Tshwane University of Technology DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND METALLURGICAL AND MINERALS ENGINEERING WRITING A REPORT Compiled by Dr. D.J. DelportCHAPTER 3: WRITING A REPORT 3.1 NOTEBOOKS / LOGBOOKS The notebook is used to prepare a record of experimental work. It is also the repository for diagrams, graphs, and standardization routines that permit repetition of experiments. Anotebook should be bound with stiff covers and may not have loose-leaf pages. Its pages should be consecutively numbered, and the book should contain a table of contents, preferably at the beginning. Copies of all notebook entries should be prepared and stored in a safe place. Loss of notes through fire or other accidents can be catastrophic. Notebook descriptions should include: Title, date, and purpose List of required equipment and materials. Outline of procedures including calibrations and standardizations. Observations and data. Graphical representations of data. Equations, calculations, and statistical tests. Records of unusual events that may influence results. Conclusions. Modified hypotheses and plans for future experiments. Researcher's signature If an experiment resembles a previous one, page references may be substituted for items 2 and 3. Data should be collected on data sheets specifically designed for the experiment or through use of spreadsheet software packages. Software such as Micro-soft Excel allows automatic mathematical conversion of similar sets of data and ready conversion of columnar data to graphic displays. Other software, such as Full Impact, allows easy conversion of spreadsheet data to annotated graphs, and the software Wing Z permits graphic analysis of three- dimensional data, The computer-developed (data) spreadsheets should be affixed to notebook pages when experiments are complete. Data should not be recorded on loose scraps of paper that can be lost. Also, sections of the notebook should not be rewritten because errors can be made during transcription of data. Notebook entries end with conclusions and descriptions of unusual events that may have influenced the results. Conclusions should be analyzed in terms of experimental hypotheses. Ifnecessary, alterative hypotheses and experiments should be proposed. Completed notebook entries should be signed and the signature of a witness added if there are plans to apply for a patent. Notebooks should be kept up to date. Entries should be made as close as possible to conclusions of experiments. Otherwise, errors may occur or motivation for notebook updating may wane. As noted earlier, a common temptation is to forget negative results and not to enter them in the notebook3.2 3.3 -22- This can lead to unnecessary duplication of work and embarrassment. The notebook is an important part of research. It is not, however, useful in conveying results to others. This activity requires a report. STUDENT PRACTICALS AND REVIEWS Technology courses usually involve a large proportion of practical training. This may come ina variety of forms such as formal practical classes, field excursions or assignments based on reading published scientific material, and they all involve the collection of data from experiments, surveys or written material, together with presentation and discussion for assessment There are three reasons why this training is included in scientifically-orientated courses; to develop a familiarity with the language and equipment of the branch of science being studied; to foster and develop skills in the technology believed to be essential for a graduate; and, most important, to develop an approach to the collection, collation and reporting of data. We are concerned here with the techniques of reporting clearly, logically and scientifically. Itis obvious that for prospective research workers, writing practical reports in a format like that used in writing research papers provides valuable practice for a future vocation. Perhaps itis not so obvious that this same training will be equally valuable for technologists who will not do research after graduation. All technologists whether they are advisers, technologists, consultants or private practicians have to read research results to remain in touch with their fields. An appreciation of what goes into 2 scientific or technological article can best be acquired through practice and criticism during the undergraduate course. Forthis reason, practical exercises and the consequent practical reports are an important part of undergraduate training. PRACTICAL REPORTS Many research projects may take six to twelve months to complete but most practical classes last for only one or two afternoons. Practical classes are therefore limited to only a few of the elements of typical research projects. Most of the thinking behind the practical class, the design of the experimental work, and the preparation of reagents and equipment are often already done when the student first begins to think about the work he will do. So the practical work itself will be to some extent artificial. The work will not be new to the world and the experiment may be un-realistically small with numbers of samples and treatments being constrained to the limits of time and space available. Nevertheless, when it comes to writing up the work the final reports should contain most of the elements seen in good scientific papers. After al, if you are a student the work will be new to you, and it will be worthwhile as'a training exercise to present the work in the form of an experiment as if you had been involved in all aspects. Your supervisors have designed the practicals in this spirit and, unless there are special reasons for doing otherwise, they will assess your written report with this in mind. The components will therefore be those of a standard scientific paper:3.3. <2 Title. Summary. Introduction. Materials and Methods Results. Discussion © Acknowledgements. © References. You may be specifically asked not to include certain components such as, for example, the 'Summary’ and the ‘Acknowledgements’. But, if no spécial instructions are given you should assume that specific training in scientific writing is an integral part of the practical class and that you will be expected to present all of the components. Reports written for should have the components/ elements as outlined in table 3.1 THE ‘INTRODUCTION’ An ‘Introduction’ to a scientific or technological article should contain an hypothesis preceded by a series of logical statements which make that hypothesis @ sensible thing to have tested. In the instructions for the practical class you may have been given the hypothesis but this is not always so. The hypothesis is often deliberately omitted or merely implied. The purpose of this is to encourage you to read enough about the subject to take the simple statement of aims or objectives which you have been given and develop it further to formulate a hypothesis Table 3.1 ELEMENTS OF A REPORT-24- 10. " 2 Tite ‘Name on wast the reprtis about ‘Name and student numberof he person who comple the report Purpose of the repod “Tor which subject course. Date ofthe roport [Number ofthe report for recors purposes. Examiner's report Index ° win page numbers, List of figures. st of tables. List of abbreviations Introduction State the problem, analyze the problem and say what are you going to dothow you se the investigation. Literature Study “What nave ctv people doneisakd”” De not quote pecoe if you are not gong to use them n your arguments. Hf you quote somaboay “uote” (Van de’ Merwe, 1970) 6 Van Ger Merve (1970) sa me FeciltiesEquipment 1p you make use of equipment tat willintuence your answer? Only specialoutstandng equpment Method ‘What id you do thus wen nthe past tense! Results ‘This is your raw 2s wel as your processed reeuts, Preferably tabulated and grape craw ofthe outs Discussion "What id you fn and what contnbuton do you make? Why i ithappenis 07 Compare your results wth erature Conclusion ‘What vision co you heve on this mete: - suggestions which you came to, you donot say and ell how well ou have (Covered and resoved the problem nobody wit now etre oy Literature Reference How to cite references: Books: Auer 1970_ TITLE. Eaton number. Pace ef edtion:Edtoc Pages used For example, if the practical class notes said: ‘The aim of today's experiment is to cook meat from old and young sheep - mutton and lamb -_at three temperatures 60°, 75°, and 90°, and examine the degree of loss of moisture’ you would be expected to do much more than repeat this aim as your ‘introduction’. You would be expected to think and read about the subject to come up with one or more hypotheses which in this case might be: ‘The experiment was a test of the hypotheses that meat from old animals loses less moisture than meat from young animals and that the degree of loss depends on the temperature of cooking. You would now have to present reasons why you have these expectations (or hypotheses) about the outcome of the experiment. You might explain that water hoiding capacity is related to tenderness (with a reference) and tendemess is related to age (with another reference). Then you would need to show (with references) why you think that more water would be lost at high, than at low temperatures.3.3.2 3.3.3 -25- When you have done this you will have constructed your first paragraph which, together with the hypothesis, will complete a good ‘introduction A second example: ‘The object of the experiment is to study the percentage germination of rice and wheat seeds in growth media having different concentrations of salt The hypothesis might be: ‘Rice seeds are more tolerant to salt than wheat seeds are." Rice can survive much higher waterlogging than wheat and this should give it higher tolerance to salt. Your ‘introduction’ should develop this point and any other you believe relevant to the hypothesis and support them with references wherever possible. The final effect will be to produce an ‘Introduction’ very different from and far more meaningful than the mere instructions which you were originally given. Such an ‘Introduction’ will also give you a sound basis for constructing the rest of the report. THE ‘MATERIALS AND METHODS' The methodology is usually given in detail in most practical laboratory experiments. Nevertheless, you must ask yourself whether the instructions were as clear as they could have been. You are, after all, a good person to judge this because you have had to do the experiment by following the instructions. If you had some trouble in understanding them or carrying out the technique, you should take the opportunity to clarify the written material in your own version. Sometimes you get important information, from ‘Prelabs’ or discussion with demonstrators or fellow students which was not included in the written material. Your report will be the more impressive if this information is incorporated logically into your own ‘Materials and Methods’ section. If you do it well you will gain the immediate benefit of impressing your supervisor and maybe the longer term benefit of helping future classes if your suggestions are adopted into the official notes. Furthermore, you may need to refer later to changes in the methods you used from those stated, to explain some aspects of your results. THE 'RESULTS' Results should, of course, be reported correctly and faithfully but this does not mean that you should present all of your raw results. One of the most common faults in practical reports is that the results have been presented in the form of a direct transcription from the laboratory notebook. Your chances of achieving good marks will rise substantially if you can show that you have thought about the raw information and have processed it into meaningful graphs, tables, or diagrams which smooth the way fora logical ‘Discussion’ section. In most cases a mean and its standard error are more valuable than the large number of individual records from which they may have been derived. You are not hiding results or taking short cuts by leaving out the individual records. In assessing our work, supervisors are looking for your ability to discriminate and interpret. Filing pages with raw data does not demonstrate this abilty. Remember that the hypothesis you presented in the ‘Introduction’ section should be the guide which directs the way you process your data. The final presentation should be ina form which most easily allows you in the ‘Discussion’ to accept or reject the hypothesis.3.3.4 3.3. 3.3. 5 @ -26- Tables, graphs and diagrams in practical reports, as in scientific papers, should be fully and correctly titled and be''self-supporting’. Similarly the text should be readable without the tables and graphs but, of course, complemented by them. THE 'DISCUSSION' You should not have too much trouble in separating the major points of discussion from the minor ones, because most practical exercises are relatively simple. The main topic for discussion should be whether or not the hypothesis is supported. This will occupy the opening, and possibly the only, paragraph of your ‘Discussion’. If there are other interesting points arising from your results Which are not related to the discussion of the hypothesis they should be presented in succeeding paragraphs. Sometimes discussions of practical exercises can be difficult because the data are not as clear cut as they could be. An exercise lasting for only a few hours often has imperfections. For example, there may be insufficient results to ensure statistical significance of differences between treatment means, or short cuts may have to be made in the design which could confound the results. Such inadequacies would not be tolerated in a research project destined for Publication in a journal. In order to make a worthwhile discussion of a practical exercise it may be necessary to take some licence. Remember, you are involved in a training exercise in writing and to make the exercise worth-while you may have to acknowledge that you were not able to fulfil the technical aspects as well as you would have liked. Perhaps you will have to accept a lower order of statistical probability than five per cent or admit that there could be a confounding of the results. If you are forced into this position the important thing is to acknowledge the problem you face. In so doing you should describe clearly how the experiment might have been done better had you had more time or materials than was possible in the practical class. Then, and only then, should you go ahead and discuss your results as if they were a little more convincing than they were. Occasionally, you may have reason to doubt some of your results owing, for example, to your lack of experience in the necessary techniques. Ordinarily, you would repeat the part of the work in doubt, but this is generally not possible in practical classes because of lack of time. You may decide to leave out those doubtful results in order to make your conclusions clearer. Take care to explain fully your reasons for omitting these data. Without such explanation it will appear that you were simply trying to make your results fit preconceived conclusions. THE ‘ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS' Normally there will be no acknowledgements in a practical report. Lavish praise of your supervisor is unlikely to get you extra marks. But, if you have used extra data from another source such as a colleague or another practical class group, then say so. THE 'REFERENCES' References should be handled exactly as for a paper for a scientific journal. They should be exact, correctly abbreviated according to a specified format, and cited in both the text'and the 'References' section. Papers and books wi have been consulted as background reading but which have not been cited in3.4 -27- the report itseif should not be included. Not only are practical periods too short for many experimental exercises, but also the hours available for the writing of reports (although some individuals seem to have more than others). It is seldom possible to write three or four drafts of practical reports. Nevertheless the hallmarks of a scientist are his precision, clarity, and, to a lesser extent, brevity. It is simply not possible to give the impression of having any of these attributes by handing in an unchecked first draft of a practical report. Reading your own report to check for obvious errors and matching it against a checklist will take a small amount of time compared with the improvement it will make. A second step, requiring no more time and often yielding a similar degree of improvement, is to ask a class-mate to read your report and comment on it. Perhaps you can do the same for his. This is not cheating. A practical report is not an exam paper, although it may contribute to your final marks. To use the criticism of colleagues to produce a scientifically acceptable report (providing of course it is you who will make the eventual corrections and changes!) is eminently scientific and laudable. Not only that, it is an excellent way of learning. REVIEWS AND ESSAYS Another form of practical assignment is a literature review where the research is carried out in a library, tracing and studying original references Reviews by undergraduates cannot be expected to be as comprehensive as good reviews by experienced scientists. Good reviews contain a substantial Proportion of new thinking based onthe cited work and alot of this new thinking is the result of years of experience in the field of study. Nevertheless an inexperienced reviewer must stil try to inject some of his own thoughts into his work. Simple lists of facts and references do not constitute a review. Not oniy that, they are dull - dull to write and even duller to read. How can we avoid writing catalogue-type reviews? Much research is characterised by the variability which exists between individuals, means, and populations. Conclusions and generalisations about the one subject made from several sets of data often differ, simply because data vary enough to suggest different interpretations. In your reading you will repeatedly encounter differing points of view or apparently conflicting data. You may not have the experience of the authors whose work you are reading but you do have the advantage of hindsight. You can look at work done several years ago in the light of more recent knowledge; the original author might have had to assess his own work in relative isolation. This gives you the opportunity to reassess his conclusions and to compare them with those of later or contemporary workers. You may even see results which the author thought little of at the time and failed to discuss adequately. These results may appear to you to be very significant in the light oflater work. Ifso you have an excellent chance to make an original contribution by drawing attention to its significance. Thus, when reading the literature for your review you should be alert for opportunities to: Compare results and conclusions by different authors Contrast results which appear to lead to different conclusions. Reassess results in the light of new information not available to the original authors.-28- In each case you should be prepared to make a statement which rationalises, explains, confirms, or refutes the work you are going to cite in your review. Not all information is amenable to such analysis but if you can find just a few examples it will lift the quality of your review immeasurably. Assessors are attracted by original thinking. Even if you are not always considered to be correct you will get good marks provided that your attempt has been characterised by completeness and logical thinking The key to a good research review is an effective introductory paragraph. ‘Here is where the reader is told what to expect and - just as important - what not to expect from the review. In most cases the title you have been given will allow some latitude in scope and emphasis so that you must define for the reader the exact limits of the material you will be covering. If the reader's interpretation of the title is different to yours he may expect to find information which will not be in your review. By carefully defining from the start what you are going to discuss you can avoid disappointing such a reader. You can help him even further by indicating the order in which you plan to discuss your ideas. Thus the first paragraph in your completed review has the essential role of guiding the reader. Because of this, you may find that you cannot construct it satisfactorily during the actual writing until the main body of the material, or at least a detailed outline of it, has been completed. The concluding paragraph, too, has an important role. In it you can emphasise the main points you feel you have made in the review. If these points have already been foreshadowed in the ‘Introduction’ the review will have a sense of coherence. The impact of your review will be very much greater if these main points to which you refer in the concluding paragraph are the ones which you yourself developed rather than those taken from cited references As before, editing, re-reading and re-drafting are essential if you want to hand in a review which you are proud of and which may result in good marks Generally a review will have more references than a practical report and these, as always, must be checked for accuracy. You should make certain that you have not, consciously or unconsciously, been guilty of plagiarism - the uncited use of works or work of others. Sometimes in making notes you may write down, without change, expressions used by authors and incorporate them later in your own version without attributing them correctly. If such expressions are essential to your essay you must use quotation marks and cite the author, and you must be very careful that the quotation is accurate. Quotations are often very useful where a particular explanation has been well expressed or where an author appears to have been prophetic. It is nonetheless a good idea not to have too many quotations of this sort. They detract from your earlier efforts of originality by emphasising that you are not even using your own words, much less your own thoughts. The essential ingredient in a review, then, is the expression of your own ideas. It makes the difference between a dull catalogue of facts and an interesting account of a field of study. Your overall aim should be to inject evidence of your own clear thinking into the introduction, the body and the concluding paragraph. Ifyou succeed your potential as a scientist will be unquestioned.3.5 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL CARE OF DISSERTATIONS AND THESES. 3.5.1 REFERENCE TECHNIQUE : THE HARVARD METHOD 3.5.1.1 Purpose of text references If other authors’ ideas or arguments are utilised or if facts taken from their work are presented, reference must be made to the sources in which the ideas, arguments and/or facts were found. This is done by @ clearly identifying the source (author and work) in which the facts, ideas and arguments were found,; and © stating exactly where (the page in the source) the information was found. Sources are referred to in dissertations and theses for two main reasons: © — to.acknowledge the sources used, and @ so that readers can consult sources to determine whether each source is credible and whether facts and knowledge were interpreted and conveyed correctly in the dissertation or thesis. 3.5.1.2 The relationship between text references and the bibliography Text references and the bibliography go hand in hand. It is essential for the particulars of an item in the bibliography to be absolutely correct. If this is not the case, the text reference will also be incorrect. 3.5.1.3 The Harvard reference technique There are numerous reference methods, all of which are acceptable as long as the author applies one method consistently. Researchers in a specific discipline often prefer a specific method that is used consistently within that discipline. As in the case of most academic institutions, Technikon Pretoria prefers the Harvard reference method for the sake of uniformity. 3.5.1.3.1 Principles of the Harvard method The Harvard method is based on the assumption that the study leader and other specialists know the author in their field. The name of the author and date of the source referred to are therefore provided in the text of the dissertation/thesis, as well as the pages in the source where the information can be found. The reader therefore does not need to page back and forth between the text and the bibliography to see whom is being referred to, and can see at a glance how recent the source is. However, the complete particulars of the source are provided in the bibliography. The particulars of the source provided in the bibliography combined with the page number(s) in the text reference enable the reader to find the original information. 3.5.1.3.2 Examples of the Harvard reference technique The following are examples of how the same information can be refered to or quoted in different ways:@) e) @ @g) (h) @ -30- According to Swart (1989:4) the objective of an academic library is to ... (The author says the rest in his own words). The objective of an academic library is to provide in the education and research needs of its users (Swart, 1989:4). (Author's own words) ‘Swart (1989:4) explains that the objective of an academic library is to meet the "education needs and research needs" of the lecturers and students. ‘Swart (1989:4) states the following: "An academic library must also provide in the education needs and research needs of its special user group." Swart (1989:4) points out the following objective of the academic library: "...to provide in the education needs and research needs of its special user group.” “An academic library must also provide in the education needs and research needs of its special user group" (Swart, 1989:4). Swart (1989:4) points out that it "...[supports] the objectives of the academic institution of which it forms part. An academic library must also provide in the education needs and research needs of its special user group". The technikon library is an academic library. The objectives of an academic library are directly related to the objectives of a technikon. The academic library therefore also has a definite educational function. (Swart, 1989:4). For specific emphasis a quotation may also be centred and block-ed, especially in the case of a long quotation, for example: Swart (1989:4) emphasises the educational function of a technikon library when he states the following: "Academic libraries support the objectives of the academic institution of which it forms part. An academic library must also provide in the education needs and research needs of its special user group". In these examples Swart is the author of the book, 1989 is the year in which the book was published and 4 is the page in the book where the information appears. The source referred to is listed in the bibliography as follows: SWART, E.S. 1989. Biblioteke en gebruikers. Durban: Butterworth. 3.5.1.3.3 The use of punctuation in text references Round brackets are used. If the author's name forms part of the sentence, it is placed outside the bracket, with the date and the page numbers inside the bracket. The date and page numbers are separated by a colon. The abbreviation "p" is not used. Example: According to Swart (1989:4) it is important that If the author's name does not form part of the sentence, all the information are-31- placed within the bracket, with a comma after the author's surname. Example: Academic libraries are also educational libraries (Swart, 1989:4) ‘The author's surname, or the title if there is a title entry of the source in the bibliography, is in lower case letters (in the bibliography it is in capital letters). In the case of a reference to a title entry in the bibliography, long titles may be abbreviated to five words, followed by the dele... in the case of title entries that start with an article, the article is left out in the text entry. Example: Modern theory of molecular physics...(1990; Chapter 5) deals with these aspects. 3.5.1.3.4 The use of punctuation in quotations If direct quotations are used, these are placed in quotation marks. Double quotation marks (") are preferred, so that quotations within quotations can be placed in single quotation marks ('). Take special note of the placement of the full-stop inside or outside the final quotation mark in the above examples. In cases where the quotation forms part of the natural sentence structure of a larger sentence, with the reference at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence, the full-stop indicating the end of the sentence is placed inside the quotation marks. (See examples (d) and (e) in 3.5.1.3.2). However, if the reference is placed at the end of the sentence, the quotation marks are closed, but the full-stop is placed only after the reference, therefore outside the quotation marks. (See examples (f) and (h) in 3.5.1.3.2). If the quotation comprises more than one sentence, or forms part of a first sentence together with a second sentence, the full-stop is placed right at the end, outside the quotation marks. (Example (g) in 3.5.1.3.2). The same applies in cases where the reference is found at the end of the sentence. if, for example, the reference in example (g) had been placed at the end of the sentence, it would look like this:...needs of its special user group". (Swart, 1989:4 In cases where the word order is changed in order for the quotation to fit into the. sentence structure (compare example (g)) the place where a word or words are left out is indicated with the dele..., and where the word or words is inserted in another place in the sentence, itis placed in square brackets. 3.5.1.3.5 Unusual references References to a number of pages in a book According to Swart (1989: 4, 59-60)-32- Reference to a complete chapter: According to Swart (1989: Chapter 3)... Reference to a whole book: According to Swart (1989) Reference to an author who has published more than one source in the same year: ..."(Swart, 1989b:4) (it will appear as such in the bibliography) Reference to different works by the same author: Swart repeatedly (1978:65-66, 1984:43, 1989:4) refers to the. Reference to multiple sources by different authors: ‘Swart (1989:4) and Van Dyk (1994:13-14) indicate the following... or Technikon libraries... (Swart, 1989:4; Van Dyk, 1994:13). Swart (1989:4), Van Wyk (1994:13-44) and Coen (1995:25). Reference to a book with two authors: According to Swart and Venter (1989:4)... (Swart & Venter, 1989:4) claim that... Note that the word 'and' is abbreviated with ‘8 if itis placed within the brackets. Reference to a book with three authors: According to Swart, Venter and Bouwer (1989:4)... (Swart, Venter & Bouwer, 1989:4) claim that... Reference to a book with more than three authors; Option 4: First author plus abbreviation for 'and others: ‘According to Swart et al. (1989:4) Option 2: Title entry (same as in the bibliography): communikasie in praktyk, 1988:16-20) ..The following criteria are listed in "Kommunikasie in die praktyk" (1988:16-20): Reference to a title entry of which the title is exceptionally long: first five words and the dele...: .."(Introduction to online information systems..., 1984:78) References to another part of the dissertation/thesis:-33- (Compare paragraph 4.3.2.6). * Double-reference, i.e. reference to a source in which another source is quoted or referred t ..."(De Beer as cited by Swart, 1989:4) 3.5.2 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY: HARVARD METHOD The bibliography contains complete information of each source referred to by the author in the text. It is very important for each item in the bibliography to be correct before the final draft of the dissertation/thesis, since the main entry of the item (that is, the first word) directly affects the text reference. The bibliography must therefore be kept up to date right from the start. Since the bibliography is arranged alphabetically, and since all the sources are not handled at the same time, the use of a card system is recommended, with a card for each source Cards can then easily be added or taken out. (A computer program with an alphabetical sorting function is the ideal solution). Take care that all the elements of information listed in the examples that follow, are recorded right from the start. Incomplete tems in the final iblography will make it impossible to trace the text references. The bibliography of this document can serve as an example. 3.5.24 Components of a bibliography The bibliography comprises a number of entries, each containing sufficient information to identify the source. An entry consists of a number of areas, divided by a full-stop and two spaces. The following example consists of 6 areas: HUTCHISON, J. & JACKSON, E. 1990. Cataloguing. Fifth edition. Durban: Butterworth. 210 p. ‘Area 1 contains the heading of the entry. The above example is an author ‘entry because the main entry is under author. If the author is unknown, the title of the source is listed in area 1 and itis a title entry: COMMUNICATION in practice. 1990. Second edition. Johannesburg: Perskor. 98p. 3532 Sources of information The sources from which the information is obtained, varies according to the physical format of the information source, and will be indicated at each type. All information not obtained in the source itself is placed in square brackets []. FOSKETT, A.C. & BLACK, Jonathan. 1992. The subject approach to information. Fifth edition. [London]; Bingley. Iftwo elements following directly on each other are not available, the information is placed in one set of square brackets:-34- FOURIE, A.C. 1992. Letterkundige studies. [Kaapstad: Tafelberg]. 3.6.2.3 Typing format and other technical aspects The heading BIBLIOGRAPHY can be centred or justified against the margin Each entry starts against the margin and the second and subsequent lines of each entry is indented by five spaces. (Indentation is not a rule, but is used for purposes of readability. A line is skipped between entries. Entries are not numbered. ‘The areas within each entry are separated by a full-stop and two spaces. If aword-processor is used, the text must not be justified against the right-hand margin, since this will affect the spacing. The title of the information source is underlined/printed in italics/printed in bold. Therefore, in the case of an article in a periodical the title of the periodical is underlined, and not the title of the article. The surnames of the authors in the main entry, or the first word (articles excluded) of the title in the case of a title main entry is typed in capital letters (as in the case of indenting the second and subsequent lines, this is not necessary but makes it easier to read the text) Initials may be typed with or without full-stops (but be consistent). In the case of a main entry under the name of an institution (a corporate author), the whole name appears in capital letters, for example COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH. If the corporate author also has a subordinate section, the subsection is printed in lower case letters, for example TECHNIKON PRETORIA. Bureau for Personnel Development. In the rest of the entry normal language rules regarding the use of capital letters are followed - each area starts with a capital letter because it is preceded by a full-stop. The first letter of proper names and words forming part of the names of organisations (articles, prepositions and conjunctions excluded) is in capital letters. The whole title is therefore in lower-case letters, with the exception of the first letter of the first word and the first letter of proper names and meaningful words in the names of organisations. A subtitle does not start with a capital letter either. (If the title ina title entry starts with an article the article is in lower-case letters and the second word in capital letters, since the article is not taken. into account for filing purposes. (See example in 3.5.2.7.8) The first letter of an acronym, for example Iscor or Sabinet, is a capital letter. If the letters are not pronounced as a word, the full abbreviation is in capital letters, for example HSRC, SABC. Each entry is written in the language of the information source.-35- Avoid abbreviations, except for the following that must be used: & (endien) Botvoan na names of aur the man ety (Examples 35.5.2 unos: betwen the Ist ane 2nd Sunes between te 2nd. the ed amp/samest conpieteanessior (and others) aferihe name cfthe is aur when ner more an 3 authors 30 dale ndested nha pase of publicaton cad nthe source sn. no publshe incited inthe source Acknowledged abbreviations for degrees and diplomas, fr example MEG. D Lit et Phi, ete Note the use of punctuation marks in the examples. 3.5.24 Arrangement Regardless of the physical form of the information source, all entries are arranged in one alphabetical order according to the heading of the entry (Consult the study leader in this regard - sometimes different arrangements ae preferred) If the main entry of two sources are identical, the date is taken into consideration. FOSKETT, A.C. 1982. The subject approach... FOSKETT, A.C. 1993. Text retrieval systems. If the heading and date of two sources are identical, the dates are specified alphabetically. FOSKETT, A.C. 1982a. The subject approach... FOSKETT, A.C. 1982b. Text retrieval systems... ane first word of the title (articles excluded) determines which source is listed first. Articles at the beginning of titles are ignored for arrangement purposes. (The previous example also applies in this regard). 3.5.2.5 Basic rules for the names of authors in the heading of the entry Surnames are listed before initials or names (note: in the rest of the description, i.e. after the date, itis listed in direct order) FOSKETT, A. C. & BLACK, Jonathan. 1992. Text. FOSKETT, A. C. & BLACK, Jonathan & Williams, M.E.. 1992. Text... In the case of sources with 1, 2 or 3 authors all the names are given. In the case of sources with more than 3 authors there are two options, one of which must be applied consistently. (See examples in 3.5.2.7.4). Option 4~36- All the authors are listed in area 1, even if there are 12. However, in the text reference only the first is referred to followed by et al., for example: Van Breda etal. (1995:89) points out that. Option 2: The main entry is under title (see examples that follow). Because the entry in the bibliography is under title, the text reference will correspond (see example in 3.5.1.3.) 3.5.2.6 Basic rules for the rest of the entry 3.5.2.6.1 Date * Only the year is provided in area 2. Where there are two or more dates, select the year in which the specific edition appeared. If there is no date of publication, give the copyright date, preceded by the copyright symbol c (for example c1984) If no date is provided, use the abbreviation for no date, [S.a.] between square brackets. VENTER, A.L. [S.a.]. The winds of change. Pretoria: HAUM. 3.5.2.6.2 Title * Title exactly as in the book, but change punctuation and capital letters as required. Subtitle is preceded by a colon and does not start with a capital letter. VENTER, A. L. [S.a.]. The winds of change : the story of South Africa. Pretoria: HAUM. 3.5.2.6.3 Edition * A first edition is not indicated. In the case of more than one the latest edition is supplied. 3.5.2.6.4 Publication Information * Provide the name of the town or city, not the country or suburb (in the case of publishers in the USA, Canada and Aus:-alia the abbreviation of the state is often added). Provide the name of the publisher in the shortest possible form that will be recognised internationally, i. leave out initials, first names and terms of incorporation, for example Van Schaik (not J L van Schaik Limited). If information does not appear in the source but is found elsewhere, such information is placed in square brackets. If the information does not appear at all, indicate this with the abbreviation [S.I] which means no place and/or [s.n.] which means no name. FRONEMAN, Richard S. 1990. Guidelines on writing scientific articles. Pretoria: [s.n.]. * In the case of unpublished sources, where a place of publication or publisher is not involved, this information is left out. NB: the title of unpublished sources are not underlined!!! (See example in 3.5.2.12)-37- TECHNIKON PRETORIA. 1994. Guidelines on degree courriculation at Technikon Pretoria. Internal document. * Inthe case of unpublished dissertations and theses, the following particulars are provided instead: name of qualification, name of educational institution, place where institution is located. (If the name of the place forms part of the name of the institution, the place is left out, for example... University of South Africa, Pretoria, but ... University of Pretoria). ss DE JAGER, Cilla. 1989. The history of technikon libra- ties. M.Bibl.-dissertation, University of Pretoria. * If the author and the publisher is the same person or organisation, the publisher is left out. STATE LIBRARY. 1992. Interlending manual. Sixth edition Pretoria 3.5.2.7 Books * The title page and title page verso usually contain all the required information. * Sequence of areas a. Authors (surname followed by initials/first names) (except if there is no author) Date (year only) Title Edition (not first) Place of publication: name of publisher Number of pages in book (is generally left our - consult your study leader) Series (in round brackets) (is generally left out - consult your study leader) e@>9a0n 3.5.2.7.1 A book by one author BERNARD, P.B. 1981. Onderwysbestuur en ondenysleiding. Durban: Butterworth. 3.5.27.2 Abook by two authors BASSET, R.E. & SMYTHE, M-J. 1979. Communication and instruction. New York: Harper & Row. 3.5.27.3 Abook by three authors CAWOOD, J., STRYDOM, A. & VAN LOGGERENBERG, N. 1980. Doettreffende onderwys. Goodwood: Nasou. 3.5.2.7.4 Abook by more than three authors There are 2 options. Select one and use it consistently Option 1: All the authors are mentioned, regardless of the number. In text reference the first author is mentioned, followed by ..[et al|] (See example in 3.5.1.3.5).-38- Option 2: The entry is under title - recommended. INFORMATION retrieval. 1988. By J. Trehan...fetal] Los Angeles: Wiley. 3.5.2.7.5 A book of which the author is not mentioned COMMUNICATION in practice. 1990. Second edition. Johannesburg: Perskor. 3.5.2.7.6 Abook edited by another person DE WET, Pieter F.J. 1980. Research methodology. Edited by W.A. Prinsloo. Durban: Butterworth. 3.5.2.7.7 A book by one or more authors translated by another person SHANE, Wilfred & WALPOLE, David S. 1990. Body language. Translated by Una Mey. [Pretoria]: HAUM 3.5.2.7.8 A book of which the author is not mentioned, and that has been translated by another person (according to the example in 3.5.2.7.4) The TEACHER'S quide to classroom management. 1990. Translated by Gwen Jones. London: Bodley Head. 3.5.2.7.9 A book compiled by editors (These examples apply only if the whole document is referred to. If it is an individual contribution by one or more authors within the book, it is dealt with as in 3.5.2.8) There are two options. Select one and use it consistently. Option 1; Entry under title - recommended COMMUNICATIVE aspects of information organisation. 1984. Edited by A. Rennie McElroy. London: Library Association. Option 2: Entry under editor McELROY, A. Rennie (ed.). 1984. Communicative aspects of information organisation. London: Library Association. 3.5.2.7.10 A book that forms part of a multipart volume WATSON, E. & VARTY, W. 1987. World focus. Volume 4 Southern Africa. London: McGraw-Hill 3.5.2.7.11 A book by a corporate author (organisation)-39- BRITISH MUSEUM. 1994. Catalogue of paintings in the British Museum. London. (for leaving out the name of the publisher see 3.5.2.6.4). RAAD VIR GEESTESWETENSKAPLIKE. NAVORSING. Ondersoek na die Onderwys. Hoofkomitee. 1981. Onderwysvoor- siening in die RSA: verslag. Pretoria: RGN 3.5.2.7.12 A government publication REPUBLIEK VAN SUID-AFRIKA. Departement van Nasionale Opvoeding. 1992. Algemene bs eid vir onderrigpro- gramme aan technikons. Pretoria. TRANSVAAL. 1958. Ordinance. Pretoria: Government Printer. 3.5.2.7.13 Conference proceedings CONFERENCE OF BRITISH TEACHERS OF MARKETING AT ‘ADVANCED LEVEL (3rd : 1986 : Harrogate). 1987, Proceedings. Lancaster: University of Lancaster. (This applies only if the publication as a whole is referred to. If reference is made to an individual contribution within the book: that contains the proceedings, it is dealt with as in 3.5.2.8) 3.5.2.7.14 Dissertations and theses A published dissertation/thesis is treated as a book. If unpublished, the publisher's information is left out, and the following applies: DE JAGER, Cilla. 1989. The history of technikon libraries. M.Bibl-dissertation, University of Pretoria. LE ROUX, Abraham Stefanus. 1992. Die rol van kom- munikasie in klaskamerbestuur binne technikon- verband. M.Ed.-verhandeling, Universiteit van Suid- Afrika, Pretoria. * Because it is unpublished the title is not underlined. 3.5.2.8 Contributions in collections = A collection is a book that consists of different contributions/articles/chapters of ‘anich one oF more were written by a different author or different authors. The name of the editor/compiler of the contributions is often mentioned on the title page. : The same rules as those for books apply, with the exception that the particulars OPE SaMithor/s and title of the contribution are printed before the particulars of the book in which it appears, preceded by the word In. + Sequence of areas-40- Author/s of contribution Date of collection Title of contribution (underlined/in bold/in italics), preceded by In: Editor/Compiler (if mentioned) Place of publication: name of publisher: pages in book where contribution can be found eapgp 3.5.2.8.1 Contributions by one or more authors Option 4: WATSON, James, ELTON, William & McELROY, A. Rennie. 1984. The information age?: tell me another! Communicative aspects of information organisation. Edited by A. Rennie McElroy. London: Library Association: 41-56. Option 2: WATSON, James, ELTON, William & McELROY, A. Rennie. 1984. The information age?: tell me another! In: McELROY, A Rennie (ed.). Communicative aspects of information organisation. London: Library Association: 41-56 (The option selected will be determined by the option selected in 3.5.2.7. 8) HORNER, John. 1982. The future of cataloguing. In: The future of present information retrieval techniques. Compiled by F.W. Lancaster. London: Wiley: 12-41. COLLEGE library collection development. 1977. By Eva Martin...[et al.] In: The administration of the college library. Edited by Joanne Delaney. Second edition. New York: Bowker: 52-164 WILLIAMS, Richard. 1987. Marketing skills for teachers.’ In: Conference of British Teachers of Marketing at Advanced Level (3rd: 1986: Harrogate). Proceedings. Lancaster: University of Lancaster: T2117, 3.5.2.82 Acontribution of which the author is not mentioned PRACTICAL ideas for teaching preschoolers. 1991 In: Teaching can be fun. Edited by Joan Munday... [etal] London: Bloomsbury: 66-74 3.5.2.9 Contributions/articles in encyclopedias 3.5.2.9.1 A contribution in a single-volume encyclopedia Is treated the same as a contribution in a collection.-41- PETERS, J. S. 1984. Breeding environments. In: Encyclopedia of fish. Compiled by J. Edwards.. [et al.]. Cape Town: Struik: 36-45. 3.5.2.9.2 A contribution by one or more authors in a multiple- volume encyclopedia Sequence of areas Author/s Date Title of article Title of encyclopedia (underlined/in italics/ bold) and volume Edition, if applicable Place of publication: name of publisher: pages in book where contribution can be found 205m oO JOHNSON, S.E. 1989. Oriental music. In: Encyclo- pedia of music, vol. 4. Fourth edition. New York: Bowker: 121-122. 3.5.2.9.3 Acontribution of which the author is not mentioned, volume encyclopedia Oriental music. 1989. In: Encyclopedia of music, vol. 4. Fourth edition. New York: Bowker: 121-122. a multiple- 3.5.2.10 Articles in periodicals * The same rules as those for books and contributions in collections apply, with the following exceptions: * The title of the periodical is not preceded by the word in. The place of publication and the name of the publisher of the periodical are not provided, but the numbering of the periodical and the pages on which the article appears are. * Sequence of areas: a. Author/s of article b. Date c. Title of article d Periodical information i) Title of periodical (underlined) ii) volume and/or number and/or month/season ill) pages in the periodical on which the article appears. HOWITT, John. 1990. Online catalogues. Library trends, 9(3): 131-140. - The use of capital letters in the case of articles in periodicals“a2: The first letter of the title is a capital letter, but all subsequent letters are lower- case letters, with the exception of names. It is general practice to write all words (articles, conjunctions and prepositions excluded) in English titles with capital letters. However, this is not allowed in Afrikaans. Itis therefore better to use lower-case letters throughout for the sake of consistency. Date and numbering of periodicals Since the year has already been provided in area 2, only the month/season is provided in the numbering area (if applicabie). Provide only the numbers of the volume an/or number - do not use the words volume and number or the abbreviations for these. The number is written in round brackets to distinguish it from a volume. Write in the language used in the periodical. The following are examples of the numbering of an English periodical: 14(3), March (vol, no, and month) 4(3) (vol.'and no.) 14 (volume only) (3) (number nk) March (month only) (3), March (number and month) 14, March (volume and month) Take note of the punctuation marks and spacing (comma and space affer title, comma and space after numbering, colon before page number/s): na 14 4Q). March:13-30 3):13-30 2) 1413-30 a 30 : March:13-30 22) (3), March:13-30 144; March:13-30 3.5.2.10.1 A periodical article by one or more authors FUGMANN, R., JONES, S.E. & WAGNER, P. 1982 The complementarity of natural and indexing languages. International classification, (3), Summer:134-140, NEW techniques in information retrieval. 1993. By Jennifer E. Rowley...{etal.]. Information processing quarterly, February:32-35. 3.5.10.2 A periodical article of which the author is not mentioned BESTUUR kyk na Technikon se toekoms. 1991. ‘Technikon nuus, 4(6):1,3) Newspaper articles/reportsdas 3.5.2.12.5 An interview 3.5 UYS, René. 1995. Interview with Dr René Uys, Dean Faculty of Information Sciences, Technikon Pretoria 19 February. LANGUAGE EDITING OF DISSERTATIONS AND THESES 3.5.1 WRITING STYLE 3.5.1.1 Text structure A good dissertation must be extensive and precise, while at the same time being concise. The author must therefore beware of unnecessary repetitions and long- windedness. Use good yet simple and concise language, and keep sentences as short as possible The following techniques serve as aids in this regard: Break complex statements down into lists/points. Do not use high-sounding words when simple words would be just as effective. Avoid empty phrases such as "it is interesting to see that." Avoid unnecessary words, for example "it was found that the precipitation was in a moist condition" can’ be stated simply by saying "the precipitation was moist". Avoid the use of pronouns such as I, they, my, etc. 3.5.1.2 Specialist terminology Subject-specific language forms an essential part of any scientific publication However, the author must be sure that the readers will understand the specialist terminology used. Should there be any doubt, terms must be defined in the text or ina glossary. 3.5.1.3 Sentence structure Long sentences with a number of subordinate clauses are difficult to follow, especially if the subject itself is complex. Reading tests have shown that sentences with more than 25 words are generally more difficult to understand. Where possible, sentences must therefore be short and concise. 3.5.1.4 Paragraphs Paragraphs help the reader to divide the text into manageable sections. Make use of the following guidelines: Aparagraph must contain a main statement supported by a group of particulars.-43- An item in a newspaper is treated the same as an article in a periodical. Sequence of areas: author(s) year title of the report Newspaper information i) Title of newspaper (underlined) ii) date (year excluded) iil) _pagels in newspaper where articlelreport appears. If there is no authoris, the title of the report moves to area 1 coon 3.5.11.1 An article/report by one or more authors DE LANGE, Jan. 1995. Cosatu wil nou na Mandela oor wet. Beeld, 28 Junie:S1. 3.5.11.2 An article/report without an author BESTUURSRADE: TAO sé Minister moet ingryp. 1992. Beeld, 15 Januarie:4. 3.5.2.12 Other types of publications 3.5.2.12.1 A letter BOON, J.A. 1995. Letter from Prof. J. A. Boon, University of Pretoria, 16 June 3.5.2.12.2 Photocopied documents LOTTER, C. 1995. Verwysingstegniek: Harvard-metode. Photocopied document. Technikon Pretoria 3.5.2.12.3 An internal document of an organisation TECHNIKON PRETORIA. S.a. The objectives, education and research policy of the Technikon Pretoria. Internal document. TECHNIKON PRETORIA. S.a. Mission. Internal document. 3.5.2.12.4 A personal communication VAN RENSBURG, D.J.J. 1995. Personal communication by Dr. D.J.J. van Rensburg, Rector Pretoria Technikon, 15 May.-45- In technical works the main statement is usually found at the beginning or close to the beginning of a paragraph. However, for persuasive purposes the main statement is placed at the end to form a climax towards which the supporting facts have built up. The transition between paragraphs must be smooth and consecutive paragraphs must be related. Long, uninterrupted text sections are discouraging to the reader and paragraphs must therefore not be too long 3.5.1.5 Abbreviations and acronyms 3.6 Avoid the use of abbreviations in the text. Words and phrases such as for example, that is, an et cetera must be written in full. Acronyms (abbreviations pronounced as Words) may be used if the explanations are provided in a glossary, REPORT WRITER'S CONTROL LISTS. Preperation f report 2 3 10. " 1 13, 1.8 16. 7 46. 2 a nats the purpose, aim or object of the report? Who authorges the roport? ‘What kind of information does the reader of the report equi: (2) Factual ntermation based on observation or research? (©) Conclusions) based on observation or researc (Recommendations) for futsre actor? youre writing the report without terms creferenceo: authorization, eg. of yourown accor, have you defined you objectvecleary? 's your reader scquainid wth the subject or does he have certain preconceived opinions aboutit? Wilthese ideas fect you report? ow much has akeaty been writen on the pata subject of your por? How mu informatio, # any, wil you eke in your bow mgoaet a yourapet? Wa tnave any nance parcosons? (nN respecte reporter wilnaveto exer creat cae) Have you taken any pracautenary stops to ensure tat your repert wl be sty content required? Inthe tite ofthe report quite clear? Does immediatly identity the contents? How did you set about cbaining reliable information? Have you ascertained that he nfermation is applicable? Have you aranged th information logically? hve you chosen the mos sub ay uate or omat for your reo? How any headegs cr subheesrg re you going > Have you chosen the most suitable eye end method of analysis? Have you avoided generalisations? Have you uted technical terme which might be unfamiliar your readers)? Hove you proviced« key or solution te specialized technical terminology? Would the use of visual ais ke graphs or ciagrams help to cant information? Would it be necessary to recommen urher reading? ‘Would en indexhelp th raader? It your epor is based on ognal esearch should you include full pariulars and descrtions of your methods? Have you tested your report for simply and readabty? Conclusions end reconmmencetionsFa 24, 28, 2, 28, 23, -46- [Are your conclusions and recommendations in accordance wih the terms of oference? 1 your conclusions and recommendations flow logically fom your fadings? ‘Ae they based solely en information in your report? It nt, have you refered o other sources of information? Would be necessary to indicate futher implications that might emerge fom your conclusions and recommendations? Is there anything spec tht shoul be included inthe appenix? Have you distrguished between (2) Conctsions tat fetow on your findings? (5) Yeur own opinon ana comments? is ‘Recommendations for future action based on your frdings? Have you checked ang rechecked the report before the final presentation? FACETS OF A REPORT Table 3.2 Example of the Title Page of a report LITERATURE STUDY on CERAMICS RAW MATERIALS. KAOLIN, BALL GLAY, FELDSPAR, SILICA REPORT 1 (CERAWIG TECHNIQUES |-cBt811312 NDI CERAMICS TECHNOLOGY 3218029 [ANAND JONKER ‘ootzra 28 FEBRUARY 1995-47- Table 3.3. Example of Examiner's Report to be included after the title page of the report. TECHNIKON PRETORIA MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY EXAMINERS REPORT: N DIP: CERAMICS TECHNOLOGY SUBJECT. CERAMICS TECHNIQUES TITLE OF WORK: NAME OF STUDENT: STUDENT NUMBER: DATE: ‘examines tis expected of you te avaluale he suderts soit critical |The main purpose of project on th level o determine aaa ee ste he oon bes ack soto mls here pros ongina, feos hough and prfomance? ‘Can'the student transite id expan he results Soenticaly cone? The following guidelines should be used when evaluating: 1. General impression: (Binding, handwriting (typing), figures, errors (Spelling, etc.). (10) 2. Literature study: (Completely done and used) (20) 3. Language: Clearness of outlay, correct use of references and abbreviations, spelling and sentence construction). (10) 4. Results: (Precision, accuracy, use of statistical methods and logical outlay). 5. Discussion: (Logical outlay of report. Is the problem stated and solved clearly? (20) 6. Conclusions and recommendations: (Scientific, justifiable) ©) 7. Originality: (Initiative, alternative methods used, etc.) (10) 8. Volume work done: (Enough?) (10) TOTAL (100) Remarks by examine: (Use the backside if more spaces needed). ‘Signature of examiner: Date: MARK: _-48- Table 3.4 Example of the index of the report. (Note this must be on a separate page) ( INDEX PAGE 1. List of figures i 2. List of table ill 3. List of abbreviations iv 4, Introduction 1 5. Literature study 2 6. Facilties/equipment 4 7. Method 6 8 — Results 17 9. Discussion 18 40. Conclusion 24 14. Literature references 25 Table 3.5 Example of list of figures of the report. (Note this is on a separate page) dil) LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Schematic lay-out of the Gleeble apparatus 27 2. Charpy impact strength and % reduction of area V. soaking temperature for grade 709M40 35 3. Charpy impact strength and % reduction of area V. soaking temperature for grade 817M40 35 4. Charpy impact strength and % reduction of area V. soaking temperature for grade 826M40 36-49- Table 3.6 Example of List of Tables of the report. (note: on separate page) (ii) LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Test material chemical compositions 26 2.__Ductile-brittle transition temperatures 32 Table 3.7 Example of List of Abbreviations of the report (note: on a separate page) (iv) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AR analytical reagent CSIR : Council for Scientific and Industrial Research EtOH: ethanol 9 gram h hour kPa kilo Pascal e litre MOQ mega ohm. MeOH methanol me miililitre MPa mega Pascal Pa Pascal ppm parts per million PTFE polytetrafluoroethyleneTabi 250= le 3.8 Example of the body of the report 22, 23 24 + INTRODUCTION “The atsumption tha ll raw matecsl components, whch is used forthe manufacturing of ceramic ware, have a aative ena), RO. (ne non Stunts specie gravy. $C) of 2508 nol evel contfolad calcining process (Chasier, 1889) Produce a calsne wih a RD of 250. in compareor the RO of under-clainad cua ie sralerthan 286, while ar over. aicned quartz mgrt have a RD greater than 2.50" Such vanctons produce faults in te cay-body moure when awe Beay sompostion used. ‘Density determinations isa fay eat tacique which canbe completed wih unsotstcated equipment asa contol o the ‘Faw marae thereore neceseaty to get acquaiies wi te procedure of determining the dens. ‘BACKGROUND (LITERATURE STUDY) DENSITY “The mass, m. of matevale the amount of matterinthe sample ans measured in klogram, ka, (Or subunit gem, g) “The volume, V, ofa material ie the spece occupied by the sample of mass m. The SI unit the volume is cube meter, (orsub unt cube contmetre, ert) “The density ofan object (mater mass) defined 2s the relationship between ts mass and its volume. As Metcale, ‘Wiisme and Catha (19788) puts The mess ofa un! volume ofa materia called Ws Jensty” b= m whore p= const yn "int Mass of he material Ve vollme “The density of @ material is ecressed inthe Stunt, Kp or subunit gon RELATIVE DENSITY “The telative cenaty (ne ol erm ie specie gravy (SC) of # material is he deny ofthe material relative tothe density of wrater at 0 Relative densiy = donsty of mater “Sensi acer eae Ifthe some volume material and volume water ae used inthe detomination, the expression becomes ass of ay volume material Relative dens is dimensiones. its: has no units, Because the density of water at 4°C is equal o 1,00 kgm, is the RD humeral equal othe Senay ofthe mataral RO (mater) ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE In measuting the relative deraty of sl bodes its convenient to use Archimedes" principle which states (Gri a Fadler, 28s. 2629) tna wnen a body fs mmersec eva turd ts apperont loss n mass (uptvsl) sequal to te mess ot fad aopiaced, tn convention! laboratory equsment tne volume of» sold mater cannct be measured accurately, whereas messing oss can be ave wnt gromter poay The apgleatin of Archimedes Brncola vols tne cet easement cf ihe ‘lume of he sod B03) RD material =_0 i D= the “dy” mass ofthe body and ‘the mas ofthe body whet inparsed in water (ofien calls the “suspended mass} then D-1= the mata of woter having the same volume at. the besy. LQUIDS OTHER THAN WATER ‘en a objects secu and wat can ponte othe wats i rac wit A au wih wi ot pene te pores or Weaeh See nce See Reshine i soeele oct" The dna ares SO.STS gm ‘when a lau other than water are used fo determine the volume of tet pice, the density of the kauld must be taken intoSay Liuid A is used, hen R= mass of any volume of materia riage SPsome volume qs BTU) a ope bs oa 3. METHOD 34 DENSITY DETERMINATION “The volumes of three equal square bricks was determined. The eidelengthe was measured wih a verier caliper tothe Goseat hmm ater whic the volume was ealultog “The mass of te thre blocks was determines with an ansiyical balance accurate o0,0001 g. “The censty was then catcuisted (Tabe1), 32. RELATIVE DENSITY DETERMINATION WITH A RD-FLASK “Tiicate samples was measured ou and the RO was deterrined according othe method as explained in Maree (1883: 2 ‘The robute i tabuinted table 2 Bs fiona 4. RESULTS 4.1 DENSITY DETERMINATION OF AREGULAR SHAPED OBJECT TABLE 1: RESULTS OF THE DENSITY DETERMINATION sarele ena wan eu as enaty ‘a 2 a 2 a 1 250 200 158 208 20 2 2s 250 2A, sea 05 20 2 21 20 2a 1558 sasare 220 doar 250 4.2. RELATIVE DENSITY DETERMINATION WITH A RD FLASK ‘TABLE 2: EEIATIVE DENSITY DETERMINATION OF A CERAMIC POWDER SAMPLE WITH THE AIO OF ARO SAMPLE 1 2 3 Mass task + sample towaterg) 2226 79,100 92513 Mass ask + compl (b) 36.56 30,095, a2 Mass Nask (a) 2ss7t 25,582 38981 Mase task + water (ge e998 75428 29,002 2.988 4413 sea Mass water + sompte 45.58 48,105, 47401 ass water (a) 49.09 43040 sot ie-d Nass sislaced water (=) 4191 rat 2220 (G-c)-(a-0) Relative density 2383) 2535 2501 ‘Average reiatve density 2538 Note: Temperature = 4°C-54- 3.8.4 EXECUTION © Identify time wasters: Telephone, visitors, crisis situations, attempting too much, Poor communication, lack of deadlines, etc. Dead lines improve performance. While reading, questions should be asked such as Was the experimental work well planned? Were the experiments carried out well? Are the conclusions supported by the data? What additional experiments might be done to fully support the hypothesis? 3.8.5 PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ° ° e e e The methods for conducting scientific research include: Observation Hypothesis Experimentation Interpretation A conscious effort has to be made to observe, and to develop a keen "eye" for things and events. The development of hypotheses is aided by three principles: Method of agreement Method of difference Concomitant variation ° ° ° Good experimentation is marked by methodical planning and execution. Interpretation is developing meaning from data. Statistical analyses help in making objective judgments about differences in data sets and degrees of significance of differences. Tabulating and plotting data are useful ways of seeing relationships in data. Interpretation is made easier by library and literature work and by reflective thinking The successful researcher lives a life of observations, hypotheses, experimentation, and interpretation. 3.8.6 LIBRARY AND LITERATURE WORK Reading helps researchers by stimulating ideas improving knowledge © preventing duplication of previously accomplished work @ teinforcing or refuting hypotheses. 3.8.7 WRITING SKILLS (You should write what you mean) All researchers must write. | Well-written pieces are thoughtful.000 3.8.8 -55- Good writing contains correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Good writing has the right tone. The reader is neither patronized nor buried in verbosity and pompousness. Good writing is readable. It does not require the rereading of every other sentence. Readable pieces have a lead-off topic sentence followed by sentences that outline the work. Most people find that an outline is a good place to start writing efforts. It is useful to write against a self-imposed deadline. Write simply. Avoid long beginning adjectival phrases that the reader if forced to remember before coming to the subject of the sentence. Keep most sentences under 40 words. Vary lengths of sentences. Write as much as possible without stopping. Technical words must be used in scientific writing, but they should be properly defined. Avoid jargon: "due to the fact that"; "in some cases", "in view of the fact that’; etc. are jargon which could be changed to "because"; "sometimes"; “becauselsince". Keep asking, "Could | understand this material if | were reading it for the first ime?" Revise, revise, revise. Mullins recommended: Write first section and leave it alone. Revise first section before writing second section. Revise first and second sections before writing third section. etc. If longer than 6 sections this may become tedious. Get "writing friends" WHO WILL READ THROUGH YOUR written work critically. Writing tools include dictionaries (the latest!), synonym finders, grammar and composition guides and specialized handbooks, such as IUPAC nomenclature books. NOTES, MEMORANDA AND LETTERS Written communications should be used when necessary Memoranda format: To: FROM: RE: The body of the memo ° Here's where | am ° Here's how | got there ° Here's what I want from you.=56- 3.8.9 RESEARCH NOTEBOOKS Notebooks should be bound, with stiff covers, numbered pages and contain a table of contents, preferably at the beginning Notebook descriptions: Title, date and purpose. List of required equipment and materials. Outline of procedures including calibrations and standardizations. Observations and data. Graphical representations of data Equations, calculations, and statistical tests. Records of unusual events that may influence results. Conclusions. Modified hypotheses and plans for future experiments. © — Researcher's signature 3.8.10 REPORTS. Reports should answer the following questions: © What are you trying to do? © Do the methods and conclusions make sense? 3.8.11 REPORT FORMAT AND STYLE If the format is not prescribed, the following can be used as a guide: Title Table of contents Abstract Introduction Experimental section Results Discussion Bibliography Appendices 3.8.12 PREPARING THESES AND DISSERTATIONS The ways in which theses and dissertations have been written are probably as numerous as the resulting documents; however three general methods are prevalent; Late preparation method: Begin writing when alll the research is complete. Composite method: Combine two or three major research papers. Hierarchical method: Develop several writing projects throughout the graduate career that become the basis for the thesis or dissertation. ooo The graduate thesis/dissertation is generally encyclopedic in nature. It contains an extensive survey of the literature, including historical background; illustrated with diagrams, photographs, and charts. Find a "space" for the dissertation writing. It should be secure enough so that books and papers can be left from day to day and it should preferably be off limits-57- to family and friends. 3.8.13 COMPONENTS OF A THESIS. Title page Preface Abstract Table of Contents Experimental introduction Results Discussion Conclusions Appendix Notes Vita References 00000000000 It could be extended to include - Acknowledgements Abbreviations Explanation of Symbols Glossary Index 00000 The title should be a very brief summary of the document itself - not more than about ten words. If this is not possible, divide the title into a main and sub-title. "The degradation of phenols by Yeast; Influence of temperature, solvent and metallic salts." Avoid "A new method for the analysis of solutions containing fluoride” rather "Automatic photometric fluoride titration: Selective indication by thorium nitrate and alizarin S" 3.8.14 FIGURE Number figures in order of their appearance. Every figure must be cited explicitly, by number, at least once within the text A figure is always accompanied by a brief text known as a legend or caption Each figure caption begins with the word "Figure" followed by a number. All figure captions should be placed uniformly on the pages (subscript), Figures should be kept free of explanatory wording, apart from very brief identifications. 3.8.15 TABLES Atypical table can be regarded as a two-dimensional data array. A table title is necessary so that the reader can quickly identify the subject. 000 000 The text of the table is always preceded by the word "Table" and a sequentially assigned number. 3.9 PREPARATION OF A TABLE Structural elements3.9.2 3.9.3 000 3.10 9.4 -5B- title dividing lines, column headings footnotes TITLE OF A TABLE “Table 3.5. Solubility (s, in g.0") of CaF, in water at various temperatures (T, in °C). Data used in determining the temperature dependence of the corresponding solubility product. Each reported value is a mean derived from seven independent measurements.” (Ebel, Bliefort and Russey) DIVIDING LINES Line between title and column headings (boxheads) = "x-axis"; Straddle line at bottom of table, followed by footnotes. COLUMN HEADINGS Coneisely formulated Include units First letter capitalized 3,25 3,25 10,7 NOT 10,7 214,834, 214,834 Place the table close to first ref point. WRITING A WORKS VISIT REPORT During the time of your studies, several works visits will be conducted which will form a part of your Ceramic Techniques training. On each of these visits you must complete a report. The report will have the same format as a lab report as. far as it concerns the title page, index, lists of tables, figures and abbreviations. You will then treat each visit separately by ‘writing a short introduction on each visit and according to the list that follows, discuss each topic. You can use the list provided to gain certain information but do not just state the information, discuss it as this will help you to think what you have observed and you will be able to construct your mind. Do not write an essay, as this is not what Is expected of you. Write a report. LIST. Date Factory name Contact person Where is the factory situated? What type of plant is it? Machines/Equipment seen Processes seen Production capacity PNOMRONO-59- Personal impressions: Safety Tidiness Relevant technology Automatization Labour intensive Facilities for personnel Quality systems ae-eaocp