PHYSICAL CLIMATOLOGY by Reinaldo E, Chohfii U.C.L.A. Seography 199 Instructor: Dr. Werner H. TerjungThis paper is a condensed report of the book entitled "Physical Climatology", by Willian D. Sellers, The book was based on textes published by M.I. Budyko and R. Geiger. The content outline, grephs and tables presented here are basically those found in Sellers! book. The main objective in writting this paper was to acquaint myself with the basic concepts and nature of the mathematical equations related to Physical Climatology. This wes done in order to prepare myself to take a course on Advanced Climatology under Dr. W. H. Terjung curing the fall quarter of 1982. The mathematical cerivations of many equations were omitted since they are found in Sellers book. Only those Gerivations that are of wy special interest were inclucec in this paper.CONTENTS: Solar Radiation Infrared Radiation The Radiation Balance The Water Balance anc the Hydrological Cycle The Energy Balance Heat Transfer in Soil ConclusionSOLAR RADIATION The sun provides about 99.97% of the heat energy required for the physical processes taking place in the earth- atmosphere system. The basic unit of energy, in the metric system, is one 15°C aram-calorie(cal). Energy per unit ares is expressed in Langley(ly) or Kilolangley(kly =1000 ly). One Langley is equivalent to 1 cal/em. The sun radiates approximately 56 x 10cal of energy each minute, Not all of this amount reaches the outer boundary of the earth's atmosphere, Measurements of the flux of solar radiation taken on top of the earth's atmosphere have determined the solar constant (S$). The solar constant (S) is defined as the flux of solar radiation et the outer boundary of the earth's atmosphere that is received on a surface hel¢ perpendicular to the sun's direction at the mean ¢istance between the sun and the earth, The value of the solar constant has been established to be approximately equal to 2.0 ly/min, This is not a true constant and it fluctuates as much as + 1.5 % about its meen value. Much of the fluctuation seems to be in the ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum The totel solar energy intercepted by the earth in unit time is equal to WaS, where e is the racius of the earth (6.37 x 10° em), Hence,If this energy is spread uniformly over the full surface of the earth, the anount received per unit area and tine at the top of the atmosphere is, 262 «ly/yeer Actually the distribution is not uniform, the annual value at the equator is 2.4 tines that near the poles. The value cetermined above is simply @ realistic average for the whole globe, In table 1 the energy fron the sun intercepted by the earth is compared with other large-scale energy sources that act continuously or quasicontinuously in the atmosphere and its bounderies. Table 1 Lanr-Scate Eneney Sources [Rates are relative to solar energy available (263 kly year“) One-fourth solar constant... .2....2.seeseeesere 1 Heat flux from the earth's interior ee 18x10 Infrared radiation from the full moon 3x10 Sun's radiation reflected from the full moon... 1X10 Energy generated by solar tidal forces in the atmosphere... 11074 Combustion of coal, a, and gas. n the United States. Tx10+ Energy dissipated in lightning discharges... ..-... Loto ‘Dissipation of magnetic storm energy. 2x10 ‘Radiation from bright aurora. : : 14x10 Energy of cosmic radiation ‘9x10 Dissipation of mechanical energy of micrometeorites.....0.! 6X10 ‘Total radiation from stars. 4x10 Eneay generated by lunar tidal tres inte mosphere... 3104 Radiation from zodiacal light. Ment unin hi able and in ate 3 hoe oon atin om vy HR Eetar Deparment Uae of We 1x10 soled wie In table 2 some estimates are made of the total energy irvelved in various individual phenomena or localized processes in the atmosphere.Table 2 ‘Tora Evency oF Vansous INDIVIDUAL PHENOMENA AND Locatizep PROCESSES IN THE ATMOSPHERE [Rates are relative to total solar energy intercepted by the earth (8.67 10% cal day~,] Solar energy received per day...;. Meling of average winter snow during the ai ng season ‘Monsoon circu ‘World use of energy in 1950. Strong earthquake. ‘Average cyclone. ‘Average hurricane, 5 Krakatoa explosion of August, 1883, Detonation of "thermonuclear weapon’ in April, 1984 Kinetic energy of the general ci ‘Average squall line... ‘Average magnetic storm. ‘Average summer thunderstorm: Detonation of Nagasaki bomb in August, i948 ‘Average earthquake Burning of 7,000 tons of coal. Daily output of Hoover Dam. : ‘Moderate rain (10 mm over Washington, D.C) Average fora re inthe Unite States, 1952-53 ‘Average local shower, ‘Average tornado. ‘Street lighting on average night in New York City, Average lightning stroke : ‘Average dust devi Todietlal gut near the cath’ Suriee Meteorite . The Zenith and Azimuth Angles of the Sun: The zenith angle of the sun is the anguler ¢istance of the sun from the local vertical. This angle is not measured cirectly and must be determined from other angles that are ‘noun. The angles use to cetermine the zenith angle of the sun are the following: solar ceclination (§), latitude of observation point (@), and hour angle (h). The zenith angle is then determined through the use of spherical trigonometry as, cos singsind+cos¢cos$cosh (iL) The soler ceclination($), which is the angular distance of the sun North(positive) an¢ South(negative) of the equator, is @ function only of the cay of the year and is incependent of the location of the observation point. Itvaries from 23°27" on June 21 to -23°27" on December 22. Values for each day and hour of the year may be obtainec from u zero "The Nautical Almanac", publishec annually by the Government Printing Cffice., The hour angle(h) is at solar noon and increases by 15° for every hour before or after solar noon, Three interesting results nay be derived from equation Q.1): 1 At the poles cos@ 0, sin@= 1, and cosz= sin or 90°-2=6. At these points the elevation angle of the sun always equals the declination angle and during six months the sun simply circles around the horizon, never rising wore than 23.5°. The transition from cay to night occurs at the equinoxes when the declination is 0° and the path of the sun coincides with the horizon. At solar noon et any latitude cosh= 1 and 2=¢ -6. At sunrire or sunset at any latitude except the poles cosz= 0 » he He half-day length anc cosH= -tangtand (1.2) The azimuth angle of the sun may also be determined through the use of spherical trigonometry and the angles mentioned before, It follows thet or 3 F sin oac2eo sia h (1.3) sin z sinfcos 2-sin =e ances Zosin’ a4 cos 8 cos@ sin z (1.4) At sunrise or sunset cos z= 0, sin z= 1, hs, and sin a,ecos6 sin Hor co: (1.5)There exists @ series of sun-path diagrams that are useful to determine the zenith end azimuth angles of the sun, Figure 1 shows two of these ciegrams, for latitudes 32°N and 52°N. seu sew sou Figure 1: Sun path ciagram for 32°N and 52°N.Solar Radiation at the Top of the Atmospher: The amount of soler radiation actually incident on the top of the atmosphere depends on the time of the yeer, the time of the cay, and the latitude. If A, is an element of area parallel to the earth's surface at the top of the atmosphere and A, is the projection of this area on a plene nortal to the sun's rays at eny instant, it follows that cos z= An/Ak, where 2 is the zenith angle of the sun. Because this areas are at the top of the atmosphere where there is no absorbing mecium, the amount of energy that passes through the surface A, must equal what passes through A,. Hence, from the ¢efinition of the solar constant, S(@/cJA,=QlA,, where @ and dare, respectively, the instantaneous and mean distances of the earth from the sun and Q& is the instantaneous flux of solar radiation through the area Ay, Combining the above two equations, Qk s SCa/ (1.6) The daily total solar radiation incident on a horizontel surface at the top of the atmosphere, Qs, can be determined by summing or integrating equation (1.6) from sunrise to sunset. So, hs z Oe J Q'g ote s(3/a} cos 2 éte =H 005 (0.67 ty Min) Estimated infrared Emlasion to Space from the Earns ‘surfoce (OsOLY Min") oi} Oy 0.002] 30100 COZ OS 1020 «SO BO Wavelength (Microns) Figure 2: Electromagnetic spectra of solar and terrestrial raciation, The black bo¢y raciation at 6,000°K is reduced by the square of the ratio of the stn's radius to the average distance between the sun and the earth in order to give the flux that would be incident on the top of the atmosphere.12 Disposition of Solar Radiation in the Earth-Atmosphere System: The solar radietion intercepted by the earth will either be absorbec anc used in energy- iven processes or be returned to space by scattering or reflection. The cispositior of solar radiation in the earth- atmosphere systen is given in the mathematical form Qs= CpFApt Cates (Qtq) (1-2) + (Qeq)a Q. 10 This equation states that the solar radiation by, incident on a horizontal surface at the top of the atmosphere can be reflected and scattered back to spece by clouds (Cy), by dry air molecules, dust, and water vapor (A,), or by the earth's surface (Qsq)a , where Q and q are, respectively, the direct beam and Ciffuse solar raciation incident on a horizontal erea at the ground and a is the surface albedo. Alternatively this soler radiation cen be absorbed by clouds (Ca), by Sry eir molecules, dust, anc weter vapor (Am), or by the earth's surface (Qtq)(1-e) . The average annual latitucinal cistribution of each component is shown in figure 4, Albed: The portion of the solar radiation that is reflected is refered to as albedo, It depends primarily on the color and composition of each surface. Albedo of nost surfaces varies both with the wavelength and engle of incicence of soler radiation. Table 2 presents a list of typical albecos for different surfaces.13 180 wo wot Z 120 woo 7 @ —- a wk af 1 am st a 1 Boor =| bed Q, ie [ bao a7 Fi 160 L wok “ \. (orantcas iz st” 4 0 . © « 2» SES TO Go Bo 40 8 2 0 10 B30 40 80 60 70 HOW'S ott Figure 4: The average annual Latitudinal cistribution of the disposition of solar radiation in the earth-attosphere system, There have been studies that showed the seasonal ané latitudinal verietions of surface albedo over continents. The seasonal end latitudinal values of surface albeco over North America are shown in table 4. Tables 5 anc & show different surface albedos with changes in wavelength and engle of incidence of solar radiation,Table 3 ‘ALnEDoS ror THE SHORTWAVE PORTION OP THE TELEcrnoqaaNertc SPECTRU (Wavelengths < 4.08) A, Water Surfaces Winter” 0° latitude. Som 1B, Bare Areas and Soil Saow, fresh fallen. Show, several days od Tee, sea Send dune, dey Sand dune, wet Sell, dark Seil, Soil, Sail, Concrete, dey Ron ©. Natural Src Beet Shean, wet bon gee Fores 30° latitude 0° atode 0" latitude. 30° latitude io” nitude sos ary ry clay or gia dry ight sand black top st, deaeduot. . Natural Surfaces (ont) Forest, coniferous ‘Tundra, Crops Cloud Overcast Gumulform sus 1320 15.25, Stratus (600-1000 thick)) 59-84 Altostratus Cirrostratas. roe i ie tes Pho oe oa amon Skin Blond Brunetie Date Table 4 LLavirupivat, AND CONTINENTAL MEANS OF SURFACE [ALBEDO OVER NORTH AMERICA [After Kung, Bryson, and Lenschow (1964)] tone CN) “Tundra and conifer forest Forest and grassland ‘Sheubland (Great asin), ‘cropland (Midwes), Sind woodland (Exe) Desert and shrubland {West cropland and ‘woodland (East) Highlands, dese forest Continental mean, me 61.3 {eit 0.3 (ea gre {285 191 {t 8 15.8 “0 ‘Connnnenas Sone Atarp (eren) Inns 3 2 @. %. 0 8 9 0 26.2 ina 1415 Table 5 WAVELENGTH (a) oo 0 io 4 a Pure dry aie 2 oo | on | “ws Dey and es e] RB] S| 8] o | im Movg aie F] | ie | a | & | to Daylight Illumination on Sloping Surface. The intensity of solar radiation striking a particular surface varies considerably with chenges in orientation and slope of thet surface. The study of the variation of the intensity of solar radiation on surfaces sloping in cifferent directions is very inportent in architectural, engineering, and egriculturel projects. Figure 5 shows all components and angles involved in the derivation of the equations used to. compute the intensity of solar radiation striking vertical(fig. 5a) and sloping(fig. 5b) surfaces. The equation of the intensity of soler radiation striking on @ horizontal wall will be, Q'aQh cos 7 eee for a vertical wall, Y= Qy sin 7 cos(a-a') (1.12) anc for a slopin: surface, J} a.)16 (a) (o) * 1 ! 1 ! | 1 ! l | Sun's Azimuth L______-__-__—> _- Azimuth of Normal to Slope South Figure 5: elation of the solar zenith angle z to the energy incicent on @ vertical wall (5a) anc a sloping surface (5b),Af The components of the solar radiation used to derive these equations are, the intensity of the direct-beam solar radiation on a surface normal to the sun's rays (qq), on a horizontal surface (Q'), on a@ vertical surface (Q'y), and on a sloping surface (Qi ). The angles involved are, the zenith angle of the sun (z), the avimuth angle of the sun from South (a), the ezimuth angle of the sun normal to the vertical surface from south (at), the engle between the incicent solar rays and the perpendicular to the sloping surface (z"), and the angle between the sloping surface and the horizontal surface (i). It may be ic the following concerning the orientation of sloping surfaces: North Slopes: Fron March 20 to September 22 the time of sunrise or sunset is the same for all north slopes, because the sun rises in the northeast qua¢rant enc sets in the northwest quadrant. During the winter half-year the sun rises later and sets © oy vith increasing slope angles, not shining at all on slopes with an inclination angle greater than the value of 90° -2 at noon (58 in March aré September anc 25° in December at 27°N In June there is no direct sunlight at solar roan on north slopes of more than 90-2 (gv at 22K), The maximun Jllunination on @ vertical wall occurs near 2620 anc 1730 solar tine. For slopes up to about 50° the maximum illumination occurs at noon, with the highest values on e horizontal plane. East Slopes: The tine of peak int@nsity of the incicent radiation on east slopes varies with the slope18 inclination ané the season, occuring earliest on the steeper slopes. The sun's rays are most nearly normal to these slopes in the early morning, but the intensity is greater at noon, The time of maximum illumination is the resultant of these two factors, At any given tine illumination will be greatest on that east slope for which tan iz -tan z sin a, Sunrise occurs at the same time on all east slopes: however, the sun sets earliest on steeper slopes (at noon on vertical wells). These conclusions are directly applicable also to west slopes. South Slopes: From September 21 to March 21, curing the winter half-year, the time of sunset or sunrise is the same for all south slopes, because the sun rises in the southeast quadrant an¢ sets in the southwest quadrent. Turing the summer half-year, south slopes will be shacec for part of the day, Vertical walls at 22°N will receive sunlight only from 0900 to 1500 on June 21. On June 21 @ south wall in the northern hemisphere intercepts less irect soler radiation than a north wall at all latitudes, The ratio increases fron 0 south of 22° to about 0.5 at 20°N and 1.0 at the North Pole. The solar intensity on any south slope is always ae maximum at solar noon. The highest values occur on that slope whose inclination is equal to the zenith angle of the sun, that is, on thet slope whose surface is normal to the sun's rays Penetrati The solar radiation incicent on the earth's surface may not be imneciately absorbed or reflected, but it may19 penetrate to considerable depths cepencing on the nature of the surface. For most soils the depth of penetration is very small but nevertheless important for processes of soil formation and plant gowth. It depends on two factors, the wavelength of the incicent Light ané the size of the soil particles Most soils end vegetation readly absorb energy in the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and scatter end reflect it at longer wavelengths. So, with increasing depth in the soil and as far es sunlight penetrates, proportionaly less of the rediation is in the short wavelengths (blue) ané more in the longer wavelengths (red). In general, the larger the grain size the deeper the radiation will penetrete into the soil. For pure water 55 % of the solar radiation penetrates to a depth of 10 cm and 18 % to a depth of 10 m, Snow anc ice are intermidiate between soil and water in their ability to transmit soler radiation, Table 7 are results of studies of the effect of particle size on the cepth of penetration of Light in soil (Ta), the relation of the penetration of Light in pure water at different wavelengths of the solar spectrum (7b), and how snow end ice transmit solar radiation (7c).20 ijggeets eonnconne z| tlecennee lee z| ]gesesesse [| ilgesgess 5 y a} *| i : manners 3 i i igunass 2 é i eoccunnece 7 a e gggsessce sesesesr” | 3 3 O | sisésvense aa Z EB jestilsess Sec223%2g Soe reesSag2. INFRARED RADIATION The earth's surface when heated by the absorption of solar radiation is assumed to emit energy as a gray body, This emission of energy is called terrestrial radiation, because it is emitted by the earth's surface. The raciation emittec is mainly in the infrared spectral range from 4 to 50ys(longwave raciation), with peak near Ly, Its major radiative source of energy occurs at night, but there is also sone daytime radiative source. The terrestrial flux of energy behaves accorcing to the Stefan-foltzmann law, in the equation form of, T (Qa) where the constant of proportionality (€) is defined es Terrestrial Flux= 14 the infrared emissivity or, equivalently, the infrare¢ absorptivity ( one minus the infrared albeco), The emissivity of a black body is 1. Typical infrared emissivities, expressed in percent, for various surfaces are given in table 8. The earth's surface is nearly transparent to shortwave raciation but it quickly absorbs the longwave terrestrial raciation, The principal absorbers being water vapor (5.2 to 7,Ya and beyond 20), ozone (9.4 to 9.8), carbon dioxide (12.1 to 16.944), and clouds (all weve lengths). And only about 9 % of the terrestrial radiation escapes directly to space through the so-called atmospheric windows" (8.5 to 11.0), The rest is absorbec22 Table 8 Israanen Ewissiinies (ereent) 4A. Water ond Sit Sues | c. veeation Wate 92.96 | lo dak aren... 98 Seow iraintaies <<" E99. | Oak ewe thos Stow: pans) i ie % $i tren shot Sei ry pia Sa ty ee 0 woe Sans 8 el cae Sh02 |b stiseonens cate igh gay. Ohad |) Renna 59.95 Concrete tt ie | Biber a nds mis fe. 98-98 |) Binet 2 fry plowed > 90 Paster, white 31 Wood planed oak 50 B. Natural Surfaces Paint shite S198 Desert 9.91 Paint back 95 Gras, high sey %0 Paint alumina $653 ies and shrat, 0 ‘Aluminum fi 1S: ak woodland % Irom, galvanited 128 Pine Yorest % Silver highly polished... 2 Skin, human 98 by the atmosphere, The atnosphere, in turn, reradiates the absorbed terrestrial radietion, partly to space and partly back to the earth's surface (counter radiation). Thus, the net effective outgoing radiation from the surface is recuced considerably from what would be observed if the attosphere were perfectly translucent. In the absence of the atmospheric counter radiation the earth's surface woule be 20 to 40°C cooler than it The sane type of surface heating occurs in @ greenhouse, in which the net outgoing infrered radiation is recuced to almost zero by the opaque glass cover. So, the term "greenhouse effect" is often applied to the etnospheric phenomenon. These ideas can be represented symbolically by the following equations, Ite It(a)+It(s) Ibs [tally (s) Le It- (2.2)where If(e) an¢ If(s) are, respectively, the infrared radiation from the earth's surface absorbed by the atmosphere, an¢ that lost to space; Itais the infrared radiation from the atmosphere; 14 anc Lta(s) are, respectively, the infrared radiation fron the atmosphere absorbec by the ground (counter radiation) anc that lost to space; and I is the effective outgoing radiation from the earth's surface. It is also possible to cefine the effective outgoing raciation fron the atmosphere (La) an¢ from the earth-atmosphers system (Ig) as the difference between enittec and absorbed infrared energy, that is, = tat (a) Ip= It(s)+Ita(s)= 1+ le (2.3) The mean annual latitucinal distribution of each of these components is shown in figure 6, Table 9 lists values of the global disposition of infrared radiation in the earth-atmosphere system curing an average year. The Effective Outgoing Radiation from the Earth's Surface The effective outgoing radietion from the earth's surface consists of two basic components. They are the total longwave energy sent out from the surface (If) anc the counter raciation from the atmosphere (1+). The first component is a function of the surface emissivity(€) anc the temperetur(Ts). The second is a function of the air temperature(Ta), the precipitable water vapor(wa), anc the cloud cover(n). Thus, symbolically. I-Ie f(Ts,Ta,e, men) (2.4)Energy Rate (Kilolongleys per Year) 24 410) 400] 360 x0 200 x0 20 160 1] %0 “ o| aot 7 1 10 ae te t oh ~~ 0 © 1 A ioe 2 B80 1060 80 4085 Bo 150-1020 6-40 85 Eo TO BO BOs Cente The average annual Latitudinel Figure 6: tistribution of the disposition of infrared radiation in the earth-atmosphere systen, Table 9 Guowat, Disposition oF InreaReD RADIATION IN Tite EARTH: ArwospiieRe Syst#M DURING AN AVERAGE YEAR (kly per year) Infrated radiation emitted by the earth's surface (1) 258 Lost to space (7 (3)] . 20 Absorbed by the atmosphere LT (a)} 28 Infrared radiation emitted by the atmosphere (F.) 355 Lost to space P (2) 9 Absorbed by the earth's surface as counter radiation (F1)... 206 Effective outgoing radiation from the earth's surface (1) 32 Effective outgoing radiation feom the atmosphere (I) a7 Effective outgoing radiation from the earth-atmosphere sys tem (iy). 10925 The components of the effective outgoing radiation can be determined by direct measurement using a Pyrgeometer, from @ radiation chart, or by empirical equations derived fron cata provided by the first two methods. L.Rediation Charts: There is a lerge number of raciation charts available for computing infrared fluxes both in the atmosphere and at the earth's surface. The charts ciffer only in relatively minor details. The chart that is most commonly usec in the Unitec Stetes wes Cevelopec by Elsesser in 1942 and improvec by Flsasser en¢ Culbertsor in 1960. Figure 7 is a schematic representation of that chart. There is also the integrated Flsasser chart, which correlates the effective outgoing radiation with clear skies (I,) with the mean monthly precipitable water vapor(wa). This secon¢ chert is illustrated on figure 8, Other radiation charts exist anc are those of Robinson (1950, Kew chart), M8ller(1951), anc Yamamoto (1952). 2. Empirical ations: The reciation charts offer more information than it is normally needed in climatological studies, The computations required are time consuming, end in many cases the necessary cata are not available. So, many sinple formulas relating measured meteorological parameters(temperature, vapor pressure, ané humidity) to the effective outcoing radiation with clear skies (I,) have been developed. Some of these formulas are:26 (b) 40 7a =80 “273 =— Tee) Black Coe 4a br -80 ~273 Figure 7: The Elsasser chert. Examples are given estimating (a) the effective outgoing radiation from the surface, (b) the net radiative flux through 7000-mb level, and (c) the net radiative flux through 500-mb Level.a. The AngstrSm Equation: The equation wes sugyestec by Angstrim in 1916, It can be found expressed in different ways but equivalent forms. The most common being: Hp = «0 T* (a, -bo 10") or Up seo TY fa, -boexp(-2.2¢, 6)} where li, is the counter radiation with clear skies; an cy are empirical constants; T is the air temperature in °K; and e is the vapor pressure in milineters of mercury or nillibars. Since Ip= it-Ih anc sesT* then, the values for the empirical constants ciffer from one stucy to the next, depending how they ere found. b, The Brunt Equetion: This equation was cevelopec by Brunt in 192? as, or (2.6) c. The relative Humidity Equation: J. F. McLonale (unpublishe?) correlated computed infrared flux using the Elsasser chart an¢ meen monthly soundings with the surfece relative hunicity (2H) in percent. The result for two months combine’, is the equation, Ips € (9.165 ~- 0 000749 2H) Ly/min (2.7) The stanéaré error of estimate for this equation is 0.9985 Ly/min, ¢. The Swinbank Equations: Swinbank(1962) based on measurenents made in Austria and Indian Ocean to conclude29 that the counter radiation can be estinated ts « high cegree of accuracy from the surface temperature alone. He arrived at two relationships that ere, Ten € (0,245 - 0.2146 T*) or IosesT*(1- 9.25 x 10°?) (2.8) e, Other Fnpirical Equations: Robitzch(1926): L/It= l-(cqp + ce)T* Elsasser(1942) and Loennquist(1954): I./Lt Anderson(1954): I,/Ita cy-cye + dy LOME Angerson(1954) ang sudyko(1963 )i Ig/Ibe cy-cge The component p in the Robitzch equation is the air pressure, Most of these equations give averege caily values of to an accurecy of 19 & or better as long as the surface vepor pressure falls between 9 anc 27 nb. The errors may be greater for smaller or larger values of the surface vapor pressure, In appencix 2 of Sellerst book one can finé equations that Cemonstrate the effect of air-grounc temperature differences on the effective outgoing radietion.THE RADIATION BALANCE The earth's surface absorts about 124 kly of solar radiation each year and effectively racietes 52 kly of longwave energy to the atmosphere, Therefore, 72 kly is the net radiation balance (R) of the earth's surface. It is calle? the reciation balance or the net racietion, It may be put in the equation forn as, where (Q+q) is the sun of the cirect anc diffuse radiation incigent on the earth's surface, (a) is the surface albedo, and (1) is the effective outgoing reciation from the surface. The radiation balance of the etmosphere(Re) may be Cefined in the same way. The atmosphere absorbs 45 kly of solar energy per year end radiates 117 kly of Longwave energy. Consequentely, it hes a negative radiation balance of -72 kly each year, The radiation belance of the earth-atnosphere system (Rg) is therefore equal to zero, It must be like so, otherwise the earth would be getting warner or cooler. The atmosphere is uniforvly a radiative heat sink at all latituces, and the earth's surface, except near the poles, is a heat source of longwave radiation. Energy must therefore be trensfered from the surface to the atmosphere to keep the surface from warning anc the atmosphere from cooling. And from lower to higher latitudes in order to keep the poles from getting cooler and thetropics fron getting warner, Figure 9 enc table 10 illustrate the iceas presented in the previous peragraphs. ray Rate (Klanglays per Year 83.3388 58 32 nergy Tonater (1S "Klcoaies per Yaar) 40) & “t La 90 8 70 G5 89-40 30210 0 10 20-80 40°80 GO 70 BODO"S Lotitese Figure 9: The average ennual latitudinal cistribution of the radiation belance an’ the poleward energy flux. Table 10 Esrimaves oF tit ANNUAL Pourwaro Hear Fux tw tne Norrers Heaaseitene (cal year“t X 107%) ‘iosoy | "950 tiosa) | "Gvsen | avsey | Fiewe 1? oon...) 0.00 000 00 0.00 | 0.00 0. 05 033 Os 0. | 0.38 30 13 nis 14 oi | Vow | 135 @ 23 zu} aor] ate faas | 2s | 2 | 240 0 Sat dap at | sat | 3:25 | 294 | 340 ° 3 $m | sar] Soo | 3m | sor | 38s | Sor » an li 342 | 392 | 398 | 346 | 3°56 » aa iss [asi] aa | 276 | 390 | 24k | 2s io 13 0162 tas | 1% | 2as | ia | 13t 0 om 083 | aaa" | 0.0 | 0.0m | 0:00 |-0.09 |-0'2632 THE WATER BALANCE AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE The mathematical equations of the water balance of the earth's surface anc the atmosphere are based on the physical principle of the law of conservation of metter. The Water Balence of the Earth! face The water balance equation of the earth's surfece is simply a mathematical formulation of the pert of the hydrologic cycle that deals cirectly with the air-lanc and air-water interfaces, Considering a colum of soil extending from the surface to that cepth where the vertical moisture exchange is pratically absent, the equation of the water balance will be: This equation stetes that the net rate(g) at which the moisture content of the considered soil column is changing is equal to the sum of the rates at which moisture is being added by precipitation(r), by deposition of dew(D) and by the horizontal flux of moisture into the column from the local environment (f;); minus the rate at which moisture il being lost by evaporation() and by the horizontal flux of moisture out of the colunn(fe). The dew formation is negligible, with en upper Limit probably near 1 mm per night. The difference f,-f; is the net runoff af from the column and incluces both surface anc subsurface runoff, The evaporation component = includes transpiration from grass, plants, an¢ trees and is33 sometimes called evapotranspiretion. The equation also states that the precipitation felling on any given surface is either evaporated, stored in the soil column, or runs off, as (4.2) The water balance equation also applies to oceans, lakes, and reservoirs. Only here Af represents the horizontal redistribution of water plus any runoff from surrounding streams or rivers anc g represents the change in water Level, Over a period of a year the net storege is usually very small ané equation (4,2) becomes (4.3) The horizontel redistribution of moisture alweys equals zero when summed over the whole globe, since areas of runoff are exactly balanced by areas of inflow, anc equation (4.3) cen be rewritten as, rsE (4.4) The annual water balance also has the form of equation (4.4) over continental deserts, but not over oceanic deserts, where the annual excess of evaporation over precipitation is balanced by the net influx of water from other regions, The equation coes not hold, in general, for the monthly water belance of arid Lends.Usuelly small amounts of moisture will be stored in the soil curing the cool season an¢ removed again in the warn season, Figure LO shows the latitudinal cistribution of each component of the annual water balance of the earth's surface, The annual water balance of the various oceansand continents is given in table 11. NBO 70 G0 80 40 302010 0 10 20 80 40 60 60 70 60 Lotitude Figure 10: The average annual latitudinal distribution of evaporation(E), precipitation(r), and total runoff( f). Teble LL Awnwat, WATER BALANCE OF THE OCEANS AND CONTINENTS (nm year!) ‘iantie Ocean Tian Ocean, reife Ocean [etic Ocean ‘Alloceans € Earope aia ‘No, Aieviga (United So, Ameria. Alii Astalia Antartica ‘hand aie)35 The excess precipitation of the northern hemisphere reaches the southern hemisphere via ocean currents, because two major rivers, the Nile and Amazon, cross the equator and both of these heve their hea¢quaters in the southern hemisphere, The oceans, as a whole, lose more water by evaporation than they gain by precipitation. The deficit being made up by runoff from the continents, over which precipitation exceeds evaporation, The world's wettest geographical region is South America, The Water Balance of the Atmosphere: The water balance of the earth's surface ceals only with pert of the hicrologic cycle. The water balance of the atmosphere must be also considered in orcer to have @ complete study of the water balance and the hydrologic cycle. There exist two sources of moisture for an atmospheric column extencing from the surface to the top of the atmosphere. These are evaporation from the surface (£) and horizontal acvection of vapor from the surrouncing regions (cz), Moisture is lost by precipitation (r), dewfall (0), and horizontal advection out of the colunn to surrouncing regions (c,). Therefore, the rate of increase of moisture within the colum (gg) is given in the equetion form of, or (4.5) and q- Since the atmosphere can contain only relativelysmall quantities of weter in any of its phases, the storage term is usuelly much smaller than the other components of the balance in equation (4.5). The average annual value is close to zero, and equation (4,5) can become, (4.6) In coMparison with equation (4.3), which is the annual water balance equation fro the earth's surface, it follows that, Thus, the annuel runoff from any region is balanced by an influx into the air column above the region. The water vapor is transferred from the subtropical atmosphere to higher en¢ lower latituces. To balance this loss there is an equal flow of water into the region at the surfaces, This flow is referred as the annuall meridional flux of water vepor in the atmosphere.37 THE ENERGY BALANCE The energy balance equations are based on the physical principal of the Law of conservation of energy. So, it is appropriete to refer to then as energy conservation equations. A complete stuy of the energy balence require analysis f the energy talance of the earth's surface, of the earth-atnosphere system, an? of the atmosphere. e Energy Balance of the Earth's Surface The enerey balance equation of the earth's surface may be Serives in the seme vey as the water talence equation, That is, consicering a soil or water column extencingfrom the surface to that Cepth where vertical heat exchange is negligible, So, the net rate (3) at which the heat contert of this column ie changing is equal to the sur of the retes at which heat is being acces by the absorption of soler reciation (Qsq)(l-e), by the ebsorption of longwave counter recietion from the atmosphere (It), by the counware transfer of sensible heet om the air column wher the air is warver than the surface (+8), and by the horizontel transfer of heat into the column fron the surroundings (Fi); vinus the rete at which heat is being lost by Longwave radietionto the atrosphere (I4), by the transfer of sensible heat to the air when the air is cooler than the surface (H), byevaporation (LE) where L is the Latent heat of vaporization (sbout 590 cal/g), and by the horizontel transfer of heat out of the column (fy). It can be written in the equation form as, 3=(Q+q) (1-a)+It-1t LEST, = Since IeIt-It and Re(Qtq)(1-a)-I, the ebove equetion is normally written as, He LESG+OF Gel) where AFF, -Fz is the net subsurface flux of sensible heat out of the colum, It is important over oceans anc other water bodies vhere currents can transport consicereble heat energy from one region to another. Over lane AF is negligible an¢ ReH+LE+G (5.2) which inplies that the net available radiative energy s useé to warm the air, evaporate water, an¢ warm the soil. At night there is no solar radiation anc IsHtLé (5.3) Table 13 Lists mean latitucinal values of the components of the energy balance equation for the earth's surfece, Ang figure 1? shows the ciurnal variation of the components over grass and bare soil.w& Table 13 Mean LatitupiNat, VALUES oF Tite Couronrts oF Tit EXERGY Batavce Equation ror rate Eanra’s SuRPACE (ely year foorn. so eee on a ey ie | 6 || = 3 So. B S| | a Rui a8 $8 a Bia | a] Hae S30 a |B) S 8 | Hl 20 8 @| | ® BL ao re he aie | 8 ay el" 3 40 "8 Bla] ae oso nl sw) 1 ‘ is n|o| 2 | ws} | w] 20 1B BM | a) tol oo | op 330 tot BRT EL MS | ls 38 ‘2 BRT R] wl) le Bec] & a] BR) Bat tea a. EB } ay | Ce BL) aya Bm. ca} 3 fats ows nie | nl-s Gute....| | | 8 s|a|nl»| sl o A column extending from the top of the atnosphere to that cepth in the soil or water where the vertical heat exchange is negligible may be heated by four techanisms: (1) by absorption of solar radiation Qs(l-ag) where ag is the plenetery albedo; (2) by the condensation of water vapor Lr; (3) by the horizontal flux of sensible heat into the column by air currents Cz; and (4) by the horizontal flux of sensible heat into the column by ocean currents F;. The colunn may be cooled (1) by longwave radiation to space Is (2) by evaporation of water LE; (3) by the horizontal flux of sensible heat out of the column by air currents Cy (4) by the horizontal40 Hancock, Wisconsin ALPALPA-BROME Grose OG) Sept 27, 1957 asf Tempe, Azora supaticnass uy 20, 1962 OBp EL MRAGE, cottons EL MAGE Ory Loke OTF ane 9-11, 950 or 01 -02 Er] (1-02 05 0405 06 OF OOS WII 1 1S WS IT 19 2A 222500 Hour Figure 1?: Average diurnal variation of the components of the surface energy balance over gress at Hancock, “Wisconsin; enc Tempe, Arizona, an over bere soil at El Mirage, California.41 flux of sensible heat out of the column by ocean currents F . If Gy represents the net heating rate, it follows Gp=Qs(L-ay)+LreCr+h ~Ly-LE-Co-Fe By definition Q,(1l-29)-LpsRy, AC-C.-Cz, and 4F= that, . The two last assumpyions are the net flux of heat out of the column by atmospheric currents anc ocean currents. Therefore, the above equation reduces to, 6. Over a period of a year the net warming an cooling of the column will be very small. And Gqemnay be neglected in comparison to the remaining terms in the annual energy balance equation for the earth-atmosphere system, Then which over land AF is zero. Annually for the whole globe each tern is zero, since regions of energy inflow ere exactly balanced by regions of energy outflow. The latitucinal distribution of the components of the annual energy balance of the earth-atmosphere anc the poleward energy flux are shown in figure 14, The Energy Balance of the Atmosphere The total temperature chenge AT experienced by en air column extending fron the ground to the top of the atmosphere is equel to the sun of the changes cue to the absorption of shortwave solar, raciation AT@, the emission of longwave raciationAlg, the vertical trensfer of sensible hret fron the groun’ ATy, the net horizontal trensfer of sensible heat into the column from theper Year) Sensible Heat (c \\ 4s SoRTBT 70 86-80 45 35 HS Lotitude 15 20 30-45 80 65 70-60 50s Figure 14 The average annual latitudinal distribution of the components of the energy balance of the earth-atnosghere system(top) ane of the components of the poleward energy flux(bottom). surrouncings ATe, and the net release of latent heat AT,. The effect of evaporetion of raincrops before they reach the ground must be inclucec in AT, . Thus, AT=ATQ+4Ty +AT,+4To +AT, (5.6)43 This relationship nay be transformec directly into an energy balance equation by using the equations: Net Heat FluxsecAT/ataz, and Net Heat Flux-10" cp/g-AT/atdp. When this is cone, the terms represent, from left to right, the net heat storage rate(3a), the heating rate due to the absorption of solar radiation Qg(1-aq), where aq is the elbedo from the attosphere, the negative of the effective outgoing radiation from the atmosphere(Ia), the sensible heat flux fron the eround(H), the net horizontal flux of sensible heat into the column from the surround ings(-AC) ane the procuct of the latent heat of condensation(L) anc the net rate at which water vapor is condensed within the column, approximately the precipitation rate(r). Hence, in complete analogy with equation (5.6), Ga=Qs(1-aa)-TatH-ACtLr (5.7) or since, Ra=Qs(1-a4)-le, The annual Latitudinal stribution of each component is presented in figure 15, Energy and Water Balances of an Air Layer Close to the croune: According to figure 15, which is a schematic diegram of the components of the energy anc water balances of an air layer close to the ground, it follows that the energy balance equation is, Gq =Ry ++ Ci +Lr-R-Hy -Cy or Ga = AR+OH- AC+ Lr (5.9) The water balance equation will be, or aces5 8 ss 400] 8833888 os8 Energy Rate (Kilolongleys per Yeor) 5 Temperature Change(°C per Day) 10 20 tia 4130] 1.5 aK po 16 oN 70 BO 3001-30-50 7D SOS Lotitude Figure 15: The average annual latitudinal distribution of the components of the energy balance of the atmosphere. 5 | 6a e Az 5 re 1 Hy 1 eal | . Coe bes Figure 16: The energy ané water balances ‘of an air column extending a short cistence Az above grounc. Each component is considered positive when directed es shown.45 In these equations H,,R,,and Ey are the vertical fluxes of sensible heat, radiative energy, and water vapor, respectively, through the top of the column, The advection components, AC an? Ac, ere related to the mean wind speed(G), the horizontal gradients of the mean tenperature(T), an¢ the nean specific humicity(q) in the direction x of the mean wind, an¢ the depth(d4z) of the air column, Thus, ACa@cpAT/axtz and Ac=@adg/Axdz, if the wind velocity does not vary horizontally, and c are, respectively, the mean air density and, the specific heat of air at constant pressure. Typical magnitudes of the components of equations (5.9) and (5,10), and also of the surface energy balance are given for a number of locations and times in table 14, Table 14 (Energy units of mly per minute) Wars Baconce ta (oly me i iano faoe 613}—259] 743) 158 sto} 204] 194) a8 | col 6x] | 32 | eo] 2a] a} 32 Center of age dey tld Gai Gay in sumoery Center arg field atiy eve pang lati "Utne off formation) |46 HEAT TRANSFER IN SOILS The rate at which heat flows through a soil level(s) at a depth (2) bellow the surface is directly proportional to the vertical temperature gradient existing at that level, Thus, at depth 24, 1 (6.1) This equation is usec to determine the heat flux into or out of the soil, if the thermal conductivity ané the temperature gradient at the soil surface are known, The thernal concuctivity can be measured very accurately, but the temperature gradient et the soil surface is very difficult to cetermine, Figure 11 illustrates the typical variation of temperature with depth at cifferent times of the day in a soil column, In equation (6.1) the heat flow is positive anc Cownward when the temperature ceereases with depth. The constant of proportionality (\) is a function of the composition, moisture content, and temperature of the soil, In general, is highest for soils containing abundant quartz an¢ least for soils rich in organic metter, It decreases with increase of moisture content because water replaces air in the soil pore spaces, an¢ is higher for frozen soil than for unfrozen soil, Table 12 and figure 12 show sone of these relationships for different soils.lite at Middoy Tec) Lote € ‘Soll Depth (CM) BSBIsssRBTO + a Tec) [very 202224 26 28 cooling 16 2022 ree) 47 Figure 11: Typical variation of tamperature with cepth at different times of day in summer for a yellow-gray silt loam soil near Chicago, Illinois.48 oar 3 A coy 8 l Oreanie mater io ie yi. » 17 52 Air 10 0°06 Se Se es = Feta Sard +0 856) a ure Sod (40.873) ay (% 70570) Fea +0100 oe eM OCC 004 Figure 12: Lependence o” "the thermal concuctivity ()) on the volume fraction of water vapor (xy) for four different soil types.49 In the absence of horizontal temperature gradient, the rate at which a soil layer is warming or cooling can be where C is the heat capacity and 2 is the thickness of the soil layer, the flux of heat (G) into or out of the soil uses equation (6.2), from which, cau +CHl 2 (8.2 where Gz is the flux through a level z, 5 to 10 em bellow the surface and AT/At is the time rate of temperature change averag: 0 for the soil layer from the surface to level 7. Heat Transfer in a Homogeneous Soil: The homogeneous soil is one that its thermal conductivity Coes not vary with depth, For an infinitely thin soil layer, equation (6.2) can be written in the differential form of, 3T a (6.4) If the soil is homogeneous, it follows that aT yet. oT 6 are (6.5) where k-, is define? as the thermal Jiffusity50 CONCLUSION The book presents all equations of Physical Climatology on a very straightforward manner. It shows all the derivations necessary to arrive at the specific equations, I dic not fine any problem in understancing the equations foun in any of the chapters of this book. The equations of "Atmospheric Diffusion" and "Turbulent Transfer and Wind Relationship" are the most complexes. L have omitted few chapters of the book in writting this report, Because my main interest was in getting fam liar with only those equations found in the chapters presentec here. I have not gotten into the Giscussion of the tables end graphs either, because I Found it to be unnecessary and time consuming. I cic not talk about "The Climatology of the Hemispheres" since I have e clear idea of the subject specially right efter taxing a course on Physical Geography. And the chapter on "Radiation Instruments! because I have @ very good pratical and theoretical backgrounc about it since I have carrie’ neasurements at places in Peru. It is very clear at many parts of my report that I copied paragraphs out of Sellers! book, specially those paragraphs that ceal with the description of equations. I cid it Like so because Sellers's cescriptions are technically straightforward and there was no need for51 me to change them or make up new paragraphs to describe the equations that I was interested in leerning about. There are many parameters of some equations that L dig not include a discussion either. Some of then are, optical cepth, runoff ratio, heat capacity, thermal cepacity, and the like, 4 good Ciscussion of these and other peraneters are clearly found in Sellers' book, Iwas mainly interested in the general equations of the various subjects. Eventhough the equations are mathematically simple, it became very clear to me that the computations are time consuming and that the use of computer modeling is necessary end helpfull in the stucy of Physical Climatology.