Static

01
Survey Experiment ,
1. (Data Collection)
2. data (Organizing)
3. data (Analyzing)
4. data Information
(Interpretation)
DATA??? INFORMATION?????
Survey Experiment
(Observations).
data . Data
. data
data
. data Information .
Data Information .
data ...
Method of Data Collection:
Primary Data
Primary Data ( research

) data Questionnaire
experiment (
, bacteria count
) data
data primary data
Secondary Data
Secondary Data primary data .
, Dept of Census and Statistics
( primary data).
publish . data
data "Secondary Data" .
.
.
Scale of Measurement:
Nominal Data:
Data Scale of Measurement . data

. "Nominal Data". nominal data data
. ??
...
"". "" . Nominal data
sample objects .
.
research data
smokers non-smokers . smokers "1"
symbol . non-smokers "0" symbol .
data set categories .
data set gender
"1" . "0"
. .
data set objects categorize
. data . nominal
data . objects categorize data
"Categorical Data" .
Nominal Data , Gender, Blood groups, Ethnicity etc.
Ordinal Data:
data "Ordinal Data". ordinal data ,

data (meaning ) data "Order" .
?? . . .....
rankings. rank soldier .

. . ?? data order
. data .
data order .
5
50 .
5 1 5 .
1 , 5 .

. (preference)
ordinal data .
Interval Data:
"Interval Data". interval data meaning

data . interval .
data interval data "true
zero" .
true zero ???? ???
.. .. zero ?? ... ..
"0" .
.
?? ... .. "0"
... ..... Interval data .
temperature . temperature
. .. 0 , temperature
?? ?? 0 . true
zero . interval
. .
ratio ratio .
temperature
ratio depend . depend interval .
=> (30 - 10)/ (10 - 0 ) = 2

=> (86 -50 )/ (50 - 32 ) = 2
Ratio Data:
data "Ratio Data" . Ratio Data
data . , ratio
data true zero . .
: height, weight, length, area, etc
zero .. weight zero

. height, length . Ratio data true
zero .
data ...
stat statics ( ) . stat

,statics .
. subject 1
. field 1 job 1
. subject 1 . stat
.
(statistic)
(collected data)
.

t-shirt,shirt,skirt
plan
.
item . t-
shirt . t-shirt
. t-shirt stat
(mode) .
.
stat
.
(Data collecting method )
. .
(direct observation)
(interviews)
/ (questionnaires)
(telephone conversation)
(Internet)
.
subjects IT .
(Statistic terminology )
(Population)

.
(Sample)

.
(Variable)
1 .
(Primary Data)

.
(Secondary Data)
/
.
(Qualitative Data)
,
. (variable)
(Qualitative variable) .
(numerically) .
(Quantitative Data)
,
. (variable)
(Quantitative variable) .
(numerically) .
1. (Discrete Data)
(Natural numbers)
, . (variable)
(Discrete variable) .
2. (Continuous Data )
,
. (variable)
(Continuous variable) .
(Sampling method)
(cluster sampling)
(Population)
.
(Complete Randomize sampling)
(Population)
.
(strata sampling)
(Population)
.
(systematic sampling)
(Population)

.
Friends Mind .
.

jHdmdr ixLHdkfha iajNdjh

ixLHdkh
ixLHdkh
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tla /ia lr tu f;dr;=re l%udkql+,j Yaf,aIKh lr tajdg wkqj t<fUk fkdfhl=;a ks.uk
ixLHdk m%ldYhla f,i oelah yelsh' ixLHdk m%ldY m%udKd;aul nka yd iqfYaI
nka hqla;h'
ixLHdkuh m%ldY i|yd ksoiqka
jHdmdr wdh;kfha ,dNh .sh jirg jvd f jif 10] lska by< f.dia we;'
fuu jIfha wdh;kfha lS;skduh 10]la wvq we;s nj fmkajhs'
wdh;kfha NdKav ksIamd;h i|yd b,au 5] lska je we;'
jHdmdr flaI;%hg ixLHdkfha we;s jeo.;alu

wksYa; ;;ajhka hgf;a oHd;aul ks.ukj,g t<u ixLHdfha ldhh Ndrhhs' tf,iu
jHdmdr flaI;%hg o ixLHdkh jeo.;a f'
jHdmdr ia:dk .; lsu yd m%udKh ;SrKh lsu
fj<|fmd< b,au wOHkh lsu
ksIamdo ie,iq ilia lsu
;;a;aj md,kh
wf,lrK ;SrK
ldhh uKav, md,kh
.sKq yd .Kkh
wkd.; ie,iq iy mqfrdal:k ie,iq ms<sfh, lsu i|yd
ixldh mfhaIK i|yd
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lsish p,Hhla fyda Wm,laIhla fyda i|yd ,nd .kakd m%udKd;aul Kq iuqyhla
ixLHd o;a; f'
ixLHdk o;a; m%Odk jYfhka fldgia folls'
m%d:l o;a;
lsish wruqKla i|yd w;skau tla/ia lrk o;a; m%d:l o;a; f'
oa;sl o;a;
w;skau o;a; /ia fkdfldg fjk;a uQ,dY%hka uska ,nd .kakd o;a;
oa;Sl o;a; f'
ix.yKh
o;a; ,nd .ekSu i|yd lrkq ,nk ilaIhg wod< lr .kakd jia;=ka iy mqoa.,hska ix.ykh
f'
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ix.ykh f,i yekaf'
ksheh
lsish ilaIK lghq;a;l o;a; ,nd .ekSu i|yd iuia: ix.ykhu mlaIdjg ,lalr f;dr;=re
fidhd .ekSu wmyiqh' ix.ykh Yd, fyhska ix.ykfha ishu wxY mlaIdjg Ndckh l<
fkdyels f' tfia uq ix.ykhu ilaIKh lrkakg hdf wl houla yd Yd, ld,hla jeh
u" ksjer nj wvqu jeks j,;djhka oelsh yelsh'
kshe uska o;a; /ia lsf jdis
ksh|s uska o;a; /ialsrSf jdis #-
m%;sM, j, ksje/os;djh wdrlaIdu
msrsjeh wvqu
jvd;a ;dlsl f,i fukau" jvd;a ksje/os f,i ;SrK j,g t<h yelsu
.Kkh lsrSf iy f;dr;=re /ia lsrSf b;d Yd, fkdjk fyhska jvd;a ksjeros f,i l< yelsu
iiNd kshe|sh
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sh ;=<g;a we;=<;a u i|yd tl yd iudk whs;shla mj;sk njhs' iiNd ksh|s l%uh
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iiNd fkdjk kshe|sh

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lr .kshs' m%Odk jYfhka fldgia 5 lska hqla;j my; f,i bosrsm;a l< yelsh'
nyqmsh kshe|sh
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fmdl=re kshe|Su
l%uj;a kshe|Su
ia;D; kshe|Su
ixLHdk o;a;
lsish p,Hhka fyda Wm ,dlaIKshla fyda i|yd ,nd .kakd m%udKd;aul Kq iu
%yhla ixLHdk o;a; f'
o;a; m%Odk jYfhka fldgia 2ls'
1' m%d:l o;a;
2' oa;shsl o;a;
1' m%d:l o;a;

lsish wruqKla i|yd w;skau /ialrk o;a; m%d:l o;a; f,i ye|skaf'
ksoiqka #-
ludka;hl ksIamdokh ms<sn|j wOHhkh lrk mqoa.,fhl= ta wdh;khg f.dia

fiajlhkaf.ka o;a; tl;= lsrSu
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ye|skaf'
oa;Shsl o;a; m%ldYhg m;a lrk uQ,dY%
1' jHdmdr wdh;khla iska m%ldYhg m;alrk jd;d
ksoiqka #- ,dNd,dNd .sKqu" fYaI m;%h
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ksoiqka #- uynexl= jd;dj
3' rcfha fomd;fka;= iska lrk ilaIK jd;d
ksoiqka #- f.= jd;d" frcsiagd fckrd,ajrhdf.a jd;dj
m%d:l o;a; ,nd .ekSf m%Nj

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fjka o;a; ,nd.ekSula neka thg inkaO jk .=rejreka" ldlhska"
mdrsfNda.slhska m%d:l o;a; m%Nj f'
m%d:l o;a; ,nd.; yels l%u
iajhx .Kka .ekSu
;eme,a u.ska fyda fjkh l%uhlska ;ukag ,efnk m%YaKdj,shlg msrslafikakd

iskau f;dr;=re iemhSu iajhx .Kka .ekSuhs'
iuqL idlPd l%uh
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,nd.ekSuhs'
rl:k idlPd l%uh
rl:k ud.fhka mqoa.,fhl=f.ka f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu fuhska lshef'
oa;Shsl o;a; m%Nj

wOHdmkh ms<sn| o;a;" ck ixLHdj yd fiajd kshqla;sh" ms<sn|j wdl o;a;
fjf<|du ms<sn| o;a; ,nd.; yels oa;Shsl o;a; uQ,dY%hka lSmhla my; mrsos
bosrsm;a l< yelsh'
YS% ,xld uy nexl=j
f.=j
ck f,aLK yd ixLHdf,aLK fomd;fka;=j
O wud;HdxY yd thg inkaO wdh;k

m%d:l o;a; ,nd .ekSu
iajhx .Kka .ekSu
iajhx .Kka .ekSu hkq ;eme,a uSka fyda fjkh l%uhlg ;ukag ,efnk m
%Yakdj,shlg msrslafikakd iskau f;dr;=re iemhSuhs' fuysoS msrslafikakdg
;udf.a wNsu;h mrsos f;dr;=re iemhSu l< yelsh'
m%Yakdj,S l%ufhka o;a; ,nd .ekSf jdis fukau wjdiSka o we;'
m%Yakdj,S l%ufha jdis #-
flfkl= bosrsfha ms<s;=re oSug wlue;s m%Yakj,g ms<s;=re ,nd.ekSug mqjka

u
wvq houlska f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug yelsu
ms<s;=re oSug ld,hla fok ksid m%fYfuka l< yelsu
mrSlaIlhdf.a mlaImd;S;ajh n,fkdmEu
m%YaKdj,s l%ufha wjdis #-
iaj,am fofkl=f.a muKla ms<s;=re ,eh yelsu
idlaIr;djh wvq rgj, Nd;d l< fkdyels u
f;dr;=rej, YajiH;djh ms<sn| ;lafiare l< fkdyels u
ksrSlaIK o;a; ,nd .; fkdyels u
fm!oa.,sl iuqL idlPd

Wmf,aLkhla iys;j fyda rys;j fyda wjYH mqoa.,fhka yuq idlPd lsrSfuka
f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu fm!oa.,sl iuqL idlPd l%uhhs'
fuu l%ufhka o;a; ,nd .ekSf jdis fukau wjdiSkao we;'
jdis #-
idfmalaIj je m%;spdrhla fuu l%ufhka ,eu
Wml%uYS,Sj m%Yak weiSfuka wjYH f;dr;=re yels;dla rg ksjrosj ,nd.; yelsu'
msrslaikakdf.a fm!oa.,sl ,laIK fukau mrsirh ms<sn| w;sfL f;dr;=re f l

%ufhka ,nd .; yelsh'
ilaIKhg Ndckh jkakdf.a wOHdmkh ugug .e<fmk mrsos ikaksfok NdIdj fjkia
l< yelsh'
wjdis #-
hou" ld,h yd Y%uh f l%ufha oS jeu
mqoa., noaO;dj by< ugul mej;Su
ixfoS m%Yakj,g ms<s;=re ,nd .ekSu Ialr u
rl:k idlPd
rl:kh u.ska mqoa.,fhl=f.ka f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu fuys oS is f'
jdis #-
msrsjeh idudkHfhka wvqu
blaukska ms<s;=re ,nd .; yelsu
N+f.da,Sh jYfhka Yd, m%foaYhl me;sr isk mqoa.hskaf.ka f;dr;=re ,nd .; yels
u
wjdis #-
f l%ufhka ms<s;=re ,nd.; ye;afla m%Yak lSmhlg muKla u
blaukska ms<s;=re fok ksid we;e wh fok ms<s;=re jevla ke;s tajd u
rl:k myiql wvq wjia:dj, oS f;dr;=re ,nd .kakd ksheosh ix.ykfha ksfhdackhla
h yels fkdu
m%Yakdj,shla iy Wmf,aLkhla ilia lsrSu
m%Yakdj,shl ;r Wmfoia iy ia;r we;=<;a fkdjk msrslafikakd iska iuqL

idlPdjlo imQK l< hq;= f,aLKhhs'
id:l m%YaKdj,shl ;sh hq;= .=Kdx. (-
myiqfjka wjfndaO lr .ekSug yelsh hq;=h'
ir, h hq;= nj'
ixlSK .Kkh lsrS m%Yakj,g we;=<;a fkdlsrSu
wNsk; m%YaKk we;= fkdlsrSu
wkjYH wdldrhg m%Yakdj,sh oS> fkdl< hq;=h
m%Yak ilia l< hq;af;a wruqKg wod<j Yaf,aIKhl fhosh yels o;a; ,ndfok
wdldrhgh'
Nd;d lrk jpk ksYa; w:hla we;s tajd u'
mQj mrSlaIdj
m%Yakdj,shl wvqmdvq we;ak tajd ixfYdaOkh lsrSu i|yd l=vd kshe|shlg
bosrsm;a lr ,nd .kakd f;dr;=re u; mrSlaId lsrSu mqj mrSlaIdjhs'
mQj mrSlaIdjlska ,nd .kakd f;dr;=re fhdodf.k m%Yakdj,shl ixfYdaOkh l<

hq;= wx.
wjYH wjia:d j,oS m%Yakj, wkqms<sfj, fjkia lsrSu
wmeyeos,s m%Yak we;ak tajd kej; meyeos,sj we;=<;a lsrSu
wjYH f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug wiu;a jQfha k th m%Yak fjkqjg w;a m%Yak fhdod
.ekSu
ksYa; f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug fkdyels jQ m%Yak we;ak thg iqiq l

%shdud.hla .ekSu
m%Yakdj,shl wvqmdvq iys; m%Yak ixfYdaOkh lsrSf yelshdj

lsrsms j.hl mdrsfNda.sl leue;a; msrslaiSu
ku
jhi
orejka ixLHdj
jdy wjdyl nj
oekg md lrk lsrsms j.h
uilg <oS .kakd m%udKh
jIhlg <oS .kakd m%udKh
jHdmdr o;a; tla/ia lsrSu'
lsish p,Hhka fyda Wm,laIhla fyda i|yd ,nd .kakd m%udKd;aul Kq iuQyhla
ixLHdk o;a; f'
m%d:l o;a;
lsish wruqKla i|yd w;skau /ialrk o;a; m%d:l o;a; f'
oa;Shsl o;a;
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ix.yKh
o;a; ,nd .ekSu i|yd lrkq ,nk ilaIKhg wod< lr .kakd jia;+ka iy mqoa.,hska
ix.ykhhs'
ksoiqka #-
YS% ,xldf ck.ykh ms<sn| lrkq ,nk ilaIKhloS Y%S ,xldf fjfik uq ck.ykh
ix.ykh f,i ye|skaf'
kshe|sh
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fidhd .ekSu wmyiqh' ix.ykh Yd, fyhska ix.kfha ishu wxY mrSlaIdjg Ndckh l<
fkdyels fjhs' tfia uq ix.ykhu ilaIKh lrkakg hfoS wl ho nj , Yd, ld,hla .;u
, ksjeros nj wvq lu jeks j,;djhka oelsh yelsh
msrsjeh wvqu
iiNd kshe|sh
iiNd fkdjk kshe|sh

nyqmsh kshe|sh
fldgia kshe|Su
fmdl=re kshe|Su
l%uj;a kshe|Su
ia;D; kshe|Su
ixLHdk o;a;
1' m%d:l o;a;
2' oa;shsl o;a;
1' m%d:l o;a;

ksoiqka #-

2' oa;shsl o;a;

ye|skaf'


iajhx .Kka .ekSu

iuqL idlPd l%uh
,nd.ekSuhs'
rl:k idlPd l%uh
oa;Shsl o;a; m%Nj

bosrsm;a l< yelsh'
YS% ,xld uy nexl=j

f.=j
iajhx .Kka .ekSu

u

jdis #-

l< yelsh'
wjdis #-
rl:k idlPd
jdis #-

u
wjdis #-
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ir, h hq;= nj'
wdldrhgh'
mQj mrSlaIdj

hq;= wx.
.ekSu

%shdud.hla .ekSu

ku
jhi
orejka ixLHdj
jdy wjdyl nj
jHdmdr o;a; tla/ia lsrSu'

lsish p,Hhka fyda Wm,laIhla fyda i|yd ,nd .kakd m%udKd;aul Kq iuQyhla
ixLHdk o;a; f'
m%d:l o;a;
lsish wruqKla i|yd w;skau /ialrk o;a; m%d:l o;a; f'
oa;Shsl o;a;
w;skau o;a; /ia fkdfldg fjk;a uQ,dY%hka u.ska ,nd .kakd o;a; oa;Shsl o;a; f'
ix.yKh
o;a; ,nd .ekSu i|yd lrkq ,nk ilaIKhg wod< lr .kakd jia;+ka iy mqoa.,hska
ix.ykhhs'
ksoiqka #-
YS% ,xldf ck.ykh ms<sn| lrkq ,nk ilaIKhloS Y%S ,xldf fjfik uq ck.ykh
ix.ykh f,i ye|skaf'
kshe|sh
lsish ilaIK lghq;a;loS o;a; ,nd.ekSu i|yd iuia; ix.ykhu mrSlaIdjg ,lalr"f;dr;=re
fidhd .ekSu wmyiqh' ix.ykh Yd, fyhska ix.kfha ishu wxY mrSlaIdjg Ndckh l<
fkdyels fjhs' tfia uq ix.ykhu ilaIKh lrkakg hfoS wl ho nj , Yd, ld,hla .;u
, ksjeros nj wvq lu jeks j,;djhka oelsh yelsh
msrsjeh wvqu
iiNd kshe|sh
iiNd fkdjk kshe|sh

nyqmsh kshe|sh
fldgia kshe|Su
fmdl=re kshe|Su
l%uj;a kshe|Su
ia;D; kshe|Su
ixLHdk o;a;
1' m%d:l o;a;
2' oa;shsl o;a;
1' m%d:l o;a;

ksoiqka #-

2' oa;shsl o;a;

ye|skaf'

iajhx .Kka .ekSu

iuqL idlPd l%uh
,nd.ekSuhs'
rl:k idlPd l%uh
oa;Shsl o;a; m%Nj

bosrsm;a l< yelsh'
YS% ,xld uy nexl=j
f.=j
iajhx .Kka .ekSu


u
jdis #-

l< yelsh'
wjdis #-
rl:k idlPd
jdis #-
u
wjdis #-
h yels fkdu

ir, h hq;= nj'
wdldrhgh'
mQj mrSlaIdj

hq;= wx.
.ekSu

%shdud.hla .ekSu
ku
jhi
orejka ixLHdj
jdy wjdyl nj
iNd;dj yd iNd;d jHma;sh
iiNd mrSlaId isu iy tajdfha iajNdjh

is flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lsrSfoS tajdfha iajNdjh wkqj j. 3 lg fnosh yel'
iiNd isu hkq

m%;sm, wksYa; jk ish'
iiNd mrSlaIdj
,eh yels m%;sM,h l=ulaoehs mrSlaIKh lsrSug m%:uj ksYa;j lsj fkdyels
mrSlaIKhla iiNd mrSlaIdj f,i ye|skaf'
iiNd mrSlaId i|yd ksoiqka

1' ldishla Wv oeu ;=<ska w.h me;a; ,eu
2' me;s 6 lska hq;a od leghla fmr,Su
kshos wjldYh iy isoa
kshos wjldYh
iiNd mrSlaIKhlska ,eh yels ishu m%;sM,j,ska iuka; jk l=,lh kshos wjldYh
f' th ykajk ixfla;h jkafka S h'
kshos wjldYh ksrEmKh l< yels O l%u
isoa
laflda mrSlaIKhl m%;sM, j, Wml,amkhla ke;fyd;a kshos uOH ,laIH iuQyhla

isoaka f,i ye|skaf'
hlsis mrSlaIKhloS ,eh yels tla m%;sM,hla fyda m%;sM, lsysmhla lsysmhlska
iEfok ixfhdackh f,io isoa hkak w: oelah yelsh'
iNd; msiq
iNd;dj hkak uQ,sl jYfhka my; wdldrhg w: oelau l< yel'
wdK l,ams; msiq
idfmalaI ixLHd; msiq
mqoa., ks#Y%s; msiqu
m%;HlaIuh msiqu
wdK l,ams; msiq
iiNd mrSlaIKhl m%;sM, iEu tllau isug we;s bvlv iudk jk fia ^m%;sM, iNjH jkg&
wod< isoahg mlaI m%;sM, .Kkla" hyels ishu m%;sM, .Kkla w;r mj;sk wkqmd;sh
iNd;dj f,i w: oelaf'
fuh my; i|yka mrsos .Kkh l< yel'
idfmalaI ixLHd; msiq
h mrSlaIKhla wjYHfhkau ijiu ;;aj hgf;a mqkrdj;k l< yels fgl h isoahlg
mlaIjdr .Kk" mrSlaIKh isl< uq jdr .Kfkka fng ,efnk w.h tu isoafhys
idfmalaI ixLHd;hhs'
fuh my; mrsos .Kkh l< yel'
idfmalaI ixLHd; msiqug fhosh fkdyels wjia:d
wjYH lrk ixLHd;aul f;dr;=re ke;s wjia:d
mrSlaIKhla lsrSug wmyiq ke;ak Ialr wjia:d

mqoa., ks#Y%s; msiqu
h wksYa; isoahla fyda m%ldYhla fyda inkaOfhka ,nd.; yels f;dr;=re j,g
wu;rj mqoa.,fhl=f.a oekqu" w;aoelS" Yajdih yd ;dlsl yelshdj mok lr .kska
iNd;d w.hka mejrSu fuhska woyia f' fuysoS mqoa.,hskaf.a oekqu" w;aoelS"
Nd;h yd fjk;a idOl mok lrf.k iNd;djh m%ldY flf'
Wod #- 1' Y%S ,xldf Yaj oHd,j, wOHkh lghq;= bosrs jI fol ;=<oS os.gu
jD;j mej;Sf iNd;djh
2' kj ksIamdokhla i|yd foaYSh fjf<|fmd< ;=< fyd| b,aula yslr .ekSf
iNd;djh
m%;HlaIuh msiqu
S k kshos wjldYhla u; mq,a w: olajd we;s A k isoahl P ( A ) k ;d;al jkdl

Y%s;hla iNd;d kqula ug my; oelafjk m%;HlaI 03 ;Dma; l< hq;=h'
.Kka lsrSf Ys,amSh l%u

ixlrK
O jQ foaj,a iuQyhla .;ag tajd w;r tlsfklg fjkia iEu ilia lsrSulgu ixlrK f,i
ykajhs'
wl=re n w;rska jrlg r ne.ska f.k ielish yels jpk .Kk my; mrsos f'
tlsfklg fjkia jH n m%udKhlska jrlg jH r m%udKhla f.k oS we;s mmdhlg

wkqj lrkq ,nk ms<sfh< lsrSula r ixialrKhla f,i ye|skaf' fuh P f,i wxlkh l< yel'
iuQyhlg wh;a foaj,a w;r ms<sfh< fkdi,ld tu iuQyh i<lk g th ixfhdackh f,i ye|
skaf'
Wo #- wdh;khl mqyqKqjk l,ukdlrejka f;dard.ekSf mrSlaIKhg iyNd.S jk

WmdOdrska 15 fofkl= w;rska 5 fofkl= muKla f;dard.; yels wdldr .Kk fidhkak'
ixhq;al isoaj, iNd;djh
isoahla hkq isoaj, ixfhdackhla f' tk isoa 02 la fyda lSmhla tla tla wdldrfhka
inkaO fuka iEfok wjia:djla ixhqla; isoahla f'
kshos wjldYfha ishu ,laIh fifuka f;drj iNd;d .eg i|SfoS thg wod< isoakaf.a
ixhqla; isoa Nd;d lsrSu jvd;a myiq f' f i|yd fPaok" f" wdosh fhdod.kS'
isoa foll f,h ()
A yd B hkq S k kshos wjldYfhys isoa 02 la mj;sk g A isoahg yd B isoahg we;=,;a
ishu kshos ,laIh A yd B j, f,h jYfhka ye|Skaf' A B hkqfjka wxlkh l< yel'
isoa foll fPaokh ()
A yd B hkq S k kshos wjldYfhys isoa 02 la jk wjia:djloS" A isoah yd B isoah

hk folgu fmd kshos ,laIh A iy B ys fPaokh hkqfjka ye|skah yel" th A B
hkqfjka wxlkh l< yel'
isoa foll fjki
A yd B hkq S k kshos wjldYfhys isoa 02 la jkg A isoahg wh;a kuq B

isoahg wh;a fkdjk ishu kshos ,laIh A iy B isoa w;r fjki jYfhka ye|skaf A - B
f,i wxlkh l< yel'
isoahl yd tys wkqmQrl isoafha iNd;djh w;r mj;sk inkaOh
iNd;d wdl,k kshuh
wfkHdakH jYfhka nysIaldrl isoa

isoa folla tljr isfkdjkafka k tajd wfkHdakH jYfhka nysIaldrl isoa jYfhka ye|
skah yel'
isoa folla tljr wfkHdakH jYfhka nysIaldr jk g wdl,k kshuh
wiNd iNd;djh
tla isoahla is we;s g ;j;a isoahla isug we;s iNd;djh m<uq isoah is
jQ miqj fojk isoah isf wiNdjH iNd;djh f,i ye|skah yel'
wiNdjH iNd;djh fhdod.kakd wjia:d
wekjq l< NdKav f;d.h ksh; oskg fkd,enqKfyd;a NdKav , by< hdf iNd;djh
.Kkh lsrSu
jev jckhla fkdmj;skafka k ksh; f,djg ksh; jev fldgi imQK l< yels f
iNd;djh fiu
wiNdjH iNd;dj .Kkh lrk wdldrh
A yd B hkq P (B) = 0 mrsos jQ isoa foll k B oS we;s g A isf iNd;djhs'

iajdh;a;;dj iajdh;a; isoa
h isoa follska tla isoahla we;su fyda we;s fkdu fyda wfkla isoahg we;su flfrys
n,mEula ke;ak ta isoa fol iajdhla; isoa f,i ykajkq ,nhs'
isoa folla iajdhla; ug bgqh hq;= fldkafoais

wiNdjH iNd;df w: oelau wkqj"
iiNd p,H j.SlrKh

iiNd p,Hla hkq
iiNd mrSlaIKhla u.ska w.h ;SrKh flfrk ;d;al ^ixLHd;aul& w.h iys; Y%s;hla jYfhka
w: oelah hq;=h' fjk;a wdldrhg ykajkafka k kshos wjldYhla u; w: olajk ,o ;d;al
w.h .kakd Y%s;hla jYfhka ye|skah yel'
iiNd p,H j.SlrKh
iiNd p,H j. 02 ls'
1' la; iiNd p,H
2' ika;;sl iiNd p,H
la; iiNd p,H

hlsis iiNdjH p,Hhlg .;yels jkafka fYaIs; w.hka m%udKhla muKlau fjhs k tjeks iiNd
p,Hka la; p"Hhka jYfhka ye|skaf'
Wod #- mdi,l .=rejreka ixLhdj
oekaul we;s uq; fodaI ixLHdj
ika;;s; iiNd p,H

ksYa; m%dka;rhl tk mrdihla ;=< oS ishu w.hka h iiNd p,Hla ,nd.kafka k tjeks
iiNd p,Hla ika;;sl iiNd p,Hla jYfhka k l< yelsh'
Wod#- hlsis hka;%hl cS; ld,h
ksIamdok wdh;khl ksIamdok msrsjeh
la; iiNd p,Hl iNd;d jHma;sh
iNd;d jHma;sh
iiNd p,Hlg .; yels O w.hka tajdfha iNd;d w.hka oelafjk j.=jla f,i ms<sfh< l< g
th iNd;d jHma;sh f,i ykajhs'
iNd;d jHma;sh Y%s; wdY%fhka oelau

iNd;d jHma;shla m%ldY lsrSf l,am l%uhla f,i iNd;d jHma;s Y%s; uska
oelau fuhska woyia flf' by; ksoiqfkys iNd;d jHma;s Y%s;h uska my;
oelafjk wdldrhg bosrsm;a l< yelsh'
iNd;d Y%s;hla ;Dma; l< hq;= fldkafoais
ika;;sl iiNd p,Hhl iNd;d jHma;sh
ika;;sl iiNd p,Hh
NdKavhl , hlsis mrdihla ;=< taldldrsj fjkiah yels k tu NdKavfha , ika;;sl iiNd
p,Hla f,i ye|skaf'
ika;;sl iiNd p,Hla iNd;d jHma;sh ksrEmKh lrk Y%s;fhka ;Dma; l< hq;=
fldkafoais
iiNd p,Hl wfmalaIs; w.h p,;dj iy iu; wm.ukh

wfmalaIs; w.h
iNd;d jHma;sh uOHkHh wfmalaIs; w.h f,i ykajhs'iiNd mrSlaIKhla iudk ;;aj hgf;a
kej; kej;;a lrf.k .shg wod, p,Hfhys je jYfhkau wfmalaId l< yels w.h p,Hfhys
uOHkfhka fyda wfmalaIs; w.fhka fmkakq lrhs'
wfmalaIs; w.h w: oelau
la; iiNd p,Hhkays wfmalaIs; w.h .Kkh lsrSu

Wod#- jdo ;rdj,shlg iyNd.S h yels isiqkaf.a ixLHdj 5 iy 10 we;=j ta w;r
ixLHdjla f' tut la tla w.hka ,eug iNd;d ms<sfj<ska 1$10" 2$10" 2$10" 3$10"
1$10" 1$10 k fuu ;rdj,shg isiqka inkaO jk ixLHdfjys wfmalaIs; w.h .Kkh lrkak'
iNd;d wdlD;s
la; iNd;d wdlD;s
wdlD;sh
ixlSK jQ ixisoahla meyeos,ss lsrSu i|yd Wmfhda.s lr.kq ,nk wdOdrlhl

wdlD;shla jYfhka fuh w; oelah yelsh'
wdlD;s i|yd ksoiqka
1' is;shula
2' ie,eiaula
3' .e,S igykla
4' ilrK moaO;shla
la; iy ika;;sl wlD;s w;/;s fjki
oamo keyeiqu
oamo keyeiqula hkq m%;sM, follska muKla hq;a iiNd mrSlaIdjla fjhs'
oamo mrSlaIKhla i|yd ksoiqka
ldishla Wvoud isri fyda w.h me;a; ,efoehs mrSlaId lsrSu
mrSlaIKhlg bosrsm;a fuka miq iu;a fyda wiu;a f oehs n,dfmdfrd;a;= u
oamo jHdma;shla i|yd ;Dma; l< hq;= fldkafoais
tla tla keyeiqu iuka; jkafka m%;sM, follska muKla u
mrSlaIKh iuka; jkafka ksYa; keyeiq .Kklska u
iudk iNd;djhla tla tla keyeiqfoS id:lh i|yd ,eh yels u
tla tla keyeiq wka ishu keyeiq j,ska iajdh;a; u
fmdhsfidaka jHma;sh
fndfyda g fmdhsfidaka jHma;sh fhdod.kafka ld,h yd wjldYh u; jHma; we;s iiNd
p,Hkag wod< iNd;djka .Kkh lsrSu i|ydh'
wod< iNd;djka .Kkh lsrSu i|yd fmdhsfidaka jHma;sh fhdod.; yels iiNd
p,Hhka
fmd;l msgqjl we;s uqK fodaI ixLHdj
rer idm,hl we;s iaf;dkq .Kk
wf,y,lg h ld, iSudjloS mefKk mdrsfNda.slhka .Kk ;SrKh lsrSu
fros frda,l we;s m fros g .Kk
fmdhsfidaka jHdma;sfhys iNd;d Y%s;h
fmdhsika jHdma;sfha .=Kdx.
fuh la; jHdma;shla fjhs
fmdhsfidaka jHdma;sfha iNd;dj u; r|d mj;skafkah' tneka th fmdhsfidaka

jHdma;sfha mrd;sh fjhs'
fuu jHdma;sh Ok l=l jHdma;shls' x w.h jejk g jHdma;sfha l=l;djh wvqfjhs
fmdhsfidaka jHdma;sh r|d mj;skafka Wml,ams; lSmhla mok lrf.kh'
oamo jHdma;shl id:lhka ,ef iNd;dj uOHkH = np nj jk fmdhsfidaka

jHdma;shla u.ska wdikak jYfhka .Kkh lr.; yel'
oamo jHma;s yd fmdhsfidaka jHdma;s w;r we;s inkaO;djh

oamo jHma;shl keyeiq ixLhdj (n) Yd, jk g iy tla keyeiquloS id:lhka ,ef
iNd;dj (P) l=vd jk g id:lhka X ,ef iNd;dj = np jk fmdhsfidaka
jHdma;shla njg wdikak lr.; yel'
ika;;sl iNd;d wdlD;s m%u; jHdma;sh

ika;;sl iNd;d jHdma;s w;=rska jeo.;au jHdma;sh f,ii ie,flhs'
m%u; jHdma;sh wod< jk uQ,sl .=Kdx.

m%u; jHdma;sh wod< jk uQ,sl .=Kdx. rEm igykla weiqrska meyeos,s l<
yelsh'fuh fndfyda rg iSkqjl yevhg iudk yevhlska hqla; jHdma;shla fjhs'
m%u; jHdma;sh
iu; jl%hls'
ud;h yd uOHkHh" uOHia:h tlsfklg iudk f'
jl%h j fl,jr RK wkka;h lrdo" ol=Kq fl,jr Ok wkka;h lrdo fhduqf' jl%fha
fofl<jr ;sria wlaIhg b;d wdikak Wjo ;sria wlaIh iamI fkdlrhs'
;sria jl%h yd jl%h w;r j.M,h tlg iudk f
jHdma;sfha p,;djh = 02 iy uOHkH = u.ska m%u; jl%hla mQK jYfhka

ksYa; jkq we;'
m%u; jHdma;sfha iNd;d >k;aj Y%s;h
iu; m%u; jHdma;sh

uOHkHh = 0
iy
p,;djh 02 = 1
jk m%u; jHdma;sh iu; m%u; jHdma;shhs'fuh idudkHfhka wxlkh lrkq ,nkafka Z

j,sks'
iu; m%u; jHdma;sfha >k;aj Y%s;h

X iiNd p,Hg uOHkHh yd p,;dj 01 jk m%u; jHma;shla we;ak
iiNd p,Hh iu; m%u; jHdma;shla msysghs'
tys >k;aj Y%s;h
kshos jHdma;Skag wod< ffioaOdka;sl jHdma;Ska wkqiSyqu

wkqiSykh hkq iNd;d fya;=ka u; fyda fjk;a wdldrhlska hful=g ix.yK jHdma;sh
ms<sn|j h wdldrhl wjfndaOhla mj;skafka k ix.yKfha ksheoshlska ,nd .kakd
ixLHd; jHdma;Skag wod<j ffioaOdka;sl jHma;sh weia;fka;= lsrSf l%shdj,sh
fjhs'
ksrSlaIs; ixLHd; jHdma;shla i|yd m%u; jHdma;s wkqiSykh lsrSu

ksrSlaIs; ixLHd; jHdma;shla wkqiSykh lsrSu i|yd
wfmalaIs; w.hka .Kkh lsrSu i|yd wkq.ukh l< hq;= mshjr
1' Z .Kkh lsrSu
2' 0 isg Z olajd m%u; jl%fha j.M,h .Kkh lsrSu i|yd m%; j.= Nd;d lsrSu
3' Z ys tla tla mrdi i|yd j.M, ,nd.ekSu
4' tla tla mrdifha j.M,h uq ixLHd;fhka .=Klr wfmalaIs; w.hka .Kkh lsrSu
5' wkqiSyqf fyd| nj ms<sn|j o< wjfndaOhla ,nd .ekSu i|yd ksrSlaIs; ixLHd;hka
yd ffioaOdka;sl ixLHd;hka ikaikaokh lsrSu
jHdmdr lafIa;%hg m%;smdhk yd iyinkaO;d Yaf,aIKfha

jeo.;alu'
iyinkaO;dj'
p,Hhka folla w;r fh inkaO;djhla mj;sk ;;ajhla hgf;a tu inkaO;dj m
%udKd;aul jYfhka m%ldY lsrSu iyinkaO;djh uska isf'
m%;smdhk'
p,Hka folla w;r fh inkaO;dj ykd .;a miq tu inkaO;dj .=Ks;uh ilrKhla
uska m%ldY lsrSu m%;smdhkh ;=<ska isf'
Ok iyinkaO;dj'
Ok iyinkaO;djhloS tla p,Hl w.h je jk g wfkla p,Hfha w.h jef'
RK iyinkaO;dj'
RK iyinkaO;djhloS tla p,Hhl w.h je jk g wfkla p,Hfha w.h wvq f'
m%;smdhk iy iyinkaO;dj jHdmdr lafIa;%hg fhdod .; yels wdldrh'
wdh;khl m%pdrKh ho yd l=Kq w;r mj;skafka Ok iyinkaO;djhla nj meyeos,s

lr .ekSu'
jIdm;kh yd wiajekak w;r mj;skafka Ok iyinkaO;djhla nj ykd.ekSu'
rEmjdyskS kd,sldjka j, fmkajk ;%mg m%udKh je u yd iskud Yd,djg hk

fmalaIl ixLHdj w;r mj;sk inkaO;djh RK iyinkaO;djhla nj ykd .ekSu'
ludka; wxYhl ksIakdokh iy jev jck w;r RK iyinkaO;djhla nj fmkakq
isrs ;s;a igyk'

p,Hhka fol w;r inkaO;djla mj;skafkao hkak ksYaph lsrSf m%:u mshjr jkafka
ksrSlaIs; o;a; wdY%h lrf.k w|sk m%ia:drh mrSlaId lsrSuhs'fujeks m%ia:drhla
fyda igykla isrs ;s;a igykla f,i yeoskaf'
isrs ;s;a igyfka m%fhdack

p,Hh folla w;r inkaO;djfka iajrEmh ykd.ekSu i|yd isrs ;s;a igykla m
%fhdackj;a f'
WodyrK #-
jHmdrsl wdh;khka iuQyhla osrs oSukd uska M,odhS;djhg jk n,meu ms<sn|j

lrkq ,enQ wOHkhloS my; j.=f olajd we;s f;dr;=re fhdodf.k we;'
isrs ;s;a igyk ilia lsrSu'
p,H foflys inkaOh'

isrs ;s;a igyk msysgk wdldrfhka my; i|yka wjia:d ;=k hgf;a p,H fofla
iyinkaOh ykd.; yel'
m%;smdhk fLd wkqiSyqu'
m%;smdhk fLdj wkqmdrl l%uh uska wkqiSykh lsrSu'
wkqmldr l%ufhaoS yels;dla rg isrs ;s;a igyfka ,laIH ir, fLdjg fomfia msysgk
mrsos fyda tu ,laIHka yryd hk f,i ir, fLdj ksudKh lr olajhs'
wkqmldr l%uhg fLdjla wkqiSykh lrkq ,nkafka my; imhd we;s o;a;hkag wkqj
isrs ;s;a igyk ksudKh lr wkqmldr l%uhg m%;smdhk fLdj w;ska we|Su
usks'
wvq;u j. l%uh'
m%dfhda.sl lghq;= j,oS yuqjk p,Hhka w;r inkaO;d kshu ilrKhlska oelSug
yelshdjla fkdue;s nj;a fodaYhla we;s nj;a l,ska mdv j,oS mjik ,os'
mrsmQK iyinkaO;djhla we;s wjia:d j,oS muKla wkqiSyq fLdj ish ,laIH
yryd jef'lsish wjia:djloS fLdf fomi we;s ,laIH j, isg fLdjg we;s isria r
fodaIhka f' fydou fLdj jkafka fodaIhka wju jk mrsos ,nd .kakd fLdjhs'
wvq;u j. l%uh uska m%;smdhk fLdjla ,nd .ekSu'

wvq;u j. l%uh hgf;a .Kkh lrka ,nd.kaaaakd m%;smdhk fLdj oS we;s
wjia:dj i|yd fydou ir, fLdjhs'
wvq;u j. l%uh uska o;a;hka i|yd wkqiSykh lrkq fydou m%;smdhk fLdf
ksh;hka jk a iy b i|yd weia;fka;= my; oelafjk ilrK hq., uska ,nd .; yel'
fuu ilrK m%u; ilrK f,i olajd we;'

ksKk ix.=Klh uska wkqiSyqf fyd|lu we.hSu'
m%;smdhk fLdjl wkqiSyqf fyd|lu mrSlaId lsrSf wjYH;dj'

isrs ;s;a igyfka ,laIH fl;r rg fLdjg wdikakfhka msysgd ;sfnkafkao hkak u;
wkqiSykh lrk ,o m%;smdhk fLdjl id:l;ajh rod mj;skafkah'
ksKk ix.=Klh'
p,Hhka folla w;/;s inkaO;djfha m%udKh Yaf,aIKh lsrSu i|yd ixLHd
f,aLk{hska iska ixjOkh lr we;s Kqula jYfhka ksKk ix.=Klh yeoskaf'
fuh fmd jYfhka fLdf fhda.H;djh uekSu i|yd Nd;d lrk kquls' ksKk
ix.=Klh idudkHfhka R2 uska ixfla;j;a lrhs'
ksKk ix.=Klh w: oelau'
mqfrdal:kh' ^ fmrlSu &

mqfrdal:khla hkq iajdhla; p,Hfha oS we;s jkdl j,g wkqj mrdh;a; p,Hfha ;sh
hq;= w.hka ms<sn|j weia;fka;= ms<sfh< lsrSuhs'
m%;smdhk ilrK Nd;fhka mqfrdal:kh lsrSu
p,Hhka folla i|yd m%;smdhk fLdjla ms<sfh< lrf.k we;s wjia:djka j,oS ta
uska jHdmdrsl lafIa;%fha ;SrK .ekSug wod< weia;fka;= ilia lsrSu i|yd tu
p,Hhka w;r inkaO;djh fmkajk ilrKh Nd;d lsrSug yelshdjla we;'
iyinkaOh we.hSu yd Nd;h'
.=Ks; >QK iyinkaO;d ix.=Klh iyinkaO;dj uekSu'

p,H folla we;s g tla p,Hl n,mEula wfkla p,Hhg isjkafka tu p,Hhka fol w;r
inkaO;djhla mj;sk gh'
isrs ;s;a igyk iyinkaO;dj ykd.ekSu i|yd Nd;d lrhs'
ld,a mshikaf.a .Ks; >QK iyinkaO;d ix.=Klh'

ksKk ix.=Klfha j. uQ,h iyinkaO;d ix.=Klh jYfhka ykajk w;r th r wl=rska
ixfla;j;a lrhs'
;drd iyinkaO;d ix.=Klh'

l<uKdlrk lafIa;%hkays yd jHdmdr lafIa;%fha yuqjk p,Hhka fndfyda g m
%udKd;aulj uek .Kkh lr bosrsm;a lsrSu wmyiqh'kuq;a jrKh wkqj fm< .eiah
yels p,Hhka /ilau ykd.; yels f'
WodyrK #-
Nd.hloS mx;shl YsIHka iska ,nd .kakd ,l=Kq m%udKhka .=rejrhd iska 1 "
2 " 3 wdoS f,i wkqms<sfj<g wxlkh lsrSu'
ludka; Yd,djl ksYamdokh lrk NdKav tajdfha .=Kd;aul ;;ajhg wkqj fY%aKs.;
lsrSu'
;drd iyinkaO;djh uekSu'
f i|yd je jYfhka Nd;d lrkq ,nkafka iamshukaf.a ;drd iyinkaO;d ix.=Klhhs'
iamshukaf.a ;drd iyinkaO;d ix.=Klh my; mrsos w: oelah yel'
kshe|Su yd ixLHdk wkq;s
kshe|Sf iy ixLHdk wkq;sj, jeo.;alu
ksheoSu
ksheoSu hkq ix.ykhla ksrEmKh jk mrsos thska fldgila f;dard .ekSf l
%shdj,shhs' ke;fyd;a ix.ykfhka fldgila mdhg f.k ilaIKh lsrSu kshoSu fjhs'
ixLHdk wkq;sh
ixLHdk wkq;shla hkqfjka woyia lrkafka ksheoshla u.ska ,nd .kakd f;dr;=re
mok lrf.k ix.ykh inkaOfhka ixLHdk ks.ukj,g t<u hkqfjka ye|skah yel'
jHdmdr inkaOfhka ks.ukj,g t<f oS ksheoSf yd ixLHdk wkq;sfha jeo.;alu
jHdmdrh ldhlaIujmj;ajd f.k hdu
,dN Wmrsu lsrSu iy w,dN wju lsrSu" jeks l<ukdlrK ;SrKhka i|yd
jHdmdrhla w;ska mgka .ekSu i|yd f;dr;=re ,nd.ekSu
jHdmdr wdh;khl msrsjeh wju ldrSu" iy msrsjeh md,kh
kshoshla Nd;d lr f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu i|yd
ta f;dr;=re Nd;fhka ix.yk ms<sn| ix.yk ks.ukj,g t<u iy h h ;SrK iy ks.ukj,g

t<u
ix.ykh iy ksheosh
ix.ykh hkq wOHhkhg Ndckh h iuia:hhs' ke;sk uq tall ixLHdj fjhs' iuia:hla f,i
i<lk tu mod:hu ix.ykhhs'
ix.ykhl mrs; fyda wmsrs; w;/;s fjki

ix.ykhla mrs; fyda wmsrs; hk ;;a;ajhka foflka hqla; h hq;=h'
kshosh
ix.ykhla ksrEmKh jk mrsos ix.ykfhka f;dard.;a lssish fldgila ke;sk idm,hla
ksheoshla f,i w: oelafjhs'
mrd;s iy ixLHdk wkq;s
mrd;s
ix.yk tall j, lsish .=Kdx.hkaf.a tl;=jla mrd;s jYfhka ye|skaf' uOHkHh"
wkqmd;h" p,;djh wdoS fkdokakd w.hkaj, ix.yk mrd;s hk fhu fhfohs'
ixLHd;s
ixLHd;shla hkqfjka woyia lrkq ,nkafka ksheos o;a; Nd;d lrka .Kkh l< yels
ixLHd; Kqula fjhs'
mrd;s iy ixLHd;s oelaug fhdod .efkk ixfla;
mrd;s ixfla;
ixLHdkfhaoS mrd;s ye|skau i|yd Nd;d flfrk ixfla;hka lSmhla fjhs' tk"
ixLHd;s ixfla;
ixLhdk oHdfoS ixLHd;s oelaug Nd;d flfrk ixfla;hka my; wdldrhg fjhs'
mrd;s iy ixLHd;s w;r fjki

ix.ykh mrd;shla hkqfjka woyia lrkafka w; ksh; w.hlgh' kshos ixLHd;sh kshos
wjhj j, Y%s;hla jk fyhska iiNd p,Hla f,i i<lhs'
hk kshos wjhjj, Y%s;hla f,i mj;sk fyhska th iiNd p,Hla jYfhka ye|skafjhs'
ix.ykh iy kshos ix.ykh
ix.ykh
ix.ykh .Kkh lsrSu hkqfjka ye|skafjkafka" ix.ykfha iEu tallhlau .Kka .ekSu u.ska
f;dr;=re ,nd .eksf l%uh fjhs'
kshos ix.ykh
f;dard.kq ,enQ ix.ykhlska ksheoshla f;dard .ekSu l<hq;= fjhs' bkamiq
kshosfha ieu tallhlau .Kkh lsrSu u.ska f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu iy wOHkh lsrSu
ksheos ix.ykh hkqfjka ye|skafjhs'
iNd;d ksheos l%u

iNd;d kshoSu
iNd;d kshuhlg wkql+, jk wdldrfhka ksheoshla f;dard .ekSu iNd;d kshoshls'
fuysoS ix.ykfha iEu tallhla i|ydu f;dard.kq ,nk kshoshlg we;=<;a f iNd;dj
ksYa; f,i mj;shs'
iNd;d kshoshl ,laIK
f;dard.kq ,nk iNd;d kshoshlska ix.ykh jvd;a fyd|ska ksjros f,i ksrEmKh f
yelshdj
ixLHd;s Ys,amSh l%uhka ix.ykh ms<sn|j lrkq ,nk ixLHd;s wkq;sj,oS

Nd;hg .ekSug yelsu
ix.ykfha iEu tallhlgu ksheoshla jYfhka we;=<;a f iNd;djh ksYa; u
ir, iiNd ksheoSu

ir, iiNd ksheoSuloS ix.ykfhka ksheoshla f;dard.ekSu islrkafka" wjOdkhg
fhduq lrk ix.ykfha kEu tallhlgu f;dard.kq ,nk ksheoshlg we;=<;a u i|yd
iudkjQ iNd;djhla ,efnk wdldrhlgh' iiNd kshoshloS ix.ykfha kEu tallhla i|yd
kshe|shla f iNd;dj iudk fjhs'
ir, iiNd ksheoshla f;dard.ekSf jeo.;a l%u
f,d;/hs l%uh wkqj f;dard .ekSu
mrs.Kl Nd;h u.ska f;dard .ekSu
iiNd wxl j.= Nd;h u.ska f;arSu
f,d;/hs l%uh wkqj f;dard .ekSu

ir, iiNd ksheoshla f;dard .ekSf myiqu l%uh f,d;/hs l%uhhs' ix.yKfha ishu
tallhka f,d;/hshg we;=<;a lr wjYH kshos m%udKh muKla f;dard .kS'
fuu l%uhg ksheoshla ,nd.; yels l%u

m%;sia:dmk iys; ksheoSu
m%;sia:dmkh iys; ksh|Su ,nd .ekSfoS ksheos tallhla f;dard .ekSu i|yd
f;dard.kq ,nk iEu tallhlau B< f;dard .ekSug fmr ix.ykhg h<s tl;= lrhs' f
wdldrhg wjYH ksheosh ,nd .ekSu lrhs' fuh wmsrs; ix.ykhlska lrkq ,nk
ksheos ,nd .ekSula jYfhkao ykajhs'
m%;sia:dmk rys; ksheoSu
f;dard .kakd tallh kej; ix.ykhg tl;= fkdfldg ksheosh ,nd .ekSu fuysos
idudkHfhka isfjhs' jHjydrfha oS je jYfhka Nd;d lrkafka fuu m%;sia:dmk rys;
kshe|s f l%uh fjhs'
ix.ykh Iucd;Sh u
f;dard.kq ,nk kshe|s m%udKh b;d Yd, k ix.ykh Iu cd;Sh jqj;a id:l m
%;sM, ,eug bvlv mj;shs'
ia;D; iiNd ksheoSu

ia;D; iiNd kshe|Sf l%shdj,sh i|yd wkq.ukh l< hq;= lreKa my; wdldr f' fufia
f;dard.kq ,nk kshosh ia;D; iiNd ksheosh fjhs'
1' ix.ykh iu cd;Sh tallj,ska iuka; jk wdldrhg l=vd ia:rj,g fnoSu
2' ta tla tla ia:rfhka ke;sk l=vd ix.ykfhka ir, iiNd kshoshla ne.ska f;dard
.ekSu l< hq;=h'
ia;D; iiNd ksheos l%ufha jdis
jvd;a ksjrosjQ h:djdoS ksudkhla f l%ufhka ,nd.; yel
ix.ykfha tla tla ia:rh i|yd fjk fjku ksudkl ,nd.; yelsu ksud tajdfhys h:d;H;djh
fy<sor lr.; yels wldrhg Kq ,nd.; yelsu
jvd ksrjoH ksheoshla l=vd ix.ykj,g fnoSu ;=<ska n,dfmdfrd;a;= h yelsu
kshos ilaaIK ldhfhaoS wod< wlaIK yd mrsmd,k lghq;= myuqfjka l< yel'
fmdl=re kshe|Su
ix.ykhla fmdl=rej,ska iuka; jk g fyda ix.ykhla fmdl=rej,g fnod we;s g fyda
fmdl=re lSmhla muKla iiNd f,i f;dardf.k ta fmdl=re j, ishu tallhka
wOHdhkhg Ndckh lsrSf l%shdj,shhs' fufia fmfl=re w;rska ,nd .kakd ksheosh
ykajkafka fmdl=re kshoshla jYfhks'
fmdl=re ksheoSu yd ia;D; ksheoSu wod< jk wjia:d
yels;dla rg ia;D;hka ;=< mj;skakdjQ tall ish,a,u iucd;Sh h hq;= nj
ix.ykh ;=< mj;sk tall w;r ;sh yels Iu nj yels;dla rg wvqh hq;=u
l%uj;a kshe|Su
my; mshjr j,ska iuka; l%shdj,sh l%uj;a kshe|Sula f,i ie<lsh yel' tk"
1' ix.ykfha ;ru K jk kshos m%dka;rj,g fnoSu
2' m<uq m%dka;rfhka kEu tallhla iiNd jYfhka f;dard .; yelsu
3' t;eka isg K jk iEu tallhlau f;dard .ekSu l< yelsh'
iNd;d fkdjk kshe|Su

iNd;d fkdjk kshe|Sula iNd;d kshuhka fkdi,ld yrska ksheoshla f;dard .ekSu
jYfhka w: oelau l< yelsh'
iNd;d fkdjk kshoS l%u
fldgia kshe|Su
ksYaph kshe|Su
myiq kshe|Su
fldgia kshe|Su
fldgia ksh|Sf oS ix.ykfhka f;dard .ekSug ksh; kshe|sfha m%udKhka my;
,laIKhka u; m%Odk jYfhka fldgua j,g fjkalr bosrsm;a l< yel'
1' mq;srs nj 2' jhi
3' /lshdj 4' wdodhu
ksYaph kshe|Su
wod< lafIa;%h ms<sn|j idOdrK iy ksjrosjQ ksYaphla osh yels ksmqK;djhla
iys; mqoa.,hska iska ;u ksYaph wkqj ksheoshla f;dard .ekSu ksYaph
kshoSula jYfhka w: olajhs'
myiq kshe|Su
t;r W;aidyhla orkafka ke;sj kshoshla f;dard .ekSf l%uhkao mj;shs' myiqu
kshoSf l%ih wfkl=;a ksheoS l%u yd ii|k l< t;r m%h;akhla fkdord kshoshla
f;dard .ekSf l%shd ud.hla jYfhka ye|skah yel'
iNd;d fkdjk kshoS l%u wid:l ug fya;=
keUqre nj
w.;s.d nj
kshe fodaI
ix.ykhla hkak wOHhkh l< yels wjia:djka folla fjhs' tfia ke;sk l%u follg yeoErsh
yelsh' ta my; wdldrfhkah'
1' ix.ykfha ishu tallhka wOHhkhg Ndckh lsrSfuka ks.ukj,g t<f yelshdj
2'ix.ykfha fldgila tk kshoshla muKla f.k tu kshosh wOHhkh lsrSu uska ix.ykh
ms<sn| ks.ukj,g t<g t<h yel'
ksheoS fodaI
ix.ykfhka fldgila wOHhkh lsrSfuka iuia;h ms<sn|j ks.ukj,g t<ug ork
W;aiyh ;=<oS O fodaIhka ish yels fodaI kshe fodaI jYfhka ye|skaf'
fkdksheos fodaI
ksrSlaIKh lsrSu" igyka lsrSu" igyka lsrSu msgm;a lsrSu hkdosfhka iuka; jk
fmr ieliq l%shdj,sfha ish yels OjQ fodaIhkah' fjd fndfydag ,smslre fodaI
fya msgm;a lsrSf fodaI fyda msgm;a lsrSf fodaI f,io ye|skafjhs'
kshe jHdma;sh
l=uk fyda ix.ykhlska ,nd .;a;djQ ;ru iudk wdldrfhka mj;sk" ksheosj,ska hqla;
jQ;a oS we;s ixLd;shla i|yd .Kkh lr.kq ,enQ;a jkdlj,ska iliajqKq jHdma;sh tlS
ixLHd;sfha kshe jHdma;sh jYfhka w: oelah yelsh'
m%u; ix.ykhl kshe|s uOHkHfhys kshe jHdma;sh

ix.yKh wmsrs; fyda kshe|Su m%;sia:dmk iys; jQ g
uOH iSud m%fhh ye|skau yd Nd;h
ix.yk m%u; jHdma;shla wdOdrfhka ,nd.; yels " kshos ixLHdf m%udKh Yd,
k" kshos uOHkh j, mj;sk kshe jHdma;sh m%u; jHdma;shl msysgk nj uOH
iSud m%fh ;=<ska lshfjhs'
tk uOH iSud m%fhfhka lshfjkafka ljr fyda ix.yk jHdma;shlska ,nd.kakd kshos
j, ;ru Yd, k" kshos uOHkHj, kshe jHdma;sh wdikak jYfhka m%u; jHdma;shl
msysgk njhs'
uOH iSud m%ffha jeo.;alu
ix.yk jHdma;sh m%u; fkdjkafka ;;a;ajhla hgf;a" kshos uOHkHfhys kshe

jHdma;sfhys iajrEmh m%u; hehs Rcqju m%ldY lsrSu wmyiq f'
ix.yk jHdma;sh m%u; jkafka k" ksheos uOHkHfhys kshe|S jHdma;sho m%u;
wdldrfhka ,efnhs'
ix.yk jHdma;sh m%u; jkafka ke;s jqjo" ksheos ;ru Yd, jk ;;a;ajhla hgf;a uOH
iSud m%fhg wkqj" ksheos uOHkHj, kshe jHdma;sh wdikak jYfhka m%u; f,i
ie,lSug yelsu
ix.ykh m%u; fkdjk g kshos uOHkHfhys kshe jHdma;sh

idudkHfhka ix.yk m%u; fkdjk g kshe jHdma;sfha iajrEmh oek .ekSug yel'
tfy;a kshos ;ru (n) Yd, jk g uOH iSud m%fhh wkqj kshos uOHkHfhys ksh
jHdma;sh m%u; f,i ie,lSug mqjkalu we;'
f;dard.kq ,nk o;a;a;hka iudkqmd; fkdjk ;;a;ajhla hgf;a Nd;d l< yels Kq l
%uhla f,i ix.yk iudkqmd;h ye|skah yel'
ksheos iudkqmd;fhys kshe jHdma;sh
ka woyia jkafka ;ru N jk ix.ykhl lsish Wm ,laIKhla iys; tall ixLHdj u.ska
oelajqjfyd;a" ix.ykfha Wm ,laIK iys; iudkqmd;h njg m;afjhs'
kshos iudkqmd;h
kshos iudkqmd;h hkqfjka woyia jkafka lsish ix.ykhlska .kakd ,o ;ru n jk iiNd
ksheoshla h ,dlaIKslhla iys; tall .Kk A k ,dlaIKslh iys; tallj, iudkqmd;h hkakhs'
kshos iudkqmd;fhys kshe jHdma;sh
lsish ix.ykhlska ,nd .; yels iudk ;rka hq;a ishu kshos wjOdkhg fhduq
lsrSfuka ksheos iudkqmd;fha w.h .Kkh lr.;a miqj ta w.hkaf.ka iuka; jQ
jHdma;sh jYfhka w: oelau l< yel'
ix.ykh wmrs; jk g
kshos ;ru Yd, jk g
kshos uOHkHh foll wka;rfys kshe jHdma;sh
ix.yk follska ms<sfj,ska
ms<sfj,ska ;ru n1 yd n2 jk fia f;dard .;a
iajdh;a; kshos foll uOHkHh
ms<sfj,ska X1 yd X2 jkafka k
ta kshos uOHkHj, wka;rfhka ,efnk jHdma;sh kshos uOHkHhka foll wka;rh

kshe jHdma;sh jYfhka ye|skah yel'
kshos uOHkHhka foll wka;rfhys kshe jHdma;sfha uOHkHh yd p,;djh
kshos iudkqmd; foll fjkfiys kshe jHdma;sh
ix.yk follska
ms<sfj,ska ;ru n1 yd n2 jk fia .;a"
iajdh;a; ksheos foll iudkqmd;"
ms<sfj,ska P1 yd P2 u.ska oelajqjfyd;a"
P1 - P2 jHdma;sh
kshos iudkqmd; foll wka;rfhys kshe jHdma;shhs'
kshos iudkqmd; foll wka;rfhys kshe jHdma;sfha uOHkHh yd p,;dj" .Kkh

lsrSu
ixLHdk ksudkh
ix.yk uOHkHh" ii; wm.ukh wdos ix.yk mrd;s
ksheos uOHkHh" kshos iu; wm.ukh wdoS wod<
kshos ixLHd;s wdY%fhka ;lafiare lsrSu jYfhka w: oelah yel'
ksudkhl yd ks;hl fjki
ksudkh
ix.yk mrd;shla ksudkh lsrSu i|yd Nd;d lrk ksheosh ,nd.;a miq w.h .Kkh l<
yels ksheos wjhjj, Y%s; ta mrd;sh i|yd ksudkh hkqfjka ykajhs'
ks;h
f ix.ykfha iiNd ksheoshla f.k tu.ska ksudklh i|yd .Kkh lefrk w.h mrd;sh i|yd
ks;hla jYfhka meyeos,s l< yel' tk ks;h ksudkhlg .; yels fYaI w.hla fjhs'
ksudkfhys m%rEm
,laIh ksudkh
m%dka;r ksudkh
,laIH ksudkh
kshos wjhjj, Y%s;hla ksudkhlhla f,i ie,flhs' ix.ykfhka kshoshla f;dard.;a miqj ta
Y%s;h i|yd ;ks w.hla ,efnkafka k th ,laIuh ksudkhla jYfhka ye|skah yel'
fyd| ,laIuh ksudkhl ;sh hq;= .=Kdx.
wkysk;Ndjh
ldhlaIu;djh
ix.yk;dj
m%udKd;au;dj
wkNsk; ksudkh
lsish ixLhd;hla kshe jHdma;sfha uOHkHh tk" wfmalaIs; w.h ix.yk mrd;shg iudk
jkafka k tu ixLHd;sh ix.yk mrd;sh i|yd wkNsk; ksudklhla jYfhka ykajhs'
T hkq Q k w{d; mrd;shla iys; ix.ykhlska .;a iiNd ksheoshlska jHq;amkak l<
ixLHd;shla jk wjia:djl
jkafka k
T ixLHd;sh Q mrd;sh i|yd wkNsk; ksudklhla hehs ia;r flf
ldhlaIu;d ksudkh
h ix.ykhl mrd;shla i|yd tlu uOHkHh uys; ksudkl lSmhla mj;sk wjia:dj,oS ix.yk mrd;s
i|yd jvd;au ldhlaIu ksudklh jkafka p,;djh wvqu ksudklhla fjhs'
ix.; ksudklh
ix.ykhlska .kq ,nk ksheos ;ru tk ys w.h je lsrSfoS h ksudklhl w.h l%ufhka ix.yk
mrd;sfhys w.h lrd <d jkafka k tjeks ksudklhla jYfhka w: oelah yelsh'
m%udKj;a ksudklh
ix.yk mrd;shla inkaOfhka kshosfhys we;=<;a f;dr;=re ish,a,u idrdxY lr olajk
ksudklhla ta i|yd m%udKj;a ksudklhla jYfhka ye|skah yel'
m%dka;r ksudkh
os we;s iNd;d ugula hgf;a ix.yk mrd;shla wh;a jkafka hehs wfmalaId l< yels m
%dka;rhka kshos f;dr;=re mok lr .kska ksudKh lsrSu fjhs' fuys
Y%N m%dka;rhla k l< yels wdldr
p,;djh okakd m%u; ix.ykhl uOHkHh i|yd Y%dN iSud f.dvke.Su

ix.yk jHdma;sh m%u; yd p,;djh okakd g" Y%N m%dka;rh
p,;djh fkdokak m%u; ix.yk
(n>30) kshos ;ru Yd, u
kshos p,;djh" ix.yk p,;djh i|yd ksudklhla njg m;afjhs' tneka ksheos p,;djh
fhdod .kska by; wdldrhgu Y%N m%dka;r ,nd .ekSu l< yelsh'
Y%N m%dka;r f.dvke.Su

T jHdma;sh
tfiau t jHdma;sfha iajrEmh iqp,kdxl u; r|d mj;shs'
fuysoS Y%N iSud fokq ,nk jHdma;sh f,i i<lkafka my; olajd we;s jHdma;shhs'
fuys tn-1 ys w.h Y%N ugu iy iqp,kdxl n - 1 g wod,j t jHma;s j.=jlska ,nd
.ekSug mqjkalu we;'
p,;djh okakd m%u; fkdjk ix.ykhl" ix.yk uOHkHh i|yd Y%N m%dka;r iSud f.dv
keSu
kshos ;ru Yd, jk g" ksheos jHdma;sh wdikak jYfhka m%u; fjhs' tu ksid
p,;djh okakd m%u; ix.ykhl ix.yk uOHkHh i|yd Y%N iSud .Kkh l< wdldrhg
iSud .Kkh lsrSu l< yelsh'
Y%N iSud
p,H;djh fkdokak m%u; fkdjk ix.yk i|yd Y%N m%dka;r f.dv ke.Su
ix.yk iudkqmd; i|yd Y%N m%dka;r f.dvke.Su
ix.yk iudkqmd;h P jk ix.ykhlska ,nd.;a ;ru n jk iiNd ksheoshl ksheos

iudkqmd;h P u.ska olajk g ksheos ;ru n Yd, jk g wdikak jYfhka my;
jHdma;sh ;=< msysghs'
(n l=vd jk g ksheos iudkqmd;fha jHdma;sh m%u; fkdjk ksid tjeks wjia:dj,oS ix.yk
iudkqmd;h i|yd Y%N iSudjka fiu fuysoS i,ld n,kafka ke;')
by; ;;a;ajhkag wkqj ta i|yd Y%N iSud my; wdldrhg ,nd.; yelsfjhs'
tfy;a ksheos ;ru Yd, neka P fjkqjg wdfoaY lrkafka p h' tg my; mrsos f'
p,;djh okakd m%u; ix.yk foll uOHkHhkaf.a wka;rh i|yd Y%N m%dka;r f.dvke.Su
ix.yk foll iudkqmd;hkays wka;rh i|yd Y%N m%dka;r f.dvke.Su
P1 - P2 i|yd Y%N iSud fiu
kshos ;ru Yd, k ksheos iudkqmd;hkaj, wka;rhkaf.a jHdma;sfha
jk m%u; jHdma;shl wdikakj msysgkafka hehs ie,lsh yelsh'
fuys P1 yd P2 fjkqjg P1 yd P2 wdfoaY lr iu; m%u; jHdma;sh mok lrf.k ix.yk

iudkqmd;slhkaf.a fjki (P1 - P2) i|yd Y%N isudjka fiug yelshdj we;' tg Y
%N iSudjka ,efnkafka my; wdldrhgh'
Y%N iSud
ixLHdkuh l,ams; mrSlaIdj
ixLHdk l,ams;hla jYfhka ye|skafjkafka" ix.yk mrd;shla inkaOfhka ;dlsl f,i
f.dvkk ixl,amhla f,i ye|skah yel'
ixLHdk l,ams;h
lsish iiNd p,Hl jHma;sh ms<sn|j bosrsm;a lr we;s ks.ukhla ke;fyd;a u;hla
ixLHdk l,ams;hla f,i ye|skaf'
ixLHdk l,ams; mrSlaIdjkaysoS fhdod .efkk l,ams; j.
wm%;sIaGh l,ams;h
ffjl,ams; l,ams;h
wm%;sIaGh l,ams;h Ho
l,ams; mrSlaIdjoS mrSlaId lsrSug W; jk wdldrfhka ix.ykh ms<sn|j lrkq ,nk
Wml,amkh fuf,i ye|skaf'
ffjl,ams; l,ams;h H1
wm%;sIafGh l,ams;h i;H hehs idudkHfhka i,lkafka l,ams; mrSlaIdjloS wm

%;sIafGh l,ams;hg tfrysj m%n, idlaIs ,nd .ekSug bvlv fkdue;s ghs' kuq;a thg
tfrysj m%n, idlaIs mj;skafka k th m%;slafIam lrkafkah' tk ;jrg;a th i;Hhla f,i
i,lkafka ke;'
l,ams; mrSlaIdj, m<uqjk yd fojk m%;srEm fodaI

1' wm%;sIafGh l,ams;h Ho i;H wjia:dfos th m%;slafIam lsrSu"m<uq wdldrfha
m%rEm fodaIh f'
2' ffjl,ams; l,ams;h H1 i;H jk wjia:djloS th m%;slafIam lsrSu fojk wdldrfha m

%rEm fodaIh fjhs'
m%rEm fodaI wxlkh lsrSu
l,ams; mrSlaIdj yd fjfiishd ugu
fodaI wvq lsrSu

imhd we;s lsish Yd,;ajhlska hq;a kshoshl" m%;srEm fodaIh fyda m
%;srEm fodaIh hk foflka tlla wvq lsrSug W;aiy ork ;;a;ajhla hgf;a wksl
wksjdhfhkau je jk njla fmkau l< yelsh'
m<uqjk m%rEm fodaIh we;sf iNd;dj lsish ugulg jvd wvqfjka ;sfnk
;;a;ajhla hgf;a fojk m%rEm fodaIh we;sf iNd;djh wju lsrSu" iu;hla jYfhka
isl< yelsh'
fuu m<uqjk m%rEm fodaI ugu ykajk wdldr
fjfihshd ugu
mrSlaIdf ;ru
ixLHd; l,ams; mrSlaIdjl n,h

H1 i;H jk g th ms<s.ekSf iNd;djh" l,ams; mrSlaIdjl n,h f,i ye|skaf' tk"
fojk m%;srEm fodaIfha iNd;djh = k
mrSlaIdjl n,h = 1-
l,ams; mrSlaIdjl ms<s.ekq iy wj fmfoi
;SrK .ekSu i|yd Kq o~qj, jeo.;alu

h ;SrKhla .ekSu inkaOfhka Bg m%:ufhka th lrkq ,nkafka l=uk Kq oKavla u;o
hkak meyeos,s lr .ekSu l< hq;= fjhs'tfukau l,ams;hla ms<s.ekSug fyda m
%;slafIam lsrSulg ;SrKh lsrSfoS o tu ;SrKh mok h hq;= Kq o~q
fudkjdoehs l,a;shd ksYaph lr.ekSu wjYH fjhs' ksheoshla wdY%fhka ,efnk
f;dr;=re mok lrf.k l,a;shd mrSlaId l< hq;=h' tneka fuu Kq o~q mok h
hq;=jkafkao" ix.yk .kq ,nk ksheos wjhjhkaf.a Y%s;hla yeisrSu wkqjh'
kshos wjhjhkaf.a Y%s;hlg .;yels wjldYh

Ho m%;slafIam lrk m%foaYh ^wj fmfoi&
Ho ms<s.kq ,nk m%foaYh ^ms<s.ekq fmfoi&
wj fmfoi
wm%;sIafGh l,ams;h Ho m%;slafIam lsrSug wod< jk ksheos wjhjhka iys; Y
%s;fhys w.hka we;=<;a m%foaYh fuf,i ye|skafjhs'
ms<s.ekq fmfoi
wm%;sIafGh l,ams;h Ho ms<s.ekSug wod< jk ksheos wjhjhka iys; Y%s;fhys
w.hka we;=<;a m%foaYh fuf,i ye|skaf'
m%u; jHdma;sh wdY%fhka flfrk ir, mrSlaId

m%u; jHdma; jQ ix.ykhl p,;djh w{d; wjia:df uOHkHh i|yd l,ams; mrSlaId
lsrSug ixLHd;sh ,nd .eksu
mrSlaId ixLHd;sh
fuh ksheos wjhjhkaf.a okakd Y%s;hla ksid l,ams; mrSlaId ms<sn| ;SrK
.ekSfoS mrSlaId ixLHd;sh f,i o fhdod .ekSug yelshdj we;'
fhdod .kakd ffjl,ams; l,ams;fha iajrEmh wkqj l,ams; mrSlaIdf wj fmfofiys

iajdNdjh
fhdod .kakd ffjl,ams; l,ams;hlg wkqj wj fmfoi ;SrKh lr ;ks j,a. mrSlaId lrk
wdldrh
fhdod.kakd ffjl,ams;hg wkqj wj fmfoi ;SrKh lr oa j,a. mrSlaId lrk wdldrh
H0 w.h m%;slafIam mlrk wjia:d

ol=Kq j,a.hg wh;a wj w.hg je Yd, Z w.hhka mj;sk ;;a;ajhla hgf;a
j j,a.hg wh;a wj w.hg jvd wvq Z w.hhka mj;sk ;;a;ajhla hgf;a
ix.yk iudkqmd;h i|yd l,ams; mrSlaId lsrSug mrSlaId ixLHd;sh ,nd .ekSu
ix.yk iudkqmd;h jk ix.ykfhka ,nd.;a ;ru jk iiNd ksheoshl ksheos iudkqmd;h
jk ;;a;ajhla hgf;a ksheos ;ru jYfhka Yd, jk g my; i|yka f,i wdikak jYfhka
ixLHd;ail msysu oelah yel'
l,ams; mrSlaId lsrSf oS mrSlaId ixLHd;h

lhsj. mrSlaId iy p,;d Yaf,aIKh
ffiOdka;sl jHdma;shla i|yd wkqiSykfha jvd;a fyd|nj mrSlaId lsrSu i|yd
iuQy.; lreKq ,enQ o;a;j," mj;sk iajdh;a:;djh uekSu i|yd
X2 mrSlaIdj (lhsj. mrSlaIdj)
wfmalaIs; w.hhka ksrSlaIs; w.hhka iu iei|SfoS wfmalaIs; w.hkaf.ka wE;au

isjk wdldrh wkqj w.h jejk Kqula ,nd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .kakd X2 mrSlaIdj f,i
ixLHdkfhaoS ye|skafjhs'
X2 mrSlaIdjl ixLhd;s
isoaka K m%udKhla i|yd ksrSlaIs; ixLHd;hka jkafka"
O1 , O2 '''''''''''''Ok u.skao
tla tla isoah i|yd wfmalaIs; ixLHd;hka
E1, E2 ''''''''''''''.Ek u.skao
by; mrsos oelajqjfyd;a wfmalaIs; ixLHd;hkaf.a iy ksrSlaIs; ixLHd;hkaf.a iudk

rEmS Ndjh uekSu my; i|yka wdldrhg l< yels fjhs'
ixLHd;hkaf.a iy ksrSlaIs; ixLHd;hkaf.a iudk rEmS Ndjh uekSu my; i|yka

wdldrhg l< yels fjhs'
X2 mrSlaIdjl mrSlaId ixLHd;sh
X2 jHdma;sfha yevh
fuh ol=Kg l=l;djhla we;s jHdma;shl wdldrfhka ysfohs'
wm;sl;d j.=j
p,Hka follg fyda lSmhlg wkqj j. lr we;s wm;sl;d j.=jla u.ska fy<sor jk p,Hhkaf.a
iajNdjh mrdh;a;o" ke;sk iajdh;a;o" hkak ;SrKh lsrSu m%dfhda.sl f,i jeo.;a ldhhls'
ksrSlaiK iuQyhlska hq;a j.=jla hk kka ykajkq we;'
tla w;a p,;d Yaf,aIKh
m%u; ix.yk foll uOHkHhka iudk wdldrfhka mj;skafka oehs mrSlaId lsrSu i|yd ixLHdk l
%u Ys,amhla jYfhka l,ams; mrSlaIdj Nd;d lsrSfuka m%;sM, ,eh yelsh'
kuq;a m%dfhda.sl jYfhka m%u; ix.yk follg jefhka we;s wjia:d oelsh yel' tjka gl
ix.yk uOHkHhka tlg iudk oehs mrSlaId lsrSuo wjYh fjhs' f i|yd Nd;d lrk ixLHdk
Ys,am l%uh k p,;d Yaf,aIKh f,i ykajhs'
uOHkHh iei|Sug fhdod.kq ,enQ ixlHdk WmlrKh p,;djhka jk fyhska fuu l%uh p,;d
Yaf,aIKh jYfhkao ykajhs'
ksheos p,;d weiqrska ix.yk p,;djh i|yd ,nd .kakd ksudkl folla F jHdma;sh
weiqrska iei|Su
tfiau fuys iqp,k wxl 2 la wjOdkhg fhduq lrhs'
,jfha iqp,k wxlh = K - 1
yrfha iqp,k wxlh = K (n - 1)
tla w;a p,;d Yaf,aIKh i|yd mrSlaId ixLHd;sh ,nd .ekSu my; wdldrhg l< yel'
tla w;a p,;d Yaf,aIKh i|yd fl l%uh

mshjrhka

oYldx.
ye|skau
oYldx.hla hkq ld,h" N+f.da,Sh msysu fyda wdodhu wdoS ,laIKhkag wod, jQ
p,Hl fyda inka; p,H iuQyhl fjkia oelau i|yd Nd;d lrk ixLHdkuh kquls'
jHdmdrsl lafI;%hkays oYldx. j, jeo.;alu
jHdmdr j, jegqma ugu ;SrKh lsrSfoS jegqma ms<sn| oYl fhdod .efka
wmkhk" wdkhk hou" cSjk , ugu" ldl ksIamdok m%udKh wdosfha fjkia
ld,h" N+f.da,Sh msysu jeks idOlhkag wod,j uekSu i|yd m%fhdackj;a f'
jHdmdr wdh;khl bosrs lghq;= ie,iq lsrSfoS fjf<| mrsud oYl" is,a,r , oYl"
f;d. , oYl hkdosh m%fhdackhg .efka
rgl uQ,Hh cd;sl wdodhu uka mQK wdodhu .Kkh lsrSfoS , oYlhska
wjOukh lrkq ,ef
ir, idfmalaI oYl
ir, , idfmalaIlh
h NdKavhla i|yd l,d 2 w;r , .Kka fjkia f wkqmd;slh , idfmalaIlh f,i ye|
skaf'
ir, m%udK idfmalaIh

h NdKavhla i|yd l,d folla w;r m%udKh fjkiaf wkqmd;h ir, m%udK
idfmalaIh f,i ye|skaf'
ir, w.h idfmalaIh

h NdKavhla i|yd ld, wj folla w;r tys uq w.h fjkia f wkqmd;slh ir, w.h
idfmalaIh f,ig ye|skaf'
ir, iudydr yd ir, idudkH oYldxl

ir, iudydr , oYlh
NdKav tllg jvd je ixLHdjla we;s g , fjkia u uekSug ir, iudydr oYlh
fhdod .kS'
ir, iudydr , oYlfha j,;d
fjkia jk NdKav j, kq tall j, fjkial ms<sn|j fuysoS ie,ls,a,la fkdolajhs
fuu oYlh hgf;a tla tla NdKavfhys m%udKhka ms<sn|j fkdie,lSfuka w

;lafiarejla fyda wj;lafiarejla isf'
ir, iudydr m%udK oYlh

NdKav tallhkays" ftlHh yd mdok ld, wjfha wkqrEm NdKav m%udKhkaf.a
ftlHh w;r wkqmd;h ir, iudydr m%udK oYlh f'
ir, iudydr oYlfha j,;d
NdKavfha idfmalaI jeo.;alu i,ld fkdn,hs' m%dfhda.sl wjia:d j,oS t;r Nd;d
fkdflf' NdKav m%udK ie,lSfoS O tall j,ska .Kkh lsrS is flf'
ir, iudydr w.h oYlh

oS we;s ld,djhl NdKav ish,af,ysu uq jkdlu mdo ld,djfhys NdKav ish,af,ys
uq jkdlfuys m%;sY;hla f,ig oelau ir, iudydr w.h oYlh f,ig ye|skaf'
ir, idudkHh oYlh
N NdKav iuQyhla ie,lSfoS oS we;s ld,djhl , idfmalaIlhkays ftlHh N j,ska fn g

, idfmalaIlhkays ir, idudkHh oYlh ,ef
ir, iudydr oYlh .Kkh lsrSfoS u;=jk .eg
i,ld n,k NdKav ish,a,u tl yd iudkj jeo.;a fkdjk neka ta ms<sn|j i,ld ne,sh hq;=h'
NdKav iuQyhl ld,djka follg wod<j , .Kka fjkiau ms<sn|j ie,lSfoS iuyrla NdKav j, , jeh yels w;r ;j;a iuyrl , wvqh
yelsh' fufia m%;sreoaO wdldrhg , fjkiau ie,ls,a,g .; hq;=h'
nr ;eu i|yd mj;k l%u
,eiamshf.a oYl
mdfIa oYl
,eiamsh iy mdfIa oYl w;r mj;sk fjki

, jejk ;;a;ajhla hgf;a ,eiamsh oYlh mdfIa oYlhg jvd by< w.hla .kshs
,eiamsh oYl kEu ld,dj folla w;f ikaikaOkh l< yels jqj;a mdfIa oYl ikaikaokh l< yels jkafka mok jIh iu. muKla u
fuu oYl fol w;r oelsh yels fjkial fjhs
,eiamsh oYl .Kkh lsrSu myiqh
mdfIa oYlh hdj;a ld,Sk oYlhla f,i ye|skaf
yrs; iudydr iy yrs; idudkH oYldxl
yrs; iudyr oYlh
NdKavj, , .Kka fjkiau" ksrka;rfhka isfjhs' f ms<sn|j ie<ls,a, fhduq lsSrSfoS" tu NdKavj, we;s jeo.;alu ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduql< hq;=
fjhs' ta ta NdKav mka;sj, we;s jeo.;alu ie<ls,a,g .kska ta ta NdKAv i|yd nr ;eu l<hq;= fjhs'
yrs; iudydr oYlh w: oelau
tla tla NdKavh i|yd
,eiamsh oYlh
,eiamsh , oYlh
,eiamsh , oYlh ilikq ,nkafka mok ld,djfhys m%udKhka i|yd nr ;e mok lrf.kh' f wdldrhg .Kkh lr.;a g fuh yrs; iudydr , oYlhla
f,i ie,flhs'
,eiamsh m%udK oYlh
,eiamsh m%udK oYlh .Kkh lsrSfoS mok jIfhys , .Kkaj,g nr ;eu islrhs' fjk;a hlska ykajkafka k" mok ld,djfhys , .Kka nr
jYfhka ie<ls,a,g .kska ilia lrk oYlh" ,eiamsh m%udK oYlh f,i ye|skaf'
mdfIa oYlh
mdfIa , oYlh
mdfIa , oYlh yrs; iudydr oYlhla jYfhka ye|skah yel' fuh .Kkh lsrSfoS ld,djfha m%udK w.hka u; nr ;e l< hq;=h'
mdfIa m%udK oYlh
mdfIa m%udK oYlh f,i ykajkafka oS we;s ld,djfhys , u; nr ;eu lr ilia lrkq ,nk yrs; iudydr oYlhhs'
m%rEmSh ld, wj oYlh
m%rEmSh ld, wj , oYlh
m%rEmSh ld, wjfhys m%udKhka u; nr ;eu lr ilia lrkq ,nk nrs; iudydr oYlhls' fuysoS W fjkqjg qt ;nkq ,ef'
m%rEmSh ld,dj m%udK oYlh
m%rEmSh ld,dj m%udK oYfhys fYaI ,laIKh jkqfha" , u; nr ;eulr ilia lsrSuhs' fuh yrs; iudydr oYlhla jYfhka ye|skaf'
oYldxlhl mok jIh fjkia lsrSf wjYH;djh
mok jIhla fhdod .ekSfuka isjkqfha" tu mok jIh fya;=fldg f.k jIhl f;dr;=re
iei|Suhs' tla;rd ld,djhlg wdod<j wfkl=;a ld,djj, ikaikaokh lsrSula isfjhs' f
ksid mok jIh f,i fhdod.kakd jIh jvd;a iqiq tlla h hq;=h' lsish fyhlska wE;
mok jIh fjkia lsrSf wjYH;djh we;s fjhs'
mok jIhla fjkia lrk wdldrh

merKs mok jIhg idfmalaI f,i B< O jIj, ishu oYldxlhla w;ska
f;dard.;a mok oYldxlhg jIhg wkqrEmjk wdldrfhka" oYldxlfhka fnod m
%;sY;hla jYfhka w;a oYldxlh m%ldY lr.; yelsh'
wjOukh i|yd oYldxl Nd;h
h ld, wjhloS mqoa.hkaf.a wdodh ;;a;ajh uq,Huh jYfhka by< hd yelsh' tfia
jqjo" tu ld, wjfhaos cSjk ho oYlh wdodhug jvd je wkqmd;hlska by< hdug
bv we;' fujeks ;;a;ajhla hgf;a Tjqkaf.a l%h Yla;sh wiSre ugul mj;skafkah' th
fya;=fldgf.k cSjk ;;a;ajh l,ska ;snQ ;;a;ajhg jvd wvqfjhs'
tk mqoa.fhl=f.a jegqm h ld,hloS fo.=K jqj;a NdKav iy fiajdj, , .Kka ;=ka

.=Khlska by< f.dia we;ak cSjk ;;a;ajh l,ska ;snqkdg;a jvd my< ugulg jefghs'
fuh wjOuk l%shdj,shhs'
, oYdxlj,oS ie,ls,a,g .kq ,nk lreKq
1' Wmhk uqo,
2' ,hg .kq NdKavj, , .Kka
uQ; l%shdj,sh
by; l%shdj,sh wjOukh hkqfjka ye|skafjhs'
jeo.;a oYldxl ms<sn| yeoskau

, oYlhla ilia lsrSug wjYH f;dr;=re
mok jIhla ;SrKh lr .ekSu
lsish ck iuQyhla f;dard.; hq;=u
NdKAv meila f;dard.; hq;=u

tla tla NdKavfha , yd ta wkqj ilia lrk ,o , oYlhla mok lr.; hq;=u
tajd u; nr ;eula l<hq;= u
fld<U mdrsfNda.sl , oYlh

fld<U k.rfha cSj;ajk f;dard.;a idudkH mjq,la mdrdfNdackh lrkafka hehs ks.ukh lrkq
,enQ ishu mdrsfNda.sl NdKav iy fiajdjkaj, idudkH , ugf fjkiau fmkajk oYlh
fld<U mdrsfNda.sl , oYlh hkqfjka ye|skaf'
fld<U mdrsfNda.sl , oYlfha jeo.;alu
Y%S ,xldf WoaOuk f.h uekSu i|yd Wmfhda.S lr ekSu
cSjk hou fjkiajk wdldrh uek .ekSu i|yd Wmfhda.S lr .ekSu
f;d. , oYlh
m%d:l fjf<|fmdf<a wf, jk NdKav iy fiajdj, idudkH , ugfuys we;sjk fjkia fmkakq
lrk oYlhla f,i f;d. , oYlh w: oelah yelsh' fuh l=Kq oYlhla fjhs'
m%d:l fjf<|fmd<
NdKav ksIamdoh f,i ykajk uQ,sl wjia:dj,oS ksIAmdolhd iska" f;d. fjf<ka|d fyda is,a,r
fjf<ka|d fj;g NdKav w,lrk wjia:dj m%d:l fjf<|fmd<hs'
f;d. , oYlfha we;=<;a whs;u j.SlrKh

j.SlrKh folls' tk"
1' foaYSh NdKav wdkhk NdKav yd wmkhk NdKav jYfhka m%Odk ;;a;ajhka folla
hgf;a ykd .ekSu'
2' mdrsfNda.sl NdKav wka; NdKav yd wdfhdack NdKav jYfhka" NdKav j.lr oelah
hq;=h'
f;d. , oYlfha jeo.;alu
mj;sk wfkl=;a , oYl yd ikaikaOkh lr ne,SfoS f;d. , oYlh ;=<ska jeo.;a iy

id:l ks.ukj,g t<ug we;s yelshdj
fjf<|fmd< ;=< oelsh yels" f;d. , .Kkaj, we;sjk fjkia ueKsh yels Kq oKavla
f,i md f;d. , oYlh fhdod .ekSug yelshdj we;'
.uH , oYlh
wd:slfha .Kkh lrkq ,nk o< cd;sl ksiamdokh" l%u folla hgf;a .Kkh lrhs" th ia:djr ,
.Kka hgf;a .Kkh lsrSu is lrhs" tfukau j:udk , .Kka hgf;a .Kkh lsrSuo" isfjhs' j;udk
, hgf;a .Kkh lrkq ,nk cd;sl ksIamdos;h ia:djr , .Kka hgf;a .Kkh lrkq ,enQ cd;sl
ksIamdos;fhka fnod m%;sY; w.hka f,i m%ldY lrhs'
j;k , u; .Kkh lsrSu

cd;sl ksIAmdos;h .Kkh lsrSfoS fuysoS isjkqfha j;udk , .Kka hgf;a ke;sk mj;sk
, .Kka hgf;a .Kkh lsrSuhs'
ia:djr , u; .Kkh lsrSu

wdlfhys cd;sl ksIamdos;h .Kkh lsrSfoS lsish mok jIhla f;dard.kq ,nk w;r" tu
mok jIfha , .Kka wkqj .Kkh lsrSu isfjhs'
.uH , oYlh w: oelau
ld, fYa%Ks Yaf,aIKh
jHdmdr lafIa;%fha ld, fY%aKsfha jeo.;alu
ld, fY%aKs
ld, fY%aKshla os.=ld,hla ;siafia ld,hg wkqj fjkiajk p,Hkaf.a yeisrS rgdj
fmkakq lrk o;a; iuQyhla" jYfhka w: oelau l< yelsh' ld,h;a iu fjkiajk p,Hka
os.=ld,hla ;siafia ksrSlaIKh lr .e,mq lr we;s o;a;hka jYfhkao" ld, fYa%Ks .%y
l< yelsh'
ld,h iu. fjkiajk p,Hka
ck.ykh
wdlfha , ug
wdkhkh
wmkhkh
l=Kq
msrsjeh
wmkhk j, fjkia
NdKav j,g we;s b,au

jHdmdr lafIa;%h ;=< ld, fY%aKsj, jeo.;alu
jHdmdr wdh;khl w;S; yeisrS rgdj iy l%shdldrs;ajh Yaf,aIKh lr .ekSu ;=<ska

j;udk ;;a;ajhka we.hSula lr wjYH f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu l< yels u
jHdmdr wdh;kfha wkd.; lghq;= id:l lr.ekSug WmldrSjk wkd.; mqfrdal:k

lghq;= ms<sn|j Ndl:kla lsrSug fhdod.; yelsu
jHdmdr wdh;k j, yeisrSu i|yd n,mE lrk idOlhka fjka fjkaj ykd .ekSug m
%fhdackj;a u
jHdmdr wdh;khl yeisrS rgdj iei|Su i|yd Wo u
ld, fY%aKshla m%ia:dr .; lsrSu

ld, fY%aKshl .Ks;uh w: oelau
ld, fY%aKs ixrpl
os.=ld,Sk Wmk;sh
wd:j p,kh
pl%Sl p,k
wl%uj;a p,k
os.=ld,Sk Wmk;sh
ld,h;a iuska p,Hhla fjkia jk wdldrh wvqfjkafkao" jejkafkao" hkdoS jYfhka
.uka lrk ms<sn|j" ;;ajh oyd oelauhs'
ld, fYa%Ksh iuia:hla f,i ie,l+ g ;sh yels Wmk;Ska

1' jef Wmk;sh
2' wvqf Wmk;sh
3' ia:djr f Wmk;sh
wd:j p,kh
wd:j p,khla ld, fY%aKshl ld,h uksk tallhlg idfmalaIj fl ld, ;=< ,nd.;a
ksrSlaIK we;sg tu fl ld, ;=< ,nd.;a ksrSlaIK we;sg tu fl ld, ;=< mqkrdj;j
we;sjk fjkia jYfhka ye|skaf'
pdl%sl p,k
ld, fY%aKshla ;=< os.=ld,Sk jYfhka isjk fjkia pdl%Sl p,khla jYfhka
ixLHdkfhaoS ye|skafjhs' pl%Sh p,khka wd;j p,k fuka fl ld,hla ;=< is
fkdjkafkah' tfiau mqkrdj;Sj kej;" kej;;a is f hehs wfmalaId lsrSugo
fkdyelsh'
wl%uj;a p,k
by;ska ia;r l< wdldrhg Wmk;Ska" w:j Wmk;s fyda pl%Sh Wmk;s fkdjk
wjia:dj,oS we;sjk ishu p,khka wl%uj;a p,k hkqfjka ykajhs'
wl%u;a p,khl ,laIK
n,dfmdfrd;a;= rys; jQ O ft;sydisl isj, iajrEmh iajrEmh wkqj tajd wl%uj;a

njla fmkajhs'ft;sydisl p,k jYfhka Nd;d lsrSug wmyiq fjhs'
o;a; iajdNdjh wkqj iuyr wl%uj;a p,k mqfrdal:kh lsrSug yelshdj we;' tfy;a" iuyr
wl%uj;a p,k mqfrdal:kh lsrSu l< fkdyels ;rug wl%u;a iajrEmhla Wiq,hs'
ld, fY%aKs wdl, wdlD;sh
ld, fY%aKshl ixrpl
ixrpl ixfla;
Wmk;s T
wd:j p,Hh S
pdl%Sl p,Hh C
wl%uj;a p,Hh I
ld, fY%aKs Y%s;h

fuh wdldr follska oelah yel' tk"
fmd wdl,k wdlD;sh
ld, fY%aKsfha i;H w.h ,nd .ekSu T, S , C, I j, ld, fYa%Ks ixrpl fldgia j, w.h wl;=
lsrSfuka ,nd.kS'
ixrpl fldgia fhdackh
ld, fY%aKsfha i;H w.h Y k
f,i ixrpl fldgia fhdackh l< yel'
.=KH;d wdlD;sh
ld, fY%aKs .=KH;d wdlD;sh
by; i|yka ld, fYa%Ks .=Kk;d wdlD;sh hkqfjka ye|skafjkafka p,Hka .=K lrka ilialr
.ekSfukah' Y k ld, Y%s;fha T, C, S, iy I fldgia .=Klr .ekSfuka .=Kk;d wdlD;sh
f.dvkd .kshs'
ld, fY%aKs .=KH;d wdlD;sh u.ska tys ixrpl fldgia fhdackh lsrSu
Y hkq ld, fY%aKsfha i;H w.h k ixrpl fldgia fjkalr ykd .ekSu i|yd T, C, S, iy I hk ixrpl
fldgia j,ska tu i;H w.h fnod .ekSfuka ,nd.; yel'
Wod #-
jdIsl ld, fY%aKs o;a;

fjd i|yd wd:jhka (S) we;=<;a jkafka ke;'tu ksid my; wdldrhg ld, fY%aKs fhdackh
lr .; yelsfjhs'
ld, fY%aKs w.hka foll idudkH w.h

fuyoS wl%uj;a p,k bj;a hdula isfjhs' ld, fY%aKsj, ksfhdackh ,efnk wdldrh my;
f,i .Kkh lr.; yelsh'
Wmk;s ksudkh
wkqmldr l%uh
Wmk;sh
ld, fY%aKshla w.hhka wkqj by<g fyda my<g .uka lrk Rcq fLdj Wmk;shhs' ke;fyd;a
m%ia;drfha keSula fyda neiSula fyda iu ;;a;ajhl ;sula Wmk;sh hkqfjka ye|skah yel'
ld,fY%aKshla ;=<jk fjkiau" jeula h yelsh'
Wmk;s fLdj f.dvke.Sug .kakd o;a;

1' wuq o;a;
2' iqug o;a;
Wmk;sh f.dvk.d.; wels Ys,amSh l%u
wkQmldr l%uh
wO uOHl l%uh
p, uOHl l%uh
wvq;u j. l%uh
wkQmldr l%uh hgf;a m%ia:drhla ksudkh lsrSu
Wod #-
wO uOHl l%uh
Wmk;sh uekSf l%uhla jYfhka wO uOHl l%uh nyq, jYfhka Nd;hg .kS' fuu.ska
meyeos,s lrkafka Wmk;s fLdj uekSu i|yd wjYH jk ,laI folla f;dard .kakd wdldrh
ms<sn|j lrk .Kkh lsrSuhs' wO uOHl l%uh wkQmldr l%uhg jvd hym;a m%;sM,
,ndfok nj Yajdihs'
fuu l%ufha jdis
meyeos,s jQ .Ks;uh l%uhla ykdf.k we;s fyhska Wmk;Ska fm!oa.,sl oDIah

wkqj fjkiaula isjkafka ke;
Wmk;s fLdj ;=<ska .Kkh lr.ekSu myiqfjkq lr.ekSug yelsu
ixLHd;aul mokulska hqla; jk fyhska Wmk;Ska wkd.;h i|yd mqfrdal:kh lsrSug

yelsu
p, uOHl l%uh
ld, fY%aKshl isjk R;=uh fjkiau" fya;= lrf.k pl%Sh p,k iy wl%uj;a p,k bj;a lrka
Wmk;s .Kkh lr .ekSu i|yd fhdod.kakd jvd;a fmd fukau myiq l%uhla f,i p, uOHl l%uh
ye|skah yel'
wkQmldr l%uh hgf;a m%ia:drhla f.dvke.Sf we;s jdis
os.=ld,Sk p,khka ykd .ekSug myiq u
ksudkh lsrSu b;du;au myiq u
Wmk;shg b;d wdikak jYfhka .Ks;uh f,i wkqiSykh lrk ;;a;ajhka mej;Su
fuu l%uh b;du;a myiq yd ir, u
O p, uOHl l%u
jdIsl p, uOHl
ld;=uh p, uOHl
udisl p, uOHl
wvq;u j. l%uh
ld, fY%aKsh iuia:hla f,i wjOdkhg fhduqlrk g" jeula fyda wvqula wel.; yels
jkafka k tjeks wjia:dj,oS Wmk;sh meyeos,s lr .ekSu i|yd ir, fLdjla fhdod
.ekSu myiq fjhs'
oS we;s o;a;hka i|yd ir, fLdjla f.dvk.d .ekSf jvd fhda.H fukau ir, l%uhla f,i
wvq;u j. l%uh Nd;d lrhs' f ksid ld, fYaKshl Wmk;sh .Kkh lsr .ekSu i|yd
wvq;u j. l%uh Nd;d lsrSu isfjhs'
R;=uh ixrpl ksudkh
idudkH m%;sY;l l%ufha mshjr
ta ta jI j, ta ta ld;=j,g wod< o;a;hkaf.a idudkH .Kkh lr .ekSu
ld;=uh o;a;hka iy tajdg wod< jIhkaf.a idudkH m%;sY;hla jYfhka ykd

.ekSu
O jI i|yd ta ta ld;=jg whs;s m%;sY;h w.hkaf.a idudkh jkdl ,nd .ekSu
mshjr ^3& ka ,efnk idudkHhkaf.a tl;=j 400 jk fia .e<mq lsrSu' ta u.ska R;=uh
ld;=j i|yd wd;j oYlhka myiqfjka ,nd .; yel'
m%;sY;j, uOHkh fyj;a p, uOHkH l%uh
R;=uh ixrpl l%u ksudkh lsrSu i|yd fhdod .kakd m%odk l%u
p, uOhl l%uh
idudkH m%;sY; l%uh
Wmk;shg wkqmd; fif l%uh

wd;j p,kj,ska f;dr o;a; ,nd .ekSu
wd;j p,khka iys; o;a;hka iuQyhla Nd;hg .ekSfuka muKla p,Hl yeisrSu
ms<sn| wjfndaOla ,nd .ekSu wmyiq fjhs' thg fya;=j jkafka wd;j p,kh fya;=
lrf.k p,Hhla ;dj,ld,sl jYfhka muKla Wia my;a u isuhs'
R;=uh wd:j idOlj,ska f;dr o;a;
my; wdldrhg R;=uh fya;=ka u; n,mdk idOl wd:j oYlj,ska f;dr o;a; f,i ,nd .;
yelsh'
mqfrdal:kh
Wmk;sh yd R;=uh oYl Nd;d lrka mqfrdal:kh lsrSu
ld, fY%aKshl Wmk;s w.h mqfrdal:kh lsrSug l%u lSmhlau wkq.ukh l< yelsh'
tfiau ld, fY%aKshl R;=uh idOlhkaf.a jk n,mEu R;=uh oYlhla u.ska ykd.; yel'
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ixLHdk ;;aj md,kh'
NdKavfha ksIamdok .=Kd;aul ugka mj;ajdf.k hdu i|yd ;;a;aj md,kh buy;a f,i
jeo.;a fjhs' jHdmdrhla os.ld,Sk jYfhka mj;ajdf.k hdug ;Dma;su;a
mdrsfNda.slfhl= wjYH f' ta i|yd ksIamdolhd iska Wiia ;;a;ajfha NdKav yd
fiajd fjf<|fmd<g bosrsm;a lsrSu w;HjYH lghq;a;la fjhs' fuysoS Wiia ;;a;ajfha
NdKav ksIamdokh lsrSu i|yd ;;a;aj md,kh jeo.;a fjhs'
ixLHdk ;;a;aj md,kh
;;a;aj md,kfha mrud:h
NdKav fyda fiajdjl ;;a;ajh mQj ksYa; m%;Skag wkql+,j mj;ajd .ekSu" ;;a;aj
md,kfha jeo.;a wruqK fjhs'
ta wkqj ksIamdok msrs;rhkaf.a isjk p,khka wkdjrKh lr .ekSu ;;a;aj md,kfhka

is lrhs' tfukau ksIamdok l%shdj,sfha ksjros lsrSula l< hq;=j we;ak ta i|yd;a
ixLHdk ;;a;aj md,kh wjYHh fjhs'
iajhxl%Sh ksIamdok l%shdj,shla u.ska h NdKavhla ksIamdokh jk g tu

NdKavfha ;;a;ajh ksh; m%;Skag wkql+, jk mrsos l%shdj,sh wdrNfhaoSu ilia
lrhs' NdKavfha ;;a;ajh fuu m%;Skaf.ka fjkia u j<lajd .ekSu i|yd ;;a;aj md,kh
u.ska h h ixjka fohs'
ksIamdok ixOdkhlg ixLHdk ;;a;aj md,kfhka ,eh yels jdis

isug yels fodaI l,a we;sj wkdjrKh lr .ekSug mqjka u
ix.ykfha ;;a;ajh ;lafiare lsrSu is lrkafka ix.ykhlska ,nd .kakd ksheoshla Nd;d
lsrSu ;=<ska ksid th jvd;a ldhlaIu f,i l< yelsh'
m%dfhda.sl jYfhka uyd mrsudk ksIamdok jYfhka ksmojk iEu NdKavhlau

mrSlaId lsrSu b;du;au wmyiq jQ ldhhlauh' mQK .=K;aj ugula iy;sl lsrSu
imQK mrSlaIdjla lsrSu u.ska jqjo l< fkdyelsh' thg fya;=j tl os.gu mrSlaId
lsrSfoS mrSlaIlhdg we;sjk ldhsl yd udkisl fjfyi fya;=fjka mrSlaIKj,ska
wi;=gqodhl m%;sM, ,eh fkdyelsuhs'
fyd| .=K;aj ugula iy;sl lsrSu i|yd jeh jkafka wvq mrSlaId lsrSf msrsjehls'
ksmojk iuyr tallhka tajdfha ;;a;ajh i|yd mrSlaId lsrSu ieugu l< fkdyelsh'
uq ixOdkhu NdKavfha fyda fiajdf ;;a;ajh ms<sn|j wjOdkfhka isula

fndfydag isfjhs'
M,odhl;ajh by< kexula isl< yelsh' ksIamdok m%udKh ie,lsh hq;= ;rka by<
kxjd .ekSu i|yd ixLHdk ;;a;aj md,kh iEu wdldrfhkau WmldrS fjhs'
l%shdj,sh md,khla hgf;a mj;sk neka wjYH lrk .=K;aj ugug wkqj mj;ajdf.k
hdug mqjkalu ,efnhs' tu.ska mdrsfNda.sld iska NdKavh m%;slafIam lsrSulg
we;s bvlv o iSud fjhs'
ksIamdokfha .=K;ajfha we;sjk p,khg fya;=jk m%Odk lreKq
iiNd p,kh
iiNd p,kh" iNd;d p,kh jYfhka o ykajhs' fuu p,kh we;sug O iiNd
lreKq iy idOlhka n,mdkafkah' fuu fya;+ka tlsfklska iajdh;a; fjhs' fuu fya;=ka
tlsfklska iajdh;a; fjhs' tajd wkdjrKh lr .ekSug;a" bj;a lsrSug;a" wmyiq ldhhla
jk w;ru wdl jYfhkao wvq ho fkdfjhs'
Wod #- ksIamdok l%shdh,sfha WIaK;ajfha we;sjk iq fjkial wd;djfha we;sjk

fjkia
mejrsh yels p,kh

fuu p,kh isjkafka iiNd fkdjk we;e fya;=j, m%;sM,hla jYfhkah' tfiau fuu
p,kh we;sug n,mdk fya;=ka ykd .ekSu myiqfjka l< yelsh'
Wod#- f. f.dia we;s hka;% iy WmlrK Nd;h
hka;% ilia lsrSu jeros wdldrhg lr ;su
ksIamdos;h md,kh lsrSf l%u
l%shdj,s md,kh
fuhska woyia jkafka ksIamdokh l%shdj,sfhka ksmojk Ndkavj, .=K;ajh md,kh

lsrSuls' l%shdj,sh md,kh u.ska wkdjrKh lrkafka ksIamdok l%shdj,sh wjYH
wdldrhg isjkafka o ke;sk hka;%h u.ska ksIamdos;h wjYH m%;shg wkql+,j
islrkafka o hkak ykd .ekSu i|ydh'
ksIamdos;h md,kh
fuh md,kh islrkafka wuq jH fyda ks jH fyda ms<s.; fkdyels hkqfjka j.

lsrSula u.sks' f;dard.;a kshosh u.ska ;SrKhla .; fkdyels wjia:djkaj,oS fjk;a
kshoshla mrSlaId lrkjdo hkak;a fuysoS i,ld n,kafkah' tfiau oekgu;a ksmojd
we;s NdKav fjf<|fmd<g ksl=;a lsrSu i|yd tk fnod yerSug iqiq o keoao hkak
ks.ukh lsrSu i|yd mrSlaId lsrSu ksIamdos;h md,kh u.ska isl< yelsh'
;;a;aj p,k l%u wkqj O ixLHdk ;;a;aj md,k l%u Nd;h

ms<s.ekq kshos ie,iqj, wjYH;djh
;;a;aj md,k l%u Ys,am l%u inkaOfhka idlpd lsrSfoS ks NdKavj, .=K;ajh
inkaOfhka ie,ls,a, fhduql< hq;=h' tfy;a tu Ys,am l%u wdh;khlg ,efnk fldgia yd
wuqjH f;arSu i|yd fhda.H fkdfjhs' ta ksid iemhqlrejkaf.ka .ekqlrefjla ,efnk
fldgia yd wuqjH f;d.hla kshu lrk ,o .=K;aj m%;Skag wkql+, f,i mj;skafkao @
keoao @ hkak ksjpkh lsrSf l%u fudkjdoehs i,ld ne,Su l< hq;=h'
ixLHdk ksh ie,eiau

ixLHdk ksh ie,eiau wuqjH fyda fldgiaj, .=K;ajh wdjrKh lsrSu i|yd Nd;d lrk l
%uhls'
;SrK
;SrK j. folls' tk"
f;d.hla ms<s.ekSu
f;d.h m%;slafIam lsrSu

;SrK kS;sh
oamo jHdma;sh i|yd iuq; iNd;djh

ms<s.ekq kshe ie,eiaula i|yd fjfyiq ,dlaIKsl jl%h
fufyhq ,dlaIKsl jl%h hkq bosrsm;a lrk ,o f;d. m%udKhla ms<s.ekSug we;s
iNd;djh yd bosrsm;a lrk ,o f;d. m%udKfha fodaI iys; nf m%;sY;hka w;r
inkaO;djh m%ia;drslj ksrEmKh l< g ,efnk jl%hhs'
fuh OC jl%h hk fl kdufhkao ye|skafjhs'

rEm igyfka ksrEmKh lr we;s OC jl%fha m%dfhda.sl Nd;h
OC jl%h Nd;h ;=<ska is jkafka" ms<s.; fkdyels NdKav w;r wdY%h lrf.k
ksheoSu l< yels ie,eiaula u.ska fl;r id:l wdldrfhka f;dr;=re ksrEmKh lsrSuls'
NdKav imhd .ekSfoS yd ,oS .kakd NdKav ms<s.ekSfoS" kshu lrk ,o wju
.=K;aj ugu iuska iuql fkdjk iNd;djh ksYaph lr .; hq;= fjhs' fuh mdrsfNda.sl
wjodku f,i ye|skafjhs' th m%ia:drfha f,i ,l=Kq lr we;' tf,iu we;a; jYfhkau
ms<s.; hq;= jQ gl th m%;slafIam lsrSf iNd;djhla ;sh yel' th ksIamdolhdf.a
wjOdku f,i ye|skafjhs' th m%ia:drfha wlaIrfhka fmkajd fohs'
wdrlaIdj
mdrsfNda.slhdf.a wdrlaIdj jl%fha nEjqu jejk g jefjhs' ksIamdolhd yd
mdrsfNda.slhd hk fomdYjhu leu;sjk wdrlaIdj ie,ls,a,g .;a fufyhq ,dlaIKsl jl
%hla we;sg t;k kshe ie,eiaula ;sf'
OC jl%fha nEjqu ;SrKh jk wdldrh

OC jl%fha nEjqu ;SrKh u isjkafka ksheosfha ;ru u;hs' ksheosfha ;ru Yd, jk
g jl%fha nEjqu je fjhs' ms<s.kakd m%udKh yd m%;slafIam lrk m%udKh w;r
ld,d wvqfjhs' kshe ixLHdj jej;au je ksjroH;djhla <d lr .; yels kuq;a
kshe msrsjeh je f'
md,k igyka
ixLHdk ;;a;aj md,kh i|yd Nd;d flrk u;a jQ l%uhla jYfhka md,k igyka
yeoskah yel' tjeks igykla my; wdldrhg ilia lsrSu myiq fjhs'
uOH fLdj
Wv;a md,k iSudj
hg;a md,k iSudj
m%ia:drfha isria wlaIh

m%ia:dr igyfka isria wlaIh ;=<ska fmkakq lrkafka ta ta ld, m%dka;rj,ska ilia
lr .kakd ,o ksheos j, ia;r iys; f;dr;=reh'
m%ia:drfha ;sria wlaIh
.kakd ,o kshosj, wxl fyda ld, ,laIhka wkqms<sfj,ska oelau ;sria wlaIfhka
isfjhs'
md,k igyka
md,kh lsrSug wjYH .=K;ajfha iajNdjh u; md,k igyka j. follg fnod oelah yelsh'
tajd my; f,i oelah yel' tk"
p,Hka i|yd md,k igyka
Wm ,laIKhka i|yd md,k igyka
p,Hka i|yd md,k igyka

ksIamdos;hl fndfyda .=K;aj ,dlaIKsl uekSug mqjkalu mj;skjd;a fukau" fYaIs; Kq
tall j,ska m%ldY lsrSugo yelshdjla mj;shs'
Wm ,laIKhka i|yd md,k igyka
ksIamdos;hl we;e .=K;aj ,dlaIKslhka uekSu myiq ldhhla jkafka ke;' tjeks Wm
,dlaIKsl ykd .ekSug yels jkafka ke;' tjeks Wm ,dlaIKsl ykd .ekSug yels jkafka tajd
tu NdKavfha ;su fkd;su wkqjh'
uOHk igyka
Wv;a md,k iSudj
uyd uOHkHfha isg ksheos uOHkHfhka iu; fodaI 3 la by<ska Wv;a md,k iSudj msysgd
;sf'
hg;a md,k iSudj

uyd uOHkHfha isg ksheos uOHkHfhka iu; fodaI 3 la my<ska hg;a md,k iSudj msysgd
;sf'
fuu md,k isudjka msysgqu ixLHdk ;;a;aj md,kfhaoS cd;Hka;r jYfhka ms<s.kakd
iu;hla f,i i<lhs'
iiNd kshoshl uOHkHh tys uOHkHfha isg ksheos uOHkHdhka iu; fodaI 3 la we;=<;
msysgk nj m%dfhda.slj ie,lSug fya;=
Kqj, p,khka idudkHfhka m%; rgdjla .eksu
uOH iSud m%fhh wkqj ksheosh ,nd.;a ix.ykfha jHma;s rgdj oef,i wjOdkhg
fhduq lrkafka ke;sj ksheos uOHkHg wdikak jYfhka m%; jHdma;shl msysgqu
uOHkH igykl by< yd my< md,k iSudjka

my; wdldrhg fuu md,k iSudjka m%ldY lsrSug yel'
mrdi igyka
lsish kshoshl mrdih hkqfjka ykajkafka" tu kshosfha ksrSkaIKh w.hkaf.ka
l=vdu fukau iy Yd,;u ksrSlaIs; w.hka w;r mj;sk fjkihs' ke;fyd;a tajdfha
wka;rhhs' mrdi igyk ishu ksheos j, mrdi md,kh lsrSu i|yd Nd;d lrhs'
iudkqmd; igyka
ksIamdok l%shdj,shlska wjidk ksuejqu f,i ,nd.kakd NdKavhla tu ksIamdok m
%;Skag fyda msrs;rhkag wkql+, f,i meje;Sug fukau fodaI iys; tlla f,i
ksIamdokh ish yelsh'
ifodia iudkqmd;h my; wdldrhg ,nd.; yels fjhs'
iudkqmd; igyka i|yd md,k iSudjka
ix.ykh P hkqfjka i<lk ;;a;ajhka hgf;a n tall ixLHdjla we;s kshoshla fodaI iys;f
iudkqmd;h P f,i .;a g P ys iu; fodaIh my; iQ;%h uska .Kkh lr .; yel'
tfy;a ix.ykfha iudkqmd; w.hka fkdokakd ;;a;ajhla hgf;a ta i|yd ksudklhla jYfhka
ksheos iudkqmd;h jk P .ekSug mqjkalu we;' tg kshos iudkqmd;fha iu; fodaIh my; i|
yka wdldrhg fjhs'
uska ,nd .ekSug mqjkalu we;'

iudkqmd; igyka i|yd Wv;a yd hg;a md,k iSudjka
fjd ifodia iudkqmd;fha uOHkHh (P) jk isg iu; wm.ukh 3 la by<ska yd iu;
wm.ukh 3 la my<ska msysgd we;snj fmfkhs' my; oelafjk wdldrhg bosrsm;a
lsrSu myiq f'
2011
40
.
10-14 14-18 18-22 22-26 26-30 30-34 34-38
(
)
04 06 08 10 05 04 03

1.
?
2. .
3. 100

.
4. (3) .600
000
20 000 .
? (2011
)

22-26
23
38
.160 000

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01

Primary Data ( research

Data Scale of Measurement . data

data "Ordinal Data". ordinal data ,

rankings. rank soldier .

"Interval Data". interval data meaning

true zero ???? ???

=> (30 - 10)/ (10 - 0 ) = 2

: height, weight, length, area, etc

zero .. weight zero

stat statics ( ) . stat

(Data collecting method )

jHdmdr ixLHdkfha iajNdjh

ixLHdkuh m%ldY i|yd ksoiqka

fuu jIfha wdh;kfha lS;skduh 10]la wvq we;s nj fmkajhs'

wdh;kfha NdKav ksIamd;h i|yd b,au 5] lska je we;'

jHdmdr flaI;%hg ixLHdkfha we;s jeo.;alu

jHdmdr ia:dk .; lsu yd m%udKh ;SrKh lsu

fj<|fmd< b,au wOHkh lsu

ksIamdo ie,iq ilia lsu

ldhh uKav, md,kh

wkd.; ie,iq iy mqfrdal:k ie,iq ms<sfh, lsu i|yd

ixldh mfhaIK i|yd

ixLHdk o;a; m%Odk jYfhka fldgia folls'

kshe uska o;a; /ia lsf jdis

ksh|s uska o;a; /ialsrSf jdis #-

m%;sM, j, ksje/os;djh wdrlaIdu

iiNd fkdjk kshe|sh

o;a; m%Odk jYfhka fldgia 2ls'

1' m%d:l o;a;

2' oa;shsl o;a;

1' m%d:l o;a;

ludka;hl ksIamdokh ms<sn|j wOHhkh lrk mqoa.,fhl= ta wdh;khg f.dia

NdKavhla b,au inkaOfhka mdrsfNda.slhka uqK.eiS ,nd .kakd o;a;

2' oa;shsl o;a;

ksoiqka #- ,dNd,dNd .sKqu" fYaI m;%h

2' YS% ,xld uynexl=j " ck yd ixLHd f,aLk fomd;fka;=j

ksoiqka #- uynexl= jd;dj

3' rcfha fomd;fka;= iska lrk ilaIK jd;d

ksoiqka #- f.= jd;d" frcsiagd fckrd,ajrhdf.a jd;dj

m%d:l o;a; ,nd .ekSf m%Nj

m%d:l o;a; ,nd.; yels l%u

iajhx .Kka .ekSu

;eme,a u.ska fyda fjkh l%uhlska ;ukag ,efnk m%YaKdj,shlg msrslafikakd

iuqL idlPd l%uh

rl:k idlPd l%uh

rl:k ud.fhka mqoa.,fhl=f.ka f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSu fuhska lshef'

oa;Shsl o;a; m%Nj

YS% ,xld uy nexl=j

ck f,aLK yd ixLHdf,aLK fomd;fka;=j

O wud;HdxY yd thg inkaO wdh;k

iajhx .Kka .ekSu

m%Yakdj,S l%ufhka o;a; ,nd .ekSf jdis fukau wjdiSka o we;'

m%Yakdj,S l%ufha jdis #-

flfkl= bosrsfha ms<s;=re oSug wlue;s m%Yakj,g ms<s;=re ,nd.ekSug mqjka

wvq houlska f;dr;=re ,nd .ekSug yelsu

ms<s;=re oSug ld,hla fok ksid m%fYfuka l< yelsu

mrSlaIlhdf.a mlaImd;S;ajh n,fkdmEu

m%YaKdj,s l%ufha wjdis #-

iaj,am fofkl=f.a muKla ms<s;=re ,eh yelsu

idlaIr;djh wvq rgj, Nd;d l< fkdyels u

f;dr;=rej, YajiH;djh ms<sn| ;lafiare l< fkdyels u

ksrSlaIK o;a; ,nd .; fkdyels u