + r), r 1
2
NN (r) =
(1 r, +), r > 1
2

841
,
NQ (r) = R,
x R (x r, x + r).
. NA (r)
, , .
y A, y Ny (r), y NA (r).
A NA (r).
.
+ 1 A .
A n=1 NA ( n ) , , -
, A NA ( n1 ) n.

, x + 1
n=1 NA ( n ).
x X \ A, r > 0 Nx (r) X \ A, X \ A .
n n1 r. , Nx ( n1 ) Nx (r), Nx ( n1 ) A = , ,
x/ NA ( n1 ). , x A.

+ n=1 NA ( n ) A.
1
( )
11.2.22. { B [0, 1]
( ) 0, 0 x 1/3
f B [0, 1] f (x) =
1, 1/3 < x 1
f r 12 [0, 1] 31 . ,
, f r > 21 -
[0, 1].
( )
: r 12 g B [0, 1] Nf (r)
13 . ,

sup{|g(x) f (x)| | x [0, 1]} < r 1

2 limx 1 g(x) = g( 13 ).
3

m = sup{|g(x) f (x)| | x [0, 1]}, m < 21 .

|g(x)| m x [0, 13 ] |g(x) 1| m x ( 13 , 1].
,
[ ] ( ]
g(x) m x 0, 31 1 m g(x) x 13 , 1 .

,
g( 13 ) = limx 1 g(x) m g( 13 ) = limx 1 + g(x) 1 m.
3 3

1 m m, ,
( m) < 2 .
1

, 2 < r. g B [0, 1] Nf (r) , -

1

, sup{|g(x)
(
) f (x)| | x [0, 1]} < r 31.
1

g B [0, 1] sup{|g(x) f (x)| | x [0, 1]} = 2

13 . g(x) = 21
.
11.2.23. - A Rd , x, y A
t (0, 1) tx + (1 t)y A.
A Rd , A ( -)
A Rd .
: A A = . x, y A t (0, 1)
z = tx + (1 t)y A .
r , r > 0 Nx (r ) A Ny (r ) A. r =
min{r , r } > 0 Nx (r) A Ny (r) A. Nz (r) A

842
 z A .
, z Nz (r), z z2 < r. x = x + (z z) y = y + (z z).
x x2 = z z2 < r y y2 = z z2 < r , , x Nx (r)
y Ny (r) x , y A. , z = tx + (1 t)y , A ,
z A. Nz (r) A.
A - A A, A -.
x, y A t (0, 1) z = tx + (1 t)y A.
r > 0. x , y A x x2 < r y y2 < r.
z = tx + (1 t)y z z2 tx x2 + (1 t)y y2 < tr + (1 t)r = r
, A , z A.
r > 0 z A z z2 < r, z A.
11.2.24. [] (X, d) A X. A ,
A = X.
A Nx (r) x X -
A.
Qd Rd ;
- X d .
[] (X, d) , -
X.
Rd ;
- X d , X
.
[] (X, d) A X x X. x
A, r > 0 Nx (r) -
A.
A , A .
A P A, -
P -, P = P A \ P .
[] (X, d) P X. P , P = P .
R.
(X, d) A X ,
P Z A = P Z P Z = .
: [] . , A x X
A Nx (r) x X -
A.
. x = (x1 , . . . , xd ) Rd r > 0.
k = 1, . . . , d yk Q |yk xk | < rd . y = (y1 , . . . , yd ) Qd
( )1/2 ( 2 )1/2
y x2 = (y1 x1 )2 + + (yd xd )2 < (r/ d) + + (r/ d)2 = r.
x Rd Qd , Qd Rd .
. A = A A X.
A A = X, X X.
[] . Qd Rd . Rd .
. [] X X. X
.
[] . x A, x
A. A -
.

843
 . M X.
P . x X A.
x X rx > 0 Nx (rx )
A. [] Nx ( r4x ) y M . -
y r r4x < r < 3r4x x Ny (r)
Ny (r) Nx (rx ). Ny (r) A. -
y N M . , -
r T Q.
X Ny (r) y N r T ,
x
X {Ny (r) | y N, r T }

A = X A {Ny (r) A | y N, r T }.

A , -
. A .
P -.
, x P . x P , , -
P . r > 0 y Nx (r) y P . s > 0
Ny (s) Nx (r) Ny (s) Nx (r)
A. x A, x P . P P .
, x P . x / P , x P ,
r > 0 Nx (r) P x.

Sn = {y X | 2n+1
r
d(y, x) 2rn } n N.
+ +
n=1 Sn Nx (r) \ {x} Nx ( 2r ) \ {x} n=1 Sn .

Sn P .
, + n=1 Sn
A , , n Sn A . ,
-
. Sn A ,
z. z A, z P . , z -
Sn . Sn , z Sn .
x P . P P .
P P P P P = P .
A \ P . -
. A \ P ,

Tn = {y X | d(y, x) 1
n x P } n N,

, P (;), X \ P = +
n=1 Tn ,
A Tn , , Tn
P .
[] . [a, b] R. ,
Cantor 11.2.8 R.
. A , P = Z = A
.
A , P A
Z = A \ P . x P A , A ,
x A. P A. [].
11.2.25. [] - X d1 d2 X.

844
 A X (X, d1 ) (X, d2 )
, , A X (X, d2 ) (X, d1 ).
d1 d2 A X
(X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) , , A X
(X, d2 ) (X, d1 ).
Nxd1 (r) Nxd2 (r) x X (X, d1 )
(X, d2 ), . (i), (ii) .
(i) d1 d2 .
(ii) x X > 0 > 0 Nxd1 () Nxd2 () , ,
x X > 0 > 0 Nxd2 () Nxd1 ().
[] (X, d). d : X X R d (x, y) = d(x,y)+1d(x,y)

x, y X.
d X d.
[] 11.1.3. p1 , p2 [1, +] p1 - p2 -
Rd .
: [] . d1 d2 . A
(X, d1 ), X \ A (X, d1 ), X \ A (X, d2 )
A (X, d2 ). , A X
(X, d2 ), (X, d1 ).
: A X
(X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) , , A X
(X, d2 ) (X, d1 ), d1 d2 .
. d1 d2 .
x X > 0. Nxd2 ()
(X, d2 ) (X, d1 ). x Nxd2 (), > 0
Nxd1 () Nxd2 (). > 0 Nxd2 () Nxd1 ().
, (ii). A (X, d1 ). x A.
> 0 Nxd1 () A > 0 Nxd2 () Nxd1 (),
Nxd2 () A. A (X, d2 ). , A
(X, d2 ), (X, d1 ).
[] , d d (x, y) 1 x, y X.
, d X (i), (ii), (iii)
d
d 11.1.1.
d d [].
> 0. = , y Nxd (),

d (x, y) = d(x,y)
d(x,y)+1 d(x, y) < =

y Nxd (). Nxd () Nxd ().

, = min{ 2 , 12 } , y Nxd (), d (x, y) <
d (x,y)
d(x, y) = 1d (x,y) 2d (x, y) < 2

y Nxd (). Nxd () Nxd ().
d d .
[] . 1 p1 < p2 +,

xp2 xp1 d(1/p1 )(1/p2 ) xp2 x Rd .

, , [], [].

845
 11.2.26. 11.1.6. (X, d) - W X.
[] x W NxX (r) r- x (X, d) NxW (r)
r- x (W, d), NxW (r) = NxX (r) W .
[] A = (0, 1] W = (0, 1] R.
A0 = (0, 1], A = (0, 1] A = .
[] A W . A (W, d)
B (X, d) A = B W .
[] A W . A,X A (X, d) A,W
A (W, d), A,X A,W .
X W
[] A W . A A (X, d) A
W X
A (W, d), A = A W .
: []

NxW (r) = {y W | d(y, x) < r} = {y X | d(y, x) < r} W = NxX (r) W.

[] (X, d) X .
A = W = (0, 1]
R. A , A0 = A = (0, 1] A = A = (0, 1].
A A
. , , A A A
. A = .
[] A W B (X, d) A = B W .
x A x B. B (X, d), r > 0
NxX (r) B. NxW (r) = NxX (r) W B W = A. x A
A (W, d) , , A (W, d).
, A W A
(W, d).
x A rx > 0 NxW (rx ) A. A = xA NxW (rx )
B = xA NxX (rx ). B (X, d) (X, d).
,

B W = xA (NxX (rx ) W ) = xA NxW (rx ) = A.

[] A W x A,X . r > 0 NxX (r) A.

NxW (r) = NxX (r) W A W = A , , x A,W . A,X A,X .
[] A W .
W
x A . , , x W . , r > 0 NxW (r)
X
A. NxW (r) NxX (r), NxX (r) A. x A . ,
X W X
x A W A A W .
X
, x A W . x W . , r > 0 NxX (r)
A. , NxW (r) = NxX (r) W A ( NxX (r) A
W X W
A W ). x A , , A W A .
W X X W W X
A A W A W A A = A W .
11.3.3. f A
(X, d ), d , A.
: , 1,
11.2, X (X, d ).
11.3.4. (X, d) (Y, ), B A X A B, y0 Y
f : A Y A. f (x) = y0 x B, f (x) = y0
x A.

846
: x A. x B > 0
x B (f (x), f (x )) < , (f (x), y0 ) < .
11.3.5. {x R | 2 < x3 x < 4} R.
{x [0, 1] | 41 < x2 < 4} R;
{x R2 \ {0} | ex2 + sin x2 > 0} R2 .
: f : R R f (x) = x3 x 2 :
( )
{x R | 2 < x3 x} = {x | f (x) > 0} = {x | f (x) (0, +)} = f 1 (0, +) .

f . R
( R.
) (0, +) R, -
f 1 (0, +) R.
f : R R f (x) = x3 x 4,
{x R | x3 x < 4} R.

{x R | 2 < x3 x < 4} = {x R | 2 < x3 x} {x R | x3 x < 4}

R.
{x [0, 1] | 41 < x2 < 4} = ( 12 , 1]
R.
f : R2 R

f (x) = f (x1 , x2 ) = ex2 + sin x2 = ex1 x2 + sin x1 2 + x2 2
2 2

:
{x R2 \ {0} | ex2 + sin x2 > 0} = {x R2 \ {0} | f (x) > 0}
( )
= {x R2 \ {0} | f (x) (0, +)} = f 1 (0, +) (R2 \ {0}).

f . R2 ,
(
) R2 .
(0, +) R f 1 (0, +)
R2 . , R2(\{0} ) R2 ( {0}
R2 ). f 1 (0, +) (R2 \ {0}) R2 .
11.3.6. (X, d) (Y, ) f : X Y .
:
(i) f X.
( )
(ii) f 1 (B ) f 1 (B) B Y .
: f : X Y X B Y .
x f 1 (B ). f (x) B , > 0 Nf (x) () B.
, > 0 x X d(x , x) < (f (x ), f (x)) <
f (x ) Nf (x) () f (x ) B x f 1 (B). , , Nx ()
( )
f 1 (B) x f 1 (B) .
( )
f 1 (B ) f 1 (B) .
( )
, f 1 (B ) f 1 (B) B Y .
x X > 0. Nf (x) ()
(Y, ), . B = Nf (x) () B = B
( )
f 1 (B) f 1 (B) . , , , f 1 (B) =
( 1 )
f (B) , f 1 (B) (X, d). f (x) Nf (x) () = B,
x f 1 (B) , f 1 (B) (X, d), > 0
Nx () f 1 (B). x X d(x , x) < x f 1 (B)

847
 f (x ) B (f (x ), f (x)) < . , f x.
f X.
11.3.8. [] (X, d), - A X d( , A) : X
R 11.2.19. |d(x, A) d(y, A)| d(x, y)
x, y X d( , A) : X R .
[] (X, d) - A B X A B = .
d(x,A)
f : X R f (x) = d(x,A)+d(x,B) x X.
f .
f (x) = 1 x B f (x) = 0
x A.
: [] a A

d(x, A) d(x, a) d(x, y) + d(y, a)

d(x, A)d(x, y) d(y, a). d(x, A)d(x, y)

{d(y, a) | a A}. d(x, A) d(x, y) d(y, A) , , d(x, A) d(y, A) d(x, y).
x, y, d(y, A) d(x, A) d(x, y).
|d(x, A) d(y, A)| d(x, y).
, d(x, A) X.
[] A, B , 11.2.19
d(x, A) = 0 x A d(x, B) = 0 x B. ,
d(x,A)
A B = , f (x) = d(x,A)+d(x,B) x X X.
.
11.4.2. xn x yn y (X, d). d(xn , yn ) d(x, y)
R.
: d(xn , yn ) d(xn , x) + d(x, y) + d(y, yn ). ,

d(xn , yn ) d(x, y) d(xn , x) + d(yn , y).

, d(x, y) d(x, xn ) + d(xn , yn ) + d(yn , y) , ,

d(x, y) d(xn , yn ) d(xn , x) + d(yn , y).

|d(xn , yn ) d(x, y)| d(xn , x) + d(yn , y).

, d(xn , x) 0 d(yn , y) 0, |d(xn , yn ) d(x, y)| 0,

d(xn , yn ) d(x, y).
11.4.6. ,
Rd .
: N x (r) Rd .
(yn ) N x (r) yn y. yn = (yn,1 , . . . , yn,d )
n y = (y1 , . . . , yd ), yn,k yk k = 1, . . . , d.
yn N x (r) n

(yn,1 x1 )2 + + (yn,d xd )2 r2 n,

x = (x1 , . . . , xd ).

(y1 x1 )2 + + (yd xd )2 r2

848
 y N x (r).
N x (r) Rd .
A = {x Rd | x, a a}.
(yn ) A yn y. yn = (yn,1 , . . . , yn,d ) n y =
(y1 , . . . , yd ), yn,k yk k = 1, . . . , d.
yn A n

a1 yn,1 + + ad yn,d a n,

a = (a1 , . . . , ad ).

a1 y1 + + ad yd a

y A.
A Rd .
11.4.8. (BC([a, b]), dA )
[a, b] I : BC([a, b]) R
b
I(f ) = a f (x) dx f BC([a, b]). I .
: (fn ) BC([a, b]) (fn ) -
f BC([a, b]). (fn ) -
b b
f [a, b]. a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx
I(fn ) I(f ). , (I(fn )) R I(f ) R.
I : BC([a, b]) R .
11.4.9. (X, d) (xn ) X.
(xn ) X .
: , x X (xn )
Nx (r) (xn ).
. A (xn ).
(yn ) A (, yn (xn )) yn y.
y (xn ).
11.5.1. (X, d) A X. A
A .
, X
+ n Fn -
X, n=1 Fn .
: Un = X \ Fn Baire.
11.5.2. . (X, d)
F f : X R x X
Mx |f (x)| Mx f F . - U X
M |f (x)| M f F x U .
: Un = {x X | |f (x)| > n
+ f F}
n N. Un (X, d) n=1 Un = . ,
Baire.
11.5.3. 11.1.4 11.1.5.
1 p +, (lp , dp ) .
( )
1 p < +, C([a, b]), dp .
: . Cauchy (xn ) (lp , dp )
xn = (xn,k ) n. k N

|xn,k xm,k | xn xm p = dp (xn , xm ) n, m

849
 |xn,k xm,k | 0 n, m +.
k N (xn,k ) Cauchy R. R
, xk R xn,k xk n +.
x = (xk ).
, n0 xn xm p < 1 n, m n0 . , m = n0 ,
+
k=1 |xn,k xn0 ,k | < 1 n n0 .
p

K N K k=1 |xn,k xn0 ,k |
p < 1 n n .
0
n +, K K k=1 k |x x n0 ,k |p 1.

K +, + k=1 |x
+k x n 0 ,k |p 1.

+ k=1 |xk xn0 ,k | < +,

p
k=1 |xn0 ,k | < +
p
+
Minkowski 8.3.23 k=1 |xk | < +, x lp .
p

, > 0. n0 ( n0 )
xn xm p < 2 n, m n0 . ,
+ ( )p
k=1 |xn,k xm,k |p < 2 n, m n0 .

K N K k=1 |xn,k xm,k | < (
p
2 ) n, m n0 .
p

m + K K k=1 |xn,k xk | ( 2 ) n n0 .
p p

( )p
xn xp p = +
k=1 |xn,k xk | 2
p < p n n0 .

, xn x (lp , dp ).
1 p < +. p = +.
. = a+b 2 (fn ), fn
[a, b] fn (x) = 0 [a, ba ba
2n ] fn (x) = 1 [ + 2n , b]
fn [ 2n , + 2n
ba ba
( ]. )
fn f C([a, b]), dp , , f [a, b].
a a a < . a ba 2n < , n0

fn (x) = 0 x [a, a ] , ,
a a
a |fn (x) f (x)|p dx = a |f (x)|p dx n n0 . (14.297)
b
, dp (fn , f ) 0 a |fn (x) f (x)|p dx 0
a
a |fn (x) f (x)|p dx 0.
a
, (14.297) a |f (x)|p dx = 0. f
[a, a ] f (x) = 0 x [a, a ]. , a
a a < , f (x) = 0 x [a, ).
( ) f (x) = 1 x (, b].
f [a, b] .
11.5.4. (X, d). F1 , F2 . . . . - -
+ X, Fn+1 Fn n diam Fn 0,

n=1 Fn -, .
: Cauchy (xn ) (X, d) -
Fn = {xk | k n}.
Fn+1 Fn n diam Fn 0.
, x +
n=1 Fn . xn x.
11.5.5. (X, d) A X. 0 M < 1

850
f : A A d(f (x), f (y)) M d(x, y) x, y A, f
A A f () = .
: x X (xn )
x1 = x xn+1 = f (xn ) n.
d(xn+1 , xn+2 ) M d(xn , xn+1 ) n. , (xn ) -
Cauchy. 2.6.4[]. = limn+ xn f () = .
, , f ( ) = f ( ) = , d( , ) M d( , ).
11.6.1. A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 0, x2 0, x1 + x2 1}
R2 B = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 x3 1}
R3 .
: A (0, 0), (1, 0), (0, 1)
:

A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 0} {(x1 , x2 ) | x2 0} {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 + x2 1}.

x = (x1 , x2 ), -

x, e1 0, x, e2 0, x, k 1,
e1 = (1, 0), e2 = (0, 1), k = (1, 1).
R2 .
A, , .
, A . , (x1 , x2 ) A
0 x1 1 0 x2 1, A
[0, 1] [0, 1].
A , .
B :

B = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 x3 } {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x3 1}.

f : R3 R f (x) = f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 2 + x2 2 x3 :
( )
{(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 x3 } = {x | f (x) 0} = {x | f (x) (, 0]} = f 1 (, 0] .

f . R3
R3 .( ) (, 0]
R, f 1 (, 0] -
R3 .
g : R3 R g(x) = g(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x3 :
( )
{(x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x3 1} = {x | g(x) 1} = {x | g(x) (, 1]} = g 1 (, 1] .
( )
, g 1 (, 1] -
R3 .
B , .
, B . (x1 , x2 , x3 ) B |x1 |
1, |x2 | 1, 0 x3 1. B
[1, 1] [1, 1] [0, 1], .
B , .
11.6.6. [] A = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 2 + x2 2 1} R2 . -
f (x1 , x2 ) = ex1 +x2 A;
: A N 0 (1) R2 . f

851
 A , , A.
11.6.7. f : Rd R f (x) 0 x2 +. , ,
> 0 R > 0 |f (x)| < x Rd x2 > R.
x0 Rd f (x0 ) 0, f .
x0 Rd f (x0 ) 0, f .
f : R2 R f (x1 , x2 ) = x1 e(x1 +x2 )
2 2

.
: . {f (x) | x Rd } - R,
supremum. u = sup{f (x) | x Rd } +.
0 f , u 0.
u = 0, 0 f ( x0 ).
, u > 0. x1 0 < f (x1 ) u. , R > 0
|f (x)| < f (x1 ) x Rd x2 > R.
x1 2 R, x1 N 0 (R). N 0 (R)
f . f N 0 (R). M = f ()
f N 0 (R), N 0 (R).
x1 N 0 (R), f (x1 ) f () = M .
, f (x) < f (x1 ) f () = M x2 > R f (x) f () = M x2 R.
M = f () f Rd .
. .
. [] [], f (x) 0
x2 +. :

|f (x)| = |f (x1 , x2 )| = |x1 |e(x1 x2 ex2

2 +x 2 ) 2
2

, x2 ex2 0 x2 +, .
2

f , .
x = (x1 , x2 ) f ,
f f
x1 (x) =0 x2 (x) = 0,

e(x1 2x1 2 e(x1 2x1 x2 e(x1

2 +x 2 ) 2 +x 2 ) 2 +x 2 )
2 2 =0 2 =0
x = (21/2 , 0). , f , ,
f (21/2 , 0) = (2e)1/2 f (21/2 , 0) = (2e)1/2 .
11.6.9. (X, d), (xn ) X, x X
xn = x n xn x. {xn | n N} {x}
{xn | n N} .
: {xn | n N} . , x
( (xn ) )
x .
{x}{xn | n N}, ,
(X, d) {x} {xn | n N}.
U0 x U0 . U0 ,
r > 0 Nx (r) U0 . xn x, n0 xn Nx (r) n n0 .
k = 1, . . . , n0 1 Uk xk Uk .
, , U0 , U1 , . . . , Un0 1
{x} {xn | n N}.
, {x} {xn | n N} (X, d).
11.6.10. (X, d) M1 , . . . , Mn X.

852
 M1 , . . . , Mn , M1 Mn .

M1 , M2 , . . . R +n=1 Mn
R.
: . M = M1 Mn .
M1 , . . . , Mn . k = 1, . . . , n
k Mk . =
1 n M .
. Mn = [n, n] n Mn = [ n1 , 1] n.
11.6.16. (X, d) - M X. diam M =
diam M .
: , , , M N X, diam M diam N .
{d(x, y) | x, y M } {d(x, y) | x, y N }. diam M diam M .
(xn ) (yn ) M d(xn , yn ) diam M .
n xn , yn M d(xn , xn ) < n1 d(yn , yn ) < n1 .
d(xn , yn ) diam M .
d(xn , yn ) diam M n, diam M diam M .
11.6.17. (X, d) A, B X. A B
, A B .
: A , A B . A B ,
A A B A A B .
11.6.18. (X, d), - M X x0 X.
x M d(x0 , x ) = inf{d(x0 , x) | x M }.
:
A = {d(x0 , x) | x M }
- R 0.
infimum A 0. l = inf A.
n N A l l + n1 .
xn M
l d(x0 , xn ) < l + n1 .
(xn ) M , M , -
(xn ) M . , (xnk )

xnk x k +

x M .

l d(x0 , xnk ) < l + 1
nk

d(x0 , xnk ) l k +. (14.298)
,

d(xnk , x ) d(x0 , xnk ) d(x0 , x ) d(xnk , x )

, d(xnk , x ) 0,

d(x0 , xnk ) d(x0 , x ) k +. (14.299)

(14.298) (14.299) d(x0 , x ) = l.

853
 11.6.20. M Rd . M .
: M , .
M , N 0 (r) 0 = (0, . . . , 0)
r M . M
M , M N 0 (r). , , M .
11.6.22. (X, d) (Y, ), M X, N Y f : M N
-- . f M M ,
f 1 : N M N .
: , g = f 1 : N M .
11.2. F X. F M
M , M , F M . f
M , f (F M ) . , g 1 (F M )
.

g 1 (F M ) = g 1 (F ) g 1 (M ) = g 1 (F ) N = g 1 (F )

.
F X g 1 (F ) N . f 1 = g
N .
11.6.23. A R f : A R. Gf = {(x, f (x)) | x A} R2
f .
f . , Gf , f .
A . , f , Gf .
: . f Gf .
(xn ) A xn x x A.
f (xn ) f (x). > 0 |f (xn ) f (x)| -
n. f , (f (xn )) -
(xnk ) (xn ) |f (xnk ) f (x)| k f (xnk ) y
y.
|y f (x)| f (x) = y. , (xnk , f (xnk )) (x, y) ,
(xnk , f (xnk )) Gf k Gf , (x, y) Gf .
y = f (x) .
(xn ) A xn x x A f (xn ) f (x) f
.
. ( A) f .
(xn , yn ) Gf (xn , yn ) (x, y) R2 . xn x
yn y. A (xn ) A, x A. -
, yn = f (xn ) n , f xn x,
yn = f (xn ) f (x). y = f (x) , , (x, y) Gf .
Gf .
11.6.26. (X, d) (Y, ), A X f : A Y
(Y, ) . :
(i) f A, F : A Y -
A F (x) = f (x) x A.
(ii) f A.
: F : A R A
F (x) = f (x) x A.
11.6.24, F
A. f F A, f A.

854
, f A.
x A. (xn ) A xn x.
(xn ) (f (xn )). (xn ) , Cauchy, ,
f , (f (xn )) Cauchy (;). (Y, )
(f (xn )) . y Y (f (xn )).
(xn ) A xn x. -
(x1 , x1 , x2 , x2 , x3 , x3 , . . . ) x, , ,
(f (x1 ), f (x1 ), f (x2 ), f (x2 ), f (x3 ), f (x3 ), . . . ) .
(f (xn )), y.
(f (xn )) y.
, , y Y (xn ) A xn x
f (xn ) y. , , F (x) = y.
x A, (xn ) A xn x
xn = x n (f (xn )) f (xn ) = f (x) n,
f (xn ) f (x). x A, f (x) ,
F (x) = f (x).
, , F : A Y F (x) = f (x) x A,
F f A A.
, > 0. f A, > 0

(f (x ), f (x )) <
2 x , x A d(x , x ) < .

x , x A d(x , x ) < . (xn ), (xn ) A xn x xn x .

d(xn , xn ) d(xn , x ) + d(x , x ) + d(x , xn ) <

(f (xn ), f (xn )) < 2 . f (xn ) F (x ) f (xn ) F (x ),

11.4.2 (F (x ), F (x )) 2 < .
> 0 > 0 (F (x ), F (x )) < x , x A
d(x , x ) < . F A.
11.6.27. (X, d) M X. M ,
A M M = A.
: Nx ( n1 ) x M n N. n =
{Nx ( n1 ) | x M } M .
n M n .
, An
n A = + n=1 An .
11.6.28. (X, d) M X.
M > 0
M M
, , > 0
M M .
M .
: M .
Cauchy (xn ) M . (xnk )
x M . Cauchy -
2.6, |x y| d(x, y),
xn x. M .
, > 0. Nx () x M M .
x1 , . . . , xn M Nx1 (), . . . , Nxn () M .
M x1 , . . . , xn .

855
M .
, M .
(xn ) M . M , -
M 21
M . (xn )
< 1.
, xn1 . ,
M 14 M .
(xn )
< 21 .
, xn2 , n2 > n1 . ,
M 16 M .
(xn )
< 31 .
, xn3 , n3 > n2 . .
(xnk ) :
< 1,
xn2 < 12 ,
xn3 < 31 . , -
xnk < k1 . (xnk )
Cauchy , M , (xnk ) M .
M M , -
, M .
11.6.29. 11.1.6 11.2.26. (X, d) -
M X. M (X, d) M
(M, d).
: M (X, d).
M M M
(M, d). A M B X
(X, d) A = B M . X
B A M . A B
A M ,

M {A | A M } {B | B X }.

X M X
(X, d). M (X, d),
X M X . B X A M
A M . ,

M {B | B X } = {B | B X } M = {B M | B X } = {A | A M }.

M M M .
M (M, d).
.
11.6.30. [] x, y : [a, b] R f : K R x, y
[a, b], f K R2 (x(t), y(t)) K
t [a, b].
f (x, y) : [a, b] R [a, b] > 0
> 0 = {a = t0 , . . . , tn = b} [a, b] w() <
= {1 , . . . , n } = {1 , . . . , n }
 n b 
 
k=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 ) a f (x(t), y(t)) dt < .

856
[] 6.5.6 , x =
x(t) y = y(t) [a, b] [a, b], l() =
b
a (x (t))2 + (y (t))2 dt.
: [] 6.4.27[].
> 0.
f K, > 0

|f (z ) f (z )| <
4(ba) z , z K z z 2 < . (14.300)

, f K, M > 0

|f (z)| M z K. (14.301)

= min{ , 82 M }.
= {a = t0 , . . . , tn = b} [a, b]

(x; a, b; ) (x; a, b; ) < 2 , (y; a, b; ) (y; a, b; ) < 2 . (14.302)

uk , lk x [tk1 , tk ] uk , lk
y uk , lk f (x, y).
k = 1, . . . , n . A k
( )1/2
(uk lk )2 + (uk lk )2 < B k,
( )1/2
(uk lk )2 + (uk lk )2
.
k A, t , t [tk1 , tk ] lk uk x(t ) x(t ) uk lk ,
, |x(t ) x(t )| uk lk , , |y(t ) y(t )| uk lk
( )1/2
(x(t ) x(t ))2 + (y(t ) y(t ))2 < , (14.300)

|f (x(t ), y(t )) f (x(t ), y(t ))| <

4(ba) .

( 3 6.2)

uk lk
4(ba) k A. (14.303)

k B, (14.301) |f (x(t ), y(t )) f (x(t ), y(t ))|

|f (x(t ), y(t ))| + |f (x(t ), y(t ))| 2M t , t [tk1 , tk ], , , -

uk lk 2M k B. (14.304)
k B, uk lk 2 uk lk 2 , (14.302)

2 > kB (uk lk )(tk tk1 ) 2 kB (tk tk1 )

2 > lk )(tk tk1 ) tk1 )
kB (uk 2 kB (tk

kB (tk tk1 ) < 2 k B. (14.305)

(14.303), (14.304), (14.305)

((f (x, y)); a, b; ) ((f (x, y)); a, b; ) = nk=1 (uk lk )(tk tk1 )

= kA (uk lk )(tk tk1 ) + kB (uk lk )(tk tk1 )

4(ba)

kA (tk tk1 ) + 2M kB (tk tk1 )

4(ba)

(b a) + 2 2 M 4 + 4 < .

857
 f (x, y) [a, b].
, , . ,
, , f (x, y) [a, b], > 0
> 0 = {a = t0 , . . . , tn = b} [a, b] w() <
= {1 , . . . , n }
 n b 
 
k=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 ) a f (x, y) < 2 . (14.306)
(14.300) (14.301) 1 = min{ , 8M

}.
y [a, b], 2 > 0 [a, b]
w() < 2
 
(y; a, b; ; ) b y  < 1 2 .
a 4

,
   
(y; a, b; ; ) b y  < 1 2 , (y; a, b; ; ) b y  < 1 2
a 4 a 4

 
(y; a, b; ; ) (y; a, b; ; ) < 1 2
2 .

[], [] 6.6
1 2
(y; a, b; ) (y; a, b; ) 2 < 1 2 . (14.307)
, , w() < 2 .
3 = min{1 , 2 } = min{ , 8M
, 2 }.
= {a = t0 , . . . , tn = b} [a, b] w() < 3 -
= {1 , . . . , n } = {1 , . . . , n } .
w() < 2 (14.307)
(14.302). k = 1, . . . , n A B (,
, ). A k uk lk < 1 B
k, uk lk 1 .
k A, |y(k ) y(k )| uk lk < 1 (x(k ), y(k )
(x(k ), y(k ))2 < , (14.300)
|f (x(k ), y(k ) f (x(k ), y(k ))| <
4(ba) k A. (14.308)

(14.301)
|f (x(k ), y(k ) f (x(k ), y(k ))| 2M k B. (14.309)
, k B, uk lk 1 , (14.307)

1 2 > kB (uk lk )(tk tk1 ) 1 kB (tk tk1 )

kB (tk tk1 ) < 1 k B. (14.310)
(14.308), (14.309), (14.310)
 n n 
 f (x( k
), y( ))(t t
k k k1 ) f (x( k
), y( ))(t t
k k k1 )
k=1
 n ( k=1
) 
=  k=1 f (x(k ), y(k )) f (x(k ), y(k )) (tk tk1 )
 
kA f (x(k ), y(k )) f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 )
  (14.311)
+ kB f (x(k ), y(k )) f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 )

4(ba)

kA (tk tk1 ) + 2M kB (tk tk1 )

4(ba) (b a) + 2M 1
4 +
4 = 2 .

858
, = min{ , 3 } = {a = t0 , . . . , tn = b} [a, b]
w() < = {1 , . . . , n } = {1 , . . . , n } -
. (14.311) (14.306) ,
 n b 
 
k=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 ) a f (x, y)
 n 
=  k=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 ) nk=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 )
 b 
+  nk=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 ) a f (x, y)

< 2 + 2 = .

[],

(f (x, y); a, b; ; , ) = nk=1 f (x(k ), y(k ))(tk tk1 ). (14.312)

: > 0 > 0
[a, b] w() < ,
 
(f (x, y); a, b; ; , ) b f (x, y) < .
a
(n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0
(n ), (n )
b
(f (x, y); a, b; n ; n , n ) a f (x, y). (14.313)

[] 6.5.6.
:
b
(x(b) x(a))2 + (y(b) y(a))2 a (x )2 + (y )2 . (14.314)

= {t0 = a, . . . , tn = b} [a, b] -
xy- (xk , yk ) =
(x(tk ), y(tk )) k = 0, . . . , n.

(x(b) x(a))2 + (y(b) y(a))2 l( )

= nk=1 (x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2 .

, k k , k (tk1 , tk ) x(tk ) x(tk1 ) = x (k )(tk tk1 )

y(tk ) y(tk1 ) = y (k )(tk tk1 )

(x(b) x(a))2 + (y(b) y(a))2 l( ) = nk=1 (x (k ))2 + (y (k ))2 (tk tk1 ).

, , [a, b] ,

( )
(x(b) x(a))2 + (y(b) y(a))2 l( ) = (x )2 + (y )2 ; a, b; ; , .

(n ) [a, b] w(n ) 0
(n ) (n ) n

( )
(x(b) x(a))2 + (y(b) y(a))2 l(n ) = (x )2 + (y )2 ; a, b; n ; n , n .

, [] f (x, y) = x2 + y 2
x , y ( x, y)
( ) b
l(n ) = (x )2 + (y )2 ; a, b; n ; n , n a (x )2 + (y )2 . (14.315)

859
 (14.314).
, = {x0 = a, . . . , xn = b} [a, b] -
(14.305) [xk1 , xk ] k = 1, . . . , n.

l( ) = nk=1 (x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2
xk b
nk=1 xk1 (x )2 + (y )2 = a (x )2 + (y )2 .

[a, b],
b
l() a (x )2 + (y )2 . (14.316)

, (14.315), l(n ) l() n

b
a (x )2 + (y )2 l().
b
(14.316) l() = a (x )2 + (y )2 .
11.6.31. (X, d).
[] Zb ={{A | A - X}.} A, B

e B) = inf > 0 | A
Zb d(A, N () B
bB b aA Na () .
infimum d(A,e B) -
e B) < +.
0 , , 0 d(A,
de Zb . ,
e A) = 0.
(ii), : A Zb d(A,
e B) = 0 A = B.
A, B Zb d(A,
: [] x0 X, , A, B Zb ,
R > 0 A, B Nx0 (R). , a A b B

d(a, b) d(a, x0 ) + d(x0 , b) < R + R = 2R.

A Nb (2R) B Na (2R) , , 2R
e B) -. ,
infimum d(A,
e
infimum, d(A, B), . , infimum
e B) > 0 d(A,
d(A, e B) 0.
e B) 0 d(A,
(i) (iii) : d(A, e B) =
e A) A, B Zb .
d(B,
, > 0 A aA Aa (), a A Na ().
e B) > 0, d(A,
infimum d(A, e A) = 0.
e B)
, A, B, C Zb . infimum d(A,
e C).
infimum d(B,

A bB Nb (), B aA Na (), B cC Nc (), C bB Nb ().

a A. b B a Nb (). c C b Nc ().

d(a, c) d(a, b) + d(b, c) < +

, , a Nc ( + ). , c C a A c Na ( + ).
e C).
+ infimum d(A,
e C) + .
d(A,

860
 e B) > d(B,
> d(A, e C),

e C) d(A,
d(A, e B) + d(B,e C).

e B) = 0. > 0 A
, d(A, bB Nb () B aA Na ().
, a A, b B d(a, b) < . > 0 Na ()
B a B. , A B. B , A B.
, B A A = B.
.
11.6.32. I R |I| I.
[] A R
> 0 (In )
R A + n=1 n I +
n=1 |In | < .
R .
A B R B , A .

Am R m N , A = + m=1 Am
.
Q .
A R. A n > 0
I1 , . . . , In A k=1 Ik nk=1 |Ik | < .
A - .
[] 4.1.16. f : [a, b] R.
> 0 A() = {x [a, b] | (f ; x) }. , 0 < 1 < 2 ,
A(2 ) A(1 ).
> 0 A() .

A = {x [a, b] | x f }. A = + 1
n=1 A( n ).
f , > 0 A() , ,
A .
, A , f .
: [] . In n.
+ +

+ n=1 In . , > 0, n=1 |In | =
n=1 0 = 0 < . .
a > 0 I1 = (a 4 , a + 4 ) In
+
n 2. + n=1 In = I1 {a} n=1 |In | = |I1 | = 2 < . {a}

.
. B + A B. > 0
+
(In ) B n=1 In +n=1 n | < .
|I
(In ) A + I
n=1 n n=1 |In | < . , A
.
. > 0. Am
+ , (Im,n )
Am + I
n=1 m,n |I
n=1 m,n | <
2m . ,
Im,n (m, n) N N.

+ ( + )
A = + m=1 Am m=1 n=1 Im,n = (m,n)NN Im,n
+ ( + ) +
(m,n)NN |Im,n | n=1 |Im,n |

= m=1 < m=1 2m = .
A .
. Q
Q = {xm | m N}.
{xm } Q = + m=1 {xm },

861
 Q .
. A R. n

n > 0 I 1 , . . . , I n A k=1 Ik
k=1 |Ik | < . > 0 nI1 , . . . , In .
+
+

n I k k > n A k=1 I k = k=1 Ik k=1 |Ik | =

k=1 k |I | < . A .
, A + . > 0. (In )
+
n A I
n=1n |I
+
n=1 n | < . A ,
n
n A k=1 Ik . , k=1 |Ik | n=1 |In | < .
. [a, b] b a > 0 [a, b] .
[a, b] ,

= ba I1 , . . . , In [a, b] nk=1 Ik nk=1 |Ik | < ba.
I1 , . . . , In . I1 = (a1 , b1 )
a. b < b1 , . b1 b, I2 =
(a2 , b2 ) b1 . b < b2 , . b2 b,
I3 = (a3 , b3 ) b2 . Im =
(am , bm ) b < bm . , , I1 , . . . , Im [a, b] m I
k=1 k
n m
k=1 |Ik | k=1 |Ik | = (b1 a1 ) + (b2 a2 ) + + (bm1 am1 ) + (bm am )
= a1 + (b1 a2 ) + + (bm1 am ) + bm bm a1 > b a

. [a, b] .
, I . [a, b] I
b a > 0 , [a, b] , -
I .
[] . A() [a, b], . -
A() .
A(). / [a, b], [a, b]
A(). , [a, b].
> 0 x A() |x | < . x A(),
1 > 0 1 < x , x [a, b] |x x| < |x | |x x| < |x |
|f (x ) f (x )| > 1 . |x | < |x | < |f (x ) f (x )| > 1 .
, (f ; ) 1 . , 1 > 0
1 < , (f ; ) A().
A() .
. x [a, b] f
(f ; x) = 0. , A = {x [a, b] | (f ; x) > 0}.
x A, (f ; x) > 0, n N n1 (f ; x) , , x A( n1 ).

A + 1
n=1 A( n ).
, x + A( n1 ), n (f ; x) n1 (f ; x) > 0. -
n=1
, x A + n=1 A( n ) A.
1

. f [a, b] > 0.
> 0 = {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b]
n
k=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) = (f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) < 2 ,

(14.317)

uk = sup{f (x) | xk1 x xk } lk = inf{f (x) | xk1 x xk } k = 1, . . . , n.

, k = 1, . . . , n . M k
uk lk N k uk lk < .
k N , (;) x (xk1 , xk ) (f ; x)

862

uk lk < . A() kM [xk1 , xk ]

A() kM (xk1 , xk ), (14.318)

(xk1 , xk ) -
[xk1 , xk ] .
, (14.317)

kM (xk xk1 ) kM (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) nk=1 (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) < 2

xk1 ) = 2 xk1 ) < 2 2

kM (xk kM (xk = .
> 0 A() - (14.318) -
< , , A() .
, n A( n1 ) , []

A = + 1
n=1 A( n ) .
. A > 0.
f , M > 0 |f (x)| M x [a, b].
= 4(ba)
> 0.

A( ) A, A( ) ,
I1 , . . . , Im A( ) m k=1 I k m
k=1 |Ik | < 4M .

I1 , . . . , Im p , p

(y1 , z1 ), . . . , (yp , zp ) A( ) j=1 (yj , zj ) j=1 (zj yj ) < 4M .

, , (i) (yj , zj )
(yj , zj ) , (ii) (yj , zj )
( ) (iii) y1 a,
(y1 , z1 ) [a, z1 ) , b zp , (yp , zp ) (yp , b].
, [a, b] , -
, [1 , 1 ], . . . , [q , q ].
x qi=1 [i , i ] (f ; x) < . x qi=1 [i , i ] -

x q f (x ) f (x ) < x , x .
x i=1 [i , i ] qi=1 [i , i ]
qi=1 [i , i ].
, ,
[i , i ] f (x ) f (x ) <
x , x .
= {a = x0 , . . . , xn = b}
[a, b] k = 1, . . . , n . M
k f (x ) f (x ) < x , x [xk1 , xk ].
uk lk k M . N
k kN (xk xk1 ) < 4M . ,
uk lk 2M k N .
,

(f ; a, b; ) (f ; a, b; ) = kM (uk lk )(xk xk1 ) + kN (uk lk )(xk xk1 )

kM (xk xk1 ) + 2M kN (xk xk1 )

4(ba) (b a) + 2M 4M

< .

f [a, b].
11.7.1. R2
. {x R2 | x (0, 1)2 = 2}, {(x, y) | x, y Q}.

863
: A = {x R2 | x (0, 1)2 = 2} B = Nx0 (2),
x0 = (0, 1), C = {x R2 | x x0 2 > 2}. B, C
. x B x x0 2 2
x C x x0 2 2. , B, C
B, C A.
, K A. K B K C,
A B C. A
B, C .
a A = {(x, y) | x, y Q}. {a} A.
, C A a C C {a},
b C a = b. a = (x, y) b = (u, v) x = u y = v.
x = u, p x, u
{(r, s) A | r < p} {(r, s) A | p < r} A. ,
{(r, s) | r < p}
{(r, s) | p < r} , ,
. , - a
b. , A ,
(p, s) p .
, , C, C .
C y = v.
A {a}, {a}
A. , A
.
11.7.2. {(x, sin x1 ) | 0 < x 1}, {(x, sin x1 ) | 0 <
x 1} [(0, 1), (0, 1)] R2 .
: f : (0, 1] R2 f (x) = (x, sin x1 ). f
(0, 1] (0, 1] , A = f ((0, 1]) = {(x, sin x1 ) | 0 < x 1}
.
[(0, 1), (0, 1)] A.
, y [1, 1]. 0 sin = y
(xn ) xn = +2n1
n. 0 < xn 1 n, (xn , sin x1n )
A (xn , sin x1n ) = (xn , y) (0, y). (0, y),
[(0, 1), (0, 1)], A.
, B = {(x, sin x1 ) | 0 < x 1} [(0, 1), (0, 1)] A B A. B
.
11.7.3. d 2, U Rd a1 , . . . , an U . -
U \ {a1 , . . . , an } . d = 1;
: 11.2.12.
U U \ {a1 , . . . , an }
.
11.7.4. L Rd Rd
L. Rd
, L.
: B C L. B C
B C. , B C,
B C.
11.7.5. 11.2.8
C Cantor .

864
: C , (
R) . , C -
.
11.7.6. (X, d) An X
An An+1 = n. +
n=1 An .
Bn = A1
: An Bn
+
n=1 An = +
n=1 Bn .
11.7.7. R2
.

: A = {(x, 1 x2 ) | x [1, 1]} B = {(x, 1 x2 ) | x [1, 1]}.
11.7.8. A R2 A
.
A R2 A .
: A = {x | 1 x2 2} A = {x | x2 1 xa2 1} a = (2, 0).
11.7.9. B Rd . B , , , -
B = B = Rd .
: B = B = Rd B , B Rd \ B
Rd .
11.7.11. (X, d) A X.
A , A B, C -
B C = A, B C = , B, C = .
: A .
B, C B C = A, B C = , B, C = .
B B C
C. , C B. ,
B, C A.
, B, C A. , B C = A, B C =
, B, C = B, C . , b B.
b C, Nb (r ) b
C. A b A, Nb (r ) A.
r = min{r , r }, Nb (r) A C , ,
B. b B B, B .
, C .
11.7.12. U Rd . -
U ( ).
: 11.2.24[,] Rd , -
A Rd A = Rd . U ,
C U . x C -
Nx (r) C. A , a A
Nx (r) a C.
, , C U a A a C.
C U a C, -
. ,
U a A, A A.
A U .
11.7.13. (X, d) A X. A

865
 f : A {0, 1} A
.
: B, C A. f : A {0, 1}
f (x) = 0 x B f (x) = 1 x C f A
-. , - f : A {0, 1} A.
f 1 ({0}) f 1 ({1}) A.
11.7.15. (X, d). (X, d)
x X r > 0 U x U Nx (r).
(X, d) A X
A .
: A X A .
x X r > 0 Nx (r) , U
Nx (r) x, U
x U Nx (r).
, (X, d) . A X C
A. x C , x A,
Nx (r) A. U x U Nx (r). , U -
A , C A ( x U C),
U C. x C. , C .
11.7.17. 11.1.6 11.2.26. (X, d) -
A X. A (X, d) A -
(A, d).
: A (A, d).
A (X, d), B, C -
A (X, d). , A = B C, B C = , B, C =
B, C (X, d) .
b B. NbX (r) b (X, d) NbX (r) C = .
NbX (r) A = NbA (r)

NbA (r) C = NbX (r) A C = NbX (r) C = .

NbA (r) b (A, d) NbA (r) C = , b

(A, d) C. , c C (A, d) B.
B, C A (A, d) .
.

14.12 12.
3 3 2 + 1 + 1
12.1.1. 1 x1 dx, 1 x2 dx, 1 dx,
x x dx -
;
3
: 1 x1 dx x1 [1, 3].
3 2 2
1 x2 dx x2 [1, 3] , -
, 2, [1, c] c [1, 2)
[c, 3] c (2, 3].
3
3 2 -
2 2 2 2 2
, 1 x2 dx = 1 x2 dx 2 x2 dx = 2 x2 dx.
+ 1 + 1
1 dx = dx [1, +) -
x 1 x
1x [1, c] c 1.
+
x1 dx x1 (, +) ,

866
, 0 (, +) , x1
[c , c ] c , c < c c < 0 [c , c ] c , c
0 < c c < +. 0
0
1
1 -
1 1
, x1 dx = x1 dx, 1 x1 dx = 1 x1 dx, 0 x1 dx = 0 x1 dx
+ 1 + 1
1 x dx = 1 x dx.
5 x
12.1.2. 1 log x1 dx . -
() ;
log x
: x1 1.
{
log x
x1 , 1 < x 5
f (x) =
1, x = 1

f , [1, 5],
log x
x1 (1, 5]. 5 x 5
12.2 1 log dx = 1 log x
x1 dx
5 x1
() 1 f (x) dx.
1 1
12.1.3. 0 sin(1/x) dx ;
1
: [0, 1] sin(1/x) 0 1
n n N.
1 1
0 sin(1/x) dx .
+ 1
+ 1
12.1.4. 1 x2 (x2 +1)
dx, 1 x(x+1) dx.

: . 1
x2 (x2 +1)
= 1
x2
1
x2 +1

+ + +
1
1
x2 (x2 +1)
dx = 1
1
x2
dx 1
1
x2 +1
dx.

+ c 1 ( )
1
1
dx
x2
= limc+ 1 x2 dx = limc+ 1 1
c =1
+ c
1
1
x2 +1
dx = limc+ 1 x21+1 dx = limc+ (arctan c arctan 1) =
2
4 = 4 ,
+
1
1
x2 (x2 +1)
dx = 1 4 .
1
. x(x+1) = x1 x+1
1
, ,

+ 1 c 1
1 x dx = limc+ 1 x dx = limc+ log c = +
+ c 1
1
1
dx = limc+ 1 x+1
x+1 dx = limc+ (log(c + 1) log 2) = +,
+ 1 + 1
1 x dx 1 x+1 dx .
.
c 1 c 1
1 x dx = log c, 1 x+1 dx = log(c + 1) log 2

+ c (c c )
1
1
x(x+1) dx = limc+ 1
1 x(x+1) dx = limc+ 1
1 x dx 1
1 x+1 dx
( )
= limc+ (log c log(c + 1) + log 2) = limc+ log c+1
c
+ log 2 = log 2.
+
12.1.6. 0 xn ex dx = n! n Z, n 0.

867
: 7.2.1(v).
+
12.1.7. 0 1
x2 +2x cos +1
dx =
sin (0, ).
: x2 + 2x cos + 1 = (x + cos )2 + (sin )2 .
+ xn1
12.1.9. 0 (1+x)n+m
dx = (n1)!(m1)!
(n+m1)! n, m N.

: xn1 .
+
12.1.11. 0 (1)[x] dx.
: n N
n [x]
n k [x]
n k k1 dx
0 (1) dx = k=1 k1 (1) dx = k=1 k1 (1)
{
1, n
= nk=1 (1)k1 =
0, k
c [x] dx
limc+ 0 (1) .
12.1.12. f (0, +)
0 < A B < +.
x
[] g(x) = x1 1 f (t) dt 0 < x < + L = limx+ g(x)
. :
B B g(x)
(i) A f (x)
x dx = g(B) g(A) + A x dx.
BT
(ii) limT + AT f (x) B
x dx = L log A .
+ f (Ax)f (Bx) B f (x)
(iii) 1 x dx = L log BA + A x dx.
: (i)
B g(x) B B ( )
A x dx = xg(x) dx =
1
A x2
d 1
A dx x xg(x) dx
B B f (x)
= g(B) + g(A) + A x dx (xg(x)) dx = g(B)
1 d
+ g(A) + A x dx.

(ii) > 0. = log B

A > 0 N > 0

|g(x) L| < 2 x > N .


N = NA > 0 T > N |g(x) L| < 2

x AT ,
 BT g(x)   BT g(x)L  BT |g(x)L| BT 1
 B  dx AT
x dx L log A = dx 2
AT AT x x AT x dx = 2 < .
BT g(x)
limT + AT x dx = L log B
A , (i)
BT f (x) ( BT g(x) )
limT + AT x dx = limT + g(BT ) g(AT ) + AT x dx = L log B
A.

(iii) ,
T f (Ax)f (Bx) T f (Ax) T f (Bx) AT f (x) BT f (x)
1 x dx = 1 x dx 1 x dx = A x dx B x dx
BT f (x) B f (x)
= AT x dx + A x dx.

(ii).
+ + (sin x)2
12.2.1. 1 (sin x1 )2 dx 1 0 x2
dx 2.
: | sin x1 | x1 [1, +).
| sin x| x [0, 1] -
| sin x| 1 [1, +)

868
 1 1
12.2.2. 0 xp (1x)q dx p, q < 1.
1 x 1 [ 12 , 1) 12 x 1.
: (0, 12 ] 1
2
+ 1 + log x
12.2.4. 0 e(x+x ) dx, 1
x x2 1
dx .
1 1
: limx0+ e(x+x ) = 0, e(x+x )
1
0 0. , 0 e(x+x ) ex (0, +).
limx1+ xlog x
x2 1
= 0 0 xlog x
x2 1
log
x3/2
x

[2, +).
+ 1
12.2.7. 1 1+x4 (sin x)2
dx .
: n N
n+(/2) /2 /2
1
n(/2) 1+x4 (sin x)2 dx = 1
dx /2 1+n4 41(sin x)2 dx
/2 1+(x+n)4 (sin x)2
/2 /2
/2 1+412 n4 x2 dx = 2 0 1+412 n4 x2 dx
2 n2 1 + 1
= n1 2 0 1+t2
dt n1 2 0 1+t2
dt = 2n1 2 .

12.2.8. . .
+
f : [1, +) [0, +) 1 f (x) dx limx+ f (x)
.
+
f : [1, +) R. limx+ f (x) 1 f (x) dx,
limx+ f (x) = 0.
: . . 12.2.7. -
.
. limx+ f (x) > 0 a > 0 N > 1
f (x) > a x > N .
12.2.9. f, g : [a, +) [0, +) [a, +) p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+ +
[] a (f (x))p dx < + a (g(x))q dx < +, Hlder
. :
+ ( + )1/p ( + )1/q
a f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x))p dx a (g(x))q dx .

Schwarz, Buniakowsky . :
+ ( + )1/2 ( + )1/2
a f (x)g(x) dx a (f (x))2 dx a (g(x))2 dx .

Hlder s, t 0
0 s(f (x))p = t(g(x))q x [a, +).
+ +
[] a (f (x))p dx < +, a (g(x))p dx < +, Minkowski
. :
( + )1/p ( + )1/p ( + )1/p
a (f (x) + g(x))p dx a (f (x))p dx + a (g(x))p dx .

Minkowski s, t 0
0 sf (x) = tg(x) x [a, +).
: 6.4.18.
6.4.18.
n1
12.3.1. f : [0, +) R f (x) = (1)n x [n 1, n)
+
n N. 0 f (x) dx .

869
: c 1
c [c] c [c] c [c] c[c]
0 |f (x)| dx = 0 |f (x)| dx + [c] |f (x)| dx =
1 1 1
k=1 k + [c] [c]+1 dx = k=1 k + [c]+1 .

c +, [c] + , + 1
k=1 k = +,
c[c]
+. , [c]+1 0 ( 0 c [c] < 1),
+
0 |f (x)| dx = +.
,
c [c] (1)k1 c (1)[c] [c] k1 [c] (c[c])

0 f (x) dx = k=1 k + [c] [c]+1 dx = k=1 (1)k + (1)[c]+1 .

+ (1)k1
, k=1 k , -
(1)[c] (c[c]) +
c + , , [c]+1 0. 0 f (x) dx .
+ cos x
12.3.2. 0 1+x2
dx .
: | 1+x 2|
cos x 1
1+x2
x.
+
12.3.3. , p > 1, sin x
xp dx , 0 < p 1,
. .
: p > 0,
{
+ + < +, p > 1
| sin
xp | dx
x 1
xp dx .

= +, 0 < p 1
p > 0,
c c cos x
c
sin x
xp dx = xp dx = cos
cp
c 1
p p cos x
xp+1 dx.
+
, limc+ cos c
cp = 0. , .
cos x
xp+1
dx ,
: + cos x + 1
| xp+1 | dx xp+1 dx < +.
+ sin x
dx .
+xpsin x 1
xp dx p > 0 :
x xp
[, +) 0 + , , sin t dt =
cos cos x [, +).
+ x sin x + x cos(x2 )
12.3.4. 1 1+x+x2
dx, 1 1+log x dx .
x
: 1+x+x 2 [1, +)
x
0 + 1 sin t dt
x [1, +).
2
1 t cos(t ) dt [1, +).
P (x)
12.3.5. R(x) = Q(x) , P (x) Q(x)
.
+
R(x) dx Q(x)
deg Q(x) deg P (x) + 2.
: . Q(x) deg Q(x)
deg P (x) + 2.
R(x) R limx (x2 + 1)R(x) .
(x2 + 1)R(x) R, M 0
|R(x)| x2M+1 x
+ + M
|R(x)| dx x2 +1 dx < +.

870
 +
, R(x) dx ().
+
, R(x) dx .
Q(x) x0 k 1, P (x)
, P (x0 ) = 0, , , Q(x) = (x x0 )k Q1 (x), Q1 (x)
Q1 (x0 ) = 0. QP1(x 0)
(x0 ) > 0,

P (x0 )
limxx0 + (x x0 )k R(x) = Q1 (x0 ) > 0,

m > 0 > 0 R(x) (xxm

k x (x0 , x0 + ].
0)
, x0 + x + m
x0 R(x) dx x00 (xx )k
dx = +.
0

Q(x) . QP1(x 0)
(x0 ) < 0.
deg Q(x) deg P (x) + 1, limx+ xR(x) = 0.
> 0, m > 0 N > 0 R(x) m x x N .
+ +
N R(x) dx N m x dx = +.

deg Q(x) deg P (x) + 2. limx+ xR(x) < 0.

12.3.6. 7.3.16.
: [a, +) R
+ [a, +)

limx+ (x) = +. a sin((x)) dx .
: limx+ (x) = +, > 0 N > a (x) > 8
x > N . , 7.3.16, x , x N <
x < x
 x 
 sin((x)) dx 4 < .
x 8/
+
Cauchy a sin((x)) dx .
, b > a (x) > 0 x
[b, +)
+ b + (x) sin((x))
a sin((x)) dx = a sin((x)) dx + b (x) dx.
+ (x) sin((x))
, b dx 1(x) [b, +)
x (x)
0 + b (x) sin((x)) dx = cos((b)) cos((x)) [b, +).
12.3.8. [] f, fn : [a, +) R n g : [a, +) [0, +). -
|fn (x)| g(x) x [a, +), c > a (fn ) f
+ +
[a, c] a g(x) dx . a f (x) dx
+ +
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.
: x a. c x [a, c] ( c = x) , (fn )
f [a, c], fn (x) f (x). , |fn (x)| g(x)
|f (x)| g(x). , , |f (x)| g(x) x [a, +)
+ +
a |f (x)| dx a g(x) dx < +.
+
, a f (x) dx ().
+
a g(x) dx < +, > 0 N a
+
N g(x) dx < 4 . (14.319)

871
 N N
(fn ) f [a, N ], a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx
n0
N N 
 
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx < 2 n n0 . (14.320)

(14.319) (14.320)
 + +  N N 
 fn (x) dx a f (x) dx  a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx
a
 +   + 
+  N fn (x) dx +  N f (x) dx
+ +
< 2 + N |fn (x)| dx + N |f (x)| dx
+ +
2 + N g(x) dx + N g(x) dx
<
2 +
4 +
4 = n n0 .
+ +
a fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.
12.3.9. f : [0, 1] R [0, 1], f (0) = 0 f
1
0. 0 f (x)x 2 dx .
3

: limx0+ f (x)
x |f (x)| M x (0, 1]
1 1
M 0. . 0 x 2 dx.
+ sin(x)
12.3.10. p 0 x+p2 x2
dx -
;
: , [0, +) ,
+ 0:

sin( x) sin( x) x 1
limx0+ = limx0+ = +.
x+p2 x2 x x 1+p2 x

1
| sin( x)|
, 1, 0 x+p2 x2 dx.

1 | sin(x)| 1 x 1 1
0 x+p x 2 2 dx 0 x dx = 0
dx < +.
x
+ | sin(x)|
1 x+p2 x2
dx .
p = 0, , x = t2 ,
N
| sin( x)| N | sin t|
1 x dx = 2 1 t dt +
+ | sin t|
N +, 1 t dt = +.

+ | sin(x)|
1 x dx = +
, , p = 0.
p = 0,
+
| sin( x)| + +
1 x+p2 x2
dx 1
1
p2 x2
dx = 1
p2 1
1
x2
dx < +,

p = 0.
p = 0 p = 0.
p p = 0.

N
sin( x) N sin t
1 x dx = 2 1 t dt

872
 + sin t
N +, 1 t dt .
+ sin( x)

1 x dx , , .
+ x[x](1/2)
12.3.11. 1 xp dx p > 0.
: 6.4.10 , p > 0,
x1p [1, +) 0 +.
12.3.13. f, g : [a, +) R [a, +) p, q > 1 p1 + 1q = 1.
+ + +
[] a |f (x)|p dx < + a |g(x)|q dx < +, a f (x)g(x) dx
Hlder :
 +  ( + )1/p ( + )1/q
 f (x)g(x) dx a |f (x)|p dx |g(x)|q dx .
a a

Schwarz, Buniakowsky:
 +  ( + )1/2 ( + )1/2
 f (x)g(x) dx a |f (x)|2 dx |g(x)|2 dx .
a a

Hlder s, t 0
0 s|f (x)|p = t|g(x)|q x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0
x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0 x [a, +).
+ +
[] a |f (x)|p dx < +, a |g(x)|p dx < +, Minkowski
:
( + )1/p ( + )1/p ( + )1/p
a |f (x) + g(x)|p dx a |f (x)|p dx + a |g(x)|p dx .

Minkowski s, t 0
0 s|f (x)| = t|g(x)| x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0
x [a, +) f (x)g(x) 0 x [a, +).
: 12.2.9.
+
12.3.14. f : [a, +) R w : [a, +) (0, +) a w(x) dx = 1
+ +
a f (x)w(x) dx. Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx.
Jensen. f : [a, +) (c, d)
[a, +) g : (c, d) R (c, d). , , w : [a, +) (0, +)
+ +
[a, +)
( a w(x) dx) = 1. Ew (f ; a, +) = a f (x)w(x) dx ,
g Ew (f ; a, +) Ew (g f ; a, +) , ,
( + ) +
g a f (x)w(x) dx a g(f (x))w(x) dx.

g (c, d), .
g , , () (c, d), Jensen
f [a, +).
: 6.4.19.
+
12.4.1. 0 ey cos(2xy) dy x.
2

. g(x) R. ,
+ y2
0 e cos(2xy) dy = g(x) R.
g(x)

R g (x) + 2xg(x) = 0 x.
x2
, g(x) = 2 e x.
: . |e y2
ey x R.
2

y 2 + cos(2xy)|
y 2
e x 0 e dy < +, 12.7
+ y2
. 0 e cos(2xy) dy g(x) R.

873
 .
 y2 
 (e cos(2xy)) = 2yey | sin(2xy)| 2yey
2 2
y [0, +) x
x

+
2yey 2 dy = + d ey 2 dy = 1 lim y 2 = 1.
0 0 dy y+ e
+ y2
. 0 x (e cos(2xy)) dy h(x) -
R.
, 12.6
+ y2 +
g (x) = h(x) = 0 cos(2xy)) dy = 2 0 yey sin(2xy) dy
2
x (e x

+ +
g (x) = d y 2
sin(2xy) dy = limy+ ey ey
2 2
dy e
0 sin(2xy) 0
d
dy sin(2xy) dy
+
2x 0 ey cos(2xy) dy = 2xg(x)
2
= x.

, g(x) g (x) + 2xg(x) = 0 x.

2 d 2
ex , dx (ex g(x)) = 0
2
x, c ex g(x) = c x. x = 0
+
c = g(0) = 0 ey dy = 2 .
2

x2
g(x) = 2 e
x.
+ sin x
+ sin x cos x
12.4.3. 0 x dx = 2 , 0 x dx = 4 .
: sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x x. .
+ 1 sin(xy)
12.4.4. 0 y 2 +1 y dy x 0.
. g(x) [0, +).
+ 1 sin(xy) ..
, 0 y 2 +1 y dy = g(x) [0, +).
, a > 0, . g(x) [0, a].
+ 1 sin(xy)
, 0 y 2 +1 y dy = g(x) [0, a] a > 0.
g(x) [0, +).
: . x 0
+  1 sin(xy) 
 2  dy x + 1
dy < +.
0 y +1 y 0 y 2 +1

+ 1 sin(xy)
0 y 2 +1 y dy () x 0
[0, +)
+ 1 sin(xy)
g(x) = 0 y 2 +1 y dy x [0, +).

. a > 0. x [0, a] | y21+1 sin(xy)

y | y 2 +1 y 2 +1
x a
+ a + 1 sin(xy)
y [0, +). 0 y 2 +1
dy < +, 0 y 2 +1 y dy
g(x) [0, a].
. x [0, +)
 ( 1 sin(xy) )
  = 1
| cos(xy)| 1
y (0, +).
x y 2 +1 y y 2 +1 y 2 +1

874
 + 1 + 1 sin(xy)
0 y 2 +1
dy < +, 0 x ( y 2 +1 y ) dy
h(x) [0, +), g(x) [0, +)
g (x) = h(x) x [0, +). ,
+ ( 1 sin(xy) ) +
g (x) = 0

x y 2 +1 y dy = 0
1
y 2 +1
cos(xy) dy x [0, +).

12.4.5.
+ f : [0, +) R [0, +) limx+ f (x) = l.
limx+ 0 ey f (xy) dy = l.
: f , M > 0 |f (x) l| M x 0.
> 0.
limx+ f (x) = l, N > 0

|f (x) l| <
2 x > N. (14.321)

, +
0 ey dy = 1. (14.322)
2M N
, (14.321) (14.322) x >
 + y  + +
 e f (xy) dy l 0 ey |f (xy) l| dy = x1 0 ey/x |f (y) l| dy
0
N +
= x1 0 ey/x |f (y) l| dy + x1 N ey/x |f (y) l| dy
N y/x + y/x
M x 0 e dy + 2x
N e dy
N
+ y/x
M (1 e /x
) + 2x 0 e dy
MN
= x + 2 < 2 + 2 = .
+
limx+ ey f (xy) dy = l.
0
+ cos y
12.4.7. 2 y+sin x dy x
R.
:
y cos t y sin t sin y y
2 t+sin x dt = 2 t+sin x dt = y+sin x sin 2
2+sin x + sin t
2 (t+sin x)2 dt. (14.323)

, | (t+sin
sin t
x)2
| 1
(t1)2
t [2, +) x. 1
(t1)2

x + 1
2 (t1)2
dt < +.
+ sin y
2 (y+sin x)2
dy x g(x)
R.
sin y
x 2+sin x x ( y +) 2+sin x -
sin 2 sin 2
, y+sin
R. ,
( sin y ) 
 sin 2 
y+sin x 2+sin x + 2+sin x y+sin x y1
sin 2 1 1
x

1
0 y +.
y1
+ cos y
, (14.323) 2 y+sin x dy x
2+sin
sin 2
x + g(x) R.
{
1
y2
, 0 x y 1
12.4.8. [] f : [0, 1] [0, 1] R f (x, y) =
x12 , 0 y < x 1
1(1 ) 1(1 )
0 0 f (x, y) dy dx = 0 0 f (x, y) dx dy.

875
 d
[] f : [a, b] [c, d] R [a, b] [c, d]. c f (x, y) dy ,
b(d )
x, [a, b]. a c f (x, y) dy dx. ,
b d(b )
a f (x, y) dx , y, [c, d]. c a f (x, y) dx dy.
b(d ) d(b )
a c f (x, y) dy dx = c a f (x, y) dx dy.
+
[] f : [a, b] [c, +) R [a, b] [c, +) c f (x, y) dy
+
[a, b]. c f (x, y) dy , x, -
(
b + ) b
[a, b]. a c f (x, y) dy dx. , a f (x, y) dx ,
+ ( b )
y, [c, +). c a f (x, y) dx dy
b ( + ) + ( b )
a c f (x, y) dy dx = c a f (x, y) dx dy.
b ( + ) + ( b xy )
[] 0 < a < b, a 0 exy dy dx = 0 a e dx dy.
+ eay eby
0 y dy.
: []
1(1 ) 1(x 1 )
0 0 f (x, y) dy dx = 0 0 f (x, y) dy + x f (x, y) dy dx
1( 1 ) 1( )
= 0 x12 x + x y12 dy dx = 0 x1 + 1
x 1 dx = 1.

1(1 ) 1(y 1 )
0 0 f (x, y) dx dy = 0 0 f (x, y) dx + y f (x, y) dx dy
1( 1 ) 1( )
= 0 y12 y y x12 dx dy = 0 y1 y1 + 1 dx = 1.

[] > 0. f , , [a, b] [c, d],

> 0

|f (x , y ) f (x , y ) < 4(ba+1)(dc+1)

(14.324)

(x , y ), (x , y ) [a, b] [c, d] |(x , y ) (x , y )| < .

{a = x0 , . . . , xn = b} [a, b] {c = y0 , . . . , ym = d}
[c, d] < 2 . ,
(x , y ), (x , y ) [xk1 , xk ] [yl1 , yl ] <
, (14.324).
, x [a, b]
d 
 f (x, y) dy m f (x, yl )(yl yl1 )
c l=1
 yl m 
= m l=1 yl1 f (x, y) dy l=1 f (x, yl )(yl yl1 )

 m ( yl )
=  l=1 yl1 f (x, y) dy f (x, yl )(yl yl1 ) 
 yl 
= m l=1 yl1 (f (x, y) f (x, yl )) dy

yl
m l=1 yl1 |f (x, y) f (x, yl )| dy
m (dc)
l=1 4(ba+1)(dc+1)

(yl yl1 ) = 4(ba+1)(dc+1)
< 4(ba+1) .

b(d ) m b 
 f (x, y) dy dx f (x, y l ) dx(y l y l1 )
a c l=1 a
b(d ) b ( m ) 
=  a c f (x, y) dy dx a l=1 f (x, yl )(yl yl1 ) dx

bd m b  (14.325)
a  c f (x, y) dy l=1 a f (x, yl )(yl yl1 ) dx
(ba)
4(ba+1) < 4 .

876
, l = 1, . . . , m
b 
 f (x, yl ) dx n f (xk , yl )(xk xk1 )
a k=1
 xk 
=  nk=1 xk1 f (x, yl ) dx nk=1 f (xk , yl )(xk xk1 )
 xk 
=  nk=1 xk1 (f (x, yl ) f (xk , yl )) dx
xk
nk=1 xk1 |f (x, yl ) f (xk , yl )| dx
n
k=1 4(ba+1)(dc+1)

(xk xk1 )
(ba)
= 4(ba+1)(dc+1) < 4(dc+1) .

yl yl1 l = 1, . . . , m

 m b m ( n ) 
 f (x, y l ) dx(y l y l1 ) f (xk , y l )(x k x k1 ) (y l y l1 ) 
l=1 a l=1 k=1
 
m  b f (x, yl ) dx n f (xk , yl )(xk xk1 )(yl yl1 ) (14.326)
l=1 a k=1
m (dc)
< l=1 4(dc+1) (yl yl1 ) = 4(dc+1) < 4 .

(14.325) (14.326)
b(d ) m ( n ) 
 
a c f (x, y) dy dx l=1 k=1 f (xk , yl )(xk xk1 ) (yl yl1 ) < 2 . (14.327)

d(b ) n ( m ) 
 
c a f (x, y) dx dy k=1 l=1 f (xk , yl )(yl yl1 ) (xk xk1 ) < 2 . (14.328)

(14.327) (14.328) ,
b(d ) d(b ) 
 
a c f (x, y) dy dx c a f (x, y) dx dy < .
b(d ) d(b )
> 0, a c f (x, y) dy dx = c a f (x, y) dx dy.
+
[] c f (x, y) dy [a, b],
b ( + ) b( d ) b(d )
a c f (x, y) dy dx = a limd+ c f (x, y) dy dx = limd+ a c f (x, y) dy dx.

, []
b ( + ) d(b ) + ( b )
a c f (x, y) dy dx = limd+ c a f (x, y) dx dy = c a f (x, y) dx dy.

[]
+ |exy | = exy eay y [0, +) x [a, b]
eay dy < +, 0 exy dy [a, b].
+
0
[]
b ( + xy ) + ( b xy )
a 0 e dy dx = 0 a e dx dy.
b eay eby
+
a exy dx = y 0 exy dy = 1
x
+ eay eby
b1
0 y dy = a x dx = log ab .

12.4.9. [] 02 cos(x sin y) dy x -
g(x) R, g(x) R
xz + z + xz = 0 R.
+
[] 0 exy y+1 1
dy x g(x)
(0, +) [a, +) a > 0. , g(x)

877
 (0, +) xz + xz = 1
(0, +).
: [] 12.4

g (x) = 0
2
sin y sin(x sin y) dy, g (x) = 0
2
(sin y)2 cos(x sin y) dy.

,

g (x) = 0
2
cos y sin(x sin y) dy = x 0
2
(cos y)2 cos(x sin y) dy

xg (x) + xg(x) = x 0
2
(1 (sin y)2 ) cos(x sin y) dy = x 2
0 (cos y)2 cos(x sin y) dy.

xg (x) + g (x) + xg(x) = 0 x.

[] x > 0
+ xy 1 + xy 1 + xy
0 |e y+1 | dy = 0 e y+1 dy 0 e dy < +
+
0 exy y+1
1
dy
+
g(x) = 0 exy y+1
1
dy x (0, +).

x [a, +), |exy y+1

1
| = exy y+11
eay y [0, +) ,
+ ay + xy 1
0 e dy < +, 0 e y+1 dy g(x) [a, +).
, x [a, +) | x

(exy y+1
1
)| = exy y eay y [0, +)
+ ay + xy y+1 1
, , 0 e dy < +. 0 x (e y+1 ) dy -
h(x) [a, +).
, g(x) [a, +)
+ xy 1 + xy y
g (x) = h(x) = 0 x (e y+1 ) dy = 0 e y+1 dy x [a, +).

, , x0 > 0 a0 0 < a0 < x0 . g(x) -

[a0 , +) x0 g (x0 ) = h(x0 ). g(x)
(0, +)
+
g (x) = 0 exy y+1
y
dy x (0, +).

,
+ ( ) +
xg (x) + xg(x) = 0 xexy y
y+1 + 1
y+1 dy = 0 xexy dy = 1 x (0, +).
+ arctan(xt) arctan(yt)
12.4.11. 2 0 t2
dt x, y > 0.
. g(x, y) (0, +)(0, +).
g(x, y) -
2g +
g xy (x, y) = 2 0 1
(1+x2 t2 )(1+y 2 t2 )
1
dt = x+y x, y > 0.
g(x, y) = (x + y) log(x + y) x log x y log y x, y > 0.
: z = max{x, y} > 0, (0, +)
(0, z1 ] [ z1 , +) arctan(xt) arctan(zt) zt
arctan(yt) arctan(zt) zt 0 < t z1 arctan(xt) 2 arctan(yt) 2
z t < +.
1

878
 (x, y) [0, a] [0, a] a > 0, -
z = a.
y
12.4.12. I, f, g : I [c, +) R F (x, y) = c f (x, t) dt
g
x I y [c, +) f , y I [c, +).
[] x I g(x, y) , y, [c, +),
limy+ g(x, y) = 0 I F I [c, +),
+
c f (x, y)g(x, y) dy I.
[] x I g(x, y) ,
+ y, [c, +), g(x, y)
I [c, +) c f (x, y) dy
+
I, c f (x, y)g(x, y) dy -
I.
: 12.2.
1
12.5.1. 0 (log y1 )x1 dy = (x) x > 0.
: .
12.5.2. 12.15 (x)(x) ( (x))2
log (x).
Schwarz, Buniakowsky 12.3.13.
y y
e 2 y
(log y)e 2 .
x1 x1
: y x1 (log y)ey = y 2 2

+
12.5.3. Gauss, 0 ex dx = 2 ,
2

( ) ( )
21 = . n + 12 = (2n)!
4n n!
n Z, n 0.
: (x + 1) = x(x) x > 0.
12.5.4. x > 1.
ny y x1 , y, -
, a > 0, + n=1 e
x1
eyy 1 [a, +).
b x1 b ny x1 + ny x1
a eyy 1 dy = + n=1 a e y dy + n=1 0 e y dy, 0 < a < b <
+ yx1 + + ny x1
+. 0 ey 1 dy n=1 0 e y dy.
n + ky x1 + yx1
n k=1 0 e y dy 0 ey 1 dy.
+ + ny x1 + yx1
n=1 0 e y dy 0 ey 1 dy.
+ ny x1 + yx1
+ n=1 0 e y dy = 0 ey 1 dy x > 1.
+ ny x1
n N 0 e y dy = (x)
nx .
+ yx1
12.4.2, 12.3.7. (x)(x) = 0 ey 1 dy x > 1.

: . n x1
a , y x1 eny y
[a, +). , n x1
a ,
 n  + y x1 eny
 ky y x1 y x1  ky y x1 ax1 ena
k=1 e ey 1 = k=n+1 e = ey 1 ea 1

y [a, +).
, Weierstrass.
( y) eny y x1 [0, x1 x1
n ] [ n , +).
eny y x1 n
x1

( x1 )x1
|eny y x1 | en
x1
n
n = e1x (x 1)x1 nx1
1
n.

879

, + n=1 nx1 0 < x 1
1

Weierstrass (0, +). , , n

x1 ny y x1 [a, +) a ena ax1 .
a , e
n0 = [ a ]+1 +
x1
ena ax1 < +. + n=n0 e
ny y x1 , ,
+ ny x1 n=n 0
n=1 e y [a, +).
n x1
. k=1 eky y x1 eyy 1 .
n
12.5.5. 0 y x1 (1 ny )n dy (x) x > 0.
: x > 0.

( )n y
y x1 1 ny y x1 e n n = y x1 ey y > 0 n. (14.329)

+ > 0.
,
0 y x1 ey dy < +, a > 0
+ x1 y
a y e dy < 4 . (14.330)
( )n
y x1 1 ny y x1 ey [0, a]. , n 2a
y
n 2 y [0, a]
1

 x1 ( )n    ( )
y 1 ny y x1 ey  = y x1 en log(1(y/n)) ey  = y x1 ey 1 ey+n log(1(y/n))
( ) 2
y x1 ey 1 ey /n y x1 ey yn a n
2 x+1
y [0, a].
a x1 a
[0, a] 0 y (1 ny )n dy 0 y x1 ey dy.
n0
 a x1 a x1 y 
 y (1 y n
) dy e dy  < 2 n n0 .
0 n 0 y

(14.329) (14.330)
 + x1 + 
 y (1 ny )n dy 0 y x1 ey dy 
0 a a  a a
 0 y x1 (1 ny )n dy 0 y x1 ey dy  + 0 y x1 (1 ny )n dy + 0 y x1 ey dy
a a x1 y  a x1 y a x1 y
 y x1 (1 y )n dy
0 y n e dy  + 0y e dy + y0 e dy 0
<
2 +
4 +
4 = n n0 .
n +
0 y x1 (1 ny )n dy 0 y x1 ey dy = (x).
12.5.6. f : (0, +) R : (i) f (x) > 0
x (0, +), (ii) f (1) = 1, (iii) f (x + 1) = xf (x) x (0, +) (iv) log f
(0, +).
nx n!
x(x+1)(x+n) f (x) x (0, +).
f ,
, f = Gauss
12.5.5.
: 0 < x 1. (ii), (iii) f (n) = (n 1)! n N. n N,
n 2, 1 + n < n < x + n 1 + n, (iv)
(log f )(1+n)(log f )(n) (log f )(x+n)(log f )(n) (log f )(1+n)(log f )(n)
1 x 1 .

, (n 1)x (n 1)! f (x + n) nx (n 1)!, (iii)

(n1)x (n1)! nx (n1)!
x(x+1)(x+n1) f (x) x(x+1)(x+n1) .

880
 x
n n!
x(x+1)(x+n) f (x) x (0, 1]. (iii)
x (1, 2], x (2, 3] ...
(x)
12.5.7. (x) = x1 + + x
n=1 n(n+x) x > 0,
= limn+ (1 + 12 + + n1 log n) Euler 2.4.6, 6.4.11
7.3.20.
: . 0 < x 1 n N, n 2. n < x + n 1 + n log
(0 + ),
(log )(n)(log )(x+n)
x (log ) (x + n) (log )(1+n)(log )(x+n)
1x .

,
(x+n)
1
x log (x+n)
(n1)! (x+n) 1
1x
n!
log (x+n) ,

(x)
1
x log (x)x(x+1)(x+n1)
(n1)! (x) + 1
x + 1
x+1 + + 1
x+n1 1
1x
n!
log (x)x(x+1)(x+n1)

Gauss 12.5.5,
(x)
log n ( x1 + 1
x+1 + + 1
x+n ) (x)

(x)
(log n 1 1
2 n1 ) 1
x + (1 1
x+1 ) + ( 12 1
x+2 ) + + ( n1 1
x+n ) (x)

(x)
x
x+1 + x
2(x+2) + + x
n(x+n) (x) + + x1 .
+ (x)
x
n=1 n(n+x) = (x) + + x1 . x (1, 2], x (2, 3] ...
. 12.5.5 -
.

881
882


B(A), 401 Riemann, 255

BC(A), 420 , 301
C(A), 438 , 125
C([a, b]), 403 , 292
B, 483 , 11
, 481 , 23
, 55, 250, 296 Cauchy, 64, 425
x, y, 400 , 343
lim inf, 68, 110 , 207
lim sup, 68, 110 , 370
Rd , 399 , 293
R, 2 , 383
, 392, 395 , 444
(), 219 , 280
(), 219 , 336
||f ||p , 403
||x||2 , 400 Bernoulli, 1
||x||p , 402, 403 Cauchy, 189, 190, 319, 329, 400
, 370, 468 Hlder, 190, 251, 319, 329, 463, 469
lp , 403 Jensen, 206, 252, 329, 469
p- , 55, 315 Minkowski, 190, 251, 319, 329, 463, 469
, 316 Schwarz, Buniakowsky, 251, 463, 469
p-, 402, 403 Young, 190
p-, 402, 403 - , 189, 252
, 407
e, 51 , 383
, 263
Hlder- , 124, 154
, 68, 110
infimum, 6 Peano, 487
, 164
Lipschitz- , 124, 154 , 3
, 18
maximum, 6 , 401
minimum, 6 , 414
, 58
supremum, 6
, 302
, 11
, 400 Heisenberg, 295
, 401 , 487
, 400 , 491
, 400 , 428
, 401 , 446
Darboux, 226 , 220

883
, 118 Bernstein, 390
, 120 Bolzano, 140
, 87 Bolzano - Weierstrass, 61, 436
, 265 Cesro, 47
, 453456 Darboux, 183
, 472 Dini, 356, 370
, 40 Fejer, 276
, 376 Fekete, 276
, 40 Fermat, 177
, 302 Mertens, 336
Cauchy , 335 Riemann, 338
, 443 Rolle, 179
, 371 Tauber, 384
, 330 Weierstrass, 356
, 401 , 52
, 225 , 432
, 138, 446
Bessel 0, 478 , 269
, 274 , 256
, 273 - , 136, 438
, 165 Cauchy, 180
, 414 Lagrange, 180
() , 478 (),
, 379, 388 295, 298
, 2, 379 (),
Newton, 1, 381 247
, 370 ,
, 377, 385 238
, 377, 385 ,
, 376, 386 237
, 377, 385 , 154, 438
, 378, 387 , 47
, 382 , 108
, 382 , 105,
423
, 132 , 134, 141, 429
, 15 ,
, 15 131, 424
, 292 , 134
( ), 235
, 405 infimum, 6
Newton, 216 supremum, 6
R, 2 , 66
, 405 , 140
, 405 , 17
, 199 , 19, 51
, 161 , 415
, 207 , 429
, 406 , 125

Baire, 428 l Hopitl (), 209

884
 l Hopitl (), 207 , 289
, 169 , 278
, 170, 175 , 277
, 98, 127, 418 , 279
, 446 , 284
, 343, 361, 472 , 442
, 68, 110 , 253
, 407 Fresnel, 468
, 405 , 230, 257
, 57 , 345
, 194 , 402
, 153, 438
Abel, 327, 363, 465 , 347, 361, 472
Cauchy, 65, 111, 320, 350, 362, 464 Wronski, 182
Dedekind, 330 , 411
Dirichlet, 326, 363, 465 , 110
Dubois-Reymond, 330 , 405
Gauss, 330 , 28, 30, 32, 421
Weierstrass, 362 , 81, 416
, 321, 464 , 433
, 193
, 327 , 405
, 41, 323 , 159
, 231 Caratheodory, 166
, 310, 463 , 191
, , 36, 91
213 , 32, 78, 404
, 323 , 414
, 313 , 256
, 57 , 512
, 194 , 425
, 414 , 160
, 220 , 116
Riemann - Lebesgue, 296 , 85
, 19, 51 , 174, 181, 213, 382
, 248, 252, 469
, 219 Bernoulli, 276
, 78 Chebyshev, 184
, 401 Hermite, 204
Hausdorff, 442 Lagrange, 204
, 402 , 390
, 403 , 428
, 401 - , 389
, 261, 441 , 419
, 219
d- , 484 Simpson, 254
, 441 , 254
, 470 , 254
, 230, 257 , 254
Gauss, 471 . , 459
, 414, 427
, 14

885
 , 12 , 275
, 13
, 301 Gauss, 483
Taylor, 384 Leibniz, 204
, 361 Stirling, 296
Dirichlet, 328 Taylor, 214, 298
, 198 Wallis, 294
, 414 Abel, 326
, 77, 405 Euler, 296
, 177 , 483
Euler, 55, 250, 296 , 58
, 437 , 293
, 430 , 382
, 406
B, 483 , 59
, 481 , 67
Dirichlet, 230 , 325, 465
Riemann, 370, 468 , 330
, 75 , 430
, 148, 394
, 149
, 73
, 74
, 74
, 74
, 75
, 75, 391, 395
, 149
, 275
, 115, 416
Hermite, 204, 479
, 447
, 443
, 447
, 444
, 444
, 405
, 66
, 134
, 156
Cantor, 412
, 442
, 405
, 217
, 415
, 112, 124
, 306
Dedekind, 499
, 450
, 450
, 327, 368

886