Civil Engineering

Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017

StabilisingLyme Regis a strategic approach

Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong

Innovative uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering

Sustainable post-earthquake reconstruction in Pakistan

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ISSN 0965 089 X
Call for Papers
Cities of the future
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering SPECIAL ISSUE
Editors: Philippe Bouillard, Universit Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium and Priti Parikh, University
College London, London, UK
Civil Engineering is planning a special issue for
2018 on cities of the future.
The 21st century has seen a rapid increase in population with over 50% of the
worlds population living in cities. According to report from the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development, the urban population will
increase from less than 1 billion in 1950 to roughly 6 billion by 2050 to
around 9 billion people by end of this century. Rapid urbanisation has brought
in pressures and challenges for the built environment, infrastructure and
resource allocation in cities. There is a need to rethink engineering design and
strategies for future cities.
This can be achieved by going beyond the physical appearance and by
focusing on different representations, properties and impact factors of the
urban system. For that reason, Civil Engineering is calling for a themed issue
on cities of the future to give an overview on the challenges to understand,
shape, plan, design, build, manage and adapt future cities. Priority will be
given to papers containing applications or ongoing collaborative projects
containing a discussion on emerging roles for civil engineers.
Topics to be covered could include the following:
n Sustainable cities, resilient cities, eco districts and green technologies
n High-rise buildings
n Smart cities
n Urban information systems
n Infrastructure and mobility
n Urban water supply and sewage
n Air and noise pollution mitigation
The deadline for submissions is 12 June 2017.
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Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017

CONTENTS:May 2017

Civil Engineering Contact Information

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49
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.50
EDITORIAL:May 2017
Editorial
Colin Rawlings BSc, DIC, MSc, CEng, MICE, MASCE, FGS, CGeol
CH2M/High Speed Two, London, UK
Welcome to the May 2017 issue of Civil Engineering, the
general journal of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers.
This issue is very much in line with Institution of Civil
Engineers president Tim Broyds recent call to civil engineers
to adopt modern technology. We have briefings on ultra-
fast transport, remote sensing algorithms, augmented-
reality inspections and safety management software as well
as a review of the proceedings of last years International
Conference on Smart Infrastructure and Construction.
Meanwhile, the four papers in this issue cover both high-
and low-technology solutions used by civil engineers in the
UK, Hong Kong and Pakistan. The first paper, by Moore et al.
(2017), describes a strategic integrated programme of coastal
and cliff stabilisation measures at Lyme Regis in Dorset, UK.
The town lies on the Jurassic Coast, a Unesco natural world
heritage site, and the work was phased in order of urgency
from 1993 to 2015.
Coastal erosion and landslides at the eastern part of the
town contribute to spectacular local scenery and abundance
of fossils, yet this had to be balanced with requirements to
protect people, property and infrastructure. The solution was
to prevent expansion of the destructive landslides inland by
constructing a barrier of stabilised ground to protect the town
in the long term rather than stabilising all areas of existing
landslides.
The second paper, by Au et al. (2017), moves to Hong
Kong, a place where landslides and slope stability are also an
ongoing challenge. This paper reports on the procurement
of the 14 km long immersed-tube harbour crossing of the
ShatinCentral mass transit railway. Due for completion
in 2021, the project is being procured through a design-
and-build contract following collaborative early contractor
involvement.
Optimising design and performance specifications
during tender stage ensured the submitted tenders were
constructable, using the most cost-effective design but
minimising construction and operating risks in what is a highly
congested urban environment. The successful contractor has
now built eleven 23 000 t immersed-tube tunnel units in a
former quarry site, and these are now being floated out and
sunk into position.
The third paper, by Thusyanthan et al. (2017), covers
potential applications of handheld thermal imaging cameras
in civil engineering, with leak detection in an aqueduct
embankment provided as an example.
The authors note that technology has improved to the
extent that temperature data can be shown for each image
50
Editorial
Rawlings
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
pixel, although they found that the best time for taking
thermal images of infrastructure is about an hour after sunset
in the shadow-free twilight period. The results accurately
identified cracks in the base of the aqueduct channel lining,
enabling repairs to be carried out prior to a full-scale leak
occurring.
The final paper, by Rafi et al. (2017), covers initiatives to
improve building resilience in Gajjar, Pakistan. The town was
severely damaged by a major earthquake in 2013 which
killed hundreds of people and reduced mud houses to rubble
so was selected as a pilot study for redevelopment.
The town is in a remote and sparsely populated part of
Pakistan with limited access to gas, electricity and machinery.
The design of a simple yet seismically resistant earth building
reinforced with bamboo was therefore developed and tested.
Brochures and training were then provided to local people
in these more resilient construction methods, resulting in
some 6000 new houses being built in just 18 months. It is a
great example of civil engineers being sensitive to the needs
and limited resources of a local community to produce a
sustainable solution of long-term value.
I hope you find this issue an interesting, relevant and
enjoyable read. I also trust it will spur you and your colleagues
on to prepare and submit a paper on your own project or
research in the near future.
References
Au R, Aikawa F, Morris M and Tsang CK (2017) Planning and procuring the
ShatinCentral cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong. Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering 170(2): 7179, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00072.
Moore R, Davis G, Stannard M and Browning N (2017) Stabilising Lyme
Regis a strategic approach. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Civil Engineering 170(2): 6370, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.16.00008.
Rafi MM, Ahmed N and Lodi SH (2017) Sustainable post-earthquake
reconstruction in Pakistan. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Civil Engineering 170(2): 8995, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.16.00015.
Thusyanthan I, Blower T and Cleverly W (2017) Innovative uses of thermal
imaging in civil engineering. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Civil Engineering 170(2): 8187, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
jcien.16.00014.
CALL FOR PAPERS: Civil Engineering relies entirely on material contributed by
civil engineers and related professionals. Illustrated articles of 600words and
papers of 2000 to 3500 words are welcome on any relevant civil engineering
topic that meets the journals aims of providing a source of reference material,
promoting best practice and broadening civil engineers knowledge, Please
contact the editor for further information
Civil Engineering Edinburghs hyperloop team predicts a transport revolution
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017 Anyszewski and Toczycka

http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.51 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

BRIEFING:TRANSPORT

Edinburghs hyperloop team predicts a

transport revolution
A team at Edinburgh University is promoting a 1150km/h hyperloop link to London and expects
to test its magnetically levitating pod design in the USA this summer. Adam Anyszewski and
Carolina Toczycka of HypEd say it could revolutionise transport.

The hyperloop ultra-rapid transit

system proposed by Elon Musk
of SpaceX in 2012 is now being
independently developed around the
world.For example, Hyperloop One is
planning to build a 125km, 12min link
between Dubai and Abu Dhabi in the
UAE by 2020 as well as running a global
competition to identify other routes.
SpaceX is also running a competition
for pod designs at its 16km long,
2m dia., vacuum-tube test track in
California, USA. Teams from Delft
University, Technical University of
Munich and MIT beat 27 other
competitors in January 2017 and a
second competition is scheduled for this
summer.
UK input is being led by the HypEd
team at Edinburgh University, who have
been shortlisted by Hyperloop One for
their proposed London to Edinburgh
route and hope to be testing their
40000 pod model in California in the
next few months.
Best of all modes
Travelling at speeds of over
1150km/h, hyperloops will be faster
than passenger aircraft, have the
convenience of a train, create far
less environmental impact and be
unaffected by weather.The pods will
typically carry 1224 people at 10s
intervals, levitating on air or magnetic
cushions in low-pressure tubes.
A combination of linear induction
motors and lack of air drag will in
theory enable the pods to reach close to
the speed of sound. This could reduce
the journey from Edinburgh to London
to just 35min and significantly reduce
pressure on existing road, rail and
runway capacity.
Pylons supporting the tubes can
follow existing rights of way, running
Hyperloop Ones planned 2020 link between Dubai and Abu Dhabi will make the 125km trip in
just 12min transporter pods will carry smaller autonomous pods for passengers and cargo
along road and rail routes. Vertical
stacking of the tubes would further
reduce land take, while use of solar
panels on top of the tubes could cut net
greenhouse gas emissions to zero.
Rebalancing development
In addition to dramatically shorter
journey times, hyperloop offers users
decreased access time and greater
frequency of service.It can also be
integrated with autonomous shuttle
vehicles for the last mile of passenger
journeys.
Indeed, in tomorrows smart cities,
autonomous intra-city transport systems
will be able to optimise occupancy rates
and substantially increase efficiency.
Combined with highly efficient new
inter-city transport such as hyperloop,
this could release much urban land
currently occupied by roads, carparks,
stations and logistics centres for
development and leisure space.
It is through transport innovations
like hyperloop that core cities such as
London can gain a vastly expanded
population reach and a host of other
socio-economic benefits.In the UK, the
relatively low capital and operating costs
of hyperloop could help redistribute
population density and economic
activity to Londons new suburbs of
northern England and beyond.
Multi-disciplinary team
HypEd is a multi-disciplinary team
of 50 students from the University of
Edinburghs engineering, architecture,
economic and business schools.The
team is presenting its business case for
the London to Edinburgh Hyperloop
One route on 27 April 2017 and is
hoping to test its pod design at the
SpaceX test track in the summer.
The one-person, 25m long, 350kg
pod prototype is designed to travel
up to 510km/h.The main sponsors
are Cirrus Logic and the University
of Edinburgh Innovation Initiative
Grant but further sponsors would be
appreciated.

For further information please contact: Adam Anyszewski Tel: +44 7999 907198 Email: team@hyp-ed.com Web: hyp-ed.com or facebook.com/hypedinburgh

51
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.52
BRIEFING:STRUCTURES
Structural health monitoring of infrastructure
with sensors: from detection to prevention
UK researchers have found a way of using infrastructure sensor data to predict rather than
simply to detect structural damage. Valerie Livina at the National Physical Laboratory and Marcus
Perry at the University of Strathclyde say it works with concrete and is now being tested on steel.
In the UK alone there are over 10000
bridges used by millions of people every
day.The integrity of these and other
infrastructures underpins the well-being
of the national economy, so effective
structural health monitoring is vital
to ensure their continued safety and
operation.
Structural health monitoring is still
usually conducted by civil and structural
engineers performing manual inspections
to assess on-site structural integrity.The
approach is not entirely effective, as it
is subjective and only permits a reactive
response to damage that has already
occurred generally as visible damage.
However, large-scale sensor networks
for structural health monitoring are
becoming increasingly common, with
many of todays megastructures being
instrumented with hundreds of sensors.
While this solves the inspection issue, it
creates another problem as the deluge
of data must be converted into useful
information.
Limited value of sensors
The data analytics used by modern
sensor networks can limit their value:
most are reactive and simply test sensor
records against fixed thresholds. Many
infrastructure operators therefore feel
that a convincing financial argument for
investing in monitoring technology is
yet to be made.
Currently, there are no structural
health monitoring methods for
pinpointing early-warning signals of
structural damage well before they
occur. Although existing systems have
an array of threshold-activated damage-
detection methods, they cannot spot
damage far in advance of it occurring.
For further information contact: Marcus Perry Tel: +44 141 5484942 Email: m.perry@strath.ac.uk
52
Structural health monitoring of infrastructure
with sensors: from detection to prevention
Livina and Perry
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
To do so would require damage-
sensitive features of structures to
be identified and then statistically
analysed to identify subtle structural
changes using sensor network data.It
would also need rapid and automated
predictive data-analysis methods to
enable engineers to monitor the onset
of damage in real time and then act
before it occurs.
Tipping point analysis
A study to improve the value of
sensor data is being conducted by
a team of researchers from the UKs
National Physical Laboratory and the
University of Strathclyde.The aim is
to move existing structural health
monitoring systems towards a more
preventive model.
The researchers have developed
an algorithm (detailed by Perry etal.
(2016)) that involves applying tipping
point analysis to a structural system.
Tipping points are used to detect
bifurcations and transitions, such
Using tipping point analysis, data sensor
networks such as these distributed fibre-
optic sensor cables in a concrete slab can
predict critical structural damage before it
occurs (Nicky de Battista, CSIC)
as cracks, that create a new and
potentially undesirable state in the
structure that could not previously be
predicted.
In tests on reinforced concrete,
the algorithm successfully provided
early-warning signals of tiny changes
in the structure before critical damage
occurred.The value and performance
of existing structural health monitoring
systems can therefore be improved by
the algorithm, specifically by extracting
information on tipping point precursors
from data already being collected.
The method shifts detection to being
predictive and thus maintenance to
being preventive, thereby reducing
lifetime maintenance costs. Data
analysis efforts are also focused and
reduced through extraction of the
information, as intervention only
becomes necessary when the early-
warning signals are triggered.
Ongoing research
The research project is ongoing, with
the method currently being tested on
steel beams and real-life systems.The
goal is to develop hardware and
software products that, when used in
conjunction with existing structural
health monitoring systems, will provide
a rapid and automated method for
monitoring the health of infrastructure
throughout its lifetime, both effectively
and at a low cost.
Reference
Perry M, Livina V and Niewczas P (2016) Tipping
point analysis of cracking in reinforced
concrete. Smart Materials and Structures 25(1):
015027, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0964-
1726/25/1/015027.
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.53
BRIEFING:INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Mixed reality constructs a new frontier for
maintaining the built environment
New technology that intelligently combines the physical and digital worlds looks set to
revolutionise the way civil engineers monitor infrastructure, both during and after construction.
Ioannis Brilakis of the University of Cambridge reports.
Cambridge University is partnering
with Trimble and Microsoft to combine
physical infrastructure data such as
design, construction and operational
data that are currently stored in
separate archives.The goal is to make
them available to civil engineers and
other construction professionals
through the latest mixed reality
technologies.
While civil engineers have built
millions of physical assets over many
centuries, they have done relatively
little to create digital data repositories
with integrated geometry, design,
construction and operation data. This
is not surprising given most existing
physical assets started their life cycle
well before modern digital engineering
technologies existed.
Digital asset data
As such, digital data for infrastructure
assets are only partially available, rarely
up-to-date and almost never integrated
Mixed reality techniques will enable remote
inspection of bridges using 3D models
complete with highlighted defects
For further information please contact: Ioannis Brilakis, Tel: +44 1223 332718, Email: ib340@cam.ac.uk Web: http://cit.eng.cam.ac.uk
Mixed reality constructs a new frontier for
maintaining the built environment
Brilakis
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
into a single platform so that informed
decisions can be made. Building
information modelling technology is
changing that by delivering a digital
copy of an asset, bringing all types of
data together for use over the assets
lifetime.
The objective is to provide civil
engineers, facilities managers and other
asset stakeholders with the information
they need to make informed decisions
and better manage the assets
throughout their life cycle. Enabling
them to engage with the digital asset
models through mixed reality will
also greatly improve productivity and
sustainability.
Construction monitoring
For example, monitoring construction
site progress is a laborious, time-
consuming and error-prone task.
Research at Cambridge has led to
a Microsoft Hololens application
which will help to automate progress
inspections.
The application, which will be
transferred to practice through Trimble,
allows inspectors wearing Hololens
headsets to see a three-dimensional
as-planned digital model of the works
overlaid on the as-built works as
they walk around it. Once aligned,
the model remains fixed relative to
the scene, remains stable and has no
occlusions.
The application then automatically
compares the as-built status with
the as-planned data to provide
instant progress information
as the inspector moves around
the site. This information allows
inspectors to detect any schedule
or specification discrepancies at the
earliest opportunity, enabling early
corrective action to be taken.
Bridge inspection
Another example is the visual
inspection of bridges, which usually
has to take place annually or biennially.
These inspections are laborious, require
traffic control and pose a health and
safety risk for the inspector.
Cambridge University is working on
methods to build fully textured, data-
rich and geometrically accurate models
of existing bridges which can then be
used for remote off-site inspections.
Data are collected during on-site
maintenance operations or with drones
and automatically converted to an as-is
model.
Element surface texture is extracted
from high-resolution images and
defects are automatically identified.
Using Hololens, inspectors can look
at the real-sized bridge model in the
comfort of their offices and be guided
automatically to areas of concern.
Context-based workflow
The two examples clarify the value
of presenting data in context.By
merging the digital and physical worlds,
mixed reality enables a context-based
workflow.It transforms the way civil
engineers consume, interact with and
communicate information.
Through Hololens and other
technologies, Trimble, Microsoft and the
University of Cambridge are working
together to develop a new generation
of solutions towards improved
automation in construction.
53
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.54
BRIEFING:STANDARDS
HS2 project creates and updates British
standards and guidance to improve delivery
Inefficient and inconsistent use of codes, standards and guidance documents can hamper effective
delivery of infrastructure projects. Colin Rawlings of CH2M/High Speed Two Ltd (HS2) summarises
initiatives taken on the project to deliver new and updated standards and guidance.
In 2014, High Speed Two Ltd
(HS2) was specifically tasked with
generating savings for the 557billion
government-funded rail project
through creating and updating UK civil
engineering standards and guidance
documents (Wilson etal., 2015).
In fulfilling the task, HS2s efficiency
challenge programme team worked
closely with BSI, Ciria, the British Tunnelling
Society, Temporary Works Forum and
Institute of Concrete Technology.
Workshops were held at BSI and Ciria
offices with industry representatives in
2014 to identify potential documents
and topics, after which steering group
members including contractors,
consultants, clients and other
organisations produced the initial drafts.
The documents were then sent out
for consultation, both within the UK
and internationally, ensuring they all
have wide industry support.
New publicly available
specifications
Four new publicly available specifications
(PAS) have been produced.PAS 8820 (BSI,
2016a) (also sponsored by David Ball Group
and Hanson UK) covers the performance
of alkali-activated cementitious materials
in low-carbon dioxide cements and
concretes.
PAS 8812 (BSI, 2016b) gives guidance
on the application of European
standards to the design of temporary
works, promoting consistency and
removing uncertainties for temporary
works designers, while PAS 8811 (BSI,
2017) covers major infrastructure
client procedures to provide a unified
approach to client involvement in
temporary works across all stages.
PAS 8810 (BSI, 2016c) fills a gap in the
industry to cover the design of precast
For further information contact: Colin Rawlings Tel: +44 20 7944 0759 Email: colin.rawlings@hs2.org.uk Web: www.hs2.org.uk
54
HS2 project creates and updates British standards
and guidance to improve delivery
Rawlings
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
HS2 has delivered new and updated civil
engineering standards and guidance to
improve efficiency
concrete segmental tunnel linings,
introducing some standardisation and
consensus of design requirements.
Updating standards to
Eurocodes
Three existing British standards were
updated to comply with Eurocodes,
including providing non-contradictory,
complementary information for use
with other Eurocodes and their UK
national annexes.
BS 8002 (BSI, 2015a) now provides
guidance on the selection of Eurocode
design parameters for soils and model
factors to be applied to prop loads and
has been updated to cover advances in
retaining structure technology.
BS 8004 (BSI, 2015b) now provides
Eurocode design parameters for soils,
guidance on spread and pile foundation
design and has been updated to cover
advances in foundation technology.
Definitions were included for various
reports.
Finally, BS 8081 (BSI, 2015c) now
provides recommendations for the
design, construction, stressing, testing,
monitoring and maintenance of grouted
anchors as defined in Eurocodes.
Updated guidance document
Cirias Guidance on Embedded
Retaining Wall Design (Ciria, 2017)
has been updated to satisfy Eurocode
requirements and presents a clear,
unambiguous method for the
application of the observational
method. Ground types have been
extended, case studies added and the
need for a representative ground model
stressed.
HS2s aim is that the new and
updated standards and guidance
documents will also benefit other major
clients and major infrastructure projects,
such as Highways England, London
Underground, Transport for London,
Network Rail, National Grid, Thames
Tideway, Crossrail 2 and internationally.
In addition to their impact upon
efficiency, the standards and documents
provide sustainability and innovation in
line with the governments construction
strategy.
References
BSI (2015a) BS 8002:2015: Code of practice for
earth retaining structures.BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2015b) BS 8004:2015: Code of practice for
foundations.BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2015c) BS 8081:2015: Code of practice for
grouted anchors.BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2016a) PAS 8820: Construction materials
Alkali-activated cementitious material and
concrete Specification.BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2016b) PAS 8812: Temporary works
Application of European standards in design
Guide.BSI, London, UK.
BSI (2016c) PAS 8810: Tunnel design Design of
concrete tunnel linings Code of practice.BSI,
London, UK.
BSI (2017) PAS 8811: Temporary works Major
infrastructure client procedures Code of
practice.BSI, London, UK.
Ciria (2017) Guidance on Embedded Retaining Wall
Design. CIRIA, London, UK, C760.
Wilson S, Grose B and Rawlings C (2015) Improving
infrastructure delivery through better use of
standards. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers Civil Engineering 168(1): 9, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1680/cien.2015.168.1.9.
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.55
BRIEFING:SAFETY
New tool will help civil engineers meet CDM
requirements to design for safety
A new tool is being developed to help civil engineers and other construction professionals
improve their capability to design for safety under the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations. Patrick Manu and Lamine Mahdjoubi of the University of the West of England,
Alistair Gibb of Loughborough University and Michael Behm of East Carolina University report.
In the UK over the past decade, the
construction sector has consistently
accounted for a greater proportion of
the number of occupational fatalities,
injuries and illnesses (HSE, 2015a).
While there have been many
occupational safety and health
improvements in the industry over
recent years, the persistent and often
tragic accidents are a constant reminder
that sustained effort is still needed
to keep driving down the number of
injuries and illnesses in the sector.
Among the array of mechanisms for
improving occupational health and safety,
regulatory influence can be a powerful
stimulus for improvement.In the UK, one
of the prominent occupational health and
safety regulations for the construction
sector is the Construction (Design and
Management) Regulations 2015 (HMG,
2015) the CDM Regulations (HSE,
2015b).
Design for safety
Studies in the UK and other countries
have confirmed the link between
design and the occurrence of accidents
and injuries in construction (Behm,
2005; Gibb etal., 2006; Manu etal.,
2014).As a result there is a growing
importance for designers to consider
the occupational health and safety
implications of their design. This is
generally referred to as design for
safety or safety in design.
In the UK, design for safety has been
prominent since the introduction of the
CDM Regulations in the mid-1990s.
While there are a number of changes
in the 2015 regulations, fundamentally
designers are still required to seek to
mitigate occupational health and safety
risk through their designs.CDM 2015
For further information please contact: Patrick Manu Tel: +44 11 7328 7306 Email: patrick.manu@uwe.ac.uk
New tool will help civil engineers meet CDM
requirements to design for safety
Manu, Mahdjoubi, Gibb and Behm
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
requires that the designer preparing
or modifying designs should seek to
eliminate, reduce or control foreseeable
risks that may arise during the
construction, maintenance and use of
built assets.
Organisational capability
Additionally, organisations with design
responsibilities are expected to have the
appropriate organisational capability to
carry out their design role in a way that
secures occupational health and safety.
This could be termed organisational
design for safety capability, and those
appointing design organisations also
ought to ensure that this capability is
appropriate for the project.
However, there is a lack of
clarity regarding what constitutes
organisational design for safety
capability. There is therefore an
urgent need for research in the built
environment sector to address this
gap. This is not only important from
the standpoint of fulfilling CDM 2015
requirements, but more so from an
organisational continuous process
improvement perspective.
The design for safety tool currently being
researched and developed should be
available in May 2018
New research project
The Engineering and Physical Sciences
Research Council has provided funding
(grant no.EP/N033213/1) for research
work aimed at developing a design for
safety capability maturity indicator tool
for the construction sector.
The research is being undertaken by a
coalition of the Universities the West of
England and Loughborough in the UK
and East Carolina University in the USA.
Industry partners contributing towards
the research include Bam Construction
Limited, the Health and Safety
Executive, Heathrow Airport, ISG, Mott
MacDonald, Nick Bell Risk Consultancy,
GCP Architects and Safety in Design.
The research project started in
October 2016 and will be completed
in September 2018.It is anticipated
that the tool will be ready for use by
designers in May 2018.
References
Behm M (2005) Linking construction fatalities to
the design for construction safety concept.
Safety Science 43(8): 589611.
Gibb A, Haslam R, Gyi D, Hide S and Duff R (2006)
What causes accidents? Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering
159(6): 4650, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/
cien.2006.159.6.46.
HMG (Her Majestys Government) (2015) Health
and Safety.The Construction (Design and
Management) Regulations 2015.The Stationery
Office, London, UK, Statutory Instrument 2015
No.51.
HSE (Health and Safety Executive) (2015a)
Historical Picture HISTINJ Reported Injuries
in Great Britain by Main Industry and Severity of
Injury,1974 to Latest Year.HSE, Bootle, UK.See
http://www.hse.gov.uk/Statistics/tables/index.
htm (accessed 12/07/2016).
HSE (2015b) Managing Health and Safety in
Construction CDM 2015 Guidance L153.HSE,
Bootle, UK.
Manu P, Ankrah N, Proverbs D and Suresh S (2014)
The health and safety impact of construction
project features. Engineering Construction and
Architectural Management 21(1): 6593.
55
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.56
BRIEFING:RECRUITMENT
UK skills crisis: learning lessons from Crossrail
for staffing future infrastructure projects
The UK infrastructure industry could soon be facing a major skills crisis, with several megaprojects
about to start and concerns about the effects of Brexit on the flow of talent. Graham Day at
recruiter Matchtech says experience gained on Crossrail should help the industry to attract
sufficient people.
Confidence is booming across the UK
civil engineering sector.The promise
of additional funding for transport in
chancellor Philip Hammonds autumn
statement last November has only
added to the positive feeling within the
profession.
Matchtechs January 2017 Voice of
the Workforce survey of 2500 engineers
echoes this, with 72% of civil engineers
working in rail believing the sector will
grow over the next 12months. With a
number of megaprojects in the pipeline,
not least the 56billion High Speed
Two (HS2) railway, there is a risk that
the UK talent pool will be stretched over
the coming years.
Add a post-Brexit uncertainty
around the free movement of people
and the civil engineering sector as a
whole is faced with a real challenge.
However, the profession can build on
the success of Crossrail to ensure that
Britain is prepared to deliver these
transformational infrastructure projects.
A flexible approach
The 15billion Crossrail project
to deliver the eastwest Elizabeth
line across London demanded a very
specific combination of skill sets.For
example, project managers required
all computer-aided design contractors
to use the same software and sit in
the same central office, which limited
access to talent across the UK and
abroad.
Future projects, particularly those on
the scale of HS2, will require a more
flexible and sustainable approach to
recruitment in order to attract the
high number of people the project will
require. Beyond the ability to work
For further information contact: Graham Day Tel: +44 20 3047 2339 Email: graham.day@matchtech.com Web: matchtech.com/voice-of-the-workforce
56
UK skills crisis: learning lessons from Crossrail
for staffing future infrastructure projects
Day
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
Crossrail identified the need to attracted
a new generation of skilled infrastructure
professionals
remotely, the transfer of relevant skills
should be encouraged.
High-value projects such as Heathrow
Airport expansion and Hinkley Point C
nuclear power station have uncovered
an array of expertise across other
sectors and HS2 is already running
specific courses across the UK to utilise
these more diverse talent pools.
Attracting new talent
Another lesson learned from
Crossrail was the need to attract a new
generation of skilled professionals.
Many of the contracting staff were
also involved with High Speed One in
the 1990s while this experience is
invaluable, the scale and volume of
planned rail schemes requires a fresh
intake of engineering talent.
Since its inception, Crossrail has
faced competition from several major
global projects. Lucrative expatriate
markets have drawn both UK-based
and overseas talent away, leaving
resource gaps and recruitment
headaches. Moving forward, the UK
must celebrate its rich heritage in the
civil engineering sector and underline
the global significance of upcoming
projects.
HS2, for example, should be
positioned as a career-defining scheme
to retain our best engineers. Over two-
thirds of rail engineers are confident
about career progression within the
next 12months this is a sentiment
that should be built upon.
International outlook
Attracting the worlds top talent
has been integral to the delivery
of infrastructure projects in the
UK.The nations decision to leave
the European Union last June has
left an air of uncertainty over the
movement of skilled labour. However,
the governments lofty infrastructure
ambitions will require access to this
resource.
During Crossrail, recruiters and
project managers have successfully
learned to cast the net wider, even
beyond the EU, and demand for
specialist skills will be driven even higher
by HS2 and other planned infrastructure
developments.
Therefore, the fundamental focus for
the civil engineering industry is using
success stories like Crossrail to position
the UK as a global hub for infrastructure
engineering, both for home-grown and
overseas talent.
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.57
MONITOR:BOOKS
Books
REVIEWS
Transforming
the future of
infrastructure
through
smarter
information
by Robert Mair,
Kenichi Soga, Ying
Jin, Ajith Parlikad and Jennifer Schooling,
published by ICE Publishing, 2016, 150,
reviewed by Colin Rawlings, HS2 Ltd, UK
According to Institution of Civil
Engineers president Tim Broyd, civil
engineers will not be able to meet
societys changing expectations without
using modern technology. This 782-page
proceedings of last years International
Conference on Smart Infrastructure and
Construction 2016 is a good place to start.
The 127 papers are in three sections.The
first explains how recent innovations
in sensor systems and development of
new data-analysis methods can improve
understanding of performance including
infrastructure health monitoring through
a project life cycle.
The second shows how smart sensing
can provide data to make effective asset
management decisions to ensure long-term
value and sustainability of infrastructure,
while the third covers new technology and
business models to improve resilience and
adaptability in the urban environment.
This is truly a remarkable conference
proceedings, providing relevant information
for contractors, designers, clients,
infrastructure operators, asset managers and
others within the built environment.It will
help them to make efficiencies throughout
the life cycles of new and existing projects
using smart data and sensing.
Whole-life
value-based
decision-making
in asset
management
by Ajith Parlikad
and Rengarajan
Srinivasan, published
by ICE Publishing,
2016, 45, reviewed
by Stuart Ross, Arup, UK
Monitor: Books
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
Increasingly, civil engineers need to
make infrastructure asset decisions based
on whole-life value assessments, not just
cost. This book provides a concise and
structured summary of how to support
value-based asset management decisions.
Readers familiar with ISO 55000 asset
management standards will find the book
particularly useful. Although aimed at
infrastructure owners, it is also relevant
to those who have responsibilities for
operation and maintenance of assets,
including designers.
After describing the concept of value-
based asset management, the book
takes the reader through each stage of
the process, starting with establishing
the context and developing the value
map to the final stages of assessment
and optimisation of value.It then shows
how the processes can be applied to a
railway tunnel project and a scheme to
replace roadside safety barriers.
The writing style is simple, with
many flow charts and diagrams helping
to illustrate the processes described.
With whole-life value becoming an
increasingly important issue for the
construction industry, this book will be
an invaluable resource for those involved
in the operation and maintenance of
infrastructure assets.
NEC3: the role of
the project
manager
by Bronwyn Mitchell
and Barry Trebes, ICE
Publishing, 2016,
40, reviewed by
Andrew Martin,
Cowi, Denmark
The performance of the role of
project manager is key to the successful
functioning of the NEC3 Engineering
and Construction Contract (ECC), which
seeks to promote and stimulate good
practice in the management of projects.
This book provides guidance to NEC
project managers on the obligations,
activities and culture which are necessary
to carry out the role effectively, requiring
a blend of hard and soft skills.The book
explains the role of the NEC project
manager through the chronology of an
ECC contract, making use of helpful
lists and flow charts within the text.A
series of checklists and draft agendas
for contractual meetings are included as
appendices.
The book provides valuable guidance
to those new in the role of NEC project
manager or who are seeking to improve
their knowledge of the ECC.It will also
be a useful reference work for more
experienced NEC project managers.
Construction
planning (2nd
ed.)
by Richard Neale,
David Neale and
Paul Stephenson,
published by ICE
Publishing, 2016,
30, reviewed by
Stuart Ross, Arup,
UK
The importance of planning
construction projects is often discounted.
This book aims to give students and
those at the early stages of their career a
concise explanation of the processes and
techniques required for effective planning
and control of construction works.
The book starts by describing the
importance of planning and early
decisions.It then reviews the various
techniques, procedures and methods
which can be used in construction
planning, including an overview of
programme types, how resources can be
considered and, critically, monitoring and
controlling throughout the project.
The authors conclude with a
description of how the planning
techniques can be put into practice with
case studies provided for context. There
are many diagrams and flow charts that
allow the reader to understand quickly
and easily the techniques and principles
described.
This book will be an extremely useful
resource for those at the early stages of
their construction career and would also
be a useful reference for those looking
to refresh their construction planning
knowledge.
57
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
MONITOR:BOOKS
Crossrail project:
infrastructure
design and
construction
(Volume 3)
edited by Mike
Black, published
by ICE Publishing,
2016, 65, reviewed
by David Oloke,
Progressive Concept Consultancy, UK
This book the third in one of Crossrails
learning legacy series contains 34
design and construction papers submitted
by consultants, contractors, suppliers
and third-party stakeholders on Europes
biggest rail project.
Over half of the contributions relate to
innovations while others cover outputs from
desktop studies, feasibility, design and post-
construction monitoring and forensics.The
client involvement in all contributions
makes it an authoritative compendium.
In addition, the simplicity with which
information is presented makes the
book a worthy companion for civil
engineers and other construction
professionals. Academics will also find it
useful for final-year undergraduate and
postgraduate case studies.
Conceptual
structural
design: bridging
the gap
between
architects and
engineers (2nd
ed.)
by Olga Larsen, published by ICE
Publishing, 2016, 40, reviewed by Andy
Simpson, Andrew Waring Associates, UK
This book is refreshingly non-technical,
with author Olga Larsen conveying
structural concepts and fundamentals in
a clear manner without a single equation.
The first chapter excellently defines the
sometimes-difficult relationship between
structural engineers and architects.It goes
on to describe the link between nature
and how structural elements work. Larsen
showcases associations between todays
modern buildings and the primitive
structures of the past, and the importance
of designing from precedent.
Chapter six features examples of
innovative structural form-finding
58
Monitor: Books
the discovery of optimised designs by
understanding structural behaviour
through physical modelling techniques
used by famous designers.
This second edition has a new chapter
highlighting the benefits of building
information modelling, computational
form-finding and how virtual reality in
the future will allow us to visit an entire
building before a shovel has entered
the ground.The final third of the book
consists of five interesting case studies of
successful high-end architectural projects.
While this book provides structural
engineers with a stimulating and
contrasting approach to their customary
textbooks, it is also palatable to non-
engineers who have a general interest in
science, buildings and construction.
Operational
safety of dams
and reservoirs
by Desmond
Hartford, Gregory
Baecher, Andy
Zielinski, Robert
Patev, Romanas Ascila
and Karl Rytters,
published by ICE Publishing, 2016, 100,
reviewed by Stuart Ross, Arup, UK
Many of the worlds dams and reservoirs
have failed, often with catastrophic
consequences. This book summarises the
causes of historic failures and explains
how future design and operation can
adopt a more systems-based approach.
It focuses on incidents that occurred
because of a systems failure, ranging from
mechanical and electrical faults to human
factors. Based on the examples, the authors
then show how a systems approach can be
applied to dam safety risk models.
The book will be an important
resource for civil engineers and other
construction professionals involved in
the design, construction, operation and
maintenance of dams and reservoirs.
Contaminated
land guidance
(3rd ed.)
by Jo Strange, Nick
Langdon and Alex
Large, published
by ICE Publishing,
2016, 45, reviewed
by David Oloke,
Progressive Concept Consultancy, UK
This book provides guidance on the
challenges associated with contamination
on brownfield developments in the
UK.The updated third edition includes
the latest regulations and good practice.
The book takes readers through the
basics of the subject, including definitions
and regulations, through to the design and
implementation of proposed remediation
methods.It explains the concept of a risk-
based approach to handling contaminated
sites within the legislative framework that
underpins the process.
A step-by-step guide is provided
on handling the desk study, ground
investigation, risk assessment, objective-
based remediation, design options
approach and design implementation.
Fifteen case studies of practical, cost-
effective solutions help to keep all the
learning points very relevant.
Younger civil engineers will find this
book a useful reference to gain better
understanding of land contamination
and remediation. More experienced
practitioners will find it a useful continuous
professional development companion.
Geometry and
mechanics of
historic
structures
collected
studies
by Jaques Heyman,
published by Instituto
Juan de Herrera,
2016, 29, reviewed by Andrew
Martin, Cowi, Denmark
This delightful book presents 25
articles and papers written between
1993 and 2016 by Jaques Heyman,
emeritus professor in the department of
engineering at Cambridge University.
Most concern the masonry and timber
structures found in gothic cathedrals and
other ancient and historic buildings. Others
deal with aspects of the history of the theory
of structures, mathematics in structural
engineering and the related disciplines of
the architect and the engineer.A paper
describing the development of plastic
steel design in the UK is also included.
Heyman is a master of his subject,
with the true gift of being able to explain
complex and powerful engineering
concepts in terms that can be readily
understood by non-expert engineers and
others.
Civil Engineering Monitor: Books
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017

MONITOR:BOOKS

NEW BOOKS

The ICE Members Resource Hub maintains one of the most comprehensive collections of civil engineering
books in the world, including all titles from ICE Publishing (shown in bold below).New books received in
the past 3months include the following.
Advanced fibrous composite materials for ballistic protection X Chen 19500
Advanced structural mechanics A Carpinteri 9900
Applied wind engineering for tall building structures D Boggs and L Griffis 8200
Biomimetic principles and design of advanced engineering materials Z Xia 8050
Breakthrough: Crossrails tunnelling story Crossrail 999
Contaminated land guidance: the route to sustainable economic solutions (3rd ed.) J Strange, N Langdon and ALarge 4000
Culture and project management: managing diversity in multicultural projects O Zein 7000
Decarbonising the worlds economy: assessing the feasibility of policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions T Barker and D Crawford-Brown 8300
Design of electrical transmission lines: structures and foundations S Kalaga and P Yenumula 9500
Earthquake disaster simulation of civil infrastructures: from tall buildings to urban areas X Lu and H Guan 14900
Elementary structural analysis and design of buildings: a guide for practicing engineers and students D R Pilla 8900
Engineering: an illustrated history from ancient craft to modern technology T Jackson 1699
Geotechnical risk and reliability: an introduction R Chowdhury 6399
Getting started with: ISO 9001: 2015 quality management system Trada 1999
Global undergrounds: exploring cities within P Dobraszczyk et al. 1800
Gunwharf Quays: the history, architecture, conservation and development of a remarkable military site M Underwood 999
Health and safety in a changing world R Dingwall and S Frost 3499
ICE Specification for piling and embedded retaining walls (3rd ed.) ICE 6000
Lightweight ballistic composites: military and law-enforcement applications A Bhatnagar 17000
Paths, tracks and trails: designing for pedestrians and cyclists P Ceccon and L Zampieri 3500
Project finance for construction A Higham, C Bridge and PFarrell 11000
Risk assessments questions and answers: a practical approach (2nd ed.) P Perry 3500
Rock mechanics and engineering: laboratory and field testing X T Feng 15500
Slope earthquake stability L Jing etal. 8600
Slope safety preparedness for impact of climate change K Ho etal. 12100
Soil mechanics: calculations, principles, and methods V Kaliakin 4299
Solar energy desalination technology H Zheng 12500
Stability assessment for underground excavations and key construction techniques H Zhu etal. 8600
Steel fiber reinforced concrete: behavior, modelling and design H Singh 8600
Sustainable construction materials R K Dhir et el. 10800
Sustainable materials without the hot air J M Allwood and J M Cullen 2499
Sustainable use of traditional geomaterials in construction practice R Perikryl and A Torok 12000
Talking climate: from research to practice in public engagement A Corner and J Clarke 3799
Tall wood buildings: design, construction and performance M Green and J Taggart 5500
The art of building a garden city: designing new communities for the 21st century H Ellis etal. 4000
The railway metropolis: how planners, politicians and developers shaped modern London M Schabas 4500
The railways: nation, network and people S Bradley 499
The sharks paintbrush: biomimicry and how nature is inspiring innovation J Harman 1499
Time-dependency in rock mechanics and rock engineering O Aydan 10800
Transport properties of concrete: measurement and applications P A Claisse 14000
Underground aqueducts handbook E Chiotis etal. 12700

All books can be borrowed from the ICE Members Resource Hub on the second floor of 1 Great George Street, London, SW1P 3AA from
9.15 am to 5.30 pm, Monday to Friday.ICE Publishing titles can also be purchased from the ICE Members Resource Hub or ordered by
calling +44 1892 832299, emailing orders@icepublishing.com or by visiting www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/books.

59
Civil Engineering Monitor: ICE Proceedings
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.60

MONITOR:PROCEEDINGS

ICE Proceedings
In addition to Civil Engineering, ICE Proceedings includes 17 specialist journals. Papers and articles
published in the most recent issues are listed here. Summaries of all these and other papers and articles
published can be read free in the ICE Virtual Library at www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/journals.

Bridge Engineering Construction Materials Engineering

Assessing the capacity of existing
bridge structures: part 2
170, No.BE1, March 2017, 190
PAPERS
Reinforced-concrete beam hinge
joint fatigue assessment
D.P.Cousins
Transverse assessment of a concrete box girder
bridge
A.Zaid and D.Collings
Structural capacity assessment of corroded RC
bridge piers
M.M.Kashani, A.J.Crewe and N.A.Alexander
Assessment of an existing fully prestressed
box-girder bridge
M.Pimentel and J.Figueiras
Waterloo Bridge structural behaviour and
strength
D.Astin
Capacity of a nineteenth century iron-arch
bridge in Leeds, UK
A.Okorie, P.Clapham and B.Ndlovu
Bridge model updating using distributed
sensor data
E.C.Bentz and N.A.Hoult
Civil Engineering Special
Issue
Crossrail project: designing and
constructing the Elizabeth Line,
London
170, No.CE5, May 2017, 164
PAPERS
Crossrail project: the execution strategy for
delivering Londons Elizabeth line
W.Tucker
Crossrail project: engineering design
management on the Elizabeth line,
London
J.-M.Barsam, D.Harris and A.Hooper
Crossrail project: managing geotechnical risk
on Londons Elizabeth line
M.Black
Crossrail project: machine-driven tunnels on
the Elizabeth line, London
M.King, I.Thomas and A.Stenning
Crossrail project: use of sprayed concrete
tunnel linings on Londons Elizabeth line
D.Coughlan, R.Diez, J.Comins and A.Strk
Crossrail project: a deep-mined station on the
Elizabeth line, London
A.St. John, J.Barker, S.Frost and D.Harris
Crossrail project: logistics management
strategy for the Elizabeth line, London
D.Fraser, J.Haig, M.Heduan and G.Limna
170, No.CM2, April 2017, 71115
PAPERS
The use of glycerol and cooking
oil in masonry unit production
H.M.Vu, J.P.Forth and V.V.Toropov
The environmental impact of phenolic foam
insulation boards
D.Densley Tingley, A.Hathway, B.Davison and
D.Allwood
Optimising construction with self-compacting
concrete
D.Rich, J.Glass, A.G.F.Gibb, C.I.Goodier and
G.Sander
Energy
Small modular reactors
170, No.EN2, May 2017, 4589
PAPERS
Appraisal of small modular
nuclear reactors with real
options valuation
G.Locatelli, M.Pecoraro, G.Meroni and
M.Mancini
Economy, safety and applicability of small
modular reactors
I.Playbell
A novel steelconcrete composite system for
modular nuclear reactors
B.Burgan, C.Kyprianou, S.Bingham and
S.Waterhouse
Engineering and
Computational Mechanics
170, No.EM1, March 2017, 146
PAPERS
Modelling impact resistance of
polymer-laminated steelwork
M.Kadhim, Z.Wu and L.Cunningham
Hydraulic jumps and breaking bores:
modelling and analysis
H.Wang, X.Leng and H.Chanson
Engineering History and
Heritage
170, No.EH1, February 2017, 146
PAPERS
Redecking the Hogarth Flyover,
London
J.Rose, Y.Hussein and A.Ghose
Engineering the landscape Capability
Browns role
B.G.Clarke, B.Barrett, E.Hudson and J.Whibberley
Civil engineering heritage: country profile
Canada
A.MacKenzie and V.Straka
Sustainability
Sustainability in energy and buildings
part 2
170, No.ES2, April 2017, 63129
PAPERS
Design strategies for buildings with low
embodied energy
A.Lupek, M.Nehasilov, . Mank, J.elezn,
J.Rika, C.Fiala, J.Tywoniak and P.Hjek
Estimation and sensitivity analysis of building
energy demand
J.K.Gruber, M.Prodanovic and R.Alonso
Relieving fuel poverty in Wales with external
wall insulation
J.Atkinson, J.Littlewood, G.Karani and A.Geens
In-construction tests show rapid smoke spread
across dwellings
J.Littlewood and I.Smallwood
Transforming the Greek Cycladic islands into a
wind energy hub
E.Zafeiratou and C.Spataru
Forensic Engineering
Forensic engineering in urban
renovation
170, No.FE1, February 2017, 146
PAPERS
Building facade failures in the
urban environment
K.J.Beasley
Building condition and impact assessment of
underground construction
K.H.Goh
Erecting new buildings in New York Citys old
neighbourhoods
D.Eschenasy
Forensic engineering of construction materials:
lessons learnt from disputes
J.Ingham and D.Leek
Geotechnical Engineering
170, No.GE2, April 2017, 95187
PAPERS
Analysis of pre-vault tunnelling
interaction with buildings
A.G.Bloodworth and G.T.Houlsby
Soilstructure interaction in a combined pile
raft foundation a case study
A.Kumar, M.Patil and D.Choudhury
Testing of open section drilled C-pile and
CTpile wall
L.Larkela, J.Lehtonen and L.Korkiala-Tanttu
Effective friction angle of soft to firm clays
from flat dilatometer
Z.Ouyang and P.W.Mayne

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Civil Engineering Monitor: ICE Proceedings
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017

MONITOR:PROCEEDINGS

Compressibility and stress history of very soft
organic clays
M.Baroni and M.S.S.Almeida
Study of soil nailed wall under service loading
condition
S.K.Razavi and M.H.Bonab
Limit analysis of ground anchor forces
S.Xiao and W.D.Guo
Ground Improvement
170, No.GI1, February 2017, 159
PAPERS
The engineering behaviour of
enzymatic lime stabilised soils
G.N.Eujine, S.Chandrakaran and
N.Sankar
Bearing capacity charts of soft soil reinforced
by deep mixing
A.S.A Rashid, J.A.Black, A.B.H.Kueh,
H.Mohamad and N.Md Noor
Stabilising railway embankments using an
integrated tied back-to-back strengthening
system
M.Esmaeili and B.Arbabi
Creep improvement factors for vibro-
replacement design
B.G.Sexton, V.Sivakumar and B.A.McCabe
Management,
Procurement and Law
Benefitting workers and society
through safe(r) design
170, No.MP2, April 2017, 47100
PAPERS
Design hazard identification and the link to
site experience
G.Hayne, B.Kumar and B.Hare
Zero roadworker harm: ethical and legal
challenges
A.Burbridge and R.Troutbeck
Stakeholders role in improving Ghanas
construction safety
D.Donkoh and E.Aboagye-Nimo
The antecedents and development of
unsafety
S.D.Smith, F.Sherratt and D.C.Oswald
Critical theory: understanding the impact
language has on workers safety and health
C.McAleenan and P.McAleenan
Maritime Engineering
169, No.MA4, December 2016,
141187
PAPERS
An earthquake-event-based
method for mapping tsunami
hazards
M.A.Jaimes, E.Reinoso, M.Ordaz, R.Silva,
E.Mendoza, B.Huerta, G.Durn, X.Chvez and
J.C.Rodrguez
Improving the prediction of scour around
submarine pipelines
Z.Zhang, B.Shi, Y.Guo and D.Chen
Numerical test for single concrete armour layer
on breakwaters
E.Anastasaki, J.-P.Latham and J.Xiang
Municipal Engineer
170, No.ME1, March 2017, 161
PAPERS
Appraisal of urban road safety
factors in South Africa
D.K.Das and E.A.Burger
Simulation and analysis of traffic flow for
traffic calming
A.Abdi, H.Bigdeli Rad and E.Azimi
Analysis of pedestrian crossing speed the
case of Istanbul
S.Dndar
New risk method to assess tree interaction
with structures
F.W.Y.Ko and J.R.Standing compact megacity
Structures and Buildings
Bamboo in structures and buildings
170, No.SB4, April 2017, 225318
PAPERS
Application of bamboo in
mangrove rehabilitation projects
S.Harihar and H.J.Verhagen
Geometric and material effects on bamboo
buckling behaviour
K.A.Harries, J.Bumstead, M.Richard and D.Trujillo
Mechanical characterisation of structural
laminated bamboo
B.Sharma, H.Bauer, G.Schickhofer and
M.H.Ramage
Experimental evaluation of longitudinal
splitting of bamboo flexural components
M.J.Richard, J.Gottron, K.A.Harries and K.Ghavami
Bamboo active school: structural design and
material testing
M.J.Richard, P.E.Kassabian and H.S.Schulze-Ehring
Flexural properties as a basis for bamboo
strength grading
D.Trujillo, S.Jangra and J.M.Gibson
BIM Bamboo: a digital design framework for
bamboo culms
R.Lorenzo, C.Lee, J.G.Oliva-Salinas and
M.J.Ontiveros-Hernandez
A new method to measure the axial and shear
moduli of bamboo
R.Moran, K.Ghavami and J.J.Garca
Corrugated bamboo as reinforcement in concrete
A.Khatib and G.Nounu
Transport
Transport emissions, climate change
and air quality
170, No.TR2, April 2017, 63120
PAPERS
Transport emissions in Beijing: a
scenario planning approach
M.Cao, C.-L.Chen and R.Hickman
Land-use drivers of transport emissions revisited
A.Wenban-Smith
Using personal carbon dioxide trading to
promote cleaner cars
Y.Li, W.Li, Y.Wei, L.Bao and H.Deng
Air quality in enclosed railway stations
J.E.Thornes, A.Hickman, C.Baker, X.Cai and
J.M.Delgado Saborit
Greenhouse gas from ridership on the Jubilee
Line Extension
S.Saxe and S.Denman
Urban Design and
Planning
170, No.DP2, April 2017, 4791
PAPERS
Green infrastructure integration
in the urban periphery
V.Nefedov
Walking accessibility of urban parks in a
H.Liang, D.Chen and Q.Zhang
Assessment of social sustainability:
acomparative analysis
A.R.Abed
Assessing the aesthetic value of traditional
gardens and urban parks in China
J.Zhao, R.Li and X.Wei
Waste and Resource
Management
169, No.WR4, November 2016,
147199
PAPERS
Governments as drivers for a
circular economy
A.ten Wolde
A regional model for household
pharmaceutical waste management
G.Ristic, A.ordevic and S.Hristov
Development of a sustainable checklist in
construction
V.W.Y.Tam, K.N.Le, J.Wang and X.Wang
Life-cycle assessment of municipal solid waste
management
S.T.Mali and S.S.Patil
Sustainable adobe bricks with construction wastes
M.N.Rojas-Valencia and E.Aquino Bolaos
Water Management
170, No.WM2, April 2017, 55109
PAPERS
Climate change effects and
extreme rainfall non-stationarity
A.G.Yilmaz
Non-linear Muskingum model with inflow-
based exponent
A.R.Vatankhah
A method for optimal floodgate operation in
cascade reservoirs
S.Chen, S.Yan, W.Huang, Y.Hu and G.Ma
Cantilever failure investigations for cohesive
riverbanks
S.Patsinghasanee, I.Kimura, Y.Shimizu and
M.Nabi

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Civil Engineering Monitor: ICE review
Volume 170 Issue CE2 May 2017
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2017.170.2.62

MONITOR:ICE REVIEW

ICE review
A review of recent developments at the Institution of Civil Engineers by ICE president TimBroyd.
For further information please contact the communications office on +44 20 7665 2107, email
communications@ice.org.uk or visit www.ice.org.uk//news-public-affairs.

Digital engineering and There was positive feedback across

collaboration
One of the most agreeable tasks for
new ICE presidents is a visit to every
region in the UK.I started off with
Scotland and Northern Ireland, which
were both enjoyable and encouraging.
Ialso made a visit to Dublin, where I
received the customary warm welcome
from Engineers Ireland.
While there, I spoke to a group of
leading Irish businesspeople on the
theme of my presidential address
engineering a digital future.I noted
that infrastructure clients are playing a
big part in the introduction of digital
technology as well as adopting truly
collaborative approaches.
Much of the change is due to the
spirit of mutual trust and co-operation
fostered by ICEs now globally used
NEC contract suite, the fourth edition
of which appears in June. Never
before have clients shared so much
knowledge and experience among
themselves and with the outside
world.
I am optimistic that such open
collaboration coupled with use of
digital technologies will help define a
golden age of infrastructure.
ICEs latest The State of the Nation report
focuses on the extent to which digital
technologies are being adopted in the UK
infrastructure sector
State of UKs digital engineering
Continuing the theme of digital
engineering, ICEs latest flagship policy
report in The State of the Nation series
looked at the extent to which emerging
digital technologies are transforming the
civil engineering and infrastructure sectors.
Published in March, the report made
recommendations on how to harness
digital technology developments for
the benefit of economic growth and
local communities.ICE used a broad-
church approach in making the case in
the report for national infrastructure
investment, and particularly how this
will benefit the country following its
withdrawal from the European Union.
The report can be downloaded from
the ICE website at www.ice.org.uk/
media-and-policy/state-of-the-nation.
all grades of those attending. Aside
from recognising the celebratory aspect
to the event, many commented on
the warm welcome they received from
members and staff alike.A relation of
a newly chartered civil engineer, who
had travelled from Northern Ireland,
commented on the humanity of the
event and how the impression he would
take home was one of pride and a
sense of family.
For me one of the highlights was
meeting Dominik McCormick in
London, an 18-year-old apprentice who
works for Aecoms transport division
in Birmingham.He is now officially the
youngest ever person to be awarded
EngTech MICE status.I presented him
with his certificate, watched by his
proud father Paul a former colleague
of mine at Halcrow and now a director
at Aecom.
With young technicians like Dominik
sitting alongside our more venerable
fellows, the certificate presentation
ceremony is a truly inspirational event.It
reinforces our core message that ICE
membership is a journey which can
be joined at any career stage, with
guaranteed help, support and direction
throughout that journey.

Celebrating new ICE joiners

ICE president Tim Broyd meets Engineers
Ireland president Dermot Byrne during his
presidential tour
ICE recently held its membership
certificate presentation ceremonies
in London and Hong Kong. Over 300
engineers in London and 280 in Hong
Kong were awarded various forms
of ICE membership. They join over ICE president Tim Broyd celebrating with
new successful ICE membership candidates
90000 ICE civil engineer and technician at the certificate presentation ceremony in
members across the world who create London
and maintain societys infrastructure.

62
Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 May 2017 Issue CE2
Volume 170 Issue CE2
Pages 6370 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00008
Stabilising Lyme Regis a Paper 1600008
Received 22/03/2016 Accepted 03/10/2016
strategic approach
Published online 18/11/2016
Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning Keywords: coastal engineering/environment/slopes
stabilisation

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic

approach
Roger Moore CGeol, FGS, FICE, RoGEP Matthew Stannard CEng, MICE
Director, CH2M, Birmingham, UK and Professor of Applied Senior Coastal Engineer, CH2M, Exeter, UK
Geomorphology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
Nick Browning CEng, MICE
Geoff Davis CGeol, CEng, FGS, MICE, MIMMM Engineering Projects Manager, West Dorset District Council, Dorchester,
Associate Director, Earth Engineering, CH2M, Birmingham, UK UK

Coastal erosion and landslides have been a constant threat to Lyme Regis in West Dorset, UK for over 250
years.By the 1980s, the frequency and scale of coastal erosion and land instability had reached a point
whereby the local council realised that a change from the previous ad hoc repair and protection approach
was needed to secure the long-term future of the town.An environmental improvements initiative was
developed from then onwards to provide a strategic and integrated programme of coast protection and
cliff stabilisation measures designed to mitigate the increasing threat of climate change, coastal erosion
and landslides, while respecting the sites unique heritage and environmental interests. This paper outlines
the background and principal phases of the project that have been successfully delivered over the period
19902015.

1. Introduction old coastal landslides in Lower Jurassic clays and mudstones of

the Blue Lias and Charmouth Mudstone Formations. These cliffs
The historic coastal town of Lyme Regis in West Dorset, UK are subject to continuous slow movements and, from time to time,
is situated in one of the most unstable geological settings in the destructive landslide activity. Historically, the town was a major
UK and has suffered severely from the effects of coastal erosion port with the original nucleus of the town centred on the River Lym
and landsliding. Over the years, landslide activity and cliff retreat and the harbour located 05km to the south-west (Figure 1). The
have damaged or destroyed many properties throughout the town harbour breakwater, known as the Cobb (possibly from the Welsh
together with roads, land and infrastructure. In the absence of word cob meaning embankment), is considered to be the oldest
engineering intervention, the future for the town was bleak, with working breakwater of its type in the UK with the original structure
existing coast-protection structures reaching the end of their useful dating back at least to the thirteenth century.
life, landslide activity increasing in response to climate change,
sea-level rise and a higher frequency of wet winters over the last
two decades.
To secure the future of Lyme Regis, West Dorset District Council
has, since the late 1980s, promoted a long-term programme of
phased investigations and engineering schemes to protect and
stabilise the coastal frontage of the town. This approach has enabled
the council to be proactive in identifying and dealing with coastal
defence, cliff erosion and landslide problems in a strategic manner,
rather than reacting to land instability and storm events once they
have occurred. Central to the success of this strategy have been
extensive long-term consultations with the local community and
other stakeholders.
This paper aims to illustrate how long-term persistence and
vision in tackling severe coastal instability problems can be
successful and have substantial benefits to the community and local
environment despite the considerable challenges involved.

2. Historical background Figure 1. Aerial photograph of Lyme Regis, showing the location of
the main construction phases the boundaries for phases 2 and 4
Lyme Regis is located on an actively eroding soft rock coastline coincide with landslide geomorphology
in southern England with much of the town being constructed on

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Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
The original mediaeval town is thought to have extended a
considerable distance into what is now the sea. Other than the
Cobb, major seawalls in the older parts of the town were not
constructed until the 1750s with the seawall between the town
centre and the harbour not completed until the 1860s. Where
unprotected, the coastline continued to retreat due to a combination
of marine erosion and associated landsliding; the materials eroded
from the cliffs do not afford much protection in the form of beach-
forming materials as the lithology is mostly fine grained. Even
in those locations where seawalls were constructed, the landslide
systems in the steep and unstable coastal slopes behind continued
to retreat inland, causing considerable damage.
The traditional approach to dealing with coastal defence and
cliff instability tended to comprise isolated responses to a particular
landslide or seawall failure. Previous attempts to stabilise these
landslides were not always successful, essentially because the landslide
extents and mechanisms were not well understood at that time.
Coastal erosion and landsliding, whilst causing considerable
difficulties in the built-up areas of the town, also have some positive
aspects.The spectacular scenery on the coasts adjacent to the town
is a result of the continuing erosion which also yields abundant
fossils. These attractions have meant that tourism is now the
towns principal industry. The importance of the area in terms of
geology and geomorphology is recognised internationally through
the designation of a Unesco natural world heritage site, commonly
known as the Jurassic coast.
3. Strategy
Since the late 1980s, West Dorset District Council has promoted
a long-term programme of engineering projects covering the whole
of the frontage at Lyme Regis, all within an overarching coastal
management strategy. The objective of the strategy has been to
provide the town with long-term protection against coastal erosion,
landsliding and storms, together with improvements to both the
natural and built environments.
The main feature of the strategy was the consideration of
the entire landslide system and coastal area of Lyme Regis as a
whole. This is in contrast to the traditional piecemeal and reactive
approach that often only considers isolated sites or areas which
happen to be problematic at the time.The area of interest extended
from the top of the coastal slope down to the sea cliffs, intertidal
zone and seabed about 1km offshore as well as coastal areas to
the west and east of Lyme Regis. Extensive multidisciplinary
investigations, both detailed and wide in scope, were carried out
within this area in order to address the relatively complex nature of
the coastal erosion and cliff instability problems.
The programme was split into three main phases (Section 5),
with each phase typically comprising a range of investigation work
and engineering schemes, including
desk studies
geomorphological and geological mapping of the cliffs,
landslides and beaches
phased ground investigations with installation of ground
instrumentation and monitoring
preparation of conceptual ground models and process models
for the cliffs and beaches
64
Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic approach
Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning
local emergency works
full engineering schemes to stabilise and protect the coastal
areas of the town
ongoing extensive consultations with residents, the local
community and other stakeholders.
This holistic, long-term, proactive approach is considered to
have many benefits (Brunsden and Moore 1999; Cole etal., 2002;
Moore and Davis 2014; Moore etal., 2010). They include
the economic case that prevention is better than having to deal
with the emergency response and aftermath of destructive
erosion or landsliding
allowing time and investment to establish a detailed
understanding of the problems through phased investigations
allowing prioritisation of works for complex sites in order of
urgency
a phased approach avoids excessive disruption to wide areas of
the town
delivering economies of scale the cost of considering the
towns coastline as a whole under a single strategy being less
than attempting to deal with individual problem sites in isolation
ensuring that schemes are concordant with marine and
landslide processes operating on adjacent sections of coastline.
4. Investigations
A wide range of multidisciplinary investigations was carried
out in several stages over many years with the findings of the early
investigations informing the design of later ones.The main types of
investigation and their value are summarised in Table1.The main
findings of the investigations were fundamental to the design and
development of coast-protection and cliff-stabilisation schemes.
They include the following.
Much of town has been built on pre-existing landslides
which were active when climatic conditions were worse than
at present, for example in late glacial times and during the
mediaeval little ice age. The landslide systems extend up
to 500m inland from the high watermark, which was much
further than appreciated previously.
The landslides are large, complex, multilayered systems,
strongly controlled by geological structure and faulting within
the Lower Jurassic clays and mudstones.
The existing landslides were prone to rapid reactivation and
expansion in the present day due to a combination of marine
erosion at the toe, foreshore lowering and the increasing
frequency of wet winters.
The beaches fronting the town were a small fraction of their
former extent, and their size and protective effect has been
diminished due to a combination of artificial and natural effects,
principally the occurrence of large landslides to the south-west
of the town blocking south-eastwards longshore drift.
Exacerbated by loss of the beaches, there has been continuing
marine erosion at the toe of the landslide systems together with
lowering of foreshore ledges.
The existing coast-protection structures were deteriorating,
with many approaching the end of their useful life.
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
Type of investigation Description
Desk studies Collation of information from existing reports,
repositories and published sources relevant to
each of the investigations listed below.
Condition assessment External surveys of condition of existing seawalls,
of coast protection jetties and retaining walls.
structures
Geomorphological and Geomorphological and geological mapping
geological assessment and assessment of coastal cliffs and landslide
of coastal slopes systems.
Marine geomorphology Bathymetry, side-scan sonar, marine seismic
and coastal processes surveys.
Geological and geomorphological mapping of
the sea bed.
Aerial surveys of beach and foreshore.
Analysis of short-term and long-term beach
changes and sediment budgets.
Ground investigation A range a ground exploration techniques,
including trial pits, probing, window sampling
and boreholes to various depths.
Laboratory testing A full range of geotechnical laboratory tests on
samples from boreholes and trial pits, including
effective stress testing and residual strength.
Ground monitoring Monitoring of groundwater levels and ground
movement. Instrument types included standpipe,
pneumatic and vibrating wire piezometers;
inclinometers and ground markers.
Structural surveys Survey of damage to houses and other
structures.
Environmental surveys Baseline surveys of flora and fauna and
landscape of the cliffs and coastline.
Drainage surveys Investigating the extent and condition of existing
foul and storm systems by visual inspection, dye
testing and closed-circuit television surveys.
Quantitative risk Analysis of potential seawall failure and landslide
assessment recession scenarios in the do nothing case,
using probabilistic models based on knowledge
of geomorphological processes.
Costbenefit analysis The development of economic models and cost
benefit analysis, in accordance with HM Treasury
guidelines.
Public opinion surveys Formal surveys of public opinion on possible
components of coast protection schemes, for
both residents and visitors.
Table 1. The main types of investigation used at Lyme Regis
The towns drainage systems were in a poor state, with leakage
tending to increase groundwater levels, which promote
instability.
In the absence of any engineering intervention, the very future
of the town was under threat, and large parts of it could have
been destroyed relatively rapidly as a result of coastal erosion
and landsliding.
Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic approach
Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning
Value
Provides historical information relevant to the project at relatively low cost.
Provides information on defects and residual life of the structures.
Establishes understanding of the coastline as a geomorphological system evolving in
time.
Determines the geographical extent of the landslide systems.
Establishes the relationship between geology and landforms.
Provides an understanding of landslide mechanisms.
Forms the basis of a conceptual ground model.
Informs the design of ground investigations.
Allows the efficient design of stabilisation works, based on detailed geomorphology.
Underpins prediction of future erosion and landslide scenarios and associated
outcomes.
Forms the basis of quantitative risk assessment and costbenefit analysis.
Provides detailed models of offshore geology and coastal processes which may be
combined with the onshore ground model.
Confirms and refines preliminary ground model from geomorphological assessments.
Allows the installation of ground-monitoring instrumentation.
Provides parameters for geotechnical design (see Daskalopoulos (2015) and Candian
etal. (2015) for information on parameters and geotechnical design).
Provides vectors and depths of ground movement and water pressure acting on
landslides, improving knowledge of landslide mechanisms. Some instruments
were set up for automated monitoring, which provided an early warning of high
groundwater levels and ground movement.
Damage patterns may be linked to local geomorphology, with most damage typically
occurring along the boundaries of landslide blocks.
Provides information for landscape design and environmental mitigation and
enhancement.
Provides information for the repair of existing drainage systems and design of new
ones.
Damage patterns may be linked to local geomorphology, with most damage typically
occurring along the boundaries of landslide blocks.
Gives information on likely development of landsliding and coastal erosion without
any engineering intervention, which may be used in the preparation of the coast
protection strategy and the design of engineering works.
Required for the economic justification of the coast protection strategy and
implementation of engineering schemes.
Provides information on public opinion, which may be used in the development of
the coast protection strategy and the design of engineering works.
5. Development of schemes
The findings of the investigations indicated that the only realistic
way of safeguarding the long-term future of the town was through
the implementation of heavy civil engineering schemes to reduce
the risk of destructive erosion and landsliding.In the do nothing
scenario, it was likely that landslide activity would have spread
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Civil Engineering Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic approach
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning

rapidly into the densely built-up area of the town and hence there
was good justification for the implementation of engineering
schemes both socially and in terms of government economic
criteria.
Adaptation to coastal change through managed retreat was
not a realistic option.In order to limit the amount of disruption
in the town at any one time, but also to allow sufficient time
for investigations and the design of relatively complex
engineering schemes, the project was undertaken in a series of
phases in order of urgency and within the long-term strategic
programme.
Such was the degree of threat from landsliding that it was
recognised that there may not be sufficient time to develop and
implement schemes before another destructive landslide event
took place. Local, small-scale, emergency works were therefore
carried out in critical areas in order to provide sufficient time for
the development of a full scheme. These typically comprised
repairs to drainage
local beach replenishment
temporary stabilising bored piles with a short design life of
10years
local areas of stabilising bored piles, which would be
incorporated into a main scheme in due course.
In addition, a landslide warning system was set up to give alerts
of the onset of potentially damaging ground movement, linked to in
situ ground monitoring instrumentation. This was analogous to the
Environment Agencys flood warning system.
The proposed works involved substantial changes to the physical
characteristics of the beach and frontage, which are the most
popular and sensitive areas of the town, together with construction
on private land, in roads and in public gardens. Consultation
therefore played a key role in the development of schemes (Davis
and Cole, 2002).
The two most valuable methods of encouraging public
participation were the establishment of a design office within
the town, which the public were encouraged to visit, and regular
meetings of a coastal forum. These meetings were chaired by the
mayor of Lyme Regis and set up specifically to allow townspeople
to have a direct input into the development of scheme options. High
levels of involvement from the public and stakeholders minimised
potential conflict, producing a sense of public ownership and a high
level of consensus across the town.
Elements of the scheme taken forward for detailed design were
typically determined from a long list of potential ideas, many of
which were put forward by the public. Ideas taken forward were
subject to appraisal and screening in terms of environmental
impact, technical merit and costs.
The development and construction of all phases were funded
principally from grant in aid funding under the Coastal Protection
Act 1949 from the Department for Environment and Rural Affairs
(Defra) through the Environment Agency with major contributions
from West Dorset District Council, South West Water as the local
water utility company and Dorset County Council as highway
authority.
There were many challenges that had a strong influence on the
planning and implementation of schemes, in particular
ensuring that schemes would be effective technically, but
would also be compatible with the local historical and
natural environments, and with the expectations of the local
community
physical constraints on access and the need to work on
potentially unstable slopes, often requiring the use of light
plant and rope-access techniques
avoiding excessive disruption to the town, particularly during
busy holiday seasons.
The schemes were constructed in three major phases (Table2).

Scheme Main components Funding partners Challenges Other benefits

Phase 1 New seawall in front of Defra/ Environment Design of new structures to ensure Sewage holding and pumping facility to improve
Constructed the existing one. Agency grant in aid. they were in character with the historic bathing waters quality.
19931995 Rock armour. West Dorset District nature of the old seawalls in the New public promenade.
Sewage holding tanks Council. area. Construction on the foreshore Provides access for heavy construction vehicles to
and pumping station. South West Water. submerged at high water. phase 4 area.
Phases 2 New seawall, sand and Defra/ Environment Carrying out heavy construction work Improvements in urban landscaping and public
and 3 shingle beaches, rock Agency grant in aid. on the beaches and frontage in the amenity.
Constructed armour and masonry West Dorset District most popular area of town, vital for its Separation of surface water from foul system.
20052007 jetties, groundwater and Council. tourist economy. Requirement to work Highway improvements.
surface water drainage Dorset County Council, on numerous areas of private land and
Larger sand and shingle beaches popular with
systems, bored piling, as highway authority. gardens with limited access. Weight
tourists.
earthworks, reinforced restrictions on plant due to stability
soil. issues. Rock armour extension to the Cobb allows
additional boat moorings in outer harbour.
Phase 4 New seawall in front Defra/ Environment Reconciling engineering requirements Coastal erosion and landsliding allowed to
Constructed of the existing one. Agency grant in aid. with environmental constraints. continue, thereby preserving nature conservation
20132015 Groundwater and surface West Dorset District Construction on the foreshore interests while preventing expansion of
water drainage. Soil Council. submerged at high water. Construction damaging landsliding towards town.
nailing. Dowel piles and Dorset County Council, in area of active landsliding. Improvements to natural habitats.
anchored pile retaining as highway authority. Time constraints in implementing Natural geological exposures and
wall. a scheme before further damaging geomorphological features retained.
landsliding. Improved and safer public access, including
pushchair and wheelchair users.

Table 2. The three main engineering phases with their challenges and benefits

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Civil Engineering Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic approach
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning

5.1 Phase 1 structures and extensive slope stabilisation works (comprising

Phase 1 (constructed 19931995) comprised a new seawall along
the central eastern area of the town adjacent to the River Lym.The
coast-protection function was to provide a new line of defence
against coastal erosion in front of the historical masonry seawalls,
which were around 250 years old and in a dilapidated state.
The new seawall incorporates holding tanks and a pumping
station, to pump the towns sewage inland for treatment instead of
being discharged untreated into the sea.The scheme also provided
a new promenade, which was later to be used by heavy vehicles to
access the construction site for phase 4 (Figure2).
bored piles, earthworks and drainage) located in the main frontage
and tourist area of the town (Figures 3 and 4).
Phase 3 was intended to tackle instability problems on the
western flank of the town, but was found to be uneconomic;
however, some elements of merit were incorporated within
the phase 2 scheme. The main challenges of this scheme were
plant weight and ground condition restrictions on working in
order to maintain stability of slopes and difficult access through
steep slopes, narrow streets and individual plots of private

5.2 Phases 2 and 3

Phases 2 and 3 (constructed 20052007) (Fort et al., 2007)
comprised a new seawall, sand and shingle beaches, beach control

Figure 3. Aerial photograph of the phase 2 works, showing the

Figure 2. Phase 1 seawall and promenade with the sewage pumping construction of a new seawall, piles, earthworks, drainage and sand
station in the background and shingle beach replenishment

Local slope regrading Soil nails

Trench drains

Reinforced soil buttress ed

hi b
Birc
bed ge 40 m
Midle led
T ledge
a b
y
Gre

Drilled drainage array

Landslide-
controlling
strata

Bored piles

150 m Fault

Counterfort drains

Bored piles

New sea wall

Replenished beach

Figure 4. Schematic block diagram showing main methods of

stabilisation at phase 2

67
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
land.Thescheme provided a sandy beach as well as shingle beach
coast protection in order to preserve and enhance an important
attraction for tourists.
5.3 Phase 4
Phase 4 (constructed 20132015) was the last in the series
of major schemes. It is located on the east flank of Lyme Regis
and comprises a new seawall in front of the existing dilapidated
wall (Dales et al., 2014) and extensive slope stabilisation works
(Candian et al., 2015; Daskalopoulos, 2015) including soil nails,
drainage and piling (Figures 5 and 6).
Coastal erosion and landsliding on the eastern part of the town
are of critical importance to the geological and biodiversity value
of this world heritage site and, as such, had to be reconciled
with conflicting requirements to protect people, property and
infrastructure. This balance was achieved by adopting an overall
design concept where stabilisation works prevented the expansion
of destructive landslides inland by constructing a barrier of
stabilised ground, rather than stabilising all the areas of existing
landslides. This had the benefit that the greater part of the landslides
and the most environmentally sensitive areas of the coastline were
left untouched, thereby allowing continuing erosion and avoiding
unacceptable environmental impacts.
The scheme included a comprehensive mitigation strategy to
minimise adverse effects on the environment, and to improve
Dowel piling
Soil nailing
Soil nailing
Line of drilled drains
Figure 5. Aerial photograph showing the key features of phase 4
68
Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic approach
Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning
and enhance the natural habitats and geological exposures. The
landscaping and environmental mitigation works conceal nearly all
of the extensive geotechnical engineering works from view. One
of the main challenges in this phase was working in an area of
active landslides, which required careful monitoring of ground
movements. Despite the huge challenges, the construction work
delivered an outstanding safety record, with no reportable incidents
from a workforce of 561 and 174960 man hours worked.
6. Project achievements
The overall project has been successful, securing the long-term
future of Lyme Regis in the face of a considerable and growing
threat from aggressive coastal erosion and landsliding in one of
the most unstable geological settings in the UK. Engineering
solutions were delivered without any further destructive landslide
events taking place, through a strategic programme of works in
order of urgency, with the use of local emergency works where
necessary. In addition, the phase 4 construction works were
completed safely within an area of active landsliding through one
of the most extreme UK winters on record (20132014) both in
terms of prolonged heavy rainfall and sea state.
The project achieved a successful balance between engineering
requirements, the needs of the local community and environmental
Spittles Lane Cut-off drain
Cut-off drains Allotments
Charmouth Road
Car Park
Anchored pile wall
Active landslides
Soil Rock armour
nailing
Dowel piling
Footpath
Soil nailing Turning head
Dwarf wall
Stairs structure
Seawall
Civil Engineering Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic approach
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning

(a) (b)

(c) (d) (e)

Figure 6. Types of construction at phase 4: (a) concrete seawall,

(b)soil nailing, (c) 300mm dowel piles, (d) 900mm anchored piles and
(e)ground anchor installation

issues to the extent that all of the component schemes have been
well received from a grateful community and environmental
stakeholders alike. It has played a large part in maintaining and
enhancing the vibrancy and confidence of the town, encouraging Scheme
private investment and making a positive difference to the day- Phase 1
to-day lives of ordinary people whose properties and businesses Constructed
19931995
were at risk. Substantial spin-off benefits have been provided in
terms of the quality of bathing waters, improvements to amenity
Phases 2
and safe public access along the towns frontage. and 3
A journalist from a local newspaper wrote (Boothroyd, 2014: Constructed
p. 12), I love engineers. Theyre logical, methodical, business- 20052007
like and attentive to detail for physical and material forces Phase 4
are unforgiving of sloppiness, and one small technical error in Constructed
an engineering project can be catastrophic. Theres no ego and 20132015
no waffle; they calmly analyse, plan and do it. Yet theyre also
imaginative and adaptable as circumstances change, and easy
to work with. What a shame it is that, as a country, we tend in
our public life not to promote the values and qualities of the
engineer.How lucky we are in Lyme theyve done us proud.
The various schemes have won a plethora of industry awards
Awards
BCI Award 1995 The Secretary of States Special
Commendation for Environmental Excellence.
Civic Trust Award 1997 for outstanding contribution to the
quality and appearance of the environment.
ICE SW Merit Award 2008 for major project.
BALI Principal Award 2008 for soft landscaping construction
over 1 ha.
Landscape Institute Award 2008 for design 15 ha.
Institution of Civil Engineers South West Major Project Winner
2015.
Concrete Society Project of the Year 2015.
BALI National Landscape Award for Best Restoration and
Regeneration Scheme 2015.
Environment Agency Project Excellence Award for Programme
and Project Delivery 2016.
Ground Engineering Award 2016 winner of Project of the
Year with a geotechnical value of over 3million, and highly
commended in the Sustainability Award category.

and accolades that attest the achievements of the Lyme Regis Table 3. Industry awards
environmental improvements programme (Table3)

69
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
7. Lessons learned
The strategic, long-term approach was found to have many
benefits in addition to the economic case that prevention is better
than cure.For example, considering the whole of the Lyme Regis
coastline as part of the strategy yielded a deeper understanding of
land instability and coastal erosion mechanisms than could have
been gained from the study of isolated problem areas alone. It
also allowed the determination of the very best coast-protection
management options and the optimum programme for their
implementation.
The direct involvement of the public and stakeholders in
the development of schemes over many years was an essential
part of the strategy, and a big contributor to the success and
popularity of the schemes. However, the practical implementation
of construction works needed to be carefully managed to avoid
excessive disruption to the busy town with difficult site access.If
poorly planned and managed, the construction works themselves
could have been so disruptive and damaging to the town that public
support would have been lost.
On the technical side, the design of the stabilisation works was
found to be critically dependent on the fine detail of the geology
and geomorphology, such as positions of small faults and individual
thin strata. A detailed conceptual ground model (Sellwood et al.,
2000), built up through several stages of ground investigation,
was an essential basis for the design of an effective engineering
scheme.The use of geomorphological techniques (Brunsden, 2002)
formed a continuous thread throughout the implementation of
the project, from identifying the nature and extent of the problem
in the first place, assessing the consequences of doing nothing,
informing the business case and through to the detailed design of
the stabilisation works.The ground conditions encountered during
construction were found to be very close to the conceptual ground
models developed during the investigation stages.
Finally, there is often a rather pessimistic attitude from some
quarters that, however hard the engineering community works on
protecting a town from coastal erosion, it is ultimately doomed to
failure because it is unsustainable and nature will always win in
the end. However, the Lyme Regis project has demonstrated that
it is possible to protect a town against natural processes while still
enhancing the natural environment. The project may be thought
of as the latest in a long line of schemes since construction of the
Cobb, which together have maintained the viability of the town for
at least the last 800 years.
8. Conclusion
It is considered that there would be great benefits in using
the coastal instability and erosion management methodologies
applied to the Lyme Regis scheme in future projects facing similar
challenges.
There are many locations in the UK and internationally where
coastal erosion and landsliding in soft rock cliffs are threatening
communities and where there are also considerable environmental
constraints and opportunities.
Employing the philosophies outlined in this paper could make
the difference between protecting a community and allowing a
town to be destroyed by natural processes.
70
Stabilising Lyme Regis a strategic approach
Moore, Davis, Stannard and Browning
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the contributions of the many
organisations and individuals involved in the development of
the project since the late 1980s. West Dorset District Council is
the client for the project and the scheme promotor. CH2M is the
clients consulting engineer. Balfour Beatty and Aecom were the
design-and-build contractor and designer, respectively, on phase4.
High-Point Rendel led the investigation and design in the early
phases. The project has been funded by Environment Agency/
Defra grant in aid under the Coast Protection Act 1949, by West
Dorset District Council and by Dorset County Council in their role
as highway authority. The authors are grateful for the support of
colleagues on the project over many years particularly Keith Cole,
Denys Brunsden, Alan Clark and Steve Fort.
References
Boothroyd C (2014) Continuing a fine tradition. View from Lyme Regis,
issue403, 12 February.
Brunsden D (2002) The Fifth Glossop Lecture Geomorphological roulette
for engineers and planners: some insights into an old game. Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology 35(2): 101142.
Brunsden D and Moore R (1999) Engineering geomorphology on the coast:
lessons from West Dorset. Geomorphology 31(14): 391409.
Candian C, Goodwin A and Daskalopoulos DG (2015) The design of
an anchored pile retaining structure to control landslide regression
at Lyme Regis, UK.In Geotechnical Engineering for Infrastructure
and Development: XVI European Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering (Winter MG, Smith DM, Eldred PJL and Toll DG
(eds)).ICE Publishing, London, UK, pp. 17591794.
Coastal Protection Act 1949. George VI. Chapter 74.His Majestys Stationery
Office, London, UK.
Cole K, Davis G, Clark AR and Fort DS (2002) Managing coastal instability
a holistic approach.In Instability Planning and Management (McInnes
RG and Jakeways J (eds)). Thomas Telford, London, UK, pp.679686.
Dales D, Hein R, Hill C and Browning N (2014) Lyme Regis environmental
improvements phase IV.In From Sea to Shore Meeting the Challenges of
the Sea: Coasts, Marine Structures and Breakwaters 2013 (Allsop W and
Burgess K (eds)).ICE Publishing, London, UK, pp.783793.
Daskalopoulos DG (2015) The use of slope stabilising piles and soil nailing
to stabilise part of a large landslide complex at Lyme Regis, UK.In
Geotechnical Engineering for Infrastructure and Development: XVI
European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
(Winter MG, Smith DM, Eldred PJL and Toll DG (eds)).ICE Publishing,
London, UK, pp 17371742.
Davis GM and Cole K (2002) Working with the community public liaison
in instability management at Lyme Regis, Dorset, England.In Instability
Planning and Management (McInnes RG and Jakeways J (eds)). Thomas
Telford, London, UK, pp.695700.
Fort DS, Martin, PL, Clark, AR and Davis GM (2007) Lyme Regis phase
II coast protection and slope stabilisation scheme, Dorset, UK the
influence of climate change on design.In Landslides and Climate Change:
Challenges and Solutions (McInnes R, Jakeways J, Fairbank H and Mathie
E (eds)). Taylor and Francis, London, UK, pp. 419428.
Moore R and Davis GM (2014) Cliff instability and erosion management in
England and Wales. Journal of Coastal Conservation 19(6): 771784.
Moore R, Rogers J, Woodget A and Baptiste A (2010) Climate change impact on
cliff instability and erosion in the UK. Proceedings of the 45th Environment
Agency Conference of River and Coastal Engineers, Telford, UK.
Sellwood M, Davis GM, Brunsden D and Moore R (2000) Ground models for
the coastal landslides at Lyme Regis Dorset, UK.In Landslides in Research,
Theory and Practice (Bromhead E, Dixon N and Ibsen ML (eds)). Thomas
Telford, London, UK, vol.3, pp. 13611366.
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 May 2017 Issue CE2
Pages 7179 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00072
Paper 1500072
Received 07/10/2015 Accepted 02/12/2015
Published online 24/02/2016
Keywords: procurement/railway systems/tunnels &
tunnelling

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Planning and procuring the Shatin

Central cross-harbour rail tunnel,
Hong Kong
1 Raymond Au BSc, DMS, MA, LLB, FHKIS, FRICS, FCIArb, 3 Martin Morris BSc, MSc, CEng, FHKIE, FICE
FCInstCES, MACostE, MCIOB, RPS Consultant, AECOM Asia, Hong Kong
Principal Contracts Administration Manager SCL, MTRCL, 4 CK Tsang BEng, MSc, MHKIE, RPE
HongKong
Technical Director, AECOM Asia, Hong Kong
2 Fumihiro Aikawa MEng, FHKIE, PE jp, APEC Eng
Construction Manager, MTRCL, Hong Kong

1 2 3 4

The cross-harbour section of the new ShatinCentral mass transit link railway will be the fourth cross-harbour
tunnel in Hong Kong when completed in 2021. The 14km long immersed-tube tunnel and approaches
are being procured through a design-and-build contract with early contractor involvement. Thereference
design for the immersed tunnel elements specified prestressed monolithic structures following practice used
on previous harbour crossings. Optimising the design and performance specifications during tender stage
ensured the submitted tenders were constructable, using the most cost-effective design but minimising
construction and operating risks. This paper discusses the reference design, construction planning and early
contractor involvement procurement process.

1. Introduction
Lou Wu
The HK$80 billion (69 billion) ShatinCentral mass transit rail
link is one of the ten large-scale infrastructure projects announced Lok Ma Chau
by the chief executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region in his 2007/8 policy address. Inmid-2008 the governments East line
executive council requested rail operator MTR Corporation Ltd to
proceed with further planning and design for the 17km link line,
which comprises two sections (Figure1) Wu Kai Sha

Tai WaiHung Hom section an 11km extension of the Ma On

Shan line by way of East Kowloon to link with West Rail line
Tuen Mun
at Hung Hom West line
Tai Wai Ma On Shan
Hung HomAdmiralty section a 6km extension of the East
line
Rail line at Hung Hom across the harbour to link Hong Kong
Island.
Diamond Hill
On completion of the ShatinCentral route in 2021, the ShatinCentral
link (Tai Wai
connected rail lines will be operated as two strategic railway Hung Hom)
corridors: the eastwest corridor from Wu Kai Sha to Tuen Mun, Hung Hom
and the northsouth corridor from Lo Wu and Lok Ma Chau to
Admiralty ShatinCentral link
Admiralty. Journey times will be up to 50min shorter. 6 (Hung Hom
0 km
The scheme was authorised under the Railways Ordinance Admiralty)
(Government of Hong Kong, 1997) in March 2012. Construction
of the Tai WaiHung Hom section started in July 2012 while Figure 1. Overall route of the new ShatinCentral rail link
the detailed design of the Hung HomAdmiralty section on

71
Civil Engineering Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
Volume 170 Issue CE2 cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang

Hong Kong Island was in progress. InApril 2013, MTR employed Victoria Shek O casting basin
AECOM Asia Company Ltd (AECOM) to undertake consultancy Harbour
agreement C1107 entitled Construction scoping and sequencing
for cross-harbour tunnels of north south corridor. The project Shek O 1 5
layout plan of C1107 is shown in Figure 2 and the works to be
2
designed under the agreement comprise the following main
elements.

Approximately 280m long cut-and-cover tunnels at the west

side of the Causeway Bay typhoon shelter, including the 1 North ventilation building
required temporary reclamation for the works. 2 Approximately 150 m 3
cut-and-cover tunnels at Hung Hom
Connection to the as-constructed 160m long cut-and-cover
3 Approximately 1.4 km immersed-tube
tunnels within the typhoon shelter including cross-passage tunnel between Hung Hom and
doors, walkways and signage within the tunnels. Causeway Bay typhoon shelter
Demolition and re-provisioning of the typhoon shelter 4 265 m cut-and-cover tunnel at
breakwater. Causeway Bay typhoon shelter
Approximately 14km long immersed-tube tunnel between the 5 Casting basin in Shek O 4
cut-and-cover tunnels at the Hung Hom landfall and typhoon
shelter, including cross-passage doors, walkways and signage
along the cross-harbour tunnels. 0 m 400
Establishment works and reinstatement works for casting of
immersed-tube tunnel units in Shek O casting basin.
Demolition and re-provisioning of part of the Hung Hom finger Figure 2. Project scope of the consultancy agreement for the cross-
pier. harbour tunnel section

1 Existing fender piles and block-work seawall

to be removed and reinstated
2 Foundation of the existing Hung Hom bypass piers
to be retained and protected 7
3 Existing Cross Harbour Tunnel Hung Hom
4 Low headroom construction under Hung Hom bypass stabling
sidings
5 Site handover from the demolition of International Mail Centre
6 Site handover from the demolition of KCRC
freight operation building
7 Shared use of the site access and interface with 1112 contractor
8 Existing freight yard head office building and the coolling
water intake pump house to be retained Hung
9 EVA from TST promenade to maintain operational Hom
station
10 Barging point to maintain operational
11 Existing CLP cable tunnel to be protected
12 Existing drainage reserve to be retained 11
13 Interface with utilities and site formation to be constructed 13 12
under works contract 1112
6
14 Extent of temporary reclamation to comply with CCM 12
5 16
15 Corals and marine life to be protected
16 Design of new north ventilation building
9 8
17 High rock head near Hung Hom landfall

2
14

17 1
10
17

15 0 m 50
3

Figure 3. Keyissues and constraints at Hung Hom landfall

72
Civil Engineering Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
Volume 170 Issue CE2 cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang

Approximately 200 m long cut-and-cover tunnels adjacent One of the most difficult tasks for the successful implementation
to the existing seawall at Hung Hom, including the required of the link line cross-harbour tunnel section is to deal with the site
temporary reclamation for the works. constraints in the highly developed and congested areas of Hung
Demolition and re-provisioning of the Hung Hom bypass Hom, Victoria Harbour and Causeway Bay typhoon shelter. These
fender piles. key issues and site constraints are set out in Figures 3, 4 and 5
New north ventilation building on the south side of Hung Hom according to the following geographical areas
station podium.
Reinstatement of affected open spaces and landscaping areas at Hung Hom landfall
Hung Hom landfall. Victoria Harbour, including the Shek O casting basin
Causeway Bay typhoon shelter.

Hung Hom station

2. Aspects of the reference design

7 2.1 Tunnel layout
Cut-and-cover The layout of the link line cross-harbour tunnel is shown in
section
Figure 6, which demonstrates that these geographical area-
4 based issues and site constraints correspond to the three main
structures

Hung Hom landfall cut-and-cover tunnel

cross-harbour immersed tunnel
Causeway Bay typhoon shelter cut-and-cover tunnel.
Immersed tunnel section 2
The northern cut-and-cover tunnel at the Hung Hom landfall
has been extended south of the existing Hung Hom bypass in
5
order to safeguard the foundations and to avoid the need for
380 m approx. 6 bulk rock excavation underwater. This section of the tunnel will
3
connect the northern end of the proposed immersed-tube tunnel
1
and the southern end wall of the proposed north ventilation
building. This tunnel section is approximately 150m long and
will be constructed within a cofferdam, partly formed in dry land
Cut-and-cover section and partly in marine conditions.
stage 1 under C1107 The immersed tunnel represents a shallow optimised alignment,
Cut-and-cover section which minimises rock excavation and dredging quantities.
stage 2 under C1107 8 However, the shallow alignment inevitably causes the immersed
Constructed cut-and-cover tunnel structure, including its backfill and armour, to protrude
section under CW8
above the existing seabed in limited areas. Ithas been agreed with
the relevant authorities that the navigational clearance over the
link line immersed-tube tunnel should nowhere be less than that
currently existing over the Cross Harbour Tunnel, except for a
0 m 200 short section near the CentralWanchai bypass tunnel landfall as
Exhibition station described in Section 2.4 below.
1 Existing Cross Harbour Tunnel no impact to existing tunnel in particular The provision of cut-and-cover tunnels through the typhoon
during trench excavation for the immersed tunnel shelter and the location of the interface between the immersed-
2 Existing fairway of the Victoria Harbour no impact to marine traffic within tube tunnel and the CentralWanchai bypass cut-and-cover tunnels
Victoria Harbour and the need for Hung Hom fairway division during outside the existing breakwater at the typhoon shelter arose out
construction of immersed tunnel
of MTRs concern that breaching the breakwater for the length
3 Existing buoy government mooring buoy A35 to be relocated
of time needed to allow access for immersed tunnel works could
4 Hung Hom freight pier partial demolition of pier immersed tunnel
construction may cause stability concernand may affect existing corals have considerable impact on marine craft in the event of a typhoon.
5 Dredging and disposal of contaminated soil to comply with environmental Theuse of a cut-and-cover tunnel constructed within a cofferdam
requirements enabled the breakwater to be maintained at all times.
6 High rock head with potential for underwater blasting and impact to From a practical point of view, it was preferred to have the cut-
marine life
and-cover tunnel interface immediately outside the breakwater so
7 Shek O casting yard preparation and site formation of casting yard and the
interface with truck road T2 project that the cofferdam was least vulnerable to ship impact within the
8 Fire engineering review of NSL station fire safety strategy and the trackside typhoon shelter. Bymoving the interface out, it allowed for a free-
fire safety strategy standing dredging profile without additional temporary support
for the breakwater when the immersed tunnel was constructed; an
Figure 4. Keyissues and constraints at Victoria Harbour incidental benefit was that it also reduced the volume of dredging
for the immersed tunnel. This section of tunnel will connect the

73
Civil Engineering Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
Volume 170 Issue CE2 cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang

17

6
16
13 18 5 4
1
Victoria Harbour
14 15 Causeway Bay 3
18 typhoon shelter 8

23 12
10 11 19 20
22 2 9

21

Causeway Bay

0 m 100

Stakeholders Design and construction considerations

1 Private mooring area 13 Extent of temporary reclamation to comply with CentralWan Chai
2 Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club mooring area bypass and CCM reports
and facilities 14 Construction sequencing within Causeway Bay typhoon shelter
3 Anchorage area 15 Sourcing and disposing of reclamation fill
4 Hong Kong Pilot Association 16 Demolition of breakwater
5 Vessels associated with MEAL/MBTA 17 Wave reflection to Victoria Harbour
6 Mooring buoys of Customs & Excise Department 18 Impact to marine traffic
7 Vessels moored at south west corner of 19 Cut-and-cover tunnel section
Causeway Bay typhoon shelter 20 Disposal of sediment
8 Temple Boat
9 Causeway Bay Typhoon Shelter Mutual
Interfacing project
Aid Committee
21 CentralWan Chai bypass project
10 Hong Kong Off-shore Fishermans Association

Existing structure/facilities
Liaison
22 Cross Harbour Tunnel
11 Communication with all stakeholders
23 Instrumentation and monitoring
12 Marine Department

Figure 5. Keyissues and constraints at Causeway Bay typhoon shelter

southern end of the immersed-tube tunnel to the northern end

Victoria
Harbour of the northsouth line tunnel at ME4, which is approximately
ME4 (by others) North ventilation building 265m long with the majority of the tunnel formed within the
Cut-and-cover typhoon shelter. Thenorthsouth line tunnel at ME4 is entrusted
tunnel (265 m) Cut-and-cover
tunnel (150 m) works (i.e. works being undertaken on behalf of the government
Immersed tube tunnel (1335 m) of Hong Kong) being undertaken by the CentralWanchai bypass
contractor.
Causeway
Bay
Typhoon shelter
Hung 2.2 Shek O casting basin
Hom
CentralWanchai station MTR determined at the outset of the planning stage that the
bypass tunnels tunnel elements would be constructed in Hong Kong using the
casting basin at the former Shek O quarry in the south-east of
0 m 400 Hong Kong Island. This basin was previously used for construction
of tunnel elements for the Western Harbour Crossing and the
Figure 6. Layout of the new cross-harbour tunnel Airport Express tunnel in the 1990s, part of the airport core project
programme.

74
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
The basin had been partly rehabilitated into a marine park.
Detailed surveys (environmental, topographic, bathymetric and
hazard etc.) were undertaken as part of the reference design.
Anenvironmental permit was applied for by MTR to minimise the
contractors lead time in rehabilitating the basin.
2.3 Horizontal alignment
The horizontal alignment of the immersed tunnel is generally
straight. Atthe north end, where the immersed tunnel connects to
the Hung Hom cut-and-cover tunnel, it contains a 70m long, 510m
radius linked by transition curves to straight alignment at either
end. This radius will affect both the casting method and flotation
analysis of the tunnel element, which would float awkwardly.
Typically concrete tunnel elements are cast using purpose-built
formwork panels up to 20m long. Where elements are curved in
plan, 20m straight sections can be arranged as chords to the arc of
the circumference. Thepolygonal shape is not usually noticeable,
particularly in a railway tunnel, and simply requires some
modification to the standard formwork as well as more complicated
setting-out and reinforcement detailing. However, careful flotation
analysis is required to ensure that the element can be floated and
towed in a stable condition.
At the southern end of the immersed tunnel, at the connection to
the typhoon shelter cut-and-cover tunnel, there is a 30m transition
curve. This has a minimal effect on the layout of an otherwise
straight element.
2.4 Vertical alignment
The vertical alignment consists of straight gradients, with
maximum 3% and minimum 03%, linked by 5000m radius vertical
curves which are in accordance with MTRs alignment standards.
As described above, the shallow alignment is deliberate to
minimise dredging, particularly rock dredging. It has been
designed to ensure that the tunnel armour is always below the top
of the existing Cross Harbour Tunnel armour.
However, because of the Cross Harbour Tunnels steep Hong
Kong Island approach and exit tunnel, there is a short section where
link line armour has been permitted by the relevant authorities to
be above the Cross Harbour Tunnel armour by a maximum of about
05m; this is outside the main navigation channel.
In placing the profile high to avoid rock head, the dredge line
below certain tunnel elements will still intersect marine sediments
and anthropomorphic deposits. These are not normally a suitable
founding strata simply because they are easily disturbed by the
dredging process. The depth of residual marine sediments is
small, however, generally not greater than 12m, and it has been
recommended that they are dredged out and replaced with self-
compacting granular fill.
2.5 Immersed tunnel cross-section
Ten tunnel elements are proposed in the reference design and
these are numbered from 1 to 10 north to south. Keeping the 510m
radius element 1 at 102m long, there are then nine 136m long
standard elements. Tunnel element 1 has been kept short to help its
flotation characteristics and also to avoid making the casting basin
gate unnecessarily wide.
The rectangular concrete tunnel element is well-suited to the
need to minimise the depth of dredging. The cross-section needs
Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang
only to accommodate the vertical height of the structure gauge,
the minimum structural depths of the top and bottom slabs and
any tolerances. In addition, special arrangements have been to
accommodate the mid-point sump within the base slab of tunnel
element 6; this sump collects water from tunnel washing or hydrant
testing at the low point of the alignment so that it can be pumped
to the north ventilation building for discharge to the foul sewer.
Atypical cross-section is shown in Figure7.
Ventilation ducts (cross-section area 17m2 each) on both sides of
the tunnel cross-section were originally proposed, one supporting
each rail duct. However, based on ventilation and fire-safety
modelling during the reference design, the provision of only a
single duct with a suitable crossover at mid-tunnel was proposed.
This crossover has been placed over the top of the tunnel roof
rather than underneath the tunnel soffit to avoid the need for extra
depth in the casting basin.
A downstand would also require local dredging of the trench
and make it difficult to ensure that a screeded bed-type foundation
was supporting the tunnel uniformly. The required area of the
crossover is also 17m2 with an aspect ratio of 4: 1. This suggests
dimensions of 2m high 85m wide; allowing for a 500m
structural slab means that the extra height of the tunnel element
would be 25m. Thetunnel cross-section at the crossover duct is
shown in Figure8.
The cross-sectional dimensions of the tunnel also depend
on the joint details. Sufficient space has been allowed for the
provision of the vertical and horizontal shear connection used
to prevent relative displacement of the tunnel elements at joints.
In addition, the end faces of the tunnel elements have been
carefully detailed to accommodate all permanent and temporary
(a) 18.532 m
8.425 m
(b) 18.240 m
8.425 m
Figure 7. Typical cross-section of the immersed tube design: (a) curved
portion, R-510m; (b) straight portion
75
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
18.240 m
10.950 m
Figure 8. Typical cross-section of immersed tube with a crossover
ventilation duct
works requirements. In particular, the MTR New Works Design
Standards Manual (MTR, 2013) requires the use of longitudinal
prestress for immersed concrete structures. This has required
careful detailing to accommodate the anchorages.
If collars are used to carry the gina and omega joint gaskets,
these normally do not downstand below the main tunnel soffit
so there is no increase in draft. They do, however, outstand from
the sides of the element to make room for shear keys and fire
protection so that, again, the casting basin gate width needs to
take this into account.
The tunnel elements must meet flotation requirements both
before and after sinking over a range of concrete and seawater
densities, with allowance for temporary works loads where
appropriate. Tunnel elements can be weighed as soon as they are
afloat and factors of safety adjusted using trimming ballast concrete
placed on top of the element, where it serves a dual purpose as
protective concrete to the waterproofing membrane.
2.6 Structural design
The tunnel elements are designed as reinforced concrete
structures in the transverse direction. Design is in accordance with
MTRs New Works Design Standards Manual (MTR, 2013) and
the Hong Kong Code of Practice for the Structural use of Concrete
(HKCoPSUC) 2013 (BD, 2013).
Loading conditions for the serviceability limit state include
self-weight, hydrostatic load, backfill and imposed loads such
as track slab, railway live loading and temperature. Loading
conditions for the ultimate limit state include the above plus
accidental loads (sunken ship, anchor impact, loss of foundation
support etc.) and seismic loading. A separate load combination
considers temporary loadings during floating, towing and sinking
(wind, wave, current etc.).
Seismic design was based on the Hong Kong Structures Design
Manual (HD, 2013) with an importance factor class III, reference
return period for no-collapse requirement of 475 years and
reference peak ground acceleration corresponding to 012g.
76
Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang
The tunnel elements are prestressed longitudinally. The MTR
manual requires as a minimum sufficient prestress to act as a class 2
structure to BS 8110 (BSI, 1997); in practice, the link line elements
have been designed to class 1, eliminating all tensile stress in the
concrete structure under serviceability loading.
2.7 Waterproofing membranes
A steel plate membrane comprising butt welded stock sheets
under the base slab with sufficient stud or other shear connectors is
provided to ensure secure attachment to the base and side concrete.
Thesteel plate membrane will be carried up the sides of the tunnel
element to a minimum of 200mm above the construction joints
between the base slab and the outer walls.
The steel membrane must have sufficient thickness to provide
watertightness at the end of the design life of 120 years assuming
industry standards of underwater corrosion of unprotected steel,
with a minimum initial thickness of 9mm.
A two-coat, high-quality, spray-applied, elastomeric joint-less
waterproofing system is specified over the roof and walls. This
system overlaps the base slab steel plate by at least 100mm or
the manufacturers recommendation. Materials shall be chosen to
ensure compatibility and good adhesion at this joint.
2.8 Floating and placing stability
The tunnel elements will be prefabricated at Shek O and must
be capable of floating with a sufficient freeboard to remain stable
under the design sea conditions. They must also be capable of being
ballasted, usually with water, for controlled sinking and must remain
stable with all the equipment necessary for the sinking process.
Condition Factor of safety / criteria
Floating, fully outfitted 102minimum against sinking
Minimum freeboard 200mm
Cross-curves of stability shall show a factor
of safety in excess of 14 of the area under
the righting moment curve against the
heeling moment curve
Positive metacentric height (static stability)
exceeding 200mm
During sinking Sufficient minimum negative buoyancy for
stability, absolute minimum 30 kN/m length
of tunnel element
Immediately after sinking and 104 minimum against flotation, reduced to
placing 102 for short periods with MTRs approval
After sinking and placing 103minimum before placement of
trackform and without consideration of
backfill
After sinking and placing 104minimum against flotation, excluding
(long-term) external backfill or removable internal
outfitting, such as rails and support systems,
electrical and mechanical installations or
removable or degradable items
After sinking and placing 12minimum against flotation, including
(long-term) design depth of external backfill but
excluding removable internal outfitting, such
as rails and support systems, electrical and
mechanical installations or removable or
degradable items
Table 1. Buoyancy and stability criteria
Civil Engineering Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
Volume 170 Issue CE2 cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang

After sinking, they must then demonstrate an adequate factor be maintained in the seals in the other immersion joints. Atypical
of safety against flotation in their long-term condition both with arrangement of the final joint is shown in Figure10.
internal ballast only and a combination of internal ballast and Predicted settlements were calculated for both the short-term
external backfill. Thecriteria for each of these conditions are given and long-term conditions. The tunnel elements would be set
in Table1. up initially to allow for immediate and short-term settlement.
The internal size of the tunnel box included allowances for the
2.9 Articulation arrangement, movement joint type predicted settlement and movements so that the rails can be
andlayout installed at the predetermined level with the necessary headroom
The flexible immersion joints between the ten elements and also clearance.
the joints between immersed tunnel and cut-and-cover tunnels at
both ends of the immersed tunnel act as movement joints. 2.10 Structural movements
These immersion joints permit small rotations resulting The tunnel elements were designed to be founded on a
from differential settlement but prevent vertical or horizontal screeded gravel bed or a pumped sand foundation. Vertical
translation by means of shear keys incorporated into the joints. settlements would occur comprising a combination of settlement
Atypical detail of an immersion joint is shown in Figure9. during the construction period, settlement continuing post-
A final joint is placed between the last two elements to be construction and residual secondary settlement taking place in
placed. This fills the approximately 2m gap left to enable the last the long term.
element to be manoeuvred into place and enables compression to The longitudinal design of the tunnel elements was dependent on
differential settlement between elements resulting from variation in
soil properties and depths along the line of the tunnel and from
(a) (b) differential loading due to, for example, accidental loads. This
Protective
ballast differential settlement translated into loading on the elements and
CL joint
Gina gasket concrete on the shear keys in the immersion joints.
As much of the construction period settlement as possible
Roof slab Roof slab Roof slab Roof slab would be eliminated by delaying the final lock off of immersion
1100 joints (i.e., when the shear keys are cast or permanent packs
700 approx.
inserted into steel shear keys) until just before track laying
Trailing/ Leading/ commences.
secondary primary
2800
end end Maximum differential settlements occur at the cut-and-
Construction cover tunnel/immersed tunnel interfaces where the more rigidly
Steel shear
joint Horizontal supported cut-and-cover tunnels interact with the tunnel elements.
key bracket
shear keys
Again, lock off would be delayed as long as possible to minimise
the load effects of residual differential settlement.
Base slab Base slab Base slab Base slab
The tunnel elements were designed to be subjected to longitudinal
Ballast 120 normal gap Ballast movement arising from long-term creep and shrinkage, seasonal
concrete concrete temperature variation and seismic deformation. Creep, shrinkage
and temperature movements are reduced by friction in the backfill
Figure 9. Typical detail of immersion joint: (a) option for concrete which creates local tension in the tunnel element. Residual
vertical shear, (b) option for steel vertical shear (dimensions in mm) movement and seismic movements are absorbed within the gina
profile of the immersion joint; this is designed/specified to remain
watertight under maximum opening.
Outline of
Lateral movements of the tunnel elements are prevented by the
In situ concrete
external damplate final joint CL joint backfilling. However, care is needed when placing this to ensure
that the element is not displaced sideways by differential pressure
Roof slab
of the backfill.

2.11 Sunken-ship load and anchor-impact load

A sunken-ship load of a uniformly distributed static load of
Element 10-1

50kN/m2, representing a ship stranding on the tunnel at high tide

Element 10-2 Element 9 and not being removed before the next low tide, was applied at
the level of the tunnel roof, at any location beneath the seabed.
The loading was applied over the full width of the tunnel and/or
a width of 10m beside the tunnel, over a length measured along
Base slab the longitudinal axis of the tunnel of 30m, representing the
approximate beam of the design ship.
The design anchor load was defined as appropriate to ships
Figure 10. Typical arrangement of final joint operating in the vicinity of the tunnel. The cruise liner Superstar
Leo has been assumed as a suitable design ship with an estimated

77
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
anchor weight above water of 17 t. Thetunnel backfill is designed
to absorb the energy of the falling anchor and the structure
designed to resist the residual load.
Anchor impact load of a vertical concentrated characteristic
load of 700 kN acting over an area of 1m diameter at the level of
the tunnel roof was also considered. This load was applied at any
location beneath the seabed. Rockfill over the tunnel backfill was
designed to cause an anchor dragged across the line of the tunnel
to release before penetrating the backfill and damaging the tunnel
structure.
2.12 Loss of support
For longitudinal analysis, the tunnel was designed to
accommodate loss of support (foundation subsidence or failure
of the screeded foundation to contact the underside of the tunnel
element) below the tunnel or to one side for not less than 10% of
the length of an immersed tunnel element or 10m, whichever is
less, over the full width of the tunnel element. Since this condition
may be permanent and is not detectable, it was incorporated into all
accidental load cases.
For transverse section analysis, the structure reactions
introduced by the variation of transverse ground stiffness were
assumed to be linearly applied on the tunnel base slab under the
three cases: (a) uniform distribution (i.e., no loss of support);
(b) W shape distribution; and (c) V shape distribution.
Thepeak value in cases (b) and (c) was 20% of the foundation
reaction in case (a).
2.13 Construction programme
The preliminary works programme was established at the
commencement of the contract to ensure that the reference design
was constructable within the time frame specified in the contract
under the ShatinCentral project. The works programme was
mainly dictated by the following factors
condition and necessary establishment works at the Shek O
casting basin (a former quarry located to the south of Hong
Kong Island)
works areas availability and access restrictions at both Hung
Hom and Causeway Bay typhoon shelter sites for cut-and-
cover tunnel construction
the duration constrained for each staged reclamation/cofferdam
works for cut-and-cover construction at both the typhoon
shelter and Hung Hom sites
fairway diversions taking into account the busy marine traffic
in Victoria Harbour
programme of designated system-wide and interface
contracts.
The immersed-tube tunnel elements were initially planned
to be sunk from the Hung Hom landfall towards the typhoon
shelter. However, it was found to be more advantageous to the
programme to sink immersed-tube tunnel elements 10 and 9 at
the typhoon shelter landfall first since the cut-and-cover tunnel
at the typhoon shelter would be completed relatively earlier than
at Hung Hom.
Immersed-tube tunnel elements sinking would then revert to
the Hung Hom landfall working from Hung Hom (immersed-
78
Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang
Critical activities are fabrication,
sinking and finishing of
the tunnel elements
tube tunnel elements 1 to 8) towards the typhoon shelter to make
a final closure joint between immersed-tube tunnel elements 8
and 9.
The critical path comprises the establishment of the Shek O
casting basin, followed by fabrication, sinking and finishing of the
tunnel elements. TheHung Hom cut-and-cover tunnel construction,
including the marine cofferdam works to receive immersed-tube
tunnel element 1, was also on the critical path.
Overall, the reference design was confirmed during the early
contractor involvement tender process to be constructable within
the time frame specified in the contract for the whole Shatin
Central project.
3. Contract and procurement strategy
3.1 Form of contract
The cross-harbour tunnel contract is based on the MTR Standard
Form of Civil Engineering and Building Works Design and
Construction contract. The contract is lump-sum fixed price with
optional works and provisional sums for providing a contractual
mechanism in managing certain risks during the execution of the
contract. Predetermined interim payment and milestone schedules
are adopted for efficient interim payment certification, reflecting
the relationship between the monthly interim payments and the
values of work done.
In addition to the design and construction specification for civil
engineering and building works, the contract incorporates the
interface requirements specifications, stipulating the obligations
and demarcating the interfacing scope of works between the cross-
harbour tunnel contractor and all other designated system-wide
railway contractors, in order to ensure the cross-harbour tunnelling
works are integrated with all related link line works.
3.2 Early contractor involvement
Immersed-tube tunnel construction is highly specialised
construction work and is largely driven by the contractors
construction know-how, special marine plant and equipment, and
their immersed-tube tunnel casting facilities. Therefore, a design-
and-build contract was proposed as the contract strategy to procure
this cross-harbour tunnel contract.
To capture the contractors construction expertise input at
an early stage with a view to enhancing the potential time and
cost savings before the employers requirements were finalised
for tender, a two-stage early contractor involvement tendering
process was adopted. For this contract, the stage 1 early
contractor involvement process was undertaken over a 3 month
period scheduled after the stage 1 tender documents were issued
to the pre-qualified tenderers.
For the stage 1 tender, the tender documents comprised,
among others, a set of employers requirements to pre-qualified
tenderers; additionally, several structured tender workshops
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
with the tenderers were convened. These tender workshops were
attended by MTR, its consultants and the tenderers bidding
teams (including technical and commercial resources) to start
initially with the review of the employers requirements, the
project constructability, programme, risks and opportunities. This
was then followed by a review of the feasibility of the tenderers
innovative proposals.
At the end of stage 1, all tenderers were required to submit a stage1
technical submission, which encompassed the conclusion of the
constructability, statutory and contractual compliance, programme
criticality and strategy, identification of risks and opportunities,
tenderers innovative time- and cost-saving proposals, with the
highlight of any proposed amendments to the employers requirements.
No price was required for the stage 1 early contractor involvement
submission. MTRs tender assessment team assessed the tenderers
technical submissions in accordance with pre-approved assessment
criteria. Inparallel, MTRs consultant (AECOM) was requested to
provide an independent expert report on the tenderers technical
proposals for MTRs consideration in concluding its technical
assessment for the contract, in particular the tenderers proposed
amendments to the employers requirements.
Following the completion of the stage 1 tender, those tenderers
who had achieved passing scores were shortlisted for the stage 2
early contractor involvement tender process, which involved a
further 3 month tendering period. The stage 2 tender focused on
developing tenderers technical proposals while continuously
reviewing the time and cost implications to ensure the most cost-
effective design was produced.
Mutual trust and confidentiality between MTR and the
tenderers were maintained to allow open discussion on
tenderers innovative ideas. With prior agreements of the
tenderers, certain alternative design proposals were taken to
the relevant authorities for initial review to ensure tenderers
proposals were acceptable.
At the end of the stage 2 tender, all tenderers submitted their
full technical and financial bids for the contract. Under MTRs
procurement management, all parties (MTRs project team,
its consultant and the tenderers bidding teams) were acting
proactively and collaboratively and therefore the tender was
successfully completed for award of the contract on time.
The contract was let to a joint venture of Penta-Ocean and
China State in December 2014 for the sum of HK$435 billion
(375million).
3.3 Benefits of early contractor involvement
Early contractor involvement creates the opportunity for the
construction team to shape the design at a stage where change may
economically be accommodated. Commonly recognised benefits of
early contractor involvement include
getting state-of-the-art knowledge from contractors
better forecasts of project outcomes
greater awareness of risks and understanding
joint problem solving, addressing constraints and difficult
environments
addressing complex problems better up front
reducing the risk of cost and programme overrun during
construction.
Planning and procuring the ShatinCentral
cross-harbour rail tunnel, Hong Kong
Au, Aikawa, Morris and Tsang
The process encourages innovation by creating synergy between
the designer and the contractor, and reduces the likelihood of
downstream changes generated from design solutions that are
difficult to build.
A further benefit comes from the experience of the contractor
who is able to identify what systems and methods could suit their
own experience, plant and equipment available. This integrated
design and construction solution will also suit better the site
conditions anticipated during the construction period, taking
into account local conditions, availability of lower-cost materials
and systems, quality and cost of labour and other time and cost
parameters.
4. Conclusion
Aspects of the fourth cross-harbour tunnel for the Hong Kong
mass transit railway are presented in this paper. Themain purpose
of the reference design was to develop a conceptual design
prepared under an earlier commission on the tried and tested
principles needed to satisfy MTRs requirements for reliability,
safety and maintenance. The reference design was the technical
basis for calling tenders for a design-and-build contract.
The adoption of early contractor involvement with a
collaborative open mindset within the tender process allowed
the tenderers to optimise their design and build proposals,
including temporary works and the balance between cut-and-
cover and immersed-tube tunnel construction. This gave valuable
opportunities to engage the tenderers to understand fully the
complex basis of the project constraints and to develop a more
effective and competitive tender.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank MTR Corporation Ltd for permission to
publish this paper.
References
BD (Buildings Department) (2013) Hong Kong Code of Practice for the
Structural use of Concrete. Buildings Department, Government of the
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong, PR China.
BSI (1997) BS 8110-1:1997: Structural use of concrete. Code of practice for
design and construction. BSI, London, UK.
Government of Hong Kong (1997) Railways Ordinance; Chapter 519. Hong
Kong Government Gazette L.N. 390.
HD (Highways Department) (2013) Hong Kong Structures Design Manual for
Highways and Railways. Highways Department, Government of the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region, PR China.
MTR (MTR Corporation Ltd) (2013) New Works Design Standards Manual.
MTR, Hong Kong, PR China.
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happy to provide any help or advice you need.
79
Call for Papers
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Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 May 2017 Issue CE2
Volume 170 Issue CE2
Pages 8187 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00014
Innovative uses of thermal Paper 1600014
Received 22/04/2016 Accepted 26/09/2016
imaging in civil engineering
Published online 21/11/2016
Thusyanthan, Blower and Cleverly Keywords: embankments/geotechnical engineering/
pipes & pipelines

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Innovative uses of thermal imaging

in civil engineering
1 Indrasenan Thusyanthan CEng, PhD, CMarEng, MICE, BA,
MEng
Geotechnical Consultant, Thusyanthan Consultants Ltd., London, UK
(corresponding author: it206@cantab.net)
2 Tim Blower CEng, FICE, BSc, MSc, DIC, CGeol, FGS, SiLC
Technical Director, Mott MacDonald, Cambridge, UK
3 William Cleverly CEng, MEng, MICE, MA
Geotechnical Engineering Manager, Offshore Wind Consultants Ltd,
London, UK

1 2 3

Thermal imaging captures information in the infrared spectrum of light invisible to people, thus it can
provide valuable extra information. Innovative use of thermal imaging technology can therefore play an
important role in many civil engineering applications. This paper provides insight into thermal imaging
technology and its uses in civil engineering.A field example of early leak detection in an earth embankment
using thermal imaging technology is presented. With ever-improving thermal imaging technology and
decreasing cost of thermal imaging cameras, many future uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering are
envisaged from pipeline leak detection to structural integrity inspections, energy efficiency surveys and
pollution monitoring. The small size of the equipment means it can also be carried by drones, offering
access to remote or otherwise inaccessible areas.

1. Introduction In meteorology, weather forecasting uses thermal images from

Thermal imaging originated for military use and remained
relatively restricted for several decades. It provided military
personnel with the ability to view opposing forces during darkness
or in smoke-covered battlegrounds. Over the last decade, the use
of thermal imaging technology has propagated into several fields
and its effectiveness has led to many successful new applications
including in civil engineering.
The properties that have made thermal imaging detection valuable
to military forces around the world also make it valuable in many
other disciplines, including medicine, emergency and rescue services,
electrical and building engineering, meteorology and law enforcement.
In the medical field, thermal images are being used to assess
inflammation in the arteries; to identify and screen travellers with high
fever in airports; to diagnose a variety of disorders associated with the
neck, back and limbs; and for early detection of breast cancer.
In emergency and rescue applications, firefighters use
thermography to see through smoke, to locate injured persons
and to locate the base of a fire, while rescue personnel use the
technology to locate trapped persons following an earthquake or
building collapse.
In electrical engineering, maintenance engineers use thermography
to locate and help repair any overheating joints on power lines.
Building engineers use thermal imaging to identify any areas
of faulty thermal insulation and use the results to improve the
efficiency of heating and air-conditioning systems.
satellites.
Thermal imaging cameras are also often used by law
enforcement helicopters at night during rescue operations or when
tracking fugitives.
The potential use of thermal imaging in civil engineering is less
well established or known. This paper presents a field study where
thermal imaging technology is used as a tool for civil engineering
application. Although the thermal imaging process is not new, in
recent years the technology has greatly improved to the extent
that temperature data can now be shown for each image pixel, and
graphs can be created showing temperature change over an area.
Furthermore, thermal imaging has become more accessible and
less costly compared to what was available a few years ago. Thermal
imaging is now possible with small hand-held devices such as the
Landguide M4 or Flir C2, as a smartphone attachment like Flir One,
or as an in-built small phone such as Cat S60.The thermal images
presented in this paper were obtained using a Landguide M4, which
is one of the smallest and lightest devices of its kind in use today.
2. Background to thermal imaging
Thermal imagers detect radiation in the infrared range (Figure1)
of the electromagnetic spectrum that is, waves of approximately
700nm to 1mm wavelengths. The basis for infrared imaging
technology is that any object, whose temperature is above 0K,

81
Civil Engineering Innovative uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Thusyanthan, Blower and Cleverly

100 000 km
0.01 nm

380 nm

700 nm
10 nm

1 mm
Wavelength

Gamma X-ray Ultraviolet Visible Thermal Radio

imaging
Frequency
30 EHz

30 PHz

790 THz

430 THz

300 GHz

3 Hz
Figure 1. Electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths and
corresponding frequencies

radiates infrared energy. Radiated energy is proportional to

the bodys temperature raised to the fourth power, the Stefan
Boltzmann law. Therefore, the amount of radiated energy is a
function of the objects temperature and its relative efficiency of
thermal radiation, known as its emissivity.
When pointed towards an object, a thermal imager captures this
radiation energy and converts it into the corresponding temperature of
the object. Hence the thermal imager allows identification of variations
in surface temperature from a distance. Thermal imagers have a variety
of controls, including relative humidity and emissivity settings that can
be adjusted to obtain the optimal measurement accuracy.
The specifications for the Languide M4 thermal imager
(Figure2) used in the paper are as follows.
Figure 2.A Languide M4 thermal imaging camera was used to take
Temperature measurement range from 20C to 250C. the thermal images
Sensitivity of 012C.
Temperature differences are detected as high-resolution, 8-bit
thermal images. (a)
Max. T = 63.9C
(b)
Built-in laser locator to pinpoint hotspots.
1GB memory (stores up to 600 images). 639C

611
To demonstrate the accuracy of the thermal imager used in this
paper, a thermal image of hot water in a cup was evaluated and 574
compared with the temperature measurement obtained from a thermal 538
probe submerged in the hot water.The thermal probe had an accuracy
16_00014fig01
Barking Dog Art
of 02C. Figure3 shows both the thermal image and digital image 501

of the cup containing hot water. The maximum temperature of the
hot water measured by the thermal imager was 639C, while that
detected by the temperature probe was 642C. Given that the thermal
probe accuracy is 02C and that of thermal image is 012C,
the measurement given by the thermal imager was concluded to be
equivalent to that obtained from the probe. Comparisons were also
made for various temperatures in the range from 0C to 100C and
results showed that the thermal image temperature measurement was
as accurate as the thermal probe measurement.
The simple demonstration provides confidence in the ability
of the thermal imager to differentiate surface temperatures from a
distance. It is this unique ability which makes thermal imaging a
useful tool in many civil engineering applications.It should be noted
that the emissivity settings in the thermal imaging camera are critical
for obtaining accurate thermal readings and this is discussed later on.
3. Features of thermal image and analysis
The thermal imager produces high-quality thermal images
that can be analysed in real time on site or stored for post-
464
427
390C
Figure 3. Comparison of temperature measurement from thermal
image with that from thermal probe
processing.The thermal imager measures the thermal radiation and
converts it to corresponding temperature. As with all measuring
instruments, an initial calibration ensures that distance and other
environment conditions are accounted for in the conversion
process, thus leading to an accurate temperature measurement.
There are several ways of post-analysing the thermal images to
produce an effective presentation of the temperature measurements.
Some of the key features of such post-analyses are illustrated here
using the images taken.
Most thermal image cameras capture both a digital (visual)
and a thermal image and these are stored in the camera memory.

82
Civil Engineering Innovative uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Thusyanthan, Blower and Cleverly

These images can be post-analysed using the thermal imaging
software. For example, Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show the digital
image and thermal image of a tree and its surroundings under
sunlight. The thermal image clearly shows that the lowest
temperature is in the shadow of the tree, while the highest
temperature is at the soil next to the tree trunk, which is
experiencing direct sunlight.
The post-analysis software allows a user to draw a line in
the thermal image and obtain the temperature variation along
this line as shown in Figure 4(c). This enables one to obtain the
maximum temperature along a required area without any contact
measurements. As can be seen from the figure, the maximum
temperature is about 40C. If a different temperature range is of
importance, then the same image can be reanalysed by rescaling
the temperature range in the thermal image as shown in Figure5.
Another feature of the thermal imaging software is that it
contains several coloured palettes, which assist in visualising
thermal differences. For example, Figure 6(a) shows a digital
image, while Figures 6(b) and 6(c) show two different renditions
of the same image.It is interesting to observe the portrayal of the
thermal reflection of the footbridge in the water. Therefore, any
interpretation from a thermal image needs to take into account
the fact that thermal radiation can be reflected in the same way
as light.
and accuracy of the thermal image data, the emissivity setting in
the thermal imaging camera needs to be fine-tuned to match that of
the observed object.
Other factors that could affect the accuracy and reliability of
thermal imaging are atmospheric temperature and atmospheric
moisture content. It should be noted that most thermal imaging
cameras have very good accuracy, typically 1C, with their
original preset values of emissivity. Furthermore, for many civil
engineering applications of thermal imaging technology, it is the
ability of the thermal imaging equipment to detect differences
in temperature, rather than absolute temperature values that is
the great strength of the method. Therefore, the accuracy of the
temperature measurement from the thermal image is less critical
for the success of thermal imaging in civil engineering.
428C
400
364

4. Thermal emissivity 327

The concept of emissivity is critical to the understanding of a

290
thermal image of an object. Thermal emissivity is a measure of how
the thermal emissions of an object deviate from those of an ideal Max.
black body. Therefore, emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation 253
from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface at the same
temperature.For example, two objects at the same temperature will not
produce identical thermal images if they have different emissivities. 217
For any pre-set emissivity value, objects with higher emissivity
will appear hotter, and those with a lower emissivity will appear
cooler. The typical emissivity value of pure water is 096 and
180C
concrete is 091, but silver has a much lower range of 003004.
Therefore, if very accurate temperature measurements by thermal
imaging are required, then an accurate estimate of the thermal Figure 5. Rescaling the temperature range in a thermal image
emissivity of the object is critical.In order to increase the reliability

(a) (b) (c)

45
41.0C
40
37.5
35
32.9
Temperature: C

30
28.3

L1 23.7
25
Max. 20
19.1
15
14.5
10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
9.9C Distance: m

Figure 4. Visual image (a), thermal image (b) and temperature

variation along the line L1 (c)

83
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Digital image (a), palette 1 (b) and palette 2 (c)
5. Civil engineering applications of thermal
imaging
5.1 Embankment leakage
Earth bunds and dams play a vital role in storing and conveying
water for irrigation or consumption. Water leakage from aqueducts
and embankment dams is a significant issue faced by civil
authorities as it wastes large quantities of water that could be
utilised for public use. Worldwide, millions of dollars are spent
annually around the world on earth embankment, aqueduct and
river channel embankment leakage repairs. The complexity,
duration and cost of these repairs can be reduced if the repairs are
carried out prior to a full leak being developed. However, there
is no established method in which areas of potential leakage can
be identified in an earth embankment prior to the leak occurring.
Thermal imaging could be an effective tool to address this issue.
An embankment can start to leak when there is a localised path
for the water to pass through the embankment (i.e. cracks) or when
the phreatic line reaches the surface of the embankment. One of
the factors affecting the surface temperature of an embankment is
the distance to the phreatic line or water source.In a location where
a leak is imminent, the water is closer to the surface and therefore
the surface temperature at this location is lower than at locations
where the phreatic line is relatively far away from the surface. This
fact can be used in thermal imaging to identify the locations in an
embankment where leakage is just starting to develop and therefore a
bigger leak is highly likely to occur. This would enable early detection
of such locations and allow for preventative repair and maintenance
activities.The concept is illustrated in Figures 7(a) and 7(b).
If the phreatic surface were to exit on the downstream slope
of the embankment, the surface would gradually erode away, the
water flowing out of the face carrying soil particles with it. This
process can eventually cause the entire structure to fail. The
thermal imager can locate these areas where the phreatic surface
84
Innovative uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering
Thusyanthan, Blower and Cleverly
(c)
17.9C
17.1
Max Max 15.9
14.8
13.7
12.6
11.4
10.3C
is close to the ground surface, giving civil engineers the chance to
carry out remediation before the leakage initiates.
Using thermal imaging technology to identify potential future
leakage areas in an embankment was piloted in an aqueduct in
Hertfordshire, UK. This embankment had experienced several
leaks in the past and the aim was to identify any potential future
leak areas along a section of 1km length. Thermal images were
taken along the embankment, section by section, as shown in
Figure8(b).It should be noted that there was a practical difficulty
in trying to identify temperature differences at the embankment
surface since the thermal images showed that areas in direct
sunlight were much hotter compared to the regions in shadow. This
is clearly evident in Figures 9(a) and 9(b). Therefore, identifying a
temperature difference due to the presence of the phreatic line near
the surface was not possible.
After several attempts to capture the thermal image of the
embankment surface without the direct sunlight effect, it was
(a)
T1
(b)
T2<T1 T2
Figure 7. Embankment with proper functioning drainage as designed
(a) and embankment with blocked drain leading towards leakage (b)
T2 is less than T1 due to the phreatic line being nearer the surface
Civil Engineering Innovative uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Thusyanthan, Blower and Cleverly

(a) (b)
(a)
25.0C

24.2

23.1

22.0

20.9

19.8

18.7

17.6C

Figure 9. Visual image during daytime (a) and thermal image during
daytime (b) showing the effect of shadow

(b)

concluded that the best time for thermal imaging was after sunset
when the influence of direct sunlight on surface temperature would
be largely dissipated. Thus, 1 h after sunset, a series of thermal
images was captured along the embankment sections as shown in
Figure8(b).To show the location clearly, the digital image shown
Section 3
was captured during daytime but the thermal images were captured
Section 2
after sunset. The thermal images were post-processed to evaluate
Section 1
the thermal characteristics of the surface.
One of the thermal images highlighted an area of concern which
indicated a linear path with lower temperature. This area was
cooler by almost 2C compared to the rest of the region which was
at approximately 17C. This evidence is presented in Figures 10(b)
and 10(c). Figure 10(d) shows a thermal image which is typical
from other sections and which does not show lower temperature
paths. The small patches of hotter surface in the thermal images
in Figures 10(b) and 10(d) are where there was no grass and the
Figure 8. River embankment digital image (a); thermal image (b) was bare ground had been warmed directly by the sunlight.The section
captured in series of sections as shown shown in Figure 10(b) was the only region of concern identified
by the thermal imaging assessment, thus further investigation near
the channel was undertaken at the location of this region of lower
temperature.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

19
20.5C 197C

Max. 20.1
Max. 193
18
19.5 187
Temperature: C

17
19.0 181

18.4 175
16
L1 17.9 169

17.3 15 163

16.8C 157C
14
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Distance: m

Figure 10. Visual image of typical section (a), thermal image showing a
lower surface temperature (b), temperature variation across the thermal
image (c) and thermal image of a typical section (d)

85
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
Divers identified cracks in the base of the channel lining near the
identified location. Therefore, the embankment could have started
to leak in the very near future. However, since the location of the
potential leak was identified before any significant leakage from
the embankment, repair work was planned and executed efficiently
without any loss of water from the channel or disruption to traffic flow
next to the embankment.The study demonstrates that thermal imaging
can be successfully used to identify potential leakage locations quickly
and thereby enable engineers to plan and carry out remedial works and
possibly even prevent a major leakage from earth embankments.
The thermal imaging leak detection method should be considered
in the context of other available systems. In the dams industry,
there are other methods of leakage detection, but they are few in
number. Some methods use a series of thermal probes driven into
the embankment at close centres, which can be used to measure
soil/groundwater temperature differences. Other methods use a
low-voltage electrical current that follows water-bearing features,
including leakage paths, to generate a magnetic field which can
then be measured at the ground surface. These methods are claimed
to give a two- or three-dimensional picture of leakage pathways
through a water-retaining embankment, and they have the advantage
that they can detect leakages in the core of a dam or embankment,
which may be the critical zone. However, they presuppose that one
already knows roughly where any leakage is or might be.
Thermal imaging in the context of dam engineering and
maintenance may be of limited use, in the sense that it does not
allow a picture to be built up of conditions within the core of the
embankment, where critical leakage may be initiated. However,
as a rapid assessment tool for long embankments or over large
areas or to identify surface cracks or defects in concrete, it has
considerable advantages over other methods. It would be cheap
to carry out surveys over large distances, and comparisons could
be made between repeated surveys on different dates. It would
therefore appear to have its best application in the rapid preliminary
assessment, for maintenance purposes, of flood embankments,
river levees, earth aqueducts and canals.
5.2 Pipeline leakage
Locating leaks in a water, gas or oil pipeline at an early stage is
critical to ensure repair work is undertaken quickly and efficiently.
(a) (b)
24.0C
22.8
21.3
19.7
L1 18.2
16.6
15.1
13.5C
Figure 11. Identifying localised spots of surface temperature change:
visual image (a), thermal image (b) and thermal profile along a line (c)
86
Innovative uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering
Thusyanthan, Blower and Cleverly
Visual detection is difficult and often impractical when the
pipelines are tens of kilometres long; however, thermal imaging
can be an efficient tool for identifying the location of a leak and
facilitating quicker repair.The following example demonstrates the
effectiveness of thermal imaging in identifying such leaks, since a
leak in a buried pipeline would lead to soil temperature variation
and this could easily be identified in a thermal image.
As a demonstration of the idea, a small quantity of hot water
was poured onto a lawn area and visual and thermal images were
obtained as shown in Figure11.It is evident that the thermal image
can clearly identify the exact location of the hot spot, while such
identification is not possible by visual inspection. While there are
many factors such as ground temperature and the depth of the
buried pipeline that would affect effectiveness of any pipeline leak
detection, use of thermal images, especially from aerial drones, can
be an effective way to monitor the integrity of long pipelines.
5.3 Building heat loss
Energy conservation is now a global goal of all organisations
around the world. Use of thermal imaging for thermal audits of
buildings is not new, but the advancement in thermal imaging
is enabling the assessment to be carried out very quickly and
effectively. As an example, the thermal imager used in this study
was used for heat loss inspection for a building and the results are
provided in Figures 12(a) and 12(b).
It is to be noted that the digital image shown was captured during
daytime, but the thermal image was captured during night-time when
the internal heating was constant.The building had the same internal
temperature in all the rooms. The thermal image is effective in
clearly identifying the windows that are less effective in conserving
the buildings internal heat. Thus thermal imaging provides a quick
and inexpensive means of identifying defective thermal insulation of
windows or doors in a building and hence enables the owners to take
cost-effective actions to repair the defective areas.
5.4 Other uses
Thermal imaging is also an effective tool in research, where
temperature variation within soils or fluids needs to be investigated
(Kodikara et al., 2011; Liang et al., 2012; Thusyanthan et al.,
2011).
(c)
24
23
22
21
Temperature: C
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Distance: m
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
(a) (b)
15.0C
13.7
11.9
10.1
8.3
6.6
4.8
3.0C
Figure 12. Visual image of a building (a) and thermal image of the
same building (b) obtained at night where internal temperature was
same windows with poor thermal insulation can easily be identified
There are numerous further instances in civil engineering
applications where thermal imaging can be an effective diagnostic
tool. These include concrete integrity inspection (Lo and Choi,
2004; Sham, 2009; Titman, 1990), bridge inspections (Clark etal.,
2003), asphalt pavement inspections (Dumoulin et al., 2010),
subsurface cavity detection (Gunn et al., 2008), environmental
inspections such as pollution dispersion (Abdullah and McClellan,
2011), solar panel performance assessments (Moropoulou et al.,
2007), insulation loss or leak detection in facilities (Hopkins, 2011)
and even agriculture (Ishimwe et al., 2014). Clark et al. (2003)
have demonstrated that areas of delamination in a concrete bridge
structure can be correctly identified using infrared thermography.
The use of thermal imaging as an inspection tool in petrochemical
plants is already well established and it greatly enhances the
efficiency of operation and maintenance activities while increasing
equipment and worker safety. Thermal imaging can quickly identify
any leaks or defects (Jadin and Ghazali, 2014) without the need for
any shutdown in operations. Furthermore, the thermal survey can
be carried out remotely and without the need for any contact with
plant items.The use of thermal imaging allows the identification of
problems at an early stage and potentially avoids them leading to
major issues later. Thermal imaging surveys can reduce inspection
costs and increase equipment and plant reliability.
6. Conclusion
This paper presents the potential of thermal imaging to provide
innovative solutions for several civil engineering applications. A
site example has been presented of the use of thermal imaging in
identifying areas of future leakage in earth embankments.
The ability of thermal imaging to identify potential leakage areas
in aqueducts, canals or earth bunds is valuable information that
engineers can use for effective maintenance and repair. Pipeline and
plant equipment leakage detection through remote survey are some
other applications where thermal imaging offers an effective solution.
With the cost of thermal imaging technology becoming more
economical all the time, this method could become an important
tool in many civil engineering applications. Thus, thermal imaging
could become an integral part of civil engineering solutions in
future.
Innovative uses of thermal imaging in civil engineering
Thusyanthan, Blower and Cleverly
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank The Royal Society, University
of Cambridge and St Catharines College for the funding and
assistance which enabled this study.
References
Abdullah QA and McClellan R (2011) Airborne infrared thermography
for environmental and facility management of the army national
guard training facilities. Proceedings of Pecora 18: the 18th William T.
Pecora Memorial Remote Sensing Symposium Forty Years of Earth
Observations: Understanding a Changing World, Herndon, VA, USA.
Clark MR, McCann DM and Forde MC (2003) Application of infrared
thermography to the non-destructive testing of concrete and masonry
bridges.NDT & E International 36(4): 265275.
Dumoulin J, Ibos L, Ibarra-Castanedo C etal. (2010) Active infrared
thermography applied to defect detection and characterization on asphalt
pavement samples: comparison between experiments and numerical
simulations. Journal of Modern Optics 57(18): 17591769.
Gunn DA, Marsh SH, Gibson A etal. (2008) Remote thermal IR surveying to
detect abandoned mineshafts in former mining areas. Quarterly Journal of
Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology 41(3): 357370.
Hopkins P (2011) Chasing water with thermal imaging.In InfraMation 2011
Proceedings. Infrared Training Center, Nashua, NH, USA, paper 2011-078
(CD-ROM).
Ishimwe R, Abutaleb K and Ahmed F (2014) Applications of thermal
imaging in agriculture a review. Advances in Remote Sensing 3(3):
128140.
Jadin MS and Ghazali KH (2014) Gas leakage detection using thermal
imaging technique.In UKSIM 2014, UKSim-AMSS 16th International
Conference on Computer Modelling and Simulation Cambridge,
United Kingdom 26-28 March 2014 (Al-Dabass D, Orsoni A, Cant
R etal. (eds)). IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA, USA,
pp.302306.
Kodikara J, Rajeev P and Rhodenb NJ (2011) Determination of thermal
diffusivity of soil using infrared thermal imaging. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal 48(8): 12951302.
Liang DF, Chong KJY, Thusyanthan NI and Tang HW (2012) Thermal imaging
study of scalar transport in shallow wakes. Journal of Hydrodynamics
24(1): 1724.
Lo TY and Choi KTW (2004) Building defects diagnosis by infrared
thermography. Structural Survey 22(5): 259263.
Moropoulou A, Palyvos J, Karoglou M and Panagopoulos V (2007) Using
IR thermography for photovoltaic array performance assessment.In 4th
International Conference on Non-Destructive Testing, Chania, Crete,
Greece. Hellenic Society of NDT, Athens, Greece (CD-ROM).
Sham J (2009) Infrared Flash Thermography (FT) for Building Diagnosis:
Detection of Surface Cracks, Subsurface Defects and Water-Paths in
Building Concrete Structures.VDM Verlag, Saarbrcken, Germany.
Thusyanthan NI, Cleverly W, Haigh SK and Ratnam S (2011) Thermal
imaging, thermal conductivity of soil and heat loss from buried
pipelines. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Offshore Pipeline Technology
Conference, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Titman DJ (1990) Infra-red thermal imaging construction fault location.In
Infrared Technology and Applications (Lettington AH (ed.)). Sira, Ltd,
Chislehurst, UK, SPIE Proceedings vol. 1320.
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Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Civil Engineering 170 May 2017 Issue CE2
Volume 170 Issue CE2
Pages 8995 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.16.00015
Sustainable post-earthquake Paper 1600015
Received 21/04/2016 Accepted 14/09/2016
reconstruction in Pakistan
Published online 18/10/2016
Rafi, Ahmed and Lodi Keywords: buildings, structures & design/seismic
engineering/sustainability

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Sustainable post-earthquake
reconstruction in Pakistan
1 Muhammad Masood Rafi PhD 3 Sarosh Hashmat Lodi PhD
Professor, Department of Earthquake Engineering, NED University of Dean, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, NED University
Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan
2 Noman Ahmed PhD
Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, NED University
of Engineering and Technology, Karachi, Pakistan

1 2 3

This paper reports on a research-based initiative to improve the seismic resilience of the built environment
in a remote and impoverished town in Pakistan. Gajjar in Balochistan province was at the epicentre of
two major earthquakes in September 2013, which resulted in the loss of 500 lives and nearly 20000
properties.The strategy for reconstruction and rehabilitation of the town was based on scientific principles
of town planning and seismic-resistant construction. The authors gathered damage data and proposed
redevelopment plans for the area to the local authorities. Design of seismically retrofitted houses was
carried out for private housing and training sessions were conducted to educate local people in the methods
of safe construction.The aim is to contribute to the improvement of disaster resilience of the society.

1. Introduction
Balochistan is the largest of Pakistans four provinces, covering
over 44% of its geographical territory. With a 770km long coastline
along the Arabian Sea, the province borders Iran in the west and Nag
Mugalgor NAAL
Jebri
Afghanistan in the north, and is sparsely populated. Its 8 million RAKHSHAN
inhabitants represent only 4% of Pakistans total population the Tagas Rustam
Pelar Khan Shahr
lowest population density per square kilometre in the country (Grare, Mashkai Gajjar
77 Mw earthquake
2006). Being a chronic victim of natural and man-made disasters, the Shahbaz Kalat Kandgin Chuaki WADH
socio-economic indicators of the province are very low.
PANJGUR Bedidat Chagai
Awaran districtis locatedin the south of Balochistan (Figure1) Awaran
and is among the lowest-developed districts of the province, lacking Bazdar
Shank
Malar Jhal Jhao
the basic needs of water, gas and electricity. It had an estimated Sher Kalat Bela
population of around 178660 before September 2013 (GoP, 2012), Hoshab Kukari Bent
dispersed over an area of more than 29510km2. The district Karochi Tangi Dadigor Kauri Lakhra
comprises three tehsils or sub-divisions: Mashkai, Awaran and Jhal KECH AWARAN Uthal
Liari
Jhao. Gadag Bent BELA
On 24 September 2013, a 77 magnitude earthquake hit Kandrach
Soniani
PASNI
Awaran, followed by another one on 28 September 2013. The Basol Kathor
epicentre of these earthquakes was 66km north-north-west of Ormara
Awaran (USGS 2013).The earthquakes killed around 500 people, 0 km 500
Arabian Sea
affected approximately 27000 households and 138000 people, and
destroyed 19688 houses (UNOCHA, 2013). Figure 1.The town of Gajjar was next to the epicentre of the main
Mashkai is the largest tehsil of Awaran district and has been a September 2013 earthquake in the Awaran district of Balochistan
heartland of terrorist insurgency in Balochistan. It is subdivided province, Pakistan
into three union councils: Gajjar, Nokjo and Parwar. Of these,

89
Civil Engineering Sustainable post-earthquake reconstruction in Pakistan
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Rafi, Ahmed and Lodi

Gajjar suffered extensive damage during the 2013 earthquakes due authors.Cob is a naturally occurring earthen building material which
to its proximity to their epicentre.The vast majority of buildings in is made of clay, sand, straw and water.A model of this construction
Gajjar were made of earthen materials, which collapsed during the was tested using a shaking table. This type of testing is one of the
earthquakes.The towns few reinforced concrete buildings, including most highly reliable and sophisticated methods for the evaluation of
government offices, schools and a religious seminary, also suffered seismic performance of different structures. Based on the satisfactory
major damage. In addition, the towns 12-bed hospital was left performance of the model during the shaking table test, the design
unusable, with huge cracks in the walls (AFP, 2013).The majority of was implemented in the construction of houses in the affected areas.
the amenities and important structures also became non-functional. Logistic challenges made the use of machinery and modern
In the aftermath of the earthquakes, the provincial government of technology a difficult option. Limited availability of electricity was
Balochistan along with its departments started a rehabilitation and one hurdle: the district is dependent on one power plant that is only
reconstruction programme for the victims. Termed the housing able to supply electricity for 12 h a day. Lack of skilled manpower
reconstruction in Awaran project, it was aimed at redevelopment and construction technology in the area was another challenge, which
of the areas of Balochistan devastated by the 2013 earthquakes.In would have made the use of modern materials difficult. Construction
view of the experience of heavy damage and loss due to deficient activities were closely monitored and necessary training was
construction, the government decided to promote a disaster- provided to the local people engaged in the reconstruction.
resilient built environment to avoid similar incidents of damages
and losses in future.
The authors were engaged by the government to take up the 3. Results of investigations
task of conducting research and contributing to planning and
development for Gajjar. The partnership began in March 2014, Based on the results of physical surveys, the building damage in
when the government invited the NED University of Engineering Gajjar can be categorised into four types.
and Technology and the Provincial Disaster Management Authority
in Balochistan to collaborate on creating seismic-resilient buildings Fully damaged almost 90% of all private construction
for Awaran. This paper presents the details of the work carried out (primarily of residential character) collapsed after the
by the authors to achieve these goals. earthquake. The main reason for this damage and destruction
was the vulnerable construction type, such as cob construction,
which was unable to resist the inertia forces applied during the
2. Methodology of work earthquake (Figure2).
Partially damaged many structures in Gajjar were partially
Detailed reconnaissance surveys of the region were conducted to damaged during the earthquake. Nevertheless, the houses
carry out damage assessment in the affected region, and to observe
the topography, socio-economic conditions and environmental
dimensions. Information about existing plots, construction
and building functions was also acquired through the surveys.
Demographic data were gathered for household sizes and number
of married couples living on demarcated plots. Secondary data on
population, health, education, environment, hydrology, geology
and socio-economy were collected using local maps, district census
reports and other published material.
Focus group discussions were carried out to understand the
social and economic context of the area. High-resolution satellite
imagery of the region was obtained from Google Earth.All these
data were analysed to propose a growth-oriented harmonised
development plan for Gajjar for the next three decades, involving
community participation.
Similar to several other parts of Balochistan, adobe and cob
were found to be the predominant material types for private
dwelling construction in the entire affected region. These materials
offer several advantages such as low-cost construction without
sophisticated technology and skilled manpower, and better thermal
insulation. Although the earthen buildings are considered weak in
their resistance to earthquake forces, worldwide research activities
have indicated that their seismic resistance can be increased,
keeping the fabric of the buildings intact (BIS, 1993; Blondet and
Garcia 2004; Blondet et al., 2005, 2008, 2010; Dowling, 2004;
Figueiredo etal., 2013; IAEE, 2004; Torrealva and Vicente, 2014;
Vera and Miranda, 2004; Yamin etal., 2004; Zegarra etal., 1999).
Therefore, exploratory work leading to the design of a seismic- Figure 2. Examples of fully damaged structures in Gajjar
resistant earthen building made of cob material was carried out by the

90
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
were not fit for occupancy as they barely escaped collapse
with significant damage to the walls (Figure3).In some cases,
people made modifications in these partially damaged houses
to occupy them or organised their temporary shelters around
these partially damaged structures.
Moderately damaged a number of buildings showed
prominent cracks in their walls, but were found stable enough
for occupancy and use. As a result, people were allowed to
occupy these after the ground shaking stopped. The primary
reason for their stability may be attributed to reinforced
concrete construction (Figure4).
Figure 3. Examples of partially damaged structures
Figure 4. Examples of moderately damaged structures
Sustainable post-earthquake reconstruction in Pakistan
Rafi, Ahmed and Lodi
Minimal damage in some parts of Gajjar, buildings were
found in a reasonably good condition. Most of these were
public/amenity buildings comprising one- or two-storey
structures (Figure5).
In addition to the private housing, most of the health facilities were
also damaged and were made non-functional in the Mashkai and
Awaran tehsils by the earthquake (Figure6). These facilities also
became inaccessible due to the damaged roads in the area.The
damage of school buildings (Figure7) made the opportunities for
education attainment which were already low before the Awaran
earthquake due to lack of facilities and infrastructure even worse.
Figure 5. Examples of minimally damaged structures
91
Civil Engineering Sustainable post-earthquake reconstruction in Pakistan
Volume 170 Issue CE2 Rafi, Ahmed and Lodi

Gajjar Bazaar Road

changes to M8

HAFIZABAD
Area: 39 ha
Pop.: 1%
Park
Area: 3 ha KARKI
Area: 37 ha
Pop.: 7%

BANDAIL
Area: 39 ha
College Pop.: 24%
Area: 4 ha
QALAT CHEER SORKO
Area: 89 ha Area: 20 ha

ar
Pop.: 41% Pop.: 4%

hW
Me
Park/rest house
KUCH Area: 2.3 ha
Area: 53 ha
Pop.: 23% Levies office and training centre
Area: 3 ha

Bus terminal
Area: 0.8 ha
Fruit and vegetable market
Area: 2.75 ha 0 km 0.5

Figure 8. Proposed redevelopment plan for Gajjar, showing the new

M8 motorway, new secondary roads and new amenities

Figure 6. Hospitals damaged in Mashkai and Awaran

Agriculture (8%)
Amenity (36%)
Commercial (1%)
Infrastructure (excluding
roads) (0%)
Open land (2%)
Public buildings (1%)
Residential (38%)
Undefined usage (14%)

Figure 7. School damaged during earthquakes Figure 9. Primary land use in Gajjar

Gajjar is divided into six localities: Bandail, Hafizabad, Karki,
Kuch, Qatal Cheer and Sorko. These are shown in Figure 8
together with their areas and populations. Figure9 illustrates the
distribution of land use for Gajjar. It can be seen that the area
is largely residential in character (38%) followed by scattered
amenities.The few commercial zones are concentrated along the
main Gajjar Bazaar Road, specifically in Sorko and Bandail.The
remaining road network comprises unpaved roads.
Cycles, motorcycles and donkeys are the primary modes of
transport for the villagers. Other kinds of motorised transport are
not only limited but also difficult to operate due to the damaged
unpaved roads.
4. Proposed redevelopment plan
The earthquakes damaged most of the social infrastructure in
Gajjar including school and hospital buildings. The only inter-
college building in Hafizabad area that faced minimal damage was

92
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
occupied by the security forces, who moved in to help the local
government amid insurgency.
Although Sorko acts as the administrative hub, Qalat Cheer and
Bandail are the most populous areas. Located at the opposite edges
of Gajjar, Kuch and Karki are less populated and offer plentiful
opportunities to accommodate new construction on the abundant
open land.
The M8 motorway is planned to replace the Gajjar Bazaar Road,
which will transform the town into a transit hub. This implies
increased traffic flow, growth opportunities and improved facilities
in the area in future. Construction of the M8 is expected to be
completed in 2018.
A key issue identified during the physical surveys was the
presence of various stakeholders in Gajjar. Each of these requires
their separate operational zones, accommodation and centres. They
include the security forces, government offices and levies forces,
with minimal to no interaction in-between them. Considering
this factor and the fact that the M8 route may become a major
trigger point in the development of Gajjar, various locations for
new infrastructure were analysed and a number of facilities were
proposed.
A strategic framework was prepared from a layered series
of thematic plans, such as landscape, waste, water supply
infrastructure, transportation structure and social infrastructure,
which can be combined and compared. For this purpose, open
land was identified to accommodate the following facilities:
(a) intermediate college and hostel; (b) park and playground;
(c) bus terminal (for intercity traffic); (d) training centre and
accommodation for levies force; and (e) vegetable market and
storage warehouse (see Figure8).The selection of these facilities
and their locations were based on a thorough review of existing
conditions, dialogue, discussion and feedback of local population
and concerned stakeholders, and the future needs for the next 30
years.
Since the Gajjar Bazaar Road will become the M8 motorway, it
is proposed to widen this road to 30m with two service roads, each
75m in width, so that it continues to serve as the primary road in
Gajjar.All the six localities of Gajjar will be connected to the M8
through the secondary roads originating from it. These will be a
minimum of 65m wide and will connect with each other.
Environmental issues such as possible inundation due to flash
floods were addressed to ensure safe housing re-construction.
Proper scrutiny was carried out to select such sites which would
be topographically safe from any flash flooding. Guidelines were
provided to the residents and project field staff members to avoid
construction of houses on depression terrains to ensure safety.
Essential services, such as water supply through tube wells, were
also safeguarded by applying the same principles. The project
staff members were instructed to ensure that these environmental
considerations are properly addressed during reconstruction.
5. Design of seismic-resistant structures
Culturally, the housing units in the region comprise either one
or two rooms for each family. A compound may have several of
these units, which are occupied by one family each to allow several
families to stay together within the compound.The proposed plan
of a prototype cob house which was selected for the application
Sustainable post-earthquake reconstruction in Pakistan
Rafi, Ahmed and Lodi
of seismic-resistant design is shown in Figure 10. This design is
applied after the completion of construction of the building without
interfering with the method of original construction. This also
makes the design suitable for retrofitting of existing buildings.The
main features of this design are as follows.
Increased wall resistance lateral load resistance of individual
walls was increased by providing vertical bamboos 38mm
thick on both the internal and external faces of the walls. These
were strongly tied together, using plastic strips to avoid use
of metallic ties.The walls were tied together with the help of
a metal lathe which was provided at plinth, sill and tie beam
levels. To avoid the metal lathe rusting, plastic-coated mesh
was used and was applied from both the inside and the outside
of the wall to form a closed box action.
Strengthening of weak areas weak areas within the walls
(such as openings for doors and windows) were additionally
strengthened using bamboos around these openings from both
inside and outside.
Increased stiffness the stiffness of the system has further been
increased by tying the roof beams to the walls.
To assess the effectiveness of the seismic-resistant design, a
one-third scale model of the improved prototype building was
constructed in a laboratory. Since different types of roofs are
generally employed in the region, the roof was not made part of the
design to allow flexibility in its selection during the construction on
site. However, the roof beams which are needed to support the roof
coverings were used in the model.The construction of the model
followed scientific principles of similitude and dimensionanalysis.
The ground acceleration time history record of the 1940 El
Centro earthquake was employed to simulate the earthquake
ground motion for the model. The magnitude of this earthquake
was 71 (USGS, 2016).The duration of the El Centro earthquake
was 31 s with a peak ground acceleration of 030g.The model was
subjected to different intensities of seismic excitation 25%, 50%,
75%, 100%, 125%, 150%, 175% and 200% in an incremental
fashion in the northsouth direction.At the end of each sequence
of seismic excitation, physical inspection of the model was carried
out to assess the damage pattern and photographs were taken.
No damage was noticed in the model structure up to the
application of 75% level of earthquake.The structure maintained
Washing space
Vent Vent Vent Vent
Room Room
Door Door
Window Window
0 m 4 Fireplace for
cooking and so on
Figure 10. Plan of prototype seismic-resistant house cob walls are
reinforced with bamboo strips
93
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
its strength and stiffness at this stage. Some cracks appeared at
100% level of earthquake in the north-west corner of the model
in the west wall.The cracks increased at 150% level of earthquake
in this wall (Figure11), which caused the stiffness degradation of
the structure. Cracks also appeared in other walls at this level.The
structure became heavily damaged at 200% level of earthquake.
However, it showed a high level of resistance and was able to avoid
collapse. This indicates that the structure still possessed adequate
residual capacity. Figure 12 illustrates the model at the end of
200% level of testing.
The testing of this model provided the evidence of adequacy
of design. As a result, reconstruction activities on site started in
July 2014.A number of example houses were constructed by the
project team in different places throughout the affected areas to
educate home owners. Brochures and visuals were also used to
disseminate the necessary information on the construction of safe
houses. The authors presented lectures and workshops on safe
housing construction.
Close monitoring of construction activities was carried out by
the project team with the help of field support staff members to
ensure that the guidelines were followed during construction. As
a result of these efforts, construction on multiple sites was
Figure 11. Typical wall cracking in the one-third scale of model of the
seismic-resistant house design after a 150% level test
94
Sustainable post-earthquake reconstruction in Pakistan
Rafi, Ahmed and Lodi
started simultaneously. A house took 46 months for completion
depending on the management of resources by the owner. The
cooperation of home owners and dedication of field staff enabled
the project team to complete construction of 6000 houses by
December 2015 (18 months from the start of the project).A typical
model house is shown is Figure13.
Initial observational feedback from the beneficiaries of the
project showed a general level of satisfaction. This can be attributed
to two factors. Many locals did not expect a rehabilitation exercise
to begin so soon after the calamity. They were pleasantly surprised
at the swift initiation of the project. The fact that project team
worked closely with the people and was generally receptive to their
concerns may also be a cause of this satisfaction.
6. Risks and challenges
The implementation environment in Awaran offered many
challenges that are important to be considered, despite the apparent
success of the project. Unstable administrative arrangements are a
foremost risk. A change in the status of the project, its assigned
priority in the tally of funds allocation and deployment of project
leadership can have major impacts.
Any change in the administrative arrangements of Awaran can
affect the progress of work due to changes in priorities.In addition,
the ongoing insurgency among a faction of locals and security
forces can cause a change in the course of implementation. When
security threats escalate, progress is automatically impeded.
7. Conclusions
This paper describes the efforts carried out to develop a disaster-
resilient built infrastructure in the earthquake-damaged region of
Awaran in Balochistan, Pakistan.The town of Gajjar was selected
as a pilot study for developing redevelopment plans.
A survey of the damage was carried out and data on topography,
demography, socio-economic conditions and environmental
dimensions were collected. Based on the analysis of the data, and
discussion and feedback of all stakeholders, redevelopment of the
area was proposed to fulfil the needs of the next three decades.
Figure 12. The model structure was still standing after a 200% level test
Civil Engineering
Volume 170 Issue CE2
Figure 13.A new seismic-resistant house in Awaran over 6000 have
now been built in the area
The design of a seismically resistant cob house was carried
out for Awaran to avoid losses and damages in future. A one-
third scale model of the improved building structure was tested
using a shaking table. The performance of the model was found
satisfactory and the design was implemented for buildings on site.
Training was also provided to the local people in safe
construction methods. These efforts represent the contribution of
the authors towards development of a sustainable and disaster-
resilient built environment in the country.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Muhammad Ahmed for providing
Figure1.
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earthquake resistance of earthen buildings-guidelines. Bureau of Indian
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Blondet M and Garcia GV (2004) Earthquake resistant earthen buildings?
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events/1940_05_19.php (accessed 01/07/2016).
Vera R and Miranda S (2004) Experimental study of retrofitting techniques
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95
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