.

2008
 .
.
. ,
. ,
.


: , ,
.

(. 5343, 202, . 2).

.........1
1. ..... 3
2. ..............7
3. ........... 8
3.1 ...............8
3.1.1 ............8
3.1.1.1 .....8
3.1.1.2 (2500 ..-300 ..)............10
3.1.1.3 300 .. 15 ....................13
3.1.1.4 16 ... 17
3.1.1.5 17 ..............19
3.1.1.6 18 ...........21
3.1.1.7 19 ...........23
3.1.1.8 20 ...........25
3.1.2 ....26
3.1.3 . 29
3.2 - .. 31
3.2.1 ...............31
3.2.1.1 .. 32
3.2.1.2 .. 32
3.2.1.3 ............33
3.2.1.4 - ...36
3.2.1.5 ............37
3.2.2 .....40
3.2.2.1 - ......40
3.2.2.2 ... 41
3.2.2.2.1 ............ 41
3.2.2.2.2 42
3.2.2.2.3 ... 42
3.2.2.3 .. 43
3.3 .. 44
3.3.1 .........44
3.3.1.1 ..... 44
3.3.1.2 ......... 47
3.3.1.3 ..............49
3.3.2 ...55
3.3.2.1 .. 55
3.3.2.2 ...59
3.3.2.3 ............62
3.3.3 .........64
3.3.3.1 ............64
3.3.3.1.2 & -
............64
3.3.3.1.3 ............67
3.3.3.2 -
..................................................................................................................68
3.3.3.2.1 ...68
 3.3.3.2.2 .... 69
3.3.3.2.3 ............71
3.3.3.2.3.1 ..71
3.3.3.2.3.2 .... 71
3.3.4
......................................................................................72
3.3.4.1 ........... 72
3.3.4.2 .........74
3.3.4.3 ...75
3.3.4.4 .......... 76
3.3.5 .. 79
3.3.5.1 ...79
3.3.5.1.1 .........79
3.3.5.1.2 .............80
3.3.5.2 ............82
3.3.5.3 ............83
3.3.5.4 ... 83
3.3.6 ......... 85
3.3.6.1 ..86
3.3.6.2 ..............88
3.4 ... 90
3.4.1 ..90
3.4.2 ......... 93
3.4.2.1 ............93
3.4.2.2 ... 98
3.4.2.2.1 .........100
3.4.2.2.2 ...103
3.4.2.2.3 ... 107
3.4.2.2.4 ... 107
3.4.2.2.5 ... 108
3.4.2.2.6 .. 109
3.4.2.2.7 , ..110
3.4.2.2.8 ............111
3.4.2.3
.....................................................................................................114
3.4.2.3.1 ... 115
3.4.2.3.2 .. 118
3.4.2.3.3 ... 120
3.4.2.3.4 ............ 122
3.4.3 ............ 124
3.4.3.1 .. 124
3.4.3.1.1 .. 124
3.4.3.1.2 ............ 124
3.4.3.1.3 ............ 125
3.4.1.3.4 .........126
3.4.1.3.5 ..126
3.4.1.3.6 ...127
3.4.3.2 ... 127
3.4.3.3 .. 128
 3.4.3.4 - -
....128
3.4.3.4.1 ..128
3.4.3.4.2 - ..128
3.4.4 .........136
3.4.4.1 ............137
3.4.4.2 ............138
3.4.5 ............140
3.4.5.1 .........140
3.4.5.2 .........141
3.5 ... 143
4. .................145
4.1 ............145
4.2 ............145
4.2.1 - ..145
4.2.2 ............149
4.3 ...151
4.3.1
.............................151
4.3.2 ...155
4.3.3 ............159
4.4 ......... 166
SUMMARY......... 169
........................................................................................................171
...............183
............ 184
... 194

* Ukulele ( ).


, .
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().
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3
 1.1
(: undated)

4
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5
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.

(Wegst 2006). ,

(Wright 1996).

( 1994).
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6
 2.

:
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.

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.

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) .

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).
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)

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7
 3.

3.1

3.1.1

3.1.1.1

.
.

.. (. 1).

.
.


.


,

,
.
:
.
. 1
(, 1900
- (. 2). . 2 ..)
.
(: 1982)

.
,
.

8
 .
( ).
-
,
, .


,
( ).

,
, , , , ... ,
. 2
-
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.

.


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,

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,


.

. 3
, . (1300 ..)
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.
,

, (: 1982)

9

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.

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.
, , , ,

.
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2500 ..
, (. 4).

(
).

. 4
(: 1982)

. ,

10
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.
.
- 1900
.. (. 5). , ,
: .
,

.
, (1600 ..),
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.

. 5 . 6
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(: 1982)

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,

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11

.
.

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(. 8).
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.

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,
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.
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. ,

12

.

. 8
(3 )
(: 1982)

. 9

-5 .. (: 1982)

, ( 15 .. )
, ,
, ,
: , Pandora, Kinnor (
), Kinnaret, Nabla, Psaltery (), Pektis, Barbiton () ...

(
1982) .

3.1.1.3 300 .. 15 ..

3 .. (. 10)
() .
,

13

.
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.


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.
,

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.
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)

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, (: 1982)
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.

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.

, . 11
(9
)

(: 1982)

14
 .
.
, (13 )
. ,

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( 1982).

(12
)



.

:
().

.
,

( 1982).
. 12
(13
)
(: 1982)
(Kentor and Michaels 2003). ,
, ,

( 1982).
(Kentor and Michaels 2003).
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.
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15

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(Kentor and Michaels 2003).


.
12 .
12
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15
. ,
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(. 13)
15
(: 1982)

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,
.

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16
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( 1982).

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. ,

()
,
.
16

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,


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, . 14


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-
(: 1982)

.
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1700 .

17

.
.

.

. ,
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,
.

.

(1480-1530) (1466-1513) ,
, , ,
, .

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1564
..

(16 )
(: 1982)

, (. 15)
1564.
,
.
.

18
 1 (. 15),

( 1982).
,
(Kentor and Michaels 2003).
, , ,
.
.

( 1982).

3.1.1.5 17

17
.
. ,

( 1982).

. 16 . 17 . 18

-1641 -1624 -1669
(: 1982) (: 1982) (: 1982)

1
.

.

19
 , ,
(Kentor and Michaels 2003).

(. 16) (. 17). ,

(1641-1719).
, , , ,
, .. ,
. . 18
.
.

22 1669 ( 1982).



,

.


(. 19)
. 19 . 20

-1620 -1680
(1644-1737),
(: 1982) (: 1982)
,
, .
. (. 20)
,
:
.

( 1982) .

20
 3.1.1.6 18

.
,
.
,
(
) ().
,

1600,

.
,

(1760-
1829). , . 21

, , -1773
(: 1982)
, ,
1789
.
.
, ,
18 ,
: ,
1790 1819 ,
.
,
,
. ,
, ,
.

21
 ,
. , (
24 -11 2 )
,
,
.
18
. , 16
, 18 .
18

.

.
1732
(New Eroeffneter Theoretischer and Praktischer
Music-Saal)
.
(. 21)

,

.

. . 22
,
-1782
(: 1982)

. . 22,
,
( ).
( 19 )
( 1982).

22
 3.1.1.7 19

,
. ,

.
(
) .
.

(1778-1853) (1843-1870).
(),

.

18 19 . ,

.
. (1772-1861),
.

.

(1817-1892).
,
.
() (
)
. , 65 .

, ,
. 1850 - 1869
1880 - 1892.
1859 . 23.

23


,
,
.
,
. ,


19 ( 1982).
19
(Kentor and
Michaels 2003).
. 23
. ,
. -1859
(: 1982)
. , ,

1865 1890 ( 1982).

. ,
,
.

(1796-1873),
1833.
( 1982) .

24
 3.1.1.8 20

20
(1882-1952), (. 24)

, ,
.

,
.

20

. ,
. 24

. -1940
(: 1982)
,
,
.
1944
, .

( 1982).
,
,
(
),
.
1936 (Kentor and Michaels 2003).

25
 3.1.2

16
1550 (Hsieh 2004).
.
(Lira da braccio), (Rebek)
(Renaissance fiddle). ,
(. 25),
. , ,
,
(Hutchins 1983).
,

16 ,

,



. . 25

(: Moser)

IX .
1564 (Romando 2007).
1650 1750
. (15961684)
( )
. (16441737)
(16261698).
.
,
(Hsieh 2004).

26

. 8 f
( 2004). ,
1716 (Dilworth 1992, 2001).
(, )

( ). ,
(Burton 2001).
(1737) (1744)
.
,
,
(Hsieh 2004).
,
( 17- 18 ), .

( )
(Gough 2000). :
( , - 2004-


), ,
,

. (Burckle and Grissino-
Mayer 2003).


( ,
)
.
,
(Burckle and Grissino-Mayer 2003).

27
 ,

(Peterlongo 1980). ,


(Gough 2000).
18
, ,
. 19
( )
. Jean-Baptiste
Vuillaume (1798-1875) (Buen 2006).

28
 3.1.3

, , 300
. (Clavichord) (Cembalo).
,
18 .
15
. ,
, .

1709. ()
,
,
. 4 4,5 .

. 26
(: Lehtonen 2005)

, (Zumpe) .. Streicher-
Stein
. ,
: .

29

.
19 :
( )
( ) . (. 26) .
(1800) . (1811,
1829).
.
,
()
.
19

.
: Bsendorfer , Bechstein , Steinway
19 Yamaha ( 2005).

30
 3.2

3.2.1

.
,
. ,
, .

: ) , (.. ), )
(
) ) ( ).

.

. ,
,
. ,

( ).
. . 3.1
( 1990).

3.1
.

. (: 1990)

31

.

(f) . ()
( 1984).

3.2.1.1

(us)
: us = f.
. ,
( .. )
. ,
. , ( 1990):
i. : u s = Y / Young
.
ii. : u s = / ,
.

iii. : u s = ( 0 ) / = ( R T ) / M = Cp/Cv, P0

= ( ) , =
, R = = (mole)
.

3.2.1.2

, .
,
(. 3.2). ,
, (. 3.2).
. ,

32
 (. 3.2), (. 3.2)
.

: 20 Hz (infrasonics),
.
20 Hz 20.000 Hz
, 20.000 Hz
(ultrasonics), . ( 1990).

3.2
: ) ,
) , ) ) (: 1990).

3.2.1.3

, .
:
i. :

.
ii. :
,
.. .
iii. :

,

33

( 1990).
iv. :


.
,

( 1990).

,

.
(. 3.3)
(Lapp undated).

(nodes)
(antinodes) (
1984).

3.3
(nodes) (antinodes)
(: Lapp undated)

v. .

34

.
: ) )
.
vi. :
,
.
vii. Doppler.

( 1990).
viii. --
:

(. 3.4).


. ,



. 3.4
, (a) , (b) , (c)
, (d)
d (: Russell et al. 1999)

. .
0 180, 90
270 . ( )
.
D .
. :
.
,
(Russell et al. 1999).

35
 3.2.1.4 -

.

.

,
.
,
( 1990).

(Lapp undated).
, ,

(Richardson 1990).
( )
,
( 1990).
,
.

,
(
).
, 3.5
Helmholtz
( 1994). (: 1984)
Helmholtz.
V
l (. 3.5).
, .
.

( 1984).

36
 3.2.1.5

I. :
1m2 (. 3.6).
SI Watts/meter2 ( 1990).
.
.

, .
( et al 1990).
: ) ,
) ,
( 1990).

3.6

1m3 (: 1990)

II. : (intensity level)

(amplitude),
( ).
III. :
.
db. 3.1 .
IV. : (loudness)

. ,
. ,
. ,
().
,

37

. (loudness level)
1000 Hz,
. Phon.

3.1 (: 1990)

Violin 14 40
Viola 16 -
Cello 14 -
String bass 14 30
Recorder - 10
Flute 7 30
Oboe 7 -
English horn 5 -
Clarinet 8 45
Bassoon 10 40
Trumpet 9 -
Trombone 17 38
French horn 18 -
Tuba 13 -

V. :
,
.

.
( 1990).
VI. (pitch): , ,
, , ,
. ,
(. )
, .
.. ,
, ,
. ( et al 1990).

. .

38
 (16-16.000 Hz)
1.400. , 120
1.400 ( 1990).
VII. : ( )
().
, .
.. 100, ,
100 . 200, 300, 400 ...

( , ...) ( et al 1990).
, ,
, ,
( 1984).
VIII. :
,
. , ..

.
,
.
IX. : (),
( )

. .. maestoso (), con anima
( ), vivace (), staccato ( ), tenuto (,
), legato (, ) ...
,
, .
.
X. :
.
, ,
( et al 1990).

39
 3.2.2

3.2.2.1

. .
.
(
1989).
,
( 1990).
. ,
.
100 , (
) . ,

.
3.2 ( 1989).

3.2 (: 1989)

Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si
C D E F G A HB

.
: ) , ) , ) , ) , ) , )
) (
1989).
.
.. (f1/f2 = 2/1). ,
, .

( Weber-Fechner):
= k log2(f2/f1) = k log(f2/f1)/log2 ( 1990).

40

f (
10 Hz)
f ().
f 15 Hz
. f

.
( 1990).

3.2.2.2

, ,
. ,
.
, .
, .
. ,

. .
,

().

3.2.2.2.1

(. 3.7) ,
.

41
 3.7


(: 1990)

3.2.2.2.2

.

.
, , 1,123.
(. 3.8). ,
,
. Helmholtz,
.

3.8


(: 1990)

3.2.2.2.3

,
f (3/2)f, .
. 3.9
, .
.

3.9


(: 1990)

42

.

. 3.3
,
.
( ) ( 1990).

3.3
(: 1990)



f1 f2 = f1 f2 f1
f1 f2 = 2f1 f2 2f1
f1 f2 = (3/2)f1 2f2 3f1
f1 f2 = (4/3)f1 3f2 4f1
f1 f2 = (5/4)f1 4f2 5f1
f1 f2 = (5/3)f1 3f2 5f1
f1 f2 = (6/5)f1 5f2 6f1
f1 f2 = (8/5)f1 5f2 8f1
f1 f2 = 1,123f1
f1 f2 = 1,059f1

3.2.2.3

.
. 16- 17

( 1989).
.
: ) (Pythagorean scale), )
(just scale) ) (equal temperament scale)
( 1990).

43
 3.3

, ,
. ,


(Bucur 2006).

3.3.1

: )

, ) ) ,
.

3.3.1.1

, , , .

, ( 1994).

(ultrasonic wave) . . 3.10
. 3.11
.

(longitudinal wave - V11, V22, V33),
(shear wave transverse wave - V44 = VRT,
VTR, V55 = VLT, VTL, V66 = VLR, VRL) (Bucur 2006).
, V11
V22 V33.

44
 . ,
. ,


.

3.10 3.11
:
L-, R- -
(: Ringger et al. 2003) (: Bucur 2006)

,
.
VTR VRT (
)
10-15%. , , 17%,
( ) ,
5%. , ,

.


.
L, R : V11:V22 =
VLL:VRR = 2,31 V11:V33 = VLL:VTT = 4,19 ( ), V11:V22 = 2,02

45
V11:V33 = 2,43 ( pernambuco), V11:V22 = 3,39 V11:V33 = 4,68 (
) V11:V22 = 2,38 V11:V33 = 4,17 ( ).

V55 V66 .
, L. , ,
(.. 3,
V55:V44 VTL VTR) ,
(4,7 Picea abies) (1,27
pernambuco) (Bucur 2006).

3.12
.
: - -
(: Bucur et al. 2002)

( 3.12),
(transmission ultrasonic
method). 1 , 2
3 . (slowness surface)
,
2
. , ..
, .. .

(Bucur et al. 2002).

46
 3.3.1.2

( )

.
,
(.
3.13).
, ,

3.13
. , - ()
I-
, II- , -
- (: 1994)

.
( 1994).
:
(), (G)
Poisson (). Poisson
: ij/Ei = ji/Ej, i j i,j = L,R,T (Green et al. 1999).

(Modulus of Elasticity):

( Young)
.
: = S/, = (Kp/cm2), S =
(Kp/cm2) = (cm/cm).
. ,
(
). , (
1994). : L,
R ET (Green et al. 1999).

47
 : EL>>ER>ET.
, .
.
, 30%
(Kopac and Sali 2003).

Poisson (Poissons Ratio):

.
Poisson. Poisson : LR, RL, LT,
TL, RT, TR.
, .. LR
Poisson
. Poisson
(Green et
al. 1999).

(Modulus of Rigidity):

.
: GLR, GLT, GRT LR, LT RT .
GLR
LR LT RT
. Poisson,

(Green et al. 1999).

48
 3.3.1.3

, ,

,
.
, Young
.
, . ,

( ) : 1)
, 2) , 3)
4) (Wegst 2006).

(sound velocity):

, c,

c = / , Young (Wegst 2006).

(. 3.14, 3.14)

,
( 1994). 1/20 1/10
. ,
20-30% (Wegst 2006).
3.500 5.000 m/sec
, 3,5 5,5 .
,
,
.
(. 3.14C),
(1.440 m/sec), ( 1994).
( 1994),
(Wegst 2006).

49
 3.14
, - (. , . )
C - (1., 2. ) (: 1994)

(characteristic impedance):

, z, z = c = E .
z
.
z1 z2.

. r,
,
: Ir/Io = (z2-z1/z2+z1)2.
It It/Io =
4z2z1/(z2+z1)2.
z1 z2, . z1<<z2,
z2<<z1.

.

.
.
:

,
.

50
 (sound radiation coefficient):

, R, R = c/ = / 3

. , ..
, ,
.

,
(frequency response function).

, R = / 3
.

(loss coefficient):

, ,
(%)
. , ( 3.4),
( 1994). (Wegst 2006)

(internal friction).

.
(Zener undated).
.


.
0,1 0,002
.
Young
(Wegst 2006).

51
 3.4 (%) (: 1994)


125 500 2000

8 6 6
2 3 5

5 3 3
1 2 2
3 3 2
13 36 70
39 52 59

,
, Q,
(loss angle). : = 1/Q =
/ = tan (Wegst 2006). Q ( Q-1)
(f)
, fr,
. Q = f/fr (Bucur 2006). (Smith 1989)
(i i+1)
, :
= ln(Ai/i+1).

3.5 (L), (R)

(T) (: Ono and Norimoto 1985)

(Q-1)
(Kg/m3)
L R T L R T L R T
Sitka spruce 460 449 454 11,2 23,2 24,4 1 2,10 2,20
Lauan 481 489 478 7,6 19,7 20,3 1 2,59 2,63
Makore 669 673 670 9,5 28,0 33 1 2,95 3,47
Matoa 795 700 674 9,4 27,3 27,5 1 2,91 2,93
Mizunara 630 654 620 107 25,8 28,9 1 2,41 2,70
Yachidamo 570 548 517 8,8 25,1 26,9 1 2,82 3,03

,
.
: QL << QR< QT. 3.5

52
 (Bucur
2006).
. 3.15
.

. ,
(soundboard)
.
(wind instruments) (xylophone bars)
, (violin bows)
(Wegst 2006).

3.15

(: Wegst 2004)

53

,
.
(Wegst 2006).
,

: Z = = / / .
Z,
(Kopac and Sali
2003).

54
 3.3.2

3.3.2.1

(Kitto 2003)

Young , .
, ,
. ,

. ,

,
.
, ,


.



/ ( Young
) (Yano et al. 3.16

1997). , (: Jansson 2002c)

. Young
20:1 (Kitto 2003).
,
(pitch) (damping)
(. 3.16), (Kitto 2003).
(tap tones)

(Wright 1996). ,

55
 .

, ,
(Buksnowitz and Teischinger 2007).

.

. ,
, .
(Bucur 2006).
, ,
.
2 mm. Q
. ,
(Bucur 2006).

(French and Handy 2006).
, , , (.
tan). Young (/)
(Yano et al. 1997).

3.6
(: Richardson 1986)

(Kg/m3) (108 N/m2)
EL ER 2 tan L 2 tan L
406 130 3,8 0,020 0,067
420 111 11,0 0,022 0,058
403 121 9,1 0,021 0,057
518 136 2,4 0,026 0,008
460 150 7,6 0,021 0,064

. ,
(Kitto 2003). ,
(Ono 1989).

56
 3.7 ( )
(: Ono 1983a)
EL QL
() (cm) (Kg/m3) (10 N/m2)
8

P. glehnii 325 62 427 119 164

P. jezoensis 150 52 428 129 171
P. sitchensis 315 137 424 109 137
P. abies 200 60 445 142 177

, ( )
. 3.6

.
(Bucur 2006). (Picea abies)
Ono (1983)
: Picea glehnii Picea jezoensis Picea sitchensis
. 3.7
.

. (Picea excelsa, P. glehnii, P. sitchensis)

(damping coefficient) (Aramaki et
al. undated). ,
(Picea sitchensis)
(Cryptomeria japonica, Chamaecyparis obtusa Thuja plicata). ,
/ , tan
(acoustic-converting efficiency, E/tan

E / 3 / tan 1 / tan ) (Yano and Mukudai 1989).

,
(Tsuja heterophylla) (Thuja plicata) (Bucur 2006).
, (Kitto
2003). ,
Callitropsis nootkatensis (Yellow-cedar), Sequoia sempervirens, (White
Pine) Pseudotsuga (Douglas-fir) (Rowland 2006).

57

(Rowland 2006).
. ,
(Eban 1981, 1991, Jahnel 1981, Douau 1986, Fisher 1986, Richardson
1986) ,
.
3.8.
(Bucur 2006).

(Yano et al. 1997).

3.8
(: Richardson 1986)

(Kg/m3) (108 N/m2)
EL ER 2 tan L 2 tan L
Cordia trichotoma 793 82,4 46,7 0,035 0,04
Swartzia 838 178,3 46,7 0,025 -
Zollernia illicifilia 1,095 267,8 - 0,015 0,03
Piptadenia macrocarpa 824 - 33,2 - 0,04
Machaeriam villosar 909 150,9 20 0,022 0,05
Dalbergia 1,012 76,70 35,60 0,026 -
Ferreira spectabilis 893 230 - 0,019 -
Dalbergia nigra 1,025 167,7 - 0,018 -

,
(Picea abies) 30%
Young , tan
15% 20% .
( Young tan)

(Yano et al. 1995).

(Kitto 2003). ,
(French and Handy 2006). ,
(Swietenia mahogany)
(Wright 1996).

58
 3.3.2.2

(Picea abies) ,
, Acer pseudoplatanus
(Bucur 2006). : Acer platanoides,
Acer saccharum Acer mono.

. ,
. ,
(Ono 1989).
17-18
, , , , . ,

.

(Kitto 2003).

: ,
. , ,

: 1 mm (0,8 2,5
), 3 mm 5 mm (Bucur 2006).
(Bucur et al. 1999)
(>430 Kg/m3) (6000
m/sec),
(<400 Kg/m3) (5000 m/sec).
(Bucur 2006) 25%
(900 280
kg/m3 , 400 kg/m3).
,

. (Bucur 2006). Young

59
 10:1 5:3
(Kitto 2003).

,

Haselfichte,

(. 27) (Schmidt-Vogt
1986, Corona 1990, Bonamini et al. 1991). O
Chiesa (1987)
( 8%) . 27

(L), (: Buksnowitz and Teischinger 2007)
(R) (T) : VLL = 4,450 m/sec, VRR =
2,410 m/sec VTT = 1,290 m/sec. VLL
(440 Kg/m3).

. ,

(Bucur 2006). ,
(Buksnowitz and
Teischinger 2007). (Ono 1989).
, Acer pseudoplatanus ,
,
,
(Bucur 2006).
Leonhardt (1969) (Acer
pseudoplatanus)
:
,
.
Acer pseudoplatanus
(Holz 1974)
(550 700 kg/m3 100 120x108 N/m2, ).

60
 , ,
200-500 Hz (0,9x10-2 1,0x10-2 Acer
pseudoplatanus).
Acer pseudoplatanus
. Bond (1976)
Intsia bakeri (merbau) .
,
mansonia, . (Delgado et al. 1983, de Souza 1983),
(Bamber 1964, 1988, Bariska 1978, OToole and Gilet 1987, Abbott
1987, Dunlop 1988,1989, Bucur and Chivers 1991, Dunlop and Shaw 1991)
.
: )
, (
), ) ,
, ) Cerocarpus ledifolius, )
Acer campestre (rock maple) )
.

Guilandesia echinata (pernambuco)
(Bucur 2006).
pernambuco tan
(Matsunaga et al. 1996). , Manilkara bidentata,
pernambuco.
Piratinera guyanensis,
(Bucur 2006).

3.3.2.3

61
 (
) (Picea abies)
. ,
,
(Picea sitchensis). ,
( Bucovina)
,
.
(Abies alba).
Sequoia sempervirens
, Pseudotsuga (Oregon pine)
(5-7% 4-17% )
(Bucur 2006).

, Holz (1967)
0,7 3 mm.


.

.

(Bucur 2006)
(EL = 200x108 N/m2) (VLL = 5.700 m/sec),
(EL
= 65x108 N/m2 VLL = 3.900 m/sec).
: ) ,
, ) , , (rock maple)
, ) ,
, ,
, )
(casework), ,

62
 (wawa, obeche, limba, Parana pine, makor
sapeli), ) , ,
, Betula maximowicziana , )
, ) ,
, , (Bucur 2006).
,
,

. ,
(Wegst 2006).
,

. Jose Oribe ( ),

. , , Bob
Bennedetto,
.

.
(French and Handy 2006).
Buksnowitz Teischinger (2007)

.

63
 3.3.3

(resonance wood). ,
, ,

.
(
,
),
( , , )
(Bucur 2006).

3.3.3.1

3.3.3.1.2 & -

.
0-90
. (63%) 20.

.
(Smith 1989).

,
.
.
0,7 (Bucur 2006).

/, Q-1 . ,
(Ono 1989).
, (Picea abies)

64

(Di Bella et al. undated).


(. 28). Holz (1984)


,
ER,
tan
( 3.9).


,
. 28
25%. : I , II
(. 3.17) , III , IV , V
, VI (: Holz 1984)

,
.
.

3.9 ( )
(: Holz 1984)
VRR ER Tan

(Kg/m3) (m/sec) (108 N/m2) (10-2)
(mm) (%)
413 1,08 21 1,190 5,9 1,8
528 1,46 26 1,380 10,0 1,8
463 1,64 25 1,110 5,7 1,6
456 2,65 41 510 12,0 2,8

378 4,25 13 730 1,9 2,2

65

(Bucur 2006).
(indented rings)
, , .
. 3.18
(VRR) (VLL)
(VTT). : )
, ) )

(Bucur 2006).

( )
(Romagnoli et al. 2003).

3.17 . 3.18
: I
, II , III , IV , V
, VI (: Holz 1984) (: Chiesa 1987)

/,

66
 Q-1. Q-1
(Ono 1989).

3.3.3.1.3

(. 3.19).
( )
, VLL
. ,
( 3.10). ,
( ) 22 %
( ) 16 %.
VLR/VTR 200-300%
(Bucur 2006).

3.19
(: Bucur 1984)

,

..

67
 (Bucur 2006). , Klein et al. (1986)
1563-1892
, 5-
25 50 . ,

(Leonhardt 1969, Ille 1975, Bariska 1978, Shigo and Roy 1983)

.

3.10 . HT = (Dmax/D) (D-Dmin)

D (: Bucur 1984)
(kg/m3)
(mm) Dmin Dmax D Dmax-Dmin Dmax/Dmin HT
Picea rubens 1975 2,6 351 661 484 310 1,8831 1,29
Picea abies 1756 1,0 292 551 398 259 1,8869 1,46

3.3.3.2 -

3.3.3.2.1

()
(Bucur et al.
2002). 4-5 mm
(Rocaboy and Bucur 1990).

. ,
.
, ,
...
. , ,
(Bucur et al. 2002). ,
Brancheriau et al. (2006)
.

68
 ,
(Schleske 1990). (Brancheriau et
al. 2006) ,
. Beldie (1968)

GRT GTR 50%. ,


(Schleske 2002). ,
,
(Brancheriau et al. 2006).
Schleske (1990)
. ,


.
.
.

,

(Bucur 2006).

3.3.3.2.2

3.11
.
, , (MFA)
(Rocaboy and
Bucur 1990).
LR
MFA S2 (Ono and Norimoto 1984).

69
 MFA ( /)
(tan). ,
(Hori et al. 2002, Obataya et al. 2000). ,
,
(Kitto 2003).

3.11
(: Rocaboy and Bucur 1990)
- (%)
. . . .
. .
(mm) (%) (%)
1,5 23 0,37 38 2,94 11-30 2-9
1,9 25 0,52 35,5 4,08 8-15 1-8
1,3 26 0,58 30 7,95 12-30 4-12

, (Hori et al. 2002)

MFA ( S2 )
.
MFA
: )
r
,
, . r/ )
( MFA = r, ).
,
MFA
.

70
 3.3.3.2.3

3.3.3.2.3.1

(Ca, Si, Na, K, Cl, Mg, Al)

: )
SEM
) EDXA
. , (Picea abies),


(Bucur 2006).

3.3.3.2.3.2

(Obataya and Norimoto 1999) Arundo donax

( )
( ,
) : Young
( ),
, .
Arundo donax,
,
( ).
, pernambuco (Guilandina echinata)

(tan)
(Matsunaga et al. 1999). (Thuja plicata)

() ,
tan / (Yano 1994).

71
 3.3.4

3.3.4.1

(Bucur 2006):

, ,
...

.

. ,

.

, .

3-10 (Bucur 2006).
Kitto (2003)
10-20 ,
20-50 .
, , ,
.

, (resonant) (Kitto 2003).
, ,
(Koberle and Majek 1978)
(2040C)
3-4 .
(70%
) (30%

72
 , ) .
,
.

.
,
, .. (Rowell
1995). ,

() (Bucur 2006).
,
(
) ,

(Bucur 2006).
(Barlow and Woodhouse 1990)

SEM , ,

.

, ,
(Bucur 2006):
) .
) .

.
)
.
Pishik et al. (1971)

.
.

73
 (Fukada et al. 1956) 8, 200,
350, 530, 700, 900, 1200 1300 Young
.
200 .
. Fucada (1965)

,
.

3.3.4.2

. , , 60-65%
8-10% .
.

, .
(Bucur 2006).

) )
A: 34,5C, B: 27,5C, C: 22,5oC A: 34,5C, B: 30,5C, C: 28,5oC, D: 22,5oC
3.20

) ) (: Firth 1988)

O Thompson (1979)
( )
.

74

.

Firth (1988).
(. 3.20)

.
(34,5C) (22,5C).

3.3.4.3

.

.
,
.

44 ,
(Bucur 2006).
Manasevici (1962) :
(20x50x1000 mm) 51
.
15 ,

.
, Inta et al. (2005)


.

.

75
 Sobue Okayasu (1992)
Young (tan)
. free-free flexural vibration
0,015-0,40 mm 100-170 Hz 5 . Young
EL tan
5-15%.

.

: )
)
. ,
(VLL, VRR, VTT) .
, VLL
, VRR VTT (Bucur 2006).

3.3.4.4

(Bucur 2006)
(, ) .
,
,
.
, ,
.
3.12
100% ER/EL
.
(Bucur 2006).

.
. 3.21

76
 15% 505-582 Hz
1,343-1,524 m/sec.
144%,
0,0214 0,052.
(Bucur 2006).

3.12 (Picea sitchensis)

: . (: Ono 1993)
(%)

mm 2,159 2,056 +5
Kg/m3 398 337 +18
(L) Hz 870,3 918,2 -5
(R) Hz 346,3 205,6 +54
EL GPa 7,34 7,22 -3
ER GPa 1,15 0,426 +169
EL/ m/s 18,3 21,6 +18
(L) m/s 4277 4647 -9
ER/ m/s 2,90 1,27 +128
(R) m/s 1,703 1,127 +34
QL-1 - 0,018 0,0079 +48
QR-1 - 0,0359 0,0178 +101
ER/EL - 0,159 0,057 +179
QR-1/QL-1 - 3,04 2,25 +35
Po dB -39,8 -41,5 -4

: () (
) (Minato et al. 1995):

3-5 ,

.
Young
. 3-5 /
.
tan
.

77
 tan
.
ACE (acoustic converting efficiency)
. ACE
90% ACE ,
75% ( ),
.
/ ,
.

3.21
( ) 3
mm, (: Schleske 1998)

78
 3.3.5

. ,
.

3.3.5.1

(Rowell 1995).

3.3.5.1.1

, .

,
(Bucur
2006).
,
in situ ,

. ,


. ,
(Rowell 1995).
(Bucur 2006).

79
 3.3.5.1.2

.
,

.

. .


(Rowell 1995).

(Rowell 1995). (index of acoustic transfer
efficiency) (Huang et al. 2000).
,
,
. ,

.
(methyl methacrylate).

. (
)
. ,
,
, (Rowell
1995).



60 90%.
Young
22-24%,

80
 . , tan 60%
20%, 40%.

. ,
(Bucur 2006).
Picea sitchensis (
) SO2

( 60% 50% ),
: ) 20% Young
(/) ) (tan)
30% 45% (Minato and Yano
1990).

(
). , Young 3%
15% , tan
25% 30% .
( S2
),
(Minato et al.
1990a). ,
.. Fe2(SO4)3 (Yasuda et al. 1993).
,

( ): ) 70%
, )
Young 7% 25%
) tan 35% 55%
(Minato et al. 1990b).
SO2 (Yano
and Minato 1993), - (Bucur 2006).

81
 , ,

. ,
( E L / / tan )
(L/GL)(tanS/tanL).
.
.
,
(Obataya et al. 2000).
(Fulton 1991)

. ,
(
) 30%
Q.

3.3.5.2

(, ...) (tan).
Matsunaga et al. (1999) (
) (Picea sitchensis)
pernambuco (Guilandina echinata)
tan.
.
,
( 9%) (Matsunaga et al. 2000a),
tan .
(Matsunaga et al. 2000b) pernambuco
tan: protosappanin B (
40% ) brazilin.

82
 3.3.5.3

(Picea sitchensis)
120-200C 0,5 16
(Kubojima et al. 1998):
)
. (EL/ ER/),
(GLT/ GRT/), (crystallinity
index)
, ( 120 160C)
200C.
(tanL) , tanR 120C
160 200C.
)
.
,
.
) , ,


.
, 140-180C
(Bucur 2006).

3.3.5.4

Schwarze Schleske (2006)

.
,
.
.

83


.

84
 3.3.6

100-300 (Ono
1989).
,
. , Young

. , ,
,
(Ono 1983b).
(, )
200 , (rosewood)

.
,
.
, .
,
: ) (Old-Growth Species), )
(Fast-Growing Species), ) ) (French and
Handy 2006) .
,
.

.
,
,
.
,
(French and Handy 2006).

85
 3.3.6.1

(Ghelmeziu and Beldie 1969, Haines et al. 1975, Holz 1979a,
Haines 1980, Douau 1986, Firth and Bell 1988, Schumacher 1988, Vaidelich and
Besnainou 1989, Decker 1991, Besnainou 2000).


(Bucur 2006).

3.13
(: Holz 1979b)
Young (GPa) //
// (m/s)
// 7,6-11,20 9,4 4.590
//
// // 9,4-12,0 10,8 4.320
// // 11,0-13,1 11,9 4.850
// // 11,6-14,0 12,9 -
// 0,80-0,90 0,8 4.320
// 1,2-1,7 1,4 -

. 29
.
(French and Handy 2006). ,
3.13

.

.

(650 Kg/m3),
(Bucur 2006).

86
 .
: ) , , )
)
(French and Handy 2006).
, , Haines et al. (1975),

, ,
.

. 29 . 30

(: French and Handy 2006)
(: Yano et al. 1997)

, Yano et al. (1997)

(Cryptomeria
japonica) :
.
,
4 mm.
(/, tan)
. ,
. ,
(. 30)
.

87
 ,

(French and Handy 2006).

3.3.6.2

60 .
.
70.
( 5 m).
3000

(Hiller undated).

.
, .
,
. ,
,

(Hiller undated).
Ono Isomura (2004)



,
(Picea sitchensis). 3.22


CF(L)/UF-
CF(R)/UF-
UF-
( (: Ono and Isomura 2004)

88
 (.
3.22). . 3.23


.
EL
GLR

.
, 3.23

A- , B- ,
C- -
. D-
E-
F-
(: Ono and Isomura 2004)

(Rowland 2006):

- ( -
Young
) -
-

-
-
- -

89
 3.4

. ,

( 1984).

3.4.1

. (Jansson 1983b)
.

(. 3.24):
) Chladni (Chladni patterns):
Chladni .
,
.

, . ,

,
. (Richardson 1990).
) (modal analysis):


(Richardson 1990). (Brown 2004)


. (Elejabarrieta et al. 2002)

90
 (..
finite-element).
) (response curves):

.
.
, Q (Wright
1996).
) (Holographic interferometry):
.

.
:

. .

.
(Wright 1996,
Richardson 1990).
) finite-element (finite-element analysis):

.
. ( )
.

( ) .
,
.
(virual basis)
. ,

, (Brown 2004, Richardson 1990,
Wright 1996).

91
 (Chaigne et al. 2002, Derveaux et al. 2003, Elejabarrieta et al. 2002a, Elejabarrieta
et al. 2002b, Ezcurra et al. 2005).
) boundary element (boundary element method):
,
(. . 3.41).

3.24

. Chladni (: Richardson 1990), . (: Elejabarrieta et al.
2000), . (: Richardson 1990), )
(: Wright 1996) ) finite-element (: Ezcurra et al. 2005)

, ,
.
: )
, ) )
.

( 1984).

92
 3.4.2
(Plucked String Instruments)

(guitar),
, , ...

. ,
.

3.4.2.1

(. 3.25) : (
2, 2, D3, G3, 3, 4), ( )
( ).
( )

() (Jansson 1983b).
360 .

(Nackaerts 2003).
, ,
, .
.
(Jansson 1983b).
, .
, ,
.
. ,

(Jansson 1983b).

, ,

93
 , .
, ,
,
(Jansson 1983b).
-
,

(Meyer 1983).
,
. (19-20
)
(Wright 1996).
. 3.26 .
.
.
. ,
(Jansson 1983b).

.
.
, 1,2,3 ...
, (. 3.27, .
3.28).
( 1982).
Childere (1984)
, (. 3.29).

:

Y = [ ( L / 2) 2 ( L / 2 X ) ] [C1 C 2 + ( X X 0 ) 2 + Y0 ] (1)
2

: L:
C1, C2, Xo, Yo: . 3.29.

94
 3.25

(: Sloane 1976)

95


.
, .
. ,
,
(Wright 1996).

3.27

.
(: 1990)

96
 b = (20/27)a =
(5/9)(4/3)a
c = (5/9)a 0,125
c = (3/4)b + 0,1
d = (21/44)b =
(3/4)(7/11)b
e = (c 2 a 2 )
f = a/5
g = c/2
j = e/2
A = 20o, B = 30o

= ,
65cm
(Torres)
b =

c =

d =
e =

3.28

(: 1982)

L C1 C2 X0 Y0
(cm) (cm-1) (cm) (cm)
Conde 48,51 0,0291 2,388 28,19 0,53
Hauser 47,75 0,0264 0,178 28,45 0,42
Sloan 48,51 0,0240 0,079 28,70 0,48
Torres 47,75 0,0260 0,635 28,45 0,42
Wallo 49,02 0,0264 4,216 28,19 0,42
Flat Top 50,80 0,0028 4,166 29,97 0,45
Uke 23,37 0,3937 4,953 13,46 0,40
3.29

(1) (: 1990)

97
 3.4.2.2

. ,
,
. ,
, , .

.
.
( . 3.30
).
.

(Jansson 1983b).

3.30
(: Jansson 1983b)

, ,
. ,

,

.
,
.

.

98
 3.31
( 1984)

. 3.31 .
.

.
.
.
, , .
,
.
(

,
- Fletcher 1999),
.

,
( 1984, 1992).
McIntyre Woodhouse (1978)

. : )
, ) ) .
,
.

99

.

3.4.2.2.1

.
.

(French and Hosler 2001).
, ,
. , , .

(. 3.32).

.
.

. ,
, (Jansson 1983a).

. 3.32 .
, 1/3, 1/6
1/10 . , ,

. :

.

. ,

100
 ... , ,
...

3.32
. : 4
( ). :
. : 4
( ). :

(: Jansson 1983a)

1/3 ,
, , , ,
...
1/6 , ...

101
 1/10 ,
... .
1/3 1/10 . ,

(Jansson 1983a).

, ..
(. 3.33).


,
.



.
3.33


.
(: Jansson 1983a)

(Jansson 1983a).

,
(. 3.34).
. ,
:

.
,

102


.

,

(Jansson 1983a).

3.34

3.4.2.2.2 (: Jansson 1983a)

. Torres, ,
,

(French and Handy 2006).

.


. ,
(French and
Handy 2006).
Q
, ,
. , ( 1kHz)


(resonance continuum).

,
. , (. 3.35)
.

103
 ,
(Wright 1996).

3.35
: a) Torres, b) , c) Bouchet
(: Wright 1996)

, ,
.
, .
. 31
(
).
(Jansson 1983b). ,

,


(Richardson 1990).
,

(. ).
Meyer
.

.

104
. , ,
. ,

(Jansson 1983b).

. 31
)
185 Hz, ) 285 Hz, ) 460 Hz, ) 510 Hz, ) 645 Hz.
, (: Jansson 2002a)

(Jansson 1983b)

( . 3.36). ,

( )
. ,
()

.
(
).

( ) (
) . ,

. . 3,36d
. , ,

105
 (. 3.36e)
.
,
(Jansson 1983b).

,
.
, ,
,

. ,

.

.

,



. ,

, 3.36

a)1 , b) 2 ,
c) 3 , d) 4 ,
e) 5 (: Jansson 1983b)
, (Jansson 1983b).
,
,
( 1984). , (
)
(Inta and Smith 2003).
(lutherie) (
). . 3.37

106
 .

(Elejabarrieta et al. 2000).


,

.
Chladni ,
.


(
- 3.37

).
(: Elejabarrieta et al. 2000)
(0,05 mm) (Inta and Smith
2003).

3.4.2.2.3

, .
, ,
.
. ,
(Wright 1996).

3.4.2.2.4

, ,
.

107
 (269 Hz, 350Hz)
(. 3.38). ,

. ,

, ,
(Meinel and Jansson 1991).

3.38

(: Meinel and Jansson 1991)

3.4.2.2.5

,
.

. . 3.39
(Wright 1996).

. ,
.
370 Hz .

108



(Jansson
1983b).


Helmholtz
100 Hz.
,

( 1984). 3.39

.


(: Jansson 1977)

3.4.2.2.6

,


.

.



3.40
,
(: Wright 1996)

.
,
.

109
 ,
. ,

.
,
x, y z (. 3.40). x
.
2 .
y ,
3 . z
1 .

.

,
.
(Wright 1996).

3.4.2.2.7 ,

Meyer (1982)

.
(Wright 1996)

.
,
(,
) ,
.
,

110
. ,
.
.
,

(Wright 1996).

. ,


.
,
,
(Wright 1996).

3.4.2.2.8

,
.
.


. ,

.
, .

.

,
.
(. 3.41). ,

111

.
.

.

.


. ,
(Wright
1996).

, ,
.


.

(Richardson 1990).
,
.

. 1 KHz
. 1 2 KHz
.
2 3 KHz
.
,
.
.
. ,

112

(Wright 1996).

3.41
BEM
(Boundary Element Method).
2,5 .
: a) 98, 182 218 Hz (T(1,1) triplet), (b) 244 Hz, (c) 434 Hz, (d) 506 Hz,
(e) 612 Hz, (f) 672 Hz. (: Brooke 1992)

113
 3.4.2.3

, ,
.
,
.
.


. ,

(Meyer 1983).
(Meyer 1983):
1 (Q1).
2 (L2).
3 (L3).
3 (Q3).
3 (L3).

.
80 125 Hz (L80m125).
H 250 400 Hz (L250m400).
H 315 500 Hz (L315m500).

3 .
80 1000 Hz
(L80m1000).
800 1250 Hz (L800m1250).
,
1250 Hz.

(Meyer 1983). Boullosa (2002)

114

(1-20 kHz) .

3.4.2.3.1

, ,
.
: ) , )
)
.
.
, ,
.


.
, 1250 Hz
. ,
,
.


.

(a)
(. 3.42).
s = a/n,
n

. 3.42
80 125 (: Meyer 1983)

Hz (L80m125) ,

115
 .
, ,
80 125 Hz (L80m125) 1 dB
.

3.43

+ , - , 0 (: Meyer 1983)

. 3.43
. :
1) .
,
3 .
.
2)

3 .
3)
.

116
4)
.
5) 4,5 cm.

6 cm .

3.44

: + , - , 0 (: Meyer 1983)

6) (. 8-10 cm
)

.

117
 7) 12 14 cm
,
.
8) 16 cm
.

. . 3.44

( )

(Meyer 1983).

3.4.2.3.2

, ,
. ,
,
. 8 16 cm
.

3.45
(: Meyer 1983)

118
 . 3.45
.
.
(a/l 0,1 3 cm )
(a/l 0,65 19 cm ). ,
(L800m1250) ,
. a/l 0,6
: ,
.
Q1 .

3.46
(: Meyer 1983)

. . 3.46

. , (6 )
b/l 0,58 0,60 (.
16 cm)
. b/l 0,6 - 0,87
. ,
( 1000 Hz) b/l
0,3 ( 8 cm )
(Meyer 1983).

119
 Shlychkov (2003)
- .
- . ,

,
.
, , Rimsky-Korsakov (1952)
.

3.4.2.3.3

, ,
75 mm 50 mm.
30 mm.
,
.


.

. ,
. . 3.47
.
( )
.
.
, ,
. F,

.

120
 .
.
. 3.47 B E

. 1/3
B.
,
,
. G F,
.
, 1/3
( ).

3.47

+ , - , 0 (: Meyer 1983)

G
,
.

121
 F
. ,
250 400 Hz (L250m400)
Q1 (Meyer 1983).

3.4.2.3.4

:

(Meyer 1983).
: Meyer (1983)
.
80 1000 Hz (L80m1000)
.

.
, , (Weber 2005)

.
. ,

.
( )
. ,
,

.
:
,
. ,
,

122
 .

.
(
)
. ,
(
)
.
. ,

:
,
(Kopac and Sali 2003).






3.48
. 3.48.

(: French and Handy 2006)

. 3.48,
.

. ,

. , . 3.48
.
,

. 3.48 (Wright 1996, French and Handy 2006).

123
 3.4.3 2

3.4.3.1

, .

3.4.3.1.1

(.32). ,
(2-2,5 mm),
( 15)
(. 33)
(. 34)
(. 35). (
) .
, (solera)
(. 36)
. ,
Kerfing,
(. 37).
.
(. 38)
(. 39 & 40).

3.4.3.1.2

(. 41)
7 mm , (. 42).
,
3 mm (. 43)

2
:
, ,
: www.diynetwork.com, http://community.middlebury.edu, www.hoffmanguitars.com,
http://mysite.verizon.net/nostberg www.schrammguitars.com

124
 (
book matching ).

,
(. 44 & 45).

(. 46).
( 1,8-2,5 mm)
. ,
(1,9 mm) (2,2
mm).
, (. 47)
(. 48
& 49) (. 50). ,
(. 51)
(. 52)
.
- .

3.4.3.1.3

,


(. 53 & 54). ,
(. 55)
(. 56) (. 57).

(. 58).
, ,
,

.

125
 (. 59 & 60). ,

(. 61).

3.4.1.3.4

solera,
. ,
,
Kerfing

. (. 62)

(
-. 63 & 64).
(. solera)
,
(. 65). . ,
. 66 , Kerfing,

-
. ,
, (.67).

3.4.1.3.5

Kerfing

(. 68, 69 & 70).

126
 3.4.1.3.6

(. 71).

(. 72).

,
(. 73). , ,
(. 74). , ,

(. 75). . 76
. , (

).

3.4.3.2

, .
(. 77)
(. 78).
, (. 79)
. 80.
() (. 81)
(. 82). ,
(. 83)
(. 84-87).
. .
88 .

127
 3.4.3.3

,
, (. 89)
(. 90 & 91).
(
65 cm)
. , (. 92 & 93)
(. 94).

3.4.3.4 - -

.

.

3.4.3.4.1

,
, (.
95).
(.
96). ,
(. 97-100).

3.4.3.4.2

, (. 101 & 102)

(. 103) (. 104 & 105).

128
. 32 . 33 . 34 . 35

. 36 . 37 . 38 . 39

. 40 . 41 . 42 . 43

129
. 44 . 45 .46 . 47

. 48 . 49 . 50 . 51

. 52 . 53 . 54 . 55

130
. 56 . 57 .58 . 59

. 60 . 61 . 62 . 63

. 64 . 65 . 66 . 67

131
. 68 . 69 . 70 . 71

. 72 . 73 . 74 . 75

. 76 . 77 . 78 . 79

132
. 80 . 81 . 82 . 83

. 84 . 85 . 86 . 87

. 88 . 89 . 90 . 91

133
. 92 . 93 . 94 . 95

. 96 . 97 . 98 . 99

. 100 . 101 . 102 . 103

134
. 104

. 105

135
 3.4.4
(Bowed String Instruments)

.
: (violin), (viola), (violoncello)
(double bass).
. . 3.49
( 1984).

. .

3.49
(: 1984)

136
 3.4.4.1

G3 (3), D4 (4), A4 (4) E5
(5).
(soundboards)
( )


(. 3.50). (
)
(post)
.
3.50
(: 1990)
,
(bass-bar).
f - . ,
, (
1984).


,

(Jansson
et al. 1993). ,


(Jansson 2002b). . 3.51

.
3.51
( mm)
(130 mm) (: Jansson 2002b)

137
 (327 mm),
(Jansson 2002b).

3.4.4.2

.
,

.
(
) ,
.
.

.

. ,
,
, .

.
(pizzicato).
,

(fingerboard). ,
.
, , f-

.
.

138
 . 106
( 1990).

()

()

. 106

(: 1990)

139
 3.4.5
(Struck String Instruments)

.
, .
, ( 1984).

3.4.5.1

.
27,5
4.186 Hz 0 8,
. : (.
3.52).
( 1984).

( 1984).
243 . ( 2 )
, ( 5 cm)
(Lehtonen 2005). 300.000
400.000 p/ ( 1990).
.
.
.
,
.
(Lehtonen 2005).
( 1984).
88 7,25 .
8 5
( 1990).
.
( 8 3) ,

140
 , . 2 1
. , 1
0 .
( 3)
, 3
( 1984).

.
,


.


. ,

3.52 ,
:
) (: Lehtonen 2005)
) (: 1984)
,
( 1984).

3.4.5.2

141
 , .
,
(Lehtonen 2005).
( 1984).
,
.
(
) (Lehtonen 2005).

142
 3.5

.
, .
, - (2500 ..)
, , (19 )
(20 ). ,
: , ,
, 1709,
.
,
( , , , ),
( , )
( , ).


. ..
, .

.
,
, ,
.
, ,
, . ,


.
,
.

.

143
 (.. ,
...), (.. ,
).

144
 4.

4.1

: )
. ,


( ), .
, )
)
.

4.2

4.2.1 -

35 (. 1),
, . , 12
( 80 cm, 10 cm 6 cm)
,


.

. 1

,

34 cm, 4 - 5 cm 3,5

145
mm.
2,8 mm ( .
).
, , ()
( 1,16 - 3,20 mm) ( 4,41 -
5,77 mm) (. 2),

9,3 %.

. 2
() ()

. ,

( ).

.
,
:
(. . 1).

SHIMADZU (
. 3) :

: )
(1,350 Kg), ) 1,200 Kg, ) 0,500 Kg ) 0,360 Kg
(. 4)

146
 (. 5).

.

. 3 . 4 . 5

,
20 cm,
.




(. 6).

. 6

: 1,350 Kg
( )
3,410 Kg .
(, ) .
, (
)
(. . 1).

147

( 1994): E = P l 3 / 4 D b d 3 , :
= (N/mm2)
P = ()
l = (mm)
D = (mm)
b = (mm)
d = (mm)
, , ,
(. 7).
( , )
Rakoll ( )

(. 8).

( ).

SPSS v.15.

. 7 . 8

148
 4.2.2

:
( ) 15 ,
.
,
( ,
).

, (,
) ( ).
(..
, ...)
.
( ) 30 ,
.
,
(, , ...) :
, ,
, -
. ,

.
.
(
) ,
.
.
, ,
.
( )
( ).
( )

149
 .
,

.

150
 4.3

4.3.1

/ (
) (specific Youngs
modulus),

(Hori et al. 2002, Ono and
Norimoto 1984, Yano et al. 1990). ,
(. ) (Bucur 2006)
(. ) (Haines et al. 1977)
.

4.1 ( ) ,
,
.
/ /
( . ( .
) )
1 , 0,408 0,353
g/cm3 (0,0221) (0,0165)
2 . ., 2,04 4,86
mm (0,824) (0,343)
3 .., 13240,84 10713,31
N/mm2 (1367,52) (930,36)
4 .., 32362,66 30351,95
*cm3/g*mm2 (2099,04) (1965,78)

4.1 (, )
, ,
, (..)
. 1 2
( ). : )
, )
, ) )
.

151
 )

. 4.1
.
, 4
mm
. ,
82,19% (R2 = 0,8219)
,
.

16000
(N/mm2)

15000
14000
13000
12000
11000
y = 298,74x 2 - 2861,2x + 17600
10000
R2 = 0,8219
9000
8000
0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00
(mm)

4.1

.

(. 4.2).


(R2 = 0,8523). 1 mm 5 mm
, 5 mm .

152
 0,46
0,44

(g/cm 3)
0,42
0,4
0,38
0,36
0,34 y = 0,0041x2 - 0,0461x + 0,4811
R2 = 0,8523
0,32
0,3
0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00
(mm)

4.2

.

. 4.3 :
.
82,24% (R2 = 0,8224)
.

16000

15000

14000

(N*cm3 /g*mm2)

13000

12000

11000

10000 y = 107962x 2 - 37108x + 10337

9000 R2 = 0,8224

8000
0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45
(g/cm )
3

4.3

.

153
 )

,
. 4.4

,

42,84% (R2 = 42,84%) ,
. ,
4 mm,
, 4 mm
.

37000

35000
(N*cm 3/g*mm 2)

33000

31000

29000

27000 y = 392,57x2 - 3346,8x + 37306

R2 = 0,4284
25000
0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00
(mm)

4.4

.

Di Bella et al. (undated),

(Picea abies)

M ,

= 4 L E R / 3 ( L, ER
).
.

154
 4.3.2

4.2 ,
,
3 ( ).
4.3
( ),
t-test, 95%.

4.2 ( ) ,
.
/ / ( )
( . ( .
) )
1 , 0,405 0,348
g/cm3 (0,0226) (0,0159)
3 .., 13106,70 10495,06
N/mm2 (1379,63) (853,21)
4 .., 32343,33 30190,13
*cm3/g*mm2 (2060,13) (1838,62)

0,386
0,382.
(. ,

) t-test t = 0,547
0,907>0,05, . ,

t-test
t = 0,402 0,921>0,05 t = 0,143
0,887>0,05 . ,
.
t-test
(.
:

155
 ) t = 19,091 0,000<0,05,
0,004

.
) t = 5,766
0,000<0,05, 167,79
.
) t = 1,046
0,303>0,05 76,33
.

. 4.5, 4.6 4.7,
,
.


. ,
, .
.

4.3 (t-test) ,

95%.
.O. .O.
. .
. .

0,316- 0,386 0,382 0,907 0,000
3
(g/cm ) 0,435
. . 9313,95- 12229,83 12062,04 0,921 0,000
(N/mm2) 15145,91
. . 26910,80- 31558,38 31482,05 0,887 0,303
(N*cm3/g*mm2) 35476,40

156
 0,44

0,42

0,4
(g/cm)
3

0,38

0,36

0,34

0,32

0,3
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34

4.5

16000

15000
(N/mm)

14000
2

13000

12000

11000

10000

9000

8000
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34

4.6

157
 (N*cm/g*mm )
2 37000

35000
3

33000

31000

29000


27000

25000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35

4.7

158
 4.3.3

:

.
,
.

. , .
, , , ,
, .

.
, ,
4.4.
(
) - 3 ,
.


.

:
) :
(.. ).
.

3

( )
.

159
 ) Titebond: ()
.
) Rakoll, Atlacol: . (
) .
) (.. logo).
(
, ,
)
. , ,

.
. , .
,
, .
.

.
.
, ,

, .
.

6 4 5 .

,
. ,
, .

160
 4.4 , ,
(cm)
(Picea abies)
50x20x0,5
80x70 --
(Dalbergia spp.) 150x40x0,8 -
50x20x0,5
(Thuja spp.)
50x20x0,5 -
(Acer spp.) 60x40x0,8 ---
50x20x0,5 --
60x40 ---
(Swietenia spp.) 50x20x0,5
(Morus spp.) 60x40x0,8 ---
60x40 ---
(Prunus avium) 60x40x0,8 ---
60x40 ---
(Pyrus communis) 60x40x0,8 ---
60x40 ---
(Juglans regia) /
(Abies spp.)
(Diospyros ebenum)
(Tilia spp.)
Zebrano (Microberlinia brazzavillensis)
Wenge (Milletia laurentii)
Ovangole

161
 .

) :

.
. ,
.

( )
.
:
, , ,
, .
,
..
, .
, ,
.
,

.
-
. ,
, .

.
.
. -

162
 . . 4.8
-
. ,
-
. ( ,
)
.

4.8
-

(. -
). -
. , 1,8
2,8 mm .
, .

, .
,

( 8) .

) :

. ,
. ,

163

. , , ,
, .
2 3,5 mm
. ,
(
).
,
.
.

. ,
.

) :

( ) .
.
1,8 3,5 mm,
.
,
.

) , , ,
:

.
, . ,
, ,
, (
), . ,

164

.
,
.

) :

20 30 .
2-3 ( ),

.

(, , ),
. ,
.
,
.

165
 4.4

)

:

( 2.500 ..)
20
.
( )
( ) ,
( 25%).
, , , ,
, ,


.

, ,
.

, .

.

. ,

.
.

.

166

.

) :

, ,

.
,
,

.
.
,

,
,

.
4 mm
,
4 mm
(.. ..)
.

.

. ,
,

.

167
 )
:

. .
,
( ).
(, Titebond, Rakoll, Atlacol
),
.

,
.
, :
) :
) : ( )
) : ( )
) :
) :
) :
) : ,
(-)

.

( ).
.

.

168
 SUMMARY

SUITABILITY OF WOOD OF VARIOUS FOREST SPECIES IN CONSTRUCTION

OF STRING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AND PARTICULARLY OF GUITAR.

GEORGE KOSMIDIS

Wood is a material that is used widespread in construction of string musical instruments

and so as for the guitar. The most important acoustical properties of wood are: sound
velocity, characteristic impedance, sound radiation coefficient and loss coefficient.
Measuring these properties can be used to decide if a wood piece is suitable or not for
string musical instrument construction. The guitars roots are in the Mid East (2.500
B.C.) and it acquired its final shape in Spain (in 20th century). The properties of a wood
species required for the construction of the various parts of the guitar, are different.
Soundboard, which is made usually from spruce, plays the most important role in the
quality of produced sound. A good quality soundboard must be very stiff (large
Youngs modulus E) and must have small density . That means that the ratio E/
(specific Youngs modulus) must be as high as possible. Soundboard must have also
low characteristic impedance, low loss coefficient and big elastic and acoustic
anisotropy. Antonio Torres was the first lutherie that emphasized the importance of
soundboard construction. In this study there is initially an analytical representation of:
a) Wood species used in making string musical instruments: each instrument is made
from different wood species, b) Resonance woods structure and substructure:
resonance wood has regular growth ring pattern. Its growth rings are straight and
narrow and the relative proportion of latewood hardly exceeds 25%. The presence of
short, structurally homogeneous and not very numerous rays is another significant point
of resonance wood. Tracheids, not abundant axial paratracheal parenchyma, small
microfibril angle, homogeneous mineral distribution, small and scarce crystals and
extractives affect also woods acoustic quality positively, c) Parameters that influence
acoustic properties of wood: natural aging, environmental conditions, long-term loading
and varnishing, d) Methods of acoustic properties improvements of solid guitar and
substitutes: methods which are used are chemical or thermal treatment, use of

169
extractives and treatment with fungi. Substitutes that can be used are wood composites
and carbon fiber synthetic wood and e) String musical instrument construction and
function (especially for the guitar): guitar construction comprises of pretty enough steps
and every part of the guitar plays its role in sound production. Sound radiation from the
guitar is a very complicated procedure that depends on many construction parameters.
The experimental part of this study includes the investigation of possible relationship
between growth ring width and acoustic properties of spruce (from Rumania) used in
guitar soundboard construction and the investigation of adhesives (used in soundboard
manufacture) influence on sound quality. Results showed that growth ring width and
adhesives do not really affect the acoustic properties of wood. More specifically,
increase of growth ring width resulted in a decrease of Youngs modulus and density.
Increase of density resulted in an increase of Youngs modulus and specific Youngs
modulus (which is an index of woods acoustic quality) of specimens with narrow
growth rings was found to be slightly bigger, but this result wasnt statistically
significant. In contrast, increase of growth ring width up to 4 mm was found to cause a
small but obvious increase of specific Youngs modulus. On the other hand, adhesives
caused a small increase of density and Youngs modulus, while specific Youngs
modulus remained unchanged. Finally, we prepared, sent and analyzed a questionnaire
for lutheries, not to acquire statistical data but to get useful information in string musical
instrument construction (especially in guitar). The conclusions came out of this
questionnaire are the following: a) guitar construction is more difficult in comparison
with other string instrument construction, b) wood that lutheries use is well dried and
comes from old trees c) lutheries usually use: spruce or cedar for soundboard, rosewood
for back and sides, ebony for fingerboard and cedar (or mahogany) for neck, d) they
also use various adhesives (Titebond, Rakoll etc.), e) they varnish the guitar by hand
using shellac except fingerboard (it is applied by paraffin-oil), f) the arrangement of
soundboard bracing depends on the preferences and experimentations of each guitar
maker, g) finally, guitars quality affected by the moisture of woods which are used and
guitar playing.

170


v Abbott, J. 1987. Mountain mahogany, a domestic alternate for ebony. J Catgut

Acoust Soc Ser 1(48):32.

v , ., , . 1989. .
. .

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193


1, 2, 3

194
 1

(gr) (cm) (cm) (cm) (g/cm3) . . (mm) . (mm)
(1) 17,033 34,000 4,357 0,287 0,401 14 41,27 2,95
(1) 17,395 34,000 4,357 0,291 0,404 12 38,35 3,20
(2) 18,536 34,020 5,006 0,288 0,378 18 48,27 2,68
(2) 18,494 34,000 5,003 0,286 0,380 17 46,01 2,71
(2) 17,472 33,980 5,011 0,263 0,391 17 45,99 2,71
.

(2) 18,426 34,060 5,012 0,282 0,383 18 48,83 2,71

(3) 18,338 34,050 5,010 0,277 0,388 15 44,12 2,94
(3) 18,285 34,020 5,010 0,283 0,379 16 48,22 3,01
(3) 18,429 34,050 5,009 0,283 0,382 15 46,03 3,07
(3) 18,559 34,050 5,015 0,282 0,385 17 47,12 2,77
(4) 20,213 34,000 5,010 0,285 0,416 38 47,75 1,26
(4) 20,956 34,020 5,004 0,283 0,435 42 48,95 1,17
(4) 19,639 34,050 5,005 0,266 0,434 39 48,63 1,25
(5) 20,736 34,030 5,003 0,284 0,429 38 46,89 1,23
(5) 20,290 34,030 5,006 0,282 0,422 38 48,41 1,27
(5) 20,624 34,050 4,999 0,281 0,432 39 49,29 1,26
(5) 20,387 34,000 4,997 0,282 0,425 42 48,69 1,16
(6) 17,757 34,020 4,353 0,282 0,426 28 41,46 1,48
(6) 17,740 34,000 4,350 0,278 0,432 30 41,05 1,37
(6) 17,864 34,050 4,350 0,282 0,427 29 40,01 1,38
(6) 18,102 34,010 4,353 0,284 0,431 30 39,85 1,33
(1) 14,983 34,000 4,357 0,281 0,360 7 40,41 5,77
.

(2) 17,313 34,020 5,006 0,284 0,358 9 46,54 5,17

(3) 16,918 34,020 4,994 0,280 0,356 9 42,01 4,67
(3) 17,096 34,040 4,996 0,280 0,359 10 46,41 4,64
(3) 17,126 33,998 5,005 0,284 0,354 10 44,07 4,41
(4) 16,077 34,000 5,002 0,277 0,341 9 42,68 4,74
(4) 16,398 34,000 5,003 0,280 0,345 9 42,42 4,71
(5) 14,809 34,020 3,997 0,286 0,381 6 30 5,00
(6) 13,766 34,020 3,994 0,282 0,360 7 33,64 4,81
(6) 13,919 34,000 3,996 0,286 0,358 7 34,3 4,90
(6) 13,850 34,000 4,005 0,284 0,358 7 35,54 5,08
(6) 13,428 34,000 4,000 0,268 0,369 7 34,98 5,00
(7) 13,514 34,000 4,351 0,285 0,321 8 36,26 4,53
(7) 13,483 34,080 4,351 0,284 0,321 8 36,7 4,59

195
 2
b d . l P D E . .
(mm) (mm) (mm) () (mm) (N/mm2) (*cm3/g*mm2)
(1) 43,560 2,870 200 20,188 3,310 11845,730 29567,8
(1) 43,550 2,893 200 20,188 3,270 11709,600 28996,7
(2) 50,040 2,850 200 20,188 2,930 11896,080 31508,78
(2) 49,940 2,870 200 20,188 2,800 12214,370 32132,29
(2) 50,110 2,687 200 20,188 3,190 13019,830 33318,01
(2) 50,110 2,860 200 20,188 2,770 12434,290 32483,95
(3) 50,140 2,763 200 20,188 3,100 12315,010 31777,37
(3) 50,130 2,840 200 20,188 3,090 11379,210 29987,55
(3) 50,000 2,817 200 20,188 3,060 11805,140 30873,36
(3) 50,100 2,773 200 20,188 3,220 11737,620 30466,09
(4) 50,070 2,820 200 20,188 2,490 14441,060 34718,48
(4) 49,980 2,853 200 20,188 2,310 15059,470 34635,29
(4) 50,010 2,683 200 20,188 2,760 15145,910 34936,4
(5) 49,990 2,820 200 20,188 2,390 15069,360 35138,3
(5) 49,970 2,777 200 20,188 2,520 14972,200 35476,4
(5) 50,000 2,820 200 20,188 2,410 14941,320 34612,47
(5) 49,910 2,820 200 20,188 2,470 14604,660 34358,74
(6) 43,590 2,807 200 20,188 3,350 12501,560 29357,6
(6) 43,520 2,757 200 20,188 3,230 13706,340 31723,83
(6) 43,500 2,840 200 20,188 3,070 13198,990 30892,23
(6) 43,540 2,830 200 20,188 2,910 14059,910 32654,25
(1) 43,590 2,810 200 20,188 3,930 10622,460 29514,05
(2) 50,070 2,823 200 20,188 3,200 11201,160 31303,09
(3) 49,920 2,800 200 20,188 3,380 10900,790 30620,36
(3) 49,880 2,790 200 20,188 3,370 11059,980 30840,47
(3) 50,060 2,810 200 20,188 3,540 10268,580 28975,44
(4) 50,030 2,753 200 20,188 3,980 9718,317 28486,9
(4) 50,060 2,797 200 20,188 3,840 9598,952 27840,66
(5) 39,920 2,820 200 20,188 4,390 10273,560 26977,21
(6) 39,880 2,770 200 20,188 4,040 11790,910 32782,06
(6) 39,880 2,807 200 20,188 3,920 11677,630 32620,32
(6) 40,030 2,807 200 20,188 3,930 11604,270 32422,1
(6) 39,960 2,700 200 20,188 4,190 12251,590 33217,61
(7) 43,450 2,820 200 20,188 4,270 9704,168 30277,3
(7) 43,410 2,827 200 20,188 4,420 9313,948 29049,73

196
 3 ,
.
(g/cm3)
(N/mm2) (*cm3/g*mm2)
(1) 0,39398 11832,03 30032,08
(1) 0,398733 11747,97 29463,28
(2) 0,372715 11731,98 31477,1
(2) 0,37638 11800,93 31353,74
(2) 0,386241 12822,09 33197,17
.

(2) 0,376714 11978,68 31797,79

(3) 0,38186 12196,61 31939,97
(3) 0,375046 11302,28 30135,7
(3) 0,380104 11678,82 30725,35
(3) 0,382532 11665,74 30496,09
(4) 0,413374 14478,36 35024,83
(4) 0,430918 15047,02 34918,5
(4) 0,430295 14875,06 34569,43
(5) 0,425547 15023,15 35303,15
(5) 0,41925 14540,08 34681,16
(5) 0,427767 14907,99 34850,76
(5) 0,419375 14409,95 34360,59
(6) 0,424344 12242,19 28849,65
(6) 0,428489 13797,79 32201,01
(6) 0,424196 13174,78 31058,25
(6) 0,426771 13987,15 32774,36
(1) 0,352486 10205,98 28954,25
.

(2) 0,351725 10905,01 31004,31

(3) 0,35167 10639,07 30252,95
(3) 0,352748 10804,03 30628,16
(3) 0,349517 10166,74 29087,96
(4) 0,335877 9640,206 28701,61
(4) 0,339161 9492,643 27988,64
(5) 0,374663 10082,48 26910,8
(6) 0,355457 11385,85 32031,56
(6) 0,353287 11417,04 32316,62
(6) 0,352872 11756,99 33318,02
(6) 0,362211 11665,69 32206,84
(7) 0,316211 9452,621 29893,43
(7) 0,317248 9316,503 29366,62

197