Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IMU-Manoeuvring and Future Issues PDF
IMU-Manoeuvring and Future Issues PDF
SHIP MANOEUVRING
AND FUTURE ISSUES
I
Block
MANOEUVRING
UNIT I
Ship Manoeuvring, Ship Propulsion and Control 5
UNIT 2
Ship Hydrodynamics and Hull Design 39
UNIT 3
Manoeuvring in Shallow Waters 55
UNIT 4
Tugs and Towing 69
SHIP MANOEUVRING AND FUTURE ISSUES
Ship handling is an art as well as science with more emphasis on the latter. For an efficient
and safe manoeuvring of ships it is necessary to understand basics of ship hydrodynamics,
hull design, factors that affect manoeuvring, anchoring, interaction between ships, and tugs
etc. Marine insurance is an important activity in shipping as the sums involved are very
high. Hull and machinery insurance, protective and indemnity insurance are two major
insurance policies in vogue. Vetting of ships makes an in depth assessment of suitability of
vessel to its owner/operator so as to ensure compliance of international legislations. This
course has three blocks namely, Manoeuvring, Marine insurance and vetting inspections,
and Future Issues.
Block-1 has four units dealing with ship manoeuvring, ship propulsion and control, ship
hydrodynamics and hull design, ship manoeuvring in shallow waters and tugs and towing.
Block-2 has two units dealing with marine insurance and vetting inspections.
Block-3 on Future Issues has 8 units. These includes ballast water and sediment
management, Marpol annexure-IV and VI covering prevention and regulations of
pollution by sewage from ships and air pollution, issues related to fuel conservation,
double hull, place of refuse and green passport.
MANOEUVRING
This block has four units.
Unit I "Manoeuvring" deals with handling of ships, various factors that affect
manoeuvring, manoeuvring booklet, advantages and disadvantages of different ship
propulsion plants.
Unit 2 "Ship Hydrodynamics and Hull Design" describes the stability of ships, ship
manoeuvring under different conditions with or without tugs, planning for anchorage.
Unit 3 "Manoeuvring in Shallow Waters" deals with issues related to ship handling in Z~
shallow waters. The terms such as shallow water effect, keel clearance, ship squat are also
explained in this unit. Hydrodynamic interactions between ships and tug ship interaction are
also briefly explained.
Unit 4 "Tugs and Towing" describes w,rious types of tugs and their limitations, uses of
tugs in manoeuvring of ships. The precautions that must be taken while using tugs for
manoeuvring of ships are also listed in this unit.
UNIT I SHIP MANOEUVRING SHIP
PROPULSION AND CONTROL
structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Definitions/Terms Used in Ship Handling Theory
1.3 Factors Affecting Manoeuvring Capabilities/Limitations
1.4 Introduction to Theoretical Aspects
1.5 Hull Parameters that Influence Manoeuvrability
1.6 Fronde Number
1.7 The Coefficient of Wave Making Resistance (C,)
1.8 Basic Manoeuvring
1.9 Manoeuvring Information
1.10 Effect of Wind during Manoeuvring
1.11 Evaluate and to Allow for the Effect of Current
1.12 Manoeuvring Booklet
1.13 Ship Propulsion and Control
1.14 Propulsion Plants
1.15 Power Plants, Horsepower, etc.
1.16 Propeller Action
1.17 Steering Gear
1.18 Summary
1.19 Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
many masters develop ship handling as 'art' whereby they instinctively respond and react
the movement of the ship, without the full understanding of the science behind those -
actions and reason for their need.
objectives
While ship handling and manoeuvring appears as an art and skill wherein the
experienced lip handler instinctively responds and reacts from the experience to the
movement of the ship, there is need to understand the science behind those reactions.
understanding of the science (theory) of ship handling will help ship handler to be more
roactive instead of being only reactive.
after studying this unit, you shall be able to:
define various terms related to ship handling,
list and explain various factors which affect manoeuvring of ships,
state the contents of manoeuvring booklet,
state characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of different population plants.
Manoeuvring 1.2 DEFINITIONS/TERMS USED IN SHIP
HANDLING THEORY
Various term used in ship handling and their meaning are given
C
in
-
table 1.1
Table 1.1: Terminology in Ship Handling
The above terms are expressed in either foot pound seconds units or centimetres
grams seconds units. For bigger quantities, these may be expressed in tonnes (e.g. in
case of thrust).
Note:
Loaded ship has more momentum than the light ship.
Big ship carries more momentum than a small ship.
Same ship will carry more momentum at higher speed than at a slower
speed.
5
Effects of inertia make the work of controlling momentum difficult. Initially when Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
starting a ship from a position dead in water, it takes a good effort of propulsion to Propulsion and Control
overcome inertia. Larger ships have relatively low horse powers, they take long time
to overcome inertia to come up to desired speed compared to, say container ship
with relatively high Horsepower to Dead-weight ratio.
8
Quick/short turn around time, Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Propulsion and Control
Safe docking and berthing of ships,
Sea-keeping qualities, which influence safety of the ship and the lives on
board.
Let us therefore look at the various parameters that affect manoeuvrability. We shall first
look at them independently and then collectively.
1.5.1 Hydrodynamics
This is the dynamic interactions of the hull with water. Dynamic interactions govern
resistance of the hull to steady forward motion. The choice of propulsive power is
dependent upon this resistance. These interactions are dependent on the shape and
dimension of the hull.
Residuary Resistance
Residuary resistance includes
Wave making resistance, and
Eddy making resistance. Wave
Making Resistance
Wave making resistance is the larger component. This is the energy expended in
creating the wave system caused by the hull. In designing the shape of the hull, this
component receives the biggest attention.
Wave making resistance increases rapidly as the ship's speed. It eventually requires
more power to overcome than is practicable to build into ship.
Note Fora conventional ship, it is virtually impossible to operate at a speed to length ratio
higher than 1.3 (speed in knots/sq. root of water line length in feet). (Water line
length means length between perpendiculars.) See Table 1.2
Cw is the coefficient of wave making resistance. A body travelling at or near the surface
will create waves. The creation of wave requires energy. Any energy used for making
waves represents lost energy, which could have been used to make the ship go faster.
10
Wave making resistance is much less at slow speeds, but becomes the major component Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Propulsion and Control
of resistance at high speeds.
Divergent
stern wave Divergent bow
waves
First bow
ransverse waves-
-
This pattern of waves consists of two types of waves. First, there are the divergent waves
which start at the bow and stern, and angle aft. Note that the lines of the wave crests are not
straight, they curve somewhat aft. Next, there are the transverse waves which are originally
perpendicular to the ship's line of motion, although the further away from the ship they get
the more they tend aft due to friction.
Note that a line originating at the bow, heading aft, and at an angle of 19.5 (20 is fine
for modelling) to the ship's centreline, defines the intersection of all divergent and
transverse wave crests. All displacement type surface ships, except those operating in
very shallow (i.e., ship almost aground) or in very narrow channels, will make this type of
wave pattern.
Example 1.1
A ship of length 408 feet has Hull speed at 1.0 = 20 knots and at 1.3 = 27 knots.
Beyond this speed, every knot of speed requires greater horsepower. Another
vessel, Length 1045 feet, the hull speed is about 32.23 knots and at
1.3 = 41.7 knots. This ship at 30 knots is in the flat region of its resistance curve.
Therefore, an extra knot does not require appreciably higher horsepower. Refer to
Table 1.2
Because of increased wave making resistance at speeds above hull speed, longer ships
use proportionately smaller engines to attain the same speed as smaller ships.
(It requires less horsepower per ton to make a longer ship steam at 30 knots than it does
to make a smaller ship at 30 knots. Only difficulty is overcoming Inertia starting and
stopping! Longer and larger ships with relatively smaller horsepower are difficult to -
control compared to a smaller ship or a ship with relatively larger horsepower).
11
Manoeuvring
1.7.3 Aerodynamic Resistance
Aerodynamic Resistance is offered by above water part of the hull including housing,
superstructure, etc. This component is affected by area and shape of the ship above
waterline. It has two components.
Air Resistance is due to flow of air over the ship.
Wind resistance is due to wind and depends on its velocity and direction.
With wind speed exceeding 20 knots, the resistance increases significantly.
Resistance from air and wind may be typically 4 to 8% of total resistance but may be as
much as 10% in high-sided ships such as aircraft carriers, passenger ships or container
ships.
1.7.4 Change in Total Resistance
The change in total resistance is directly proportional to the ship speed. On a practical level,
getting from point A to point B in a short time will cost an increasing amount of energy and
practical fuel consumption limits the speed of the ship largely.
1.7.5 Components of Total Hull Resistance
The total resistance of a ship's hull RT moving through calm water can be divided into
three components as shown in the next equation.
RT = R V + R W + R AA
Ships LBP Square Root of LBP 1.2 x Hull Speed 1.3 x Hull Speed
in Feet (Hull Speed)
100 10 knots 12 knots 13 knots
200 14.14 16.97 18.38
300 17.32 20.8 22.51
400 20 24 26
600 24.49 29.38 31.38
800 28.28 33.93 36.76
1000 31.62 37.94 41.10
1100 33.16 39.8 43
SAQ 1
(a) Why is it necessary to refer to Froude number when determining the power
requirement?
(b) What is the difference between a transverse wave and a divergent wave?
(c) What measures are taken to reduce the wave resistance?
(d) What is hull speed and how is it determined approximately?
13
Manoeuvring
1.9 MANOEUVRING INFORMATION
Note : "New ship" means a ship the keel of which is laid or which is at a similar
stage of construction on or after 1st January, 1992.
The manoeuvring information should be amended after any modification or
conversion of the ship, which may alter its manoeuvring characteristics or extreme
dimensions.
The pilot card, to be filled in by the master, is intended to provide information to
the pilot, on boarding the ship. This information should describe the current
condition of the ship, with regard to its loading, propulsion, manoeuvring
equipment and other relevant equipment.
Wheelhouse Poster
The wheelhouse poster should be permanently displayed in the wheelhouse. It
should contain general particulars and detailed information describing the
manoeuvring characteristics of the ship, and be of such a size to ensure ease of use.
Note : The manoeuvring characteristics are determined by conducting special
manoeuvring drills, by computer simulation techniques, or by estimation.
The master should bear in mind that the manoeuvring performance of the
manoeuvring
ship may differ from that shown on the poster due to environmental. hull
and loading conditions.
Manoeuvring Booklet
Effect of Wind
Effect of wind must always be taken into account while carrying out manoeuvres.
Passenger ships, container ships and Ro-Ro ships have large areas above water.
The area thus exposed to wind is called 'windage'. The effect of wind on such ships
is therefore more pronounced than on deep loaded bulk carriers or tankers, which
have less windage.
14
The same ship in different loaded conditions viz. light, intermediate draft and full Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Propulsion and Control
load conditions will be affected differently. A wind force of 3-4. on the Beaufort
scale will have same effect in light condition as with wind force of 7-8 when the ship
is down to her marks.
The wind affects the ship when she is at sea, as well as when she is manoeuvring in
port. At slow speeds, findin g the direction of the wind is relativel y simple,
however, at sea it is not so. The direction of the wind perceived when standing on
deck is its relative direction. This is the resultant of the true direction of the wind and
the course steered by the ship. We, do not intend to go into resolution of the relative
motion diagrams but shall leave you to work the same out for yourselves.
In this module, we are mainly looking at the effect of the wind when manoeuvring a
ship. We shall therefore indicate the various conditions and assess its effects.
The effect of the wind at sea creates leeway, which needs to be accounted also, and
the process has been covered in Chart work.
Can you now visualise the effect when the ship is loaded, that is her bow is well
down and the accommodation in the stern is providing a larger windage area? If such
a ship now swings 20 to port, will the bow continue to swing or try and bring her
back heading into the wind again?
Here we are only considering the effect of wind. You can therefore see that with
this knowledge we can use the wind :
As a good brake
Caution
You will also notice that under certain conditions though steering is easy, the
C
ship's head has a tendency to go off course and it is difficult to bring the
ship's head back on course, particularly in a strong wind.
With the wind from right astern, steering once again is easy but like in the case of
head wind, the stern has tendency to pay off on either side. It is difficult to get her
back on course again.
Can you see the reason for this? This effect is more on a ship where the
accommodation is aft.
You can also see that the wind in this case has no braking effect. Given a choice
between head wind and wind from right astern, the head wind is preferred for
berthing.
15
Manoeuvring Ship Underway with Wind from Abeam
When the ship is underway with the wind from abeam, steering is not affected.
LA
However, depending on the strength of the wind, the ship drifts sideways due to
leeway and this has to be accounted for.
leeward. The ship is therefore steered towards the wind and the ship requires to be
given Lee helm.
Vessel Under Sternway
When the ship is going astern, it rarely goes at any great speed. When going astern
most ships also tend to swing to starboard. The effect of the wind is therefore a little
more complex. In ballast condition where the wind catches the bow, which it often
does, the stern is pulled into the wind. This effect is quite definite and rapid.
Note: This effect must be remembered while manoeuvring for anchoring,
berthing, etc.
All ships turn around a pivoting point. The point is an imaginary point and is fixed
from observations of the ship turning around. It is known that when going astern the
pivoting point moves aft.
It is because of this reason that the effect of the current shall not be felt when
handling a ship in open sea. However the effect of current must be considered
when handling ships in waters with on shore winds or near off shore platforms, or
16 when manoeuvring in narrow channels even in open seas or in inland waters or
In harbours or in inland waters if the current is at constant strength and direction, the Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Propulsion and Control
ship handling becomes considerably easier. Such conditions exist only in the
comparatively narrow channels of the rivers. However, we should take into
account the following:
Different current streams exist over a small area, within which the vessel has to
manoeuvre.
Currents with varying different strength or direction may act upon different parts of
the ship.
Currents do not always hinder movement; they can be used quite effectively. Next
time you see a pilot bringing a ship alongside, watch how he slowly uses the
currents and the helm and brings the ship alongside very gently. The process he
follows is very simple.
Let us assume that the wharf you are going alongside is north/south and the current is
setting south. You are naturally heading into the current. The pilot brings the ship
about 100 meters off the wharf and ensures that the ship has no headway in relation
to the wharf. Assuming the wharf to be on your port side he puts the helm at 10 to
port. However, the ship has no real headway she is making way through the water
and the helm swings the head to port. The current catches the ship on its starboard
side and starts pushing it on to the jetty. Gentle slow ahead movements keep the
ship's headway through water and the bow creeps towards the wharf. As the bow
comes about 10 meters from the jetty the pilot orders dead slow astern which swings
the bow to starboard and swings the stern alongside. All that now needs to be done is
to send the lines ashore and make fast.
In a riverine port, the pilot also makes use of the current to drift astern without
having to turn around. He drops an anchor underfoot (i.e. with one shackle in the
water) and with judicious use of astern movements he manages to bring the ship
astern. The pilots know the details of the currents in their pilotage waters. Even
though this information is available in the relevant publications, it becomes
difficult to know all the details. We therefore rely on the pilots for their local
knowledge.
All ships carry a manoeuvring booklet in addition to the wheel house posters. Such
booklet would contain the following information. Check the information on your
ship.
Manoeuvring SAQ 2
(a) What would be the effect of wind on a ship steaming with a strong wind on
her port beam?
(b) Identify the publications, which provide the information on winds in port
and in a particular sea area.
(c) Ascertain the relationship between the wind force and state of the sea and
swell.
(d) Narrate the procedure that your pilot or the berthing master used to bring the
ship alongside a jetty. Indicate specifically the use of current.
(e) You are stemming the current (Current is against you). If a 90 turn is to be
made around a buoy, indicate with sketches and reason as to which of the
following would you prefer?
(iv) The current may be ignored, as it would not have any effect.
TRANSFER
9 _________ %
180' change
1 of heading
0 7
I' l l (4,
Dr ft
An Ile
Rudder Distance
Execute
Approach
Course
SHIP'S PARTICULARS
Length overall _____ m Breadth _______ m Moulded breadth _______ m
Anchor Chain Port ___ shackles, Stbd____ shackles Stern ______ shackles
Bulbous bow Yes/No (I shackle = m/ ____
*
fathoms)
air
draft
19
Manoeuvring Type of Engine Maximum Power kW HP)
Half ahead
Slow ahead
Full astern
STEERING PARTICULARS
Type of rudder Maximum angle 0
ARPA YIN
Y/N Y/N
Speed Log Compass system
0
Y/N
Doppler Gyro error
Y/N VHF Y/N
Water speed
Elec. Pos. type
Y/N
Ground speed Fixing system
Dual Axis Y/N
Y/N
Engine telegraph
Steering gear Y/N
20
at
c
ou
iC a
ee
41~1
21~
Manoeuvring
1.13 SHIP PROPULSION AND CONTROL
Manoeuvring is firstly dependent on the type of the propulsion as well as the steering
systems provided. Let us look at the different systems and their advantages and
disadvantages.
Students are advised that for the explanation of engineering terms they should refer to a
textbook on Marine Power plants.
.22
Drawbacks of Turbine !f Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Drawbacks of turbine ships from handling point of view are: Propulsion and Control
Motor Ships
Motor ships (Diesel ships) are perhaps the most common type met at sea now. Up to
the 1960's, this type of engine was not available for larger ships (tankers and bulk
carriers). Such large ships were mostly equipped with steam turbine. Now the larger
ships also have motor engines, as they are less expensive to run. From ship handling
point of view, they present advantages over steam turbines.
They can be started quickly.
They respond to changes and develop power quickly.
23~
Manoeuvring
1.15 POWER PLANTS, HORSEPOWER, ETC.
One of the important considerations for a naval architect is the propulsion power
requirement for a ship. Once the hull form is decided upon, it is necessary to
determine the engine power that will enable the ship to meet its operational
requirements of speed and fuel consumption. The total resistance of ship cannot be
predicted by calculations alone. The complex shape of the ship's hull form forces the
naval architect to rely on model tests data to predict
Engine size,
Effective horsepower needed to move the hull to a given speed, and
Specified consumption.
Prime Mover or Main Engine produces the power required to drive the propeller shaft at
designed speed. (Horsepower produced at the prime mover stage is known as Brake
Horse Power). There are some losses during transmission to the shaft and the power
available at the propeller shaft is termed Shaft Horse Power. Further, during the
passage of the shaft through bearings, seals and struts if any, there may be further losses
and lesser horsepower is delivered to the propeller. This is called Delivered Horse Power.
Ultimately, when the propeller operates in its normal environment, what is actually
produced is the thrust and this is expressed as Thrust Horse Power.
BHP > SHP > DHP > THP
The Ship Drive Train
Before ship resistance and power required can be examined in any detail. the
definitions and relationships between the power used along the ship's drive train
must be quantified. Figure above shows a simplified picture of the drive train.
Shaft Horsepower (SHP) is the power output after any reduction gears. Reduction
gears are necessary to convert the high revolutions per minute of the engine to
slower revolutions per minute required for efficient screw propeller operation.
There is only a few percent loss of efficiency between BHP and SHP-SHP being
always smaller value than BHP.
.24
NB: The reduction gears can be relatively small components as they are in some Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
gas turbines or extremely large as they are in some steam turbines. Propulsion and Control
1000
4
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 F 8 10 12 14 16
Having established that the link between THP and EHP is the hull efficiency (CH), it
is now possible to establish the BHP requirement fora ship from the magnitude of
EHP obtained from the power curve. Figure below displays the block diagram of the
various drive train elements and the power at each interface, which can aid this
calculation.
BHP
Prime
Reduction -SHP Shafting &
Mover Bearings
Gears ---0'
Instead of having to deduce the effect of all the separate efficiencies down the ship
drive train, the separate efficiencies are often amalgamated into one called the
propulsive efficiency (CP) or more often the propulsive coefficient (PC). The
propulsive coefficient is the ratio of EHP to SHP. Typically, a well-designed
propeller and drive train would produce a propulsive coefficient of about 0.6.
Provided the power curve and the propulsive coefficient for a ship are known, it is
possible for the prime mover to be sized at an early stage in the ship design
process.
25
Manoeuvring Example 1.2
Assuming a Patrol Craft has a propulsive coefficient of 0.59; calculate the SHP
requirement of its prime mover if it has an operational requirement to reach
14 knots.
Solution
EHP at 14 knots is 530 HP (Reference Figure 13)
EHP
Propulsive Coefficient !-.h - - 1.
SHP
EHP 530 HP
SHP = ______________
Pc 0.59
SHP = 900 HP
Hull Propeller Interaction
In certain hull designs, the flow pattern caused by the hull can reduce the
effectiveness of propeller in which case hull efficiency can have a value of < 1. If
the hull is designed well, the flow pattern created by the hull can increase the
effectiveness of the propeller in which case, the hull efficiency will have a
value > I.
Propulsive Coefficient is the ratio of EHP to SHP. Typically, well-designed
propellers and drive trains can produce coefficient of about 0.6
Controlling Momentum on Larger Ship
Let us take the case of two tankers, one 25,000 tons DWT and other 250,000 tons
DWT (10 times bigger than the' first one). Now compare their Shaft horsepower
(12000 and 31000). Tanker, which is ten times as large (DWT) the first one. has
propulsion power 2.58 times only. Sea speed of both the tankers is 16 knots. The
momentum at sea speed however will be 25000 x 16 and 250000 x 16.
Relatively low horsepower of larger ship (VLCC) can give the same speed at sea as
that of smaller tanker. Steering these ships poses no special problem at sea as the
speed; the rudder area and the hull configuration are matched. However, in restricted
waters and shallow waters when vessel has to reduce speed, stop, alter courses or
carry out any emergency or sudden manoeuvres that this difference in their power
capabilities needs to be kept in mind.
Note the differences in respect of this aspect on these types of ships.
Table 1.4
26
SAQ 3 Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Propulsion and Control
(a) Why does a container ship have higher shaft horse power than a similar size
tanker?
(b) Increase in deadweight does not necessarily need higher horse power.
Explain the statement.
(c) What is the reason that ships are fitted with steam turbine; e.g. large tankers?
27
Manoeuvring When water is flowing through a propeller, the water which is forward of propeller,
is accelerated to a high speed as it flows through the propeller. This acceleration
creates a low-pressure condition forward of the propeller than surrounding
pressure. The water acted upon by the propeller experiences a pressure rise. In the
wake region abaft of the propeller, as the-pressure falls compared to that of
surrounding water, the water accelerates to even higher speeds.
'The horizontal distance that would be travelled ideally if the screw advanced
one revolution like a sheet metal screw.
Pitch Angle
The pitch can also be quantified as a pitch, angle, which is the angle of the
blade from perpendicular to the flow.
VA = VS - VW
Example 1.3 Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
What is the speed of advance of a ship traveling at 22 knots that is creating a wake Propulsion and Control
with a wake speed of 3.2 knots? '_
Solution
Though the popular concept .9 of propeller action is that of pushing the vessel
Forward because of high pressure induced on the down stream faces of the
blade, in fact, almost two thirds. of the thrust force arises from low-pressure
acting on the backs or upstream faces of the blades.
(b) Transverse Thrust
Transverse thrust is a-phenomenon, which is particularly noticeable when
starting from rest until there is wake flow through the propeller. This is
because the forces generated by the propeller have a large 'athwart shipst
; the result of this is wheelingeffect in the direction of rotation of
propeller.
A right handed propeller when going ahead will turn the stern to starboard
and the bow to port.
When engines are reversed (going astern) the bow will swing to starboard and
stern to port.
Transverse thrust is also known as 'Starting Bias' and 'Wheeling Effect' or
Wheel Effect'.
(c) Because the wake flow moves best over the hull shape when engine is going
ahead, "the bias reduces as ship increases speed and rudder becomes
effective. When going astern, there is little wake strength at the propeller and
It may hot be possible to correct the bias and steer astern.
The thrust of upper blades against the rudder may produce a somewhat
greater transverse force than the thrust of the lower blades as the lower
blades encounter more resistance.
The maximum effect is on a ship starting from dead in the water when the
initial pivot point is forward and the transverse thrust has maximum
leverage. Under headway, this effect can be corrected by small correcting
rudder.
(e) The propeller working astern produces a strong transverse thrust because helical
discharge is directed against the stern where it hits the hull, in part, almost at
right angles. Large diameter propeller of low revolution push back greater
amount of water under steeper angle against the stern and produce a strong
transverse thrust when working astern.
29
Manoeuvring (f) The effect of transverse thrust of propeller working astern is greater when pivot
point is forward i.e. when ship is under forward motion. The transverse thrust
loses out in leverage when pivot point moves aft when ship gathers sternway
propeller with duct. A propeller duct prevents water from reaching the stern
under a steep angle, thus producing less transverse thrust.
(g) Comparatively, the effect of Transverse thrust while moving ahead is less
noticeable than thrust produced when going astern.
Action of Propeller Transverse Thrust
Right Handed Propeller
Number of starts and stops on motor ships may be limited and astern power may be
less than ahead power. Speeds can be increased in steps only i.e. dead slow, slow,
half and full. (Intermediate speeds fine tuning is difficult). On some ships minimum
speed dead slow ahead is 5 to 6 knots, which is far in excess of speed necessary
for maintaining just steerage way.
The blades of these propellers can be altered to set whatever pitch is required
across the whole power band from full ahead to full astern this is achieved by
hydraulic pumps or pistons. The hydraulic pumps are activated by an electric motor
operated when bridge controls are activated.
Advantages
(a) A ship with CPP is not restricted to 'step by step' speed increases
(dead slow-slow-half-full). Any intermediate speed can be selected and
operated immediately and maintained.
30
(b) Even at extremely slow speed, it is possible to have steerage. Fixed Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Propulsion and Control
pitch propellers do not permit such slow speeds.
(c) It is possible to turn a CPP ship (Left hand turning propeller short round
to port, using the port cant when going astern (as opposed to starboard
cant of FPP- right handed propeller- to starboard) as many of the CPP
shafts rotate anticlockwise (left handed)
Caution
On a CPP ship at very low speeds or even at Stop, the blades of CPP are set
with a very fine angle and pitch. They appear like fan blades when viewed
from astern and the propeller looks like closed disc or wheel. Due to 'Disc'
shape of the propeller if ship's speed is too high and does not match the
propeller speed (low), the flow of water is restricted and turbulence develops
behind the propeller, which will adversely affect the rudder functioning. The
rudder gets shielded and steering becomes erratic. Of course, of against this it
may be remembered that CPP is. instantly available for corrective action
without the necessity of starts or stops.
Transverse Thrust of CPP
CP Propellers normally turn in a left-handed (anti clock wise) direction
continuously when going ahead or astern. Therefore, when a CPP is set for astern
movement the bow will cant to starboard like conventional ship but going ahead. It
may not turn to port. (If CPP turns clockwise, opposite effect may take place and
ships head may cant to port when CPP is moving astern. Transverse thrust of CPP
may therefore be weak or unreliable).
Maximum stern power and its effect of a CPP ship may not be as much as that of
conventional FPP ship.
Due to poor maintenance or wrong operation, when control mechanism on bridge
is set for stop with zero pitch, the propeller may not be aligned to zero pitch and
some residual thrust may exist. Ship may still creep ahead or astern when stop is
ordered. If along side, the ropes must be kept tight. Resulting wash may also disturb
moorings of ships in adjoining berths. Wash may also get in between the hull and
the berth and brining the ship alongside may be difficult while berthing. Care is
also necessary to ensure that tugs and mooring boats are warned to take
precautions while coming near the propeller to take stern ropes.
CPP ships are provided an emergency stop control on the bridge which should
either declutch the propeller or stop the engine in an emergency particularly when
propeller pitch at high ahead or astern mode gets out of control.
SAQ 4
(a) Describe the flow water past the propeller pushes the ship ahead.
(b) What is speed of advance and the wake speed?
(c) What is the effect of the transverse thrust on ship manoeuvring?
(d) What are the advantages of a CPP?
stall
Angle
:.i (I "t ~
= 30
15 45
32
Rudder Types: Definitions and Explanatory Terms
Simple rudder is a rudder plate hinged around the rudderpost. All the area of the
rudder is abaft the rudderpost and stock whether a rudder is balanced or not is
dependent upon the relationship of the center of pressure of the rudder and the
position of the rudder stock. When the rudder stock is at the leading edge the
rudder is unbalanced.
When they are vertically aligned, the rudder is "fully balanced". This arrangement
greatly reduces the torque required by the tiller mechanism to turn the rudder.
The spade rudder in Figure 1.8 is semi-balanced. This is a sensible arrangement as
it limits the amount of torque required by the tiller mechanism yet should ensure the
rudder returns to midships after the occurrence of a tiller mechanism failure.
The Chord
Fore and aft (maximum) length of the rudder. It is limited by the position of
the propeller and the edge of thee stern.
The Span
Vertical height (and clearance above the keel) is limited by the hull and the
need to remain above the keel level to avoid grounding damage.
Roof Section
----Roof Chord
Hull Line
Trailing Leading
Edge Edge
The Chord
The most common rudder type for merchant ships is semi spade type with an
aspect ratio of 1.5. Earlier merchant ships bad simple plate rudder with
33
Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Manoeuvring Propulsion and Control
higher aspect ratio. Navy vessels and high-speed craft use spade rudder with
aspect ratio of around 1.
Section shape of rudder: This also influences the rudder performance. It is
described as ratio of thickness of rudder/chord length The values vary
between 0.005 for a plate rudder to 0.15 to 0.25 for spade types.
Rudder dimensions and therefore aspect ratio, section, shape and ratio
depends upon various factors such as:
Propeller type,
Dimensions,
Lateral thrusters can be fitted in the bow or the stern. Lateral thrusters are most
effective when a ship has neither headway nor stern way. They create a turning
effect by providing a side force at their location. Their effectiveness will depend
upon the distance between the thruster and ship's pivot point. When berthing a ship
that has a single bow thruster, and no stern thruster, it is important not to become
too focused on the bow, because this can be controlled with the thruster. Plan to get
the stern alongside as a priority. Remember that pure rotation can only be induced
by two lateral thrusters, one forward and one aft, opposing each other, and that a
tug may be needed to control the stern of a large ship.
Thrusting when Stopped - When stopped and thrusting, a ship's pivot point is
likely to be aft. If a bow thruster is put to starboard on a stopped ship, the ship will
turn to starboard.
Thrusting with Headway - The pivot point will be forward, so thrusting will not
be very effective, especially at high speeds.
Thrusting with Sternway - The pivot point is aft and when the bow thruster is
put to starboard, the ship's bow will swing to starboard. The thruster will be
effective, and will act as a form of 'rudder'.
Rudder Response - The time it takes for the rudder to respond to a helm order
will determine how rapidly a ship gets into a turn. The quicker the rudder responds,
the sooner the ship will begin to turn.
34
propellers. When not immersed, the lift produced by the rudder at low speeds Ship Manoeuvring, Ship
Propulsion and
will be very small, resulting in large turning circles and poor response to helm.
Control
Post (a) b)
Figures (a) and (b) above show simple type of rudder older conventional type
(not balanced).
Here all the rudder area is abaft its axis of rotation (rudder shaft). The rudder is
supported by and hinged on rudderpost and by sole piece/heel pintle and bearing.
In some ships in place of rudderpost, there may be solid butt (Figure 1.10 b).
There may be in the closed stern type of ships balanced rudders also where rudder
shaft/stock rests on ships structure i.e. on sole piece with heel pintle and stern
pintle on top or balanced rudder resting on fixed structure abaft the propeller. Or
the rudder may be under hung on deep horn or under hung on shallow horn.
SAQ 5
(a) Inspect and sketch your rudder and describe its main features.
(b) Describe the actions which cause the ship to change course when the rudder
is moved a few degrees.
(c) Why are ruder angles limited to 35"?
(d) What is aspect ratio in a rudder?
1.18 SUMMARY
Ships are planned designed and constructed for carrying out identified trades or function.
They are of different dimensions, shapes and size. Length, breadth, depth, draft, trim,
block coefficient, hull superstructure, rudder area and the ships propulsive power
influence their manoeuvrability.
Dynamic interactions govern resistance of the hull to steady forward motion of the ship.
Frictional resistance is interalia dependent on water density, viscosity, area of the hull in
contact with water and friction coefficient. Residual resistance, which includes wave
making and eddy making resistance, is also an important factor. Aerodynamic resistance
is offered by, 'above water' part of the hull.
Manoeuvring booklet is available on board every ship. It contains details of ship's
manoeuvring characteristics and other relevant data.
Effect of wind must always be taken into consideration when carrying out ship
manoeuvres. 35
Manoeuvring Effect of the current may not be very significant in the open sea, but can effect safe
navigation in coastal water and harbours.
Manoeuvring is dependent on the type of the propulsion as well as the steering systems
provided on board ship. Each of these systems have their advantages and disadvantages.
Rapidly rotating blades develop a lift force having a component in the direction of the
axis of rotation, that results in a thrust in fore and aft direction. Forces generated by a
propeller also have a large athwart ship component which causes a wheeling effect in the
direction of rotation of the propeller.
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Having learnt the basics of ship manoeuvring, let us now look at actual manoeuvres that
you may be a part of when on bridge watches.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
High values of L/B are associated with good course directional stability, e.g.
the container ships have a L/B of 8 andtherefore have a good directional
stability while tugs with a L\13 ratio of 2.5 to 3 has good turning ability. 39
Manoeuvring Beam to Draught (BIT)
High values of B/T increase leeway and the tendency for such a ship in a
beam wind would be to 'skate across the sea surface'. Merchant ships have a
B/T ratio in the range of 2.75 to 3.75.
Block Coefficient and Prismatic Coefficient (ratios of the ship's volume of
displacement against the volume of a rectangular block or a prism).
Ships with large block and prismatic coefficients have poor course stability
and a readiness to turn. When turning, they will do so easily. Large tankers
have these characteristics. Ships with a large protruding bulbous bow are
likely to have their longitudinal centre of buoyancy far forward. As a result,
the ship will show a tendency to turn.
Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy
It is the point around which the ship trims.
40
Unintentionally Ship Hydrodynamics and
Hull Design
Ship being (bodily) set by currents, tides or being pushed by winds. Except in
the case of a ship being carried sideways by currents or tidal streams,
ship's lateral motion also meets resistance (Lateral Resistance) when being
pushed by tugs or wind. However when pushed by a tug the movement shall
be opposed by resistance.
Tide
Y I
-- X
No Resistance Because
Water Mass Moves
Residual Resistance
This is mainly longitudinal resistance. This forms an important component in
determining the position of Pivot Point and there is relationship between the
position of Pivot Point and the ratio of the longitudinal resistance to the propulsion
force and the direction of travel. 41
Manoeuvring Lateral Resistance
However, this does not come into play for straight-line travel as the component of
ship's transverse thrust is small and is overcome as soon as ship gathers momentum.
It, however, affects the position of the Pivot Point when ship starts turning under
the action of rudder and propeller.
Rotational axis
Z (Z,Z)
X
Longitudinal axis
(X,X)
Y Lateral axis
(Y,Y)
Rotational
axis (Vertical
Z,Z)
Figure 2.3
In the case of a loaded ship stationary in water, on even keel the Pivot Point is
very close to the centre of gravity i.e. almost at mid length.
0
Figure 2.4
Just After Ahead Movement is Given
A ship underway under the effect of the propeller (after inertia has been
overcome and before the longitudinal resistance is felt) has its pivot point
pushed in the direction of travel-forward or aft and this new position is
temporarily 1/8 L from bow or stern as the case may be depending on the
direction of ships movement (or direction of propeller rotation). This
temporary position of pivot point well ahead, gives a good turning lever and is
used for kick-start manoeuvres.
If at the same time, the ship also has lateral (side ways) moment, this can
affect the position at the pivot point due to lateral forces and lateral
resistance. This is important particularly when the ship is turning
L/B ratio 9 8 7 6 5
Pos. Pivot Point from
0.33L 0.34L 0.35L D.37L 0.4L
bow
Vessel Stopped and Commencing the Turn with Engines Ahead. (No
Environmental Factor Affecting)
Ship starts turn with rudder hard over and with engines ahead (either slow,
halt or full). 43
Manoeuvring This rudder and engine action will attempt to turn the ship as well as propel it
ahead and in doing so:
(a) Forward moment is resisted because of inertia.
(b) Pivot point moves ahead about 1/8 L from the bow because of
the propeller thrust (force).
00
Position 2
Position 1
Figure 2.5
This gives good lever for turning movement to start before the ship gathers
forward momentum or just as the ship starts making headway.
As the ship moves ahead after overcoming inertia, the water resistance on
the bow eventually balances the forward propulsion force at a steady speed
and the pivot point shifts aft to a position 1/4 from the bow.
At a steady speed, while turning, the lateral resistance (at the bow on the side
which the ship is turning and the stern in opposite direction) also comes into
play pushing the pivot point further aft to about 1/3 L from the bow. Because
of this, turning lever is reduced and rudder force becomes less efficient.
As the ship starts turning she slides sideways through the water, both initially and
during the turn and meets water resistance all along the shipside towards which the
stem is turning. This also reduces rudder force. This is the lateral resistance when
turning.
Turning at Constant Speed
44
Ship Hydrodynamics and
Hull Design
SHIP ON
SHIP
EVEN KEEL
STOPPE
D
rir
PIVOT POINT
+ X
X ,H+ SHIFTS
SHIP MAKING A+ AHEAD OF
HEADWAY c ORIGINAL
1/4L POSITION
SHIP MAKING
STEARN WAY
______X
PIVOT POINT
SHIFTS AFT
(e) Position of pivot point ship making stern way at steady speed Figure
2.6: Position of Pivot Point when Turning with Propeller and Rudder
As the ship turns 90, the lateral forces tends to slow the turn and rudder force
will be less effective because the pivot point would move from1/8 L to 1/4 -1/3
L. In order to maintain the leverage, it would be then necessary to slow down
and again give a kick ahead to get the maximum rudder force and reduced
lateral resistance.
45
Manoeuvring
/ posn.4 I*
Figure 2.7
46
after end and if they are disposed equally on either side of the centre line then the Ship Hydrodynamics and
Hull Design
ship is likely to be directionally stable. Hydrodynamic stability is related to the
following hull parameters.
If ship's length is increased, her directional stability would be increased
Increase in beam and block coefficient will reduce yawing.
4,
Deepening draft improves directional stability and trim by stern improves
it still further.
A ship with poor directional stability can bring about some improvement
by
enlarging rudder area to a maximum of 2% of the lateral underwater area.
Ships with finer lines are more easily handled. Large ships such as super tankers tend
to be directionally unstable. Pivot
Tug F.oini in Tog
cen ,
SHIP STOPPED
TUGS EXERT EQUAL
FORCE
TUGS PUSHING (OR
AND SHIP MOVES
PULLING)
BODILY
EQ UA L DIS TA NCE
M MIDSHIPS & PARALLEL
P ~
S H I P M A KI NG H EA D WA Y P
1/4 L FROM BOW
\ 4 AFT TUG AWAY 3/4 L
- 4 - ~ FROM P. EXERTS MORE
STERN LEVERAG E - PRESSURE
LEVER FOR I.EVER FOR WILL S TERN SWINGS FARTH ES T
FORD TUG AFT TUG SWING BOW SWINGS LESS
(LESS ER) (GREA TER) MORE
SHIP MAKING
T
SF
RN WAY
P 1/4 L FROM STERN
FORD TUG FARTHEST
AWAY FROM P
EXERTS MORE PRESSURE
AFT TUG EXERTS LESS
LEVER FOR FORWARD LEVER FOR PRESSURE
TUG AFT TUG LESS BOW SWINGS FARTHEST
(TREATER THAN STERN SWINGS LESS
AFT TUG
Figure 2.8
Table 2.2 : Relationship between the Length and Other Manoeuvring Parameters
Diameter Degrees
9 1/3 L 4L 12.6 L 14
8 21/321, 3.8 L 12 L 15
7 5/14 L 3.6 L 11.3 L 16
6 3/8 L 3 . 3 L 10.5 L 17
5
.2/5L 3L 9.4 L 19
SAQ I
(a) What are the factors that affect manoeuvring?
(b) What are the various forces acting on the ship just as the ship gets
underway?
(c) How does the pivot point move as a force is applied? Is the amount of shift
dependent on the aspect and the quantum of the applied force? 47
Manoeuvring (d) Under what circumstances are the bow thrusters most effective to start a
rotational motion?
(e) Two tugs are positioned at the forward and after stations. If the ship gives a
kick astern which of the tugs shall have the more effect?
Put the wheel hard over to the side on which man has fallen. This will reduce
the hazard of the person getting caught into the suction current of
propeller. It will also help in reducing the speed and keep the ship close
to the MOB position.
Throw the man-overboard (MOB) life buoy secured with the MOB light
and the smoke float. This shall identify the position of the incident
with a fair accuracy. If the life buoy is released quickly, it ,may even
allow the person to get hold of it.
Many GP$ systems have the provision to "Mark" the man overboard position
manually. (Does your ship have one?)
Inform Master and the engine room and put the engines on stand by.
Call out the rescue boat crew and prepare for lowering. Preferably lower the
boat to the embarkation deck. Do not lower further, till the Master orders
the same. Preparing the rescue boat to recover the person overboard may
be done in the mean time. Engine room must be ready for immediate
manoeuvring.
Ascertain the following Information that the Master would have to take
into account. .A
Identity of the person if possible.
Was the person a swimmer?
Was the person wearing life jacket or warm clothing's, etc.?
State of the wind and swell. Wind and Swell may be strong making
recovery by a lifeboat difficult. I. I
48
Ship Hydrodynamics and
The position of the MOB, if ascertained immediately after the Hull Design
incident. Was a life buoy thrown to mark the position?
If the time and position where the man may have fallen overboard
is not known, when was he last seen?
Visibility. Ship
Manoeuvres to Effect a Rescue
It is not possible to state a perfect single manoeuvre, which will be suitable in
all situations. What is important is that :
The action taken should have regard to the prevailing conditions.
It should be aimed to save the life or lives as far as practicable.
The procedure or manoeuvre adopted should not endanger more lives.
International Aeronautical Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual (LAMSAR)
gives details of the manoeuvres which allows the ship to return as near as possible
to the position where the man was assumed to have fallen overboard. These
manoeuvres are explained in very simple terms and we would like you to read
them and work of the following task.
Single Tom;';'"
2.8 ANCHORING
After a long sea voyage, a ship arrives in a port or near a port area and may have to
anchor the ship. This maybe because of customs, immigration and cargo formalities
or due to non-availability of a berth.
A ship may be required to anchor for receiving stores, provisions, bunkers, crew
change, surveys, and repairs, awaiting port clearance. A ship may also be forced to
take shelter at an anchorage due to unfavourable weather in the open sea.
Anchoring involves the following processes:
Removing cement from the spurling pipes and clearing the hawse pipe
covers.
However, the Master must consider the following factors when choosing
anchorage for his ship.
(a) Depth : At least 1.5 times the deepest draft of the ship with due
allowance for range of tides, Sea and Swell Condition. This depth
reduces due to shallow water effect to some extent. Adequate
clearance at low water spring needs to be taken into account to avoid
excessive current force when the tide drops.
(b) Small UKC at Swing Tides (Low Water) would require paying out
too much of chain leaving inadequate length for further use.
(Depth/Draft ration not more than 2). This will depend upon how
much of cable is on each anchor and size of the ship.
(c) Holding Qualities of Seabed : Mud, soft mud and clay Seabed is
considered to have good holding qualities. Rocky and sandy beds are
not.
Additional Factors
(a) Purpose of stay (laid up, Repairs, orders, Bunkers, Stores.
50
M duration of stay (Crew change berth not vacant). ( c ) ship Hydrodynamics
and Hull
Season (fair-weather/foul). Design
I
In shallow water when the engines are put astern in muddy waters the
muddy waters seem to move forward.
A sure method is to drop a lead line (Hope you have one on board).
Radar bearings also can give you indications whether the ship has
stopped.
Modern ships have Doppler logs to quantify the ship's motion over ground
or over water in a Ahead Astern direction, additionally they also
give a athwartship motion of the bow and stern. See module on
("Speed Log").
Remember that if the ship is swinging at the same time it may be
difficult to ascertain whether the ship is dead stopped.
Anchorage Position
Position obtained on anchoring will be the position of the bridge. Position of the
bridge
or of the anchor can be drawn from this to know the position of anchor (in
case this is lost) and to prove that you did not anchor in prohibited area. Such
fixing of position shall also allow you :
To draw the ship's swinging circle using the amount of chain brought up.
This is also a requirement at certain ports and must be practised after
every anchoring.
To know if vessel has dragged.
To assure the watch keeper that sufficient distance is available from nearby
objects on chart.
Many GPS systems have the provision to "Mark" the anchor position and
setting up of a "anchor watch" feature. (Has your ship's GPS been
provided this feature?).
Use of Anchor Buoys
Anchor buoy/buoys is a device that is available on board or can also be made on
board the ship, to indicate the position of the anchor/anchors when they are
dropped.
(a) The buoy can be made of hardwood /Hard piece of wood 2" thick and
say 3x3 approximately shaped as a circle or cone and with a hole in a
corner big enough to take a small shackle pin through it. The buoy can
be painted suitably so that it can be identified as an anchor
readily.
(b) A wire/Nylon rope with an eye can be attached to the buoy with the
shackle. This rope must be sufficiently long (Depth of water and tidal
52
rise and swell height and allowance for tidal current, etc. Attachment Ship Hydrodynamics and
Hull Design
to the anchor can be through the ring or shackle of the anchor by
means of an eye or loop. First, the connection to the anchor is made
with the rope and adequate length joined to the buoy.
(c) The buoy with adequate slack is taken up on the rail/bulwark on
forecastle and lightly lashed.
(d) When order is given to let go the anchor the buoy is also thrown over
the side?
SAQ 2
(a) Describe the immediate actions that should be taken when a man is seen
falling overboard.
(b) What is the main intention in the special manoeuvres for MOB described?
(c) How is the position of the anchor marked and why?
(d) Why are anchor watches necessary? What routine is to be followed on such
watches?
2.9 SUMMARY
Underwater hull geometry, such as a ship's length to beam ratio, or beam to draft ratio
determine the ship's willingness to turn.
A ship rotates about a point situated along her length which is known as 'pivot point'. It
lies between 1/4 and 1/3 of the ship's length from the bow when going ahead.
When going astern it lies a corresponding distance from the stern. The pivot point traces
the path that ship follows.
A pivot point may change its position under different conditions. For example, just after
the ahead movement is given, it may be as close as 1/8 ship's length from the bow, while
in case of a loaded ship stationary in water, on even keel, the pivot point is very close to
the centre of gravity i.e. at mid length.
ship is directionally stable if a deviation from a set course increases only when an
external force or moment is acting to cause the deviation. If a deviation is caused or
continues in the absence of such an external force, the ship is said to be directionally
unstable.
After a long sea voyage it may be necessary for a ship to anchor, in which case, it is
necessary to draw up an anchoring plan, study relevant publications, decide on the spot
where to anchor, and get familiar with the manoeuvring data characteristics.
Direction of the wind and tide also must be taken into consideration.
After anchoring, position of the ship should be obtained by taking visual bearings of land
objects, lighthouses, beacons or objects which are abeam or nearer the beam. Position
obtained is the position of the bridge. Watch keeping officer must draw on the chart the
ship's swinging circle and ensure that she is at a safe distance from the nearby objects on
the chart.
53
Manoeuvring
2.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ I
(a) Underwater hull geometry is the major factor which include
Length to beam ration,
Beam to draught ration,
Block coefficient and prismatic coefficient, and
Longitude centre of buoyancy.
(b) As the ship gets underway, resistance is experienced in the forward part and
the thrust given by the propeller is experienced aft. Its only when the two
balance that the ship moves at a steady motion.
(a) The pivot point moves in the direction of the force applied, the direction
depends on the direction but not on the magnitude of the force.
(b) Bow thruster shall be effective when the ship is moving astern as the pivot
point is abaft and the bow thrusters have a large lever.
(c) As the pivot point is aft the forward tug shall be more effective.
SAQ 2
(a) Raise an alarm. Call the master, throw the MOB lifebuoy overboard. Use the
"mark" feature on the GPS if available. Keep a look out to keep the man in
sight, follow one of the manoeuvres mentioned, inform engine room to
prepare for manoeuvring. The other actions that could be taken but not
immediately are increase lookouts, hoist signal "0" and send urgency message
on radio to ships in the vicinity, etc.
(b) Main intention of the special manoeuvre for MOB is to return to the spot
where the man fell overboard.
(c) The position of the anchor should be marked with an anchor buoy. It can
also approximately be marked by fixing the ships position and by calculating
the length paid out on the cable in the direction the ship is heading. The
anchor buoy is accurate and in case the cable parts the anchor can be
recovered by spotting the anchor buoy.
(d) Anchor watches are necessary to ensure principally that
(i) The ship is not dragging.
(ii) No unauthorised persons approaches and/or boards the ship.
(iii) No other ship is dragging on to own ship.
54
UNIT 3 MANOEUVRING IN SHALLOW
WATERS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Shallow Water Effect
3.2.1 Under Keel Clearance
3.2.2 Factors Affecting Manoeuvrability
3.2.3 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
3.2.4 Hydrodynamic Equilibrium
3.3 What is Ship Squat?
3.3.1 What Causes Squat?
3.3.2 The Main Factors Affecting Ship Squat
3.3.3 Shallow Water Indications
3.3.4 Block Co-efficient (Cb)
3 .3.5 Width o f In flu ence
3.3.6 Blockage Factor
3 . 3 . 7 E ffe c t s o f S q u a t
3.3.8 Estimating Squat
3.1 INTRODUCTION
We are now coming to the end of the theory portion of manoeuvring. The phenomena of
interaction including squat and making due allowance for interaction while manoeuvring
shall now be introduced.
While a number of new ports are operating to meet the increasing demands of larger and
deeper ships, many continue to operate with small under keel clearances. Coastal
waterways also have not undergone corresponding improvements in terms of depth and
width requirements of the larger/deeper ships. As a result a navigator is required to
navigate, manoeuvre or handle his ship with lesser under keel clearance, channel widths,
etc. than needed for safe manoeuvring.
Objectives
After learning this unit, the student will be able to
explain the factors affecting maneuverability in shallow waters,
explain the phenomena of squat and state its effect, and
describe the causes of interaction between ships and ships, and between ships
and banks.
55
Manoeuvring
3.2 SHALLOW WATER EFFECT
Shallow water is experienced as follows:
Not noticeable in depths more than 4 times the deepest draft.
Felt in depths less than 2 times the deepest draft.
Significant in depths less than 1.5 times the deepest draft.
Predominant in depths less than 1.2 times the deepest draft.
3.2.1 Under Keel Clearance
Safe depths under the keel, known as under keel clearance (UKC) can be measured in absolute units,
such as feet or meters but some times, it becomes necessary to show under keel clearance in terms
of draft. Therefore it is customary, to refer to relationship as 4 times D or 2 times D, etc. or to
refer to under keel clearance as percentage of draft i.e. 10 17%, 20 %, 50%, of the deepest draft as
UKC.
Under Keel Clearance is specific for a particular ship arrived at by considering the deadweight,
speed, Coefficient of fineness, length and other parameters. Though some deadweight
solutions are now available, each ship allows safety factors as learnt from
experiences.
3.2.2 Factors Affecting Manoeuvrability
In addition to depth, another factor, which affects the manoeuvring capabilities of a ship is, whether
the waters are restricted in both vertical and horizontal dimensions.
(a) In vertical sense, available depths including the shoals or bars and channel slopes
affect the manoeuvring characteristics as these factors restrict the water area around
the ship.
(b) In horizontal sense, waterways widths, channel widths, steepness of banks, presence of
other obstructions, different widths of the canal/channel at bed and at water levels
also influence the manoeuvres.
(c) Presence of other ships, especially those passing close by, can affect the ship's
behaviour.
These effects are studied under the heading of hydrodynamic interaction on vessel
manoeuvrability.
3.2.3 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
When a ship is at rest in the water, it is in a state of balance. The total hydrostatic force pushing up
exactly balances weight of the ship pushing down and the ship is in a state of hydrostatic
equilibrium.
3.2.4 Hydrodynamic Equilibrium
Interaction is a hydrodynamic phenomenon. It occurs due to the movement of the ship through the
water relative to cross sectional area of the navigable channel.
When a ship moves through water, in addition to static pressures of water, dynamic pressures are
exerted on the ship. These act on the hull and give rise to the resistance to motion resulting in the
characteristic pattern of divergent and transverse surface waves, which accompany a ship under
motion.
Ship underway displaces waters, which is replaced by water flowing around the hull and under the
hull. The lateral symmetry of the hull to port and starboard causes hydrodynamic pressures to be
symmetrical and the forces and moments they cause are balanced. Thus, a hydrodynamic
equlilibrium is reached at constant speed in open sea. Any thing that upsets this balance will cause a
force to act in the opposing direction.
56
Manoeuvring in
Shallow
Water
11
tilt}
Figure 3.1
Presence of banks, shoals, other obstructions in the vicinity of the ship, and
Depth of water in shallow waters in which under keel clearance is small
the water flowing past the vessel cannot easily pass under the hull and must
go round the sides and under the hull at greater speed reducing the pressure
under the hull causing squat.
In summary, a change in relative cross sectional area of the navigable channel would
create a hydrodynamic instability. This process of changing the equilibrium of the
hydrodynamic pressure acting on the hull is known as hydrodynamic interaction, which
may cause the ship to move bodily sideway and/or turn.
Interaction is Affected by
(i) Speed through water. Greater the speed Greater the interaction
Interaction proportional to square of speed.
(iii) Water depth UKC. Smaller the UKC greater the effect
(v) Ship type and shape Block As squat is directly proportionate to 'block
coefficient, coefficient of coefficient' Tankers and bulk carriers are
fineness. more prone to squat and Krim by head.
57
Manoeuvring
3.3 WHAT IS SHIP SQUAT?
Squat is the reduction in under keel clearance resulting from bodily sinkage and change
of trim, which occurs when ship moves through water. The algebraic sum of bodily
sinkage and the change in trim forward or aft is the "ship squat".
It must be emphasised that for any draught, squat is NOT the difference in the draft when
a vessel is stationary and when she is underway. This misconception is inaccurate and
misleading. For example, the difference in bow draught readings due to forward motion
might be 2m, whilst the decrease in under keel clearance might only be 0.40m. Actual
observation shall indicate that the draft increases to some extent even in unrestricted water
due to wave action.
A moored vessel experiences the squat also, in a strong tide, alongside a jetty. Tide flow
of the strong tide past the stationary vessel produces, as before., components of bodily
sinkage and trimming effects. The two combined give ship squat fora stationary vessel.
OOWs taking draught readings say, for a draught survey, should keep this in mind lest it
leads to erroneous calculations of the quantity of cargo loaded.
Super tankers of > 2150,000 t DWT became common. They were almost too deep drafted
for the then existing ports, resulting in static under keel clearances as much as 1.0 m to
1.5 m. At the same time, container ships were replacing many of the older general cargo
Ships .Service speeds-for these container ships gradually increased from 16 knots
up to 27 knots.
As under keel clearances decreased and design service speeds rose, squats gradually
increased until they were in the order of 1.5 m to 1.75 m. However, research and
understanding of the causes and effects of squat allowed mathematical analysis of the
phenomenon and permitted consideration of a safety factor.
reduction in pressure under the hull thus ship experiences bodily sinkage in water. Faster
the ship moves, greater the sinkage and consequently less under keel clearance.
(c) The relationship between the depth of water (H) and the static mean draught
of the ship (T). As H/T decreases, squats increase.
(d) The presence of river or canal banks. The closer the banks are to the sides of a
moving vessel, the greater will be the squat.
(e) The presence of another ship in a river in a crossing or passing manoeuvre.
The presence of the second ship increases the squats on both vessels.
58
Stern wave water
/rushing to fill the void
ii
Bow wave
pushing
through water Less flow in shallow water
Figure 3.2: Effect of Bow and Stern Wave
Water speeds up under the hull and pressure reduces this causes sinkage squat.
59
Manoeuvring
3.3.5 Width of Influence
In open water conditions, having no adjacent banks and for determining the width when
squat may occur an artificial width of water is calculated to represent the riverbanks. This is
known as a "width of influence" (FB) such width is about 8 to 12 times the breadth of the
ship.
Any width of water less than FB will produce
Increased resistance,
Loss of speed,
Loss of propeller revolutions and
Increase in ship squat.
3.3.6 Blockage Factor
As the ship enters shallow and/or restricted water, the flow of water becomes increasingly
restricted due to reduced clearance, both under and on one or both sides of the hull. This
Degree of restriction is the blockage factor. Blockage is the relation of the cross sectional
'area of the ship to the cross sectional area of the channel.
Blockage factor = b T / B H.
where, b = beam of the ship,
T = draught of the ship,
B = width of the channel and
H = depth of water in the channel.
According to accepted standards for port designs the width of the channel should be
ideally at least 5 times the width of the largest ship using the channels.
60
Manoeuvring in
Cb Speed
Shallow Water
5 knots 7 knots 10 knots 12 knots
0.8 02 m 0.39 m 0.8m 1.5 m
0.7 0.175 m 0.34 m 0.7m 1.08m
0.6 0.15m 0.29 m 0.6 m 0.86 m
Depth
Combined curves for various ft ratios from 1.1 to 1.3, for various speeds.
Draf
Squat for Container vessels in open water
when C is 0.600
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
V= Ship speed, relative to the water C= is a constant value of 0.600
H = Water Depth V and H / T are variable
T= Ship's static even - keel draft
Figure 3.3
SAQ I
(a) Explain why the ship experiences less water under her keel in shallow
waters but not in deeper waters.
(c) Explain the effect of block co-efficient, blockage factor and the ratio of
depth to draft in the squat phenomena.
We have seen in the earlier section, how hydrodynamic equilibrium is reached when a ship
is moving through water and noted that this hydrodynamic equilibrium may be altered
among other things by pressure of another ship even at a moderate distance. We shall
look into this in detail in this module.
100 % L
61
Manoeuvring
A\
'If
Zero
Velocity Zero
Velocity
1. 11
I~1 ~;,~ 1~ 1
1
\ ~ \ ~ \~ it ~ ~
Figure 3.5: Stream Line: Flow of Water Around the Hull of Moving Ship
Direction
i
/A\ Waves
Net pressure force on
Forefoot P,
4\
1,+A
I I\ I \ 1 \\ \ + / I/ I/ 1 ! I /I /I
62
(a) Positive pressure zone forward. Manoeuvring in
Shallow Water
(b) Negative (lower) pressure zone along ships hull.
This imbalance of pressure zone will cause bows to repel each other with both areas
having positive pressure, and mid ships areas tend to draw close to each other. The
stern gets sucked close to each other.
I
__ i
waterun
between the hulls of
two ships
We may use this analogy to explain interaction between a ship and a bank.
3.4.2 Bank Cushion
Ship passing along the centre of the channel-alone.
Normal pressure zones in this condition are higher-pressure zones forward and lower
pressure zones on both sides midships up to the stern.
Since the ship is in centre of the channel, the flow of water is even an each side and ship
continues to maintain her course (No disturbance No forces No turning moment)
(a) If the ship for any reason leaves the centre of the channel and gets closer to
one bank, the hydrodynamic equilibrium is disturbed. Consider the bank as
an image mirror image of the ship.
(b) The forward portion of the ship, which is creating waves and meeting the
resistance, maintains positive pressure.
Ships bow will experience a sheer away from the bank. This is called bank
cushion or bank rejection.
Due to ship coming to one bank, the area of water flow between the ship and
closer bank is reduced. It is increased between the opposite side of the ship and
opposite bank. Lowering of water flow area between the ship and the nearest
bank causes flow to speed up and thus reduce the pressure between the ships
side (niidships to aft) and the bank.
(c) This will result in ship being sucked towards the bank Bank Suction.
This is accompanied by a build up of pressure near the bow seen as
enhanced wave between the bow and the bank with a cushion effect. This
tends to push the bow away with consequence of stern being drawn towards
the bank.
(d) If there is sufficient speed, the bow cushion can dominate the bank effect to
such an extent that both the bow and the ship are pushed away. This may
result in violent sheer.
63
Manoeuvring 3.4.3 Interaction between Ships
In narrow channels, where two-way traffic is permitted or overtaking is possible and
allowed, there exists possibility of interaction between the ships and with banks if one of
the ships goes too close to the bank. Therefore, knowledge of how to pass or overtake
another ship is important.
Head on (End on)/Reciprocal Course Passing
When two ships are approaching on reciprocal course, their combined and relative
velocity is comparatively high and they overlap for comparatively short period. If
there is time to act, the pressure zones help ship handler to pass clear and regain
centre of channel quickly, as shown in the diagrams below :
Incorrect Positioning For
Correct Positioning For End on Encounter
End on Encounter
Pressure Pressure
build up on build up on
bow bow
Correct Positioning for End On Encounter 1--t Positioning fai, End On En.
64
4
Caution for reasons explained below, it is advisable not to alter course to starboard
side of the channel too early or too fast. If done too early the ship may experience
bank effect and may get violent sheer away across the path of approaching ships.
Interaction tends to help the ship handler because when close
(a) Bows tend to be pushed away from each other prior to and at passing.
(b) The ships may be sucked together, as they pass.
(c) They may be pushed apart with their sterns passing each other thus
helping to regain the course.
Overtaking
Ship created wave travels at the same speed as the ship. Therefore, interaction may
take place even when ships are some distance away. When overtaking on parallel or
nearly parallel course, their relative velocities are low. Therefore, if ships are in
close proximity for some time interaction has time to affect both the vessels.
Caution
The ship to be overtaken should not move over to the starboard side of
the channel without first considering the consequences of bank effect
and the danger of sheering across the path of the overtaking vessel. This
particularly applies to small vessels, which will be influenced by bow
wave pressures zones of the larger ship. In some cases, the overtaken
vessel may gradually turn across the path of overtaken vessel
because of pressure imbalance caused by overtaking vessel on the after
body of overtaken vessel.
When both the ships are abeam of each other they may sheer apart
with violence because of the high pressure areas in the after parts.
It may be noted that the interaction explained above may take place in the
open seas also if overtaking in close proximity.
Interaction When a Ship is Overtaking Another
When overtaking, both ships experience not only lateral forces but also increase in
resistance.
Stages When Overtaking
(a) As overtaking begins, the overtaking ship experiences reduced resistance
and accelerates ahead.
65
Manoeuvring (b) At the same time, overtaken ship experiences an increase in resistance and
hangs back.
(c) As the manoeuvre progress opposite occurs, overtaken ship speeds up
and overtaking ship hangs back.
In extreme case, the overtaking ship may not be able to complete the
overtaking manoeuvre and this effect is called being trapped. Solution : If
channel width permits, the ships should keep larger distance between them and
move apart to reduce the magnitude of the trapping effect.
Encounter A Encounter B
VB
Ship B T Ship B
VA VA
Ship A Ship A
Contact Trapping
A special form of trapping between a large ship and a small ship takes place when
the two ships are close alongside while moving ahead. This is termed contact
trapping.
This can occur if the small ship is near the fore body of the large ship and is in the
region of increased resistance. In this region, a suction force is felt by smaller ship,
which holds the smaller vessel against the larger. Because of the contact, the rudder
of smaller vessel becomes ineffective in breaking away from larger vessel. Even if
the bow of the small vessel swings out the flow in the narrow gap between the ships
accelerates the flow and the small ship is sucked back alongside.
66 (b) - What precautions are necessary for the safety of a tug made fast at the bow?
(c) When in transit along a canal how does the interaction between the banks Manoeuvring in
Shallow Water
affect the ship?
3.6 SUMMARY ,
When a ship moves through water, the water she displaces is replaced by the water
flowing around the hull and under the hull. The lateral symmetry of the hull to port and
starboard causes hydrodynamic pressures exerted on the ship to be symmetrical. Thus the
forces and the moments they cause are balanced.
When the ship is in the open sea and steaming at a constant speed. The balance is
however disturbed due to
Waves
Presence of another ship nearby
Presence of banks, shoals e.g. in canals, rivers
In shallow water with small under keel clearance
Such hydrodynamic interaction may cause the ship to move bodily, sideways and turn.
When a ship gets underway from rest, particularly in shallow water, she experiences a
reduction in under keel clearance (UKC) resulting from bodily sinkage and change of
trim, which is known as 'squat'. Such a reduction in UKC may cause a ship to touch
ground, experience erratic steering and intensification of bank effects.
In a narrow channel if a ship leaves the centre of the channel and gets closer to one bank,
the hydrodynamic equilibrium is disturbed and the ship's bow will experience a
phenomena known as 'bank cushion'.
When passing another vessel or overtaking another vessel in a narrow channel, there
exists a possibility of interaction between ships and with banks if one of the ships goes
too close to a bank.
When handling a ship in narrow channel or shallow water the navigator has to exercise
due diligence and care.
68
UNIT 4 TUGS AND TOWING
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Definitions
4.3 Towage Requirements
4.4 Types of Tugs
4.4.1 European Conventional Tugs
4.4.2 American Tugs
4.4.3 Tractor Tugs
4.5 Methods of Tug Assistance
4.5.1 Modern Towing Operations
4.5.2 Factors Determining Tug Performance
4.5.3 Bollard Pull
4.5.4 Tug Stability
4.5.5 Girding of the Tug
4.6 Types of Tugs : Tractor Tugs
4.6.1 Types
4.6.2 Description of Tractor Tugs
4.6.3 Reverse Tractor or Pusher Tugs
4.6.4 Azimuth Stern Drive Tugs (ASD Tugs)
4.7 Emergency Towing Arrangement (ETA)
4.8 Summary
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A tug is a mobile, versatile thrust unit, designed to provide its thrust in various ways to a
ship, barge or other floating objects.
Development of tugs has been parallel to ship development. Earlier tugs were steam tugs
with stern or side paddle wheels. Then came steam screw propeller tugs with single screw
or twin screws. Diesel engines have now replaced steam engines. In the last three decades
360 rotatable propellers (Azimuth propellers) and cycloid propulsion (Voith) has been used
extensively. Other improvements have also taken place-making tugs suitable for different
roles.
Several basic types of tugs have evolved and the variation in tug types has tended to split
along somewhat on the geographical lines- e.g. i) European/ English, ii) American and iii)
Japanese.
Tugs are also classified according to the function they perform and the place of operation.
L_
For example
Deep-sea towage,
Escort,
Berthing and unberthing.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
state the various types of tugs and their limitations,
list the use of tugs in ship manoeuvring, and
explain the precautions to be taken when the tugs are used for manoeuvring.
69
Manoeuvring
4.2 DEFINITIONS
70
Tugs and Towing
4.4 TYPES OF TUGS
4.4.1 European Conventional Tugs
These have evolved mostly from 'On the hook towing astern' Towing point amidships just
slightly abaft the centre of buoyancy
American Tugs
These have evolved from traditional towing alongside. Towing point (hook) is farther aft
than European type.
4.4.3 Tractor Tugs
Tractor tug is designed to pull from its stern or push with its stem. These tugs have ability to
direct their thrust through 360 of azimuth and have the propeller units located forward in
the hull and tow point at stern of the tug so that the tug renders the strain on the
towline but can pull in any direction. They have a skeg or vertical fin aft to pivot on.
Quarter
Again, flare and overhang influence the effectiveness of a tug working in this position as to
how far aft the effective push may be applied. Obviously, the further aft the better but then
the tug is both drawn into the low pressure zone but may also become perilously close to
the rotating propeller. Fora safe approach, it is often necessary for the tug to land amidships
and then move aft to the towing lead. Often the lead is near the bridge front which means
that for a 30 metre tug the safest position is to lie forward of the towline until required.
However once in this position good turning forces are achievable but only when positioned
on the inside of the turn.
Aft
Line towing at the stem is now well recognised as the most effective towing position with
respect to both braking and steering assistance, but only since the advent of modern
manoeuvrable tractors such as the Voith Water Tractor has this become day-to-day
practice, since conventional tugs are only effective in this area at minimal speeds. The
single biggest advance in modern towing, that of indirect towing came about through the
hull design of the tractor with the skeg under the after body. It was found that with careful
positioning of the towing point above the skeg, the tractors hull resistance (aided by the
large skeg) when being pulled through the water at oblique angles to the towline, could
generate massive towline forces far in excess of the nominal bollard pull. Furthermore, in
contrast to other towing methods the towline force actually increased with the ships
speed. Considerable research and development has gone into refining this towing method
particularly with escort towage becoming today's catchword with its demands for dynamic
assistance in potentially catastrophic circumstances of steering and or engine failure in
confined waters. In this operation, the hull and skeg resistance generate the towline force
with the propellers merely aligning the hull to the correct towline angle both to itself and
the ship.
It is erroneous to say that any modern omni-directionally propelled tug can perform
effective high speed indirect towing, even any Voith water tractor without due
consideration of the speed and other circumstances, such as towing gear, tractor stability,
hull form, control systems, etc. Coincidentally the factors leading to a good indirect towing
vessel also minimise the perceived problems of working the skeg close to the ships
propeller wash. However, in escort operations normally no assistance is required from the
tractor so to minimise the workload on the tractors helmsman during long passive
periods, a second towing point at the outboard end of the skeg can pin the tractor under the
line and reduce the steering effort required. This towing point can either be fixed as with a
Panama lead or removable so that the point of contact can be moved back to the centre of
the skeg when required. The only drawback to towing through a fixed point in the end of
the skeg is that higher steering forces are required to place the tractor in the correct attitude
to obtain maximum towline forces. In practice though, this causes no problem, as the
highest achievable forces need only approximately half the tractors installed power to hold
the required attitude.
The other significant towing operation at a ships stem is applying braking forces to the
ship. Again, the tractor permits such operation from zero up to the highest speed,,. " This is
mainly due to the controllable pitch characteristic of the Voith Schneider propeller with
72 its open attitude to inflow from any direction. Using full engine speed, reverse pitch can
be applied until full power is absorbed from the engine without fear of excessive overload. Tugs and Towing
Thus when arresting the ship's movement the nominal bollard pull is exceeded due to the
propeller thrust being augmented by the resistance of the hull being pulled through the
water. Any fixed pitch propeller whether on a conventional shaft or in a Z-drive unit
suffers from the very real problem of stalling once speeds are above six knots in this
operation.
Simplicity is a key attribute of the Voith Water tractor. In all four of the towing positions
discussed, the tractor's one towing point is at the most effective end, hence there is no
embarrassment in sending her to any of these positions and certainly no need to consider
lettin g go and reconnecting the towline through another lead. This is of particular
significance to pilots and ships masters who have much else to consider when in close
proximity to a berth, and are often relying on deck crews of limited number and/or
strength and co mp etence. T he co ntro l o f the tr actor is also the simp lest system.
Whichever way the tractor is moving the skipper have a logical control system of wheel
and levers to turn or push in the natur al direction, limiting the chances of mistakes due to
controls applied in unwanted directions. The simple towing arrangement and the precise
manoeuvrability allows the tug to move to and from bow to shoulder or stem to quarter
during one operation without any problem.
C,
4.5.2 Factors Determining Tug Performance
These are:
Stability of the tug,
Weight of the tug,
Engine power (bollard pull),
Type of propulsion,
Location of the propeller with regard to the point of application of towing force,
and
Method of rendering assistance.
4.5.3 Bollard Pull
As we have seen earlier, a tug is a mobile thrust unit. T hrust is produced by tugs
propulsion unit. Performance of propulsion is measured on normal ship by horsepower of
the en gi ne However, o n tugs horsepower does not indicate its performance for various
reasons. SO t unit called static Bollard Puil is used as indicator of tugs power to push or
pull. It is a measure of tugs thrust at zero speed through water. Different types of tugs
produce different bollard pull for given horsepower depending upon location of the
propeller with regard to the point of application of towing force.
The two main reasons for moving to an all or part rope system for modern towing
methods arc:
(a) The weight of the towline to be handled by the ship's deck crew. If 180 tonne
BS wire were used then this could be almost impossible to handle.
(b) Stretch is needed. When working push/pull on the shoulder or quarter, only short
towline lengths are used so there is never any catenary spring effect. Another
significant point is that connecting the tow in these positions must often be done by
hand, as there is no lead to a winch on the ship's deck.
Typically a modern tow winch will need a brake capacity of at least three times the
nominal bollard pull with simple brake/clutch control adjacent to the skipper, a very high
light load recovery speed (e.g. 90 metres/min.) and a drum designed to limit spooling
problems.
4.5.4 Tug Stability
While towing a ship, a tug may get "girded" when she is towed broadside by the towing
line and is unable to manoeuvre out of this position.
73
Manoeuvring
Towline .
Ship
Towing point
Transverse
Force
vertical
V Heeling
Water level lever
Centre of
Gravity
Centre of
lateral pressure
Figure 4.1
(d) One set of towing gear, paid out almost exclusively from a winch (tractor
74 crews never trust ships lines) through a towing bollard or staple situated over
the centre of the fin. (In practical terms, this point is a compromise position, Tugs and Towing
for towing ahead of a vessel the ideal point is nearer the inboard end of the
skeg. As a stem tug, it would ideally be nearer the outboard end). In escort
service for most of the time the tractor follows the ship passively but makes
fast with a slack line, a second towing point may be arranged in the bulwark
over the outboard end of the skeg to reduce the helmsman's efforts during a
routine operation.
(e) Reduced tug manning and the need for all-round visibility during towing
operations has led to the small central wheelhouse, in some cases for one
man operation with all propeller engine and winch controls arranged on a
central control stand.
(f) Since the propellers extend bellow the hull of the tug, tractor tugs have a
draft more than the tugs with propeller in normal position at the stern of the
tug. This is sometimes a disadvantage.
(g) A third type
p of tug is available which combines the advantages of both the
conventional type and the tractor type. This type is used in Japan and some
other countries. These tugs are known as Z peller or Duckpeller. These tugs
have rudder propeller (azimuthing propeller) fitted at the stem, which is cut
away to take the propellers at the stern. This way the draft of the propelling
units is reduced to very near that of the deepest part of the hull. These tugs are
known as Azimuth Stem Drive tugs and they can manoeuvre better than
conventional tugs without the disadvantages of that type and are suitable for
towing on line as well as for push pull methods. This type is further
subdivided in to reverse tractor type and Azimuth Stem drive.
75
Manoeuvring
4.7 EMERGENCY TOWING ARRANGEMENT (ETA)
The Emergency Towing Arrangement is fitted on a tanker and is to facilitate towing of the
ship in an emergency. As per the requirements, the aft ETA should be pre-rigged and
capable of being deployed in a controlled manner in harbour conditions by one person
within 15 minutes. The forward ETA should be capable of being deployed in harbour
conditions in not more than one hour. ETAS should be clearly marked to facilitate safe and
effective use even in darkness and poor visibility.
Fire Wires: Towing-off wires commonly referred to as fire wires are rigged on tankers
while they are at a terminal except when tugs are not available in the particular. These
wires are used if fire on board or at the terminal the ship needs to be pulled off the
terminal.
Fire wires should be of adequate strength and condition, and should be made fast to
bollards on the tanker, forward and aft. The eye of the fire wire is run out and maintained at
the waterline or about 2 meters above it. In order that sufficient wire can pay out to enable
the tugs to tow effectively, enough slack should be retained between the bollard and the
fairlead. To prevent the wire slack form running out it should be seized with rope yarn or
other easily broken means. The wires should be hung in positions, usually the off shore
side where tugs can reach them without difficulty. There are various means of rigging fire
wires presently in use and ships should be guided by the terminal's instructions.
The size of the wire to be used depends on the DWT of the ship.
SAQ 1
(a) Describe the conventional.tug with particular reference to the tugs that you
have actually seen assisting.
(b) Describe the three types of tugs described above.
(c) What is girding? How is it avoided by the ship towed and when designing a
tug?
(d) How is the power of tug determined?
(e) What are the principle features of the tractor tugs and how are such tugs
useful?
4.8 SUMMARY'
Tug assistance is normally required when the ships reduce speed, are not in total self-
control and when there is not sufficient room to manoeuvre safely. Different types of tugs
offer different types of assistance. Performance of a tug is determined by stability of the
tug, weight of the tug, engine power (bollard pull), type of propulsion, and location of the
propeller and point of application of the towing force.
European conventional tugs have evolved, mostly from 'on the hook astern' type.
American tugs have evolved from traditional 'towing alongside' type.
Tractor tugs are designed to pull from its stern or push with its stern. They have ability to
direct their thrust through 3600 of azimuth.
FURTHER READINGS
76