Chapter 1

The Nature and Importance

of Aeolian Sand Research

1.1 Definitions

Processes described as aeolian (derived from Aeolus, the Greek god of the winds),
may be loosely defined as those which involve wind action, that is, erosion, trans-
port, or deposition arising from movement of air over the Earths surface. Air is
one of two important fluids, the other being water, which are mainly responsible
for transporting sediment over the Earths surface (a fluid is defined as a substance
that cannot sustain shear stress and which is deformed by it with limitless continu-
ity). Water and air have completely different physical properties, and the nature of
sediment transport differs significantly in the two fluids. In water, as a liquid, cohe-
sive forces hold the individual molecules together, thereby imparting volume but not
shape to the water body. Air, as a gas, is composed of non-cohesive molecules which
experience constant random movement and tend to disperse unless confined. Air can
be compressed much more readily than water, and the density of air at 18 C and at
sea level (1.3 kg m3 ) is about 800 times smaller than that of water (1000 kg m3 ).
The viscosity of air (1.8 105 N s m2 ) is also about two orders of magnitude lower
than that of water (1.06 103 N s m2 ). As a result, a current of water can entrain,
and keep suspended, much larger sediment particles than a current of air flowing
with the same velocity.
With relatively few exceptions, aeolian dunes and ripples are composed of
grains in the sand-size range (defined as 0.063 mm2 mm according to the Udden
Wentworth grain size scale; see Chap. 3). In air, grains of this size are transported
mainly by saltation (bouncing) or surface creep (rolling). Smaller individual parti-
cles of silt and clay are transported in suspension and may be dispersed over a wide
area. Such fine particles generally do not form aeolian ripples or dunes unless the
grains are aggregated into pellets of sand size.
There are three main groups of aeolian processes which are responsible for ero-
sion, transport, and sedimentation (Fig. 1.1). Erosional processes are of several types
and include (a) deflation of loose sediment due to direct wind drag, (b) entrain-
ment of loose sediment by impacting grains in the wind stream, and (c) abrasion of

K. Pye, Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes 1

Springer 2009
2 1 The Nature and Importance of Aeolian Sand Research

Fig. 1.1 The nature of aeolian processes

hard surfaces by particles entrained in the flow. Aeolian transport processes include
movement of individual grains, by creep, saltation, or suspension, and the migration
of bed forms. Sedimentation processes can also be divided into those which involve
individual grains and those which involve stabilization of bed forms. A clear distinc-
tion between transport and depositional processes cannot be made, however, since
sedimentation may occur simultaneously with bed form migration as, for example,
during the formation of climbing ripple lamination (Hunter 1977a).
Although the entrainment of sand particles is discussed in Chap. 4, the formation
of wind erosion and abrasion forms is outside the scope of this book. For a recent
review of these aspects, see Breed et al. (1989).
Aeolian deposits fall into three main categories: sand dunes, sand sheets, and
loess blankets. An aeolian sand dune can be defined simply as a mound or ridge
formed by wind deposition of loose sand. Dunes range in size from less than 1 m to
several kilometres. They can occur either as isolated ridges or be grouped together
to form dune fields. Dunes are found in many different settings and can be classified,
according to their geographical occurrence, as inland or continental dunes, coastal
or sea-shore dunes, riverbank dunes, and lake-shore dunes.
Sand sheets are accumulations of windblown sand which have a level or gently
undulating surface without significant development of dune topography. The term
cover sand, which is used in parts of Western Europe, has both a morphological and
a stratigraphic meaning. It refers to sand sheet deposits of late Pleistocene (mainly
Weichselian) age which blanket large areas with a more or less uniform thickness,
forming relief which does not vary by more than 5 m and with slope angles pre-
dominantly less than 6 (Koster 1982). The term drift sand is used in Europe to
describe later (Holocene) sand sheet or dune deposits which have formed by partial
reworking of Pleistocene cover sands (Koster 1982, Castel et al. 1989).
1.2 Previous Work 3

Loess blankets are deposits of windblown dust, consisting principally of silt-

size particles, which mantle a pre-existing land surface. Depending on the nature of
the underlying topography, the surface of a loess deposit may be almost flat, gently
undulating, or deeply dissected [see Pye (1987) for a review of loess characteristics].
Fluvio-aeolian deposits are interbedded or reworked mixtures of fluvial and ae-
olian sediments. They can form either by partial aeolian reworking of the upper
surface of an exposed fluvial deposit, or by fluvial reworking and re-deposition of
aeolian sediments during floods (Glennie 1970, Mader 1982, Good & Bryant 1985,
Langford 1989).
Niveo-aeolian deposits are mixtures of wind-transported sediment (usually sand)
and snow which are commonly found in polar regions and in some temperate re-
gions, especially at higher altitudes (Cailleux 1978, Ballantyne & Whittington 1987,
Koster & Dijkmans 1988).

1.2 Previous Work

Aeolian sand research is carried out in many different branches of the physical sci-
ences, earth sciences, life sciences, and development studies including agriculture
(Fig. 1.2). Although there is considerable overlap, engineers have tended to concen-
trate on the mechanics of sand transport and practical measures aimed at stabilizing
blowing sand, while geomorphologists and geologists have focused mainly on the

Fig. 1.2 The interdisciplinary nature of aeolian research

4 1 The Nature and Importance of Aeolian Sand Research

classification and morphometric analysis of dune forms, on measurements of ae-

olian processes, and on the interpretation of sediment characteristics and internal
structures.
Until the end of the nineteenth century, most geologists considered wind trans-
port of sediment to be much less important than sediment transport by water or
glaciers. Early recognition of the effects of aeolian processes included work by
Ehrenberg (1847), who described airborne dust transported from Africa to Europe,
Blake (1855), who was one of the first to recognize the extensive development of
wind erosion forms in deserts, and von Richthofen (1882), who recognized the pri-
mary aeolian origin of the vast loess deposits which blanket much of northern China.
However, most nineteenth century geologists regarded wind as relatively unimpor-
tant in comparison with water as an agent of sediment transport. For example, Udden
(1894, p. 320) expressed the view that wind erosion becomes geologically impor-
tant only in certain localities, and the conditions favouring it are a dry climate and
a topography of abrupt and broken reliefs. However, he also felt (Udden 1894,
p. 318) that the work performed by the winds in the atmosphere appears hardly to
have received its fair share of attention, and subsequently undertook some of the
first detailed sedimentological studies of windblown sand and dust (Udden 1896,
1898, 1914).
The early twentieth century saw slightly greater interest in aeolian processes and
sediments. During this period, wind erosion of soils emerged as a matter of concern
in the Midwestern United States (Free 1911), and several books and papers dealing
with the formation of inland and coastal sand dunes were published (Sokolow 1894,
Cornish 1897, 1900, 1914, Beadnell 1910, Case 1914, Hogbom 1923, Townsend
1925, Cressey 1928, Aufrre 1931, Enquist 1932, Dieren 1934). However, much of
this early work was descriptive, and it was not until the mid-1930s that major ad-
vances were made in understanding the mechanics of aeolian transport and dune for-
mation. By far the most important single contribution in this area was made by R.A.
Bagnold (Fig. 1.3), an engineer and soldier who made several sorties into the Libyan
desert during the early 1930s (Bagnold 1931, 1933, 1935a). He subsequently car-
ried out a number of fundamental experimental studies of sand movement by wind
(Bagnold 1935b, 1936, 1937a, 1937b). By virtue of his training, Bagnold was able
to apply and extend many of the fundamental principles of fluid mechanics estab-
lished by von Krmn (1934, 1935)), Prandtl (1935) and Shields (1936). Bagnolds
work, summarized in The physics of blown sand and desert dunes (Bagnold 1941),
provided an important theoretical basis which has influenced all subsequent studies
of aeolian sand transport and dune formation.
Significant contributions to the understanding of the mechanics of soil erosion by
wind were also made independently in the USA, following the dust bowl years of
the 1930s, by Chepil and his associates (Chepil 1941, 1945a, 1945b, Chepil & Milne
1939, 1941, Zingg & Chepil 1950). Much of this work was usefully summarized by
Chepil & Woodruff (1963).
The 1970s witnessed a significant growth of interest in aeolian studies, particu-
larly amongst geomorphologists and sedimentologists. Several factors contributed
to this situation. First, the exploitation of several new oil and gas provinces, includ-
1.2 Previous Work 5

Fig. 1.3 Brigadier Ralph Alger Bagnold FRS: pioneer in aeolian transport research (photograph
by C. R. Thorne)

ing the Middle East and southern North Sea, generated interest in present-day sand
seas as analogues for ancient aeolian reservoir sandstones (Glennie 1970, 1983a,
1987, Fryberger et al. 1983, 1984). Variations in the texture, internal structure, and
degree of early diagenesis of aeolian sands have exerted a significant influence on
the productive capacity of hydrocarbon reservoirs (Weber 1987, Lindquist 1988,
Richardson et al. 1988, Chandler et al. 1989). Second, the Mariner 9 and Viking l
6 1 The Nature and Importance of Aeolian Sand Research

and 2 spacecraft missions undertaken by NASA, which revealed that aeolian pro-
cesses are important on Mars, stimulated research into possible terrestrial analogues
and the fundamental mechanisms of aeolian sediment transport which might be rel-
evant to other planets (Breed & Grow 1979, Greeley et al. 1974a, 1974b, 1981,
Iversen & White 1982). Much of this work was summarized by McKee (1979a) and
Greeley & Iversen (1985). Third, the serious droughts which affected sub-Saharan
Africa and parts of Asia in the early 1970s, coupled with a growing recognition that
sand deserts were much more extensive during some earlier periods of the Pleis-
tocene (Grove & Warren 1968, Grove 1969, Sarnthein 1978), led to increased con-
cern about the processes and consequences of desertification in arid regions (Rapp
1974, Hagedorn et al. 1977, El-Baz 1986). Even more recently, concern about the
possible effects of greenhouse warming and sea level rises on coastal erosion and
flooding risks has led to increased interest in coastal dune dynamics. Beach-dune in-
teraction has emerged as an issue of great practical importance to coastal engineers
and planners [see, e.g., papers in Psuty (1988) and van der Meulen et al. (1989)].
Some of the research carried out in the last two decades has been compiled in
edited volumes and conference proceedings (Brookfield & Ahlbrandt 1983, Nick-
ling 1986, El-Baz & Hassan 1986, Kocurek 1988a, Hesp & Fryberger 1988, Nord-
strom et al. 1990). More general collections of papers on arid zone processes were
edited by Frostick & Reid (1987) and Thomas (1989a), and coastal environments
have been reviewed by Carter (1988). Bibliographies of desert dunes have been
compiled by Warren (1969), Lancaster & Hallward (1984), and Lancaster (1988c);
an annotated bibliography of sand stabilization literature was provided by Busche
et al. (1984).

1.3 Future Research Requirements

We now have a relatively good understanding of the mechanics of aeolian grain

transport, grainbed interactions and the formation of small bed forms such as rip-
ples. Satellite imagery and other remote sensing techniques have also provided much
information about the geographical distribution and morphological variety of dunes
at the regional scale. However, major uncertainties still surround the mechanisms
by which dunes are initiated, grow, and migrate in equilibrium with the airflow and
pattern of sediment transport over them. Very few detailed field studies have been
carried out to measure wind velocity and direction, surface shear stress, and rates of
sand transport on different parts of major dunes. The micrometeorological studies
which have been undertaken to date (e.g. Knott 1979, Tsoar 1978, Lettau & Lettau
1978, Livingstone 1986, Lee 1987, Mulligan 1987, Lancaster 1989b) refer to rela-
tively small dunes or have been hampered by a lack of adequate instrumentation at
an appropriate scale on large dunes. Consequently there is a requirement for more
detailed studies of spatial Variations in shear stress and sand transport rates, both
over individual dunes and at the dune field scale. The relationship between instanta-
neous turbulent flow velocities and sediment entrainment also requires clarification,
1.3 Future Research Requirements 7

as does the effect of high-magnitude, low-frequency winds in controlling dune mor-

phology.
The past five years have seen a rapid increase in the use of numerical modelling
techniques in aeolian studies (Walmsley & Howard 1985, Hunt & Nalpanis 1985,
Anderson 1987a, 1987b, Anderson & Hallet 1986, Anderson & Haff 1988, Fisher
& Galdies 1988). These studies have already contributed significantly to the un-
derstanding of grain transport and depositional processes over plane beds and in-
dividual simple dunes. For the future, the challenge lies in expanding the terrain
complexity and temporal scales which can be modelled, and in verifying models at
all scales by field data.
Knowledge about the thickness, mineral composition, age structure and environ-
mental history of sand deposits in many of the worlds major sand seas, particularly
in Africa and Central Asia, is still relatively limited. There is therefore a press-
ing requirement for further broad-scale field studies, involving geophysical surveys,
drilling, and supporting programmes of sediment analysis and dating. Only in this
way can the relationships between sand sea formation and regional geology, tec-
tonics, and climatic changes be fully documented and understood. The relative im-
portance of factors which control the onset of dune activation at the regional scale,
including wind energy, rainfall, and evaporation regime, needs to be clarified if we
are to make adequate predictions about the possible effects of greenhouse warming
and other future climatic changes.
In coastal environments, further work is required to elucidate the relationships
between phases of dune construction and changes in sea level, sediment supply, and
wind and wave climate. This can probably best be accomplished through a combi-
nation of morpho-stratigraphic and dating studies, laboratory and field experiments,
and numerical modelling. It is our hope that this book will contribute significantly
to the ultimate attainment of these goals by acting as a stimulus for further research.