CHAPTER 7 Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power 7.0 Introduction the concept of active, reactive, and apparent power plays a major role in electric power tech= nology. In effect, the transmission ofelectical energy and the behavior of ac machines are often easier 0 understand by working with power, rather than deal: ing with voltages and currents, The reader is therefore encouraged to pay particular attention to this chapter, The terms active, reactive, and apparent power apply to steady-state alternating current circuits in Which the voltages and currents are sinusoidal They cannot be used to describe transient-state be- havior, nor can we apply them to de circuits ‘Our study begins with an analysis of the insta tancous power in an ac circuit. We then go on to de fine the meaning of active and reactive power and how to identify sources and loads, This is followed bya definition of apparent power, power factor ant the power triangle. We then show how ac circuits cean be solved using these power concepts. In on clusion, vector notation is used to determine the active and reactive power in an ac circuit. 7.1 Instantaneous power ‘The instantaneous power supplied t0 a device is simply the product of the instantaneous voltage ‘across its terminals times the instantaneous current that flows through i. Instantaneous power is always expressed in ‘watts, imespective of the type of citeuit used, The instantaneous power may be positive or negative. A Positive value means that power flows into the de vice. Conversely, a negative value indicates that power is flowing out of the device, example, Pade es ese ESE AA sinusoidal voltage having a peak value of 162 V Wa frequency of 60 Hz is applied tothe terminals of ai) ae motor. The resulting current has a peak Value of 7.5.4 and lags 50° behind the voltage a Express the voltage and current in terms of the clectricel angle &, b. Calculate the value of the instantaneous voliage and current at an angle of 120°.. Calculate the value of the instantaneous power at 120° 4d. Plot the curve of de instantaneous power deliv- cred to the motor, Solution 2. Let us assume that the voltage starts at zero and. increases positively with time, We can therefore write 6 = Bysind = 162 sin ‘The current lags behind the voltage by an angle @ = 50°, consequently, we can write Ia Sin ( ~ 0) = 7.5 sin ( ~ 50°) be Ath = 120° we have € = 162 sin 120° = 162 x 0.866 1403V 1 = 75 sin (120° = 50°) = 7.5 sin 70° 75 x 0.94 = 705A . The instantaneous power at 120° is ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 135 989 W it flows at this instant into the motor 4. In order to plot the curve of instantaneous ppovier, we repeat procedures (b) and (e) above for angles ranging from = 010.6 = 360°. ‘Table 7A lists part of the data used, TABLETA VALUES GF e, 1, AND pUSEO TO PLOT FG.74 Ange Wolmge CCuncat Power % — Gisind —TSsin 50) p degrees volts amperes wnt o ° =575 ° 2s 85 <3 -2ts soma ° ° 1 1565 37 497 U3 463 68, 2000 15s 68 728 497 180 o 515 ° ms 68s 37-28 2300-1244 ° 0 t Fag IBV yey, = 182, ie a oa \ Tv Tn 83A page 78a \ | | f cd L; oN Tye ae soa] | Figure 7-1 Instantaneous vottage, currant and power in an ac circuit (S20 Example 7-1.)136 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRA) ‘The voltage, current, and instantaneous power are plotted in Fig. 7.1. The power aains a positive peak of + 1000 W ands negative peak of ~218 W. The nes sive power means that power is actully flowing from. the foad (motor to the source. This occurs daring the imervals 0-50°,180°-230°, and 360° 4100 Although a power flow froma device considered tobe ‘load toa device considered to be & source may seem to be impossible, it happens often in ac circuits. The reason is given inthe sections that follow: We also note that the positive peaks occur at in- tervals of 1/120 s. This means that the frequency of the power cycle is 120 Hz, which is twice the fre- quency of the voltage and current that produce the 1 E & 1 £ vwatimeter Figure 72 a, An av voltaga E produces an ae current /in this re Sistve circu ®. Phasors E and are in phase. ©. Awatimeter indicates £1 watts, 4. The active power is composed ofa series of post tie power pulses, FORMERS power: Again, this phenomenon is quite normal the frequency of ac power flow is always twice the line frequency. 7.2 Active power* The simple ac cteuit of Fig. 7.28 consists of a re- sistor connected to an ac generator. The effective voltage and current are designated and I respec tively, and as we would expect in a resistive crea, phasors £ and Far in phase (Fig. 7.2b).If we com Voto the in, i will give ding P = EI watts Fig. 7.2). ‘To get x beter picture of what goes on in such a citeut, we have drawn the sinusoidal curves of E and 1 (Fig. 7.2d), The peak values are respectively Y2E volts and V2 amperes because, a stated previ ously, Band / ace effective values. By multiplying the instantaneous values of voltage and current as ‘we did in Section 7.1, we obtain the instantaneous power in wan, 1 Many persons reef ative power areal power ar rue ower, considering itt be mare deserigtiv. I ths book Ye use the ecm air prver: osaue conforms the IEEE designation Figure 7.3 Example ofa high-precision watlmeter rated 50 V, 100 ¥,200 V1.8, 5 A. The scala ranges from 0-50 W to O- 1000 Ww. (Courtesy of Weston Instrumente) ‘‘The power wave consists of a series of positive pulses that vary from zero to a maximum value of (V2E) x (121) = 2EF = 2P watts. The fact that power is always positive reveals that it always flows from the generator to the resistor. Ths is one of the basie properties of what is called active power: although it pulsates between zero and max- imum, it never changes direction. The ditection of power flow is shown by an arrow P (Fig, 7.2e), ‘The average power is clearly midway between 2P and zero, and so its value is P = 2EH2 = ET ‘watts, That is precisely the power indicated by the wwattmeter, ‘The two conductors leading to the resistor in Fig 7.2a carry the active power. However, unlike cur- rent flow, power does not flow down one conductor and return by the other. Power flows over both con- ductors and, consequently, as far as power is con- cerned, we can replace the conductors by a single line, as shown in Fig. 7.2c {In gencral, the line represents any transmission line connecting two devices, imespective of the number of conductors it may have, ‘The generator is an active source and the resistor is an active load. The symbol for active power is P and the unit isthe watt (W). The kiowact (KW) and megawatt (MW) are frequently used multiples of the wat. 7.3 Reactive power ‘The citcuit of Fig, 74a is identical tothe resistive circuit (Fig. 7.2a) except thatthe resistor is now re~ placed by a reactor X,.As result, current logs 90° behind the voltage (Fig, 746). ‘To see what really goes on in such & ereuit, we hhave dravin the waveforms for E and and, by again multiplying theit instantaneous values, we obtain the curve of instantaneous power (Fig, 7c). This power p consist ofa series of identical positive and negative pulses, The postive waves correspond to instantaneous power delivered by the generator to the reactor and the negative waves represent instan- taneous power delivered from the reactor to the generator. The duration of each wave corresponds to ome quarter of a eycle of the lin frequency. The ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 137 @ JM, ® Figure 7.4 ‘a, Anvac voltage E produces an ae curcent Jin thi i= ductive crcut. b, Phasor lags 90° behind & «. Reactive power consists ofa series of positive and negative power pulses, frequency of the power wave is therefore again ‘ice the line frequency. Power that surges back and forth inthis manner is called reactive power (symbol Q), 10 distinguish it from the unidirectional active power mentioned be- fore. The reactive power in Fig. 74 is also given by the product E1. However, 10 distinguish this power from active power, another unit is used—the var. Its ‘multiples are the kilovar(kvar) and megavar (Mvar), Special instruments, called varmeters, are aval- able to measure the reactive power in a circuit (Fig, 7.5).A varmeter registers the product ofthe effective line voltage E times the effective line current times sin 8 (where 6 isthe phase angle between E and J). reading is only obtained when Eand are ontof phase: if they are exactly in phase (or exactly 180° out of phase), the varmeter rends 2eo. Returning to Fig. 7.4 the dotted area under each pulse is the energy, in joules, transported in one ieetion or the other. Clearly, the energy is deliv- ‘ered in a continuous series of pulses of very short duration, every positive pulse being followed by a138 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORM Figure 7.5 \Varmeter witha zero-center scale. indicates positive Cor negative reactive power fo up to 100 vars negative pulse. The energy flows back and forth between the generator and the inductor without ever being used up. ‘What is the reason for these positive and nega- tive energy surges? The energy flows back and forth because magnetic energy is alternately being stored up and released by the reactor. Thus, when the power is positive, the magnetic field is building up inside the coil. A moment later when the power is negative, the energy in the magnetic field is de- creasing and flowing back to the source. ‘We now have an explanation for the brief ne {ive power pulses in Fig. 7.1. In effeet, they repre- sent magnetic energy, previously stored up in the motor windings, that is being retamed to the source 7.4 Definition of a reactive load and reactive source Reactive power involves real power that oscillates back and forth between two deviees over a trans mission line. Consequently, it is impossible to say whether the power originates at one end of the line or the other. Nevertheless, it is useful to assume that, some deviees generate reactive power while others absorb it In other Words, some devices behave like reactive sources and others like reactive loads By definition’, a reactor is considered to be a + active load that absorbs reactive power Example 7-2 See ease ‘A reactor having an inductive reactance of 4 0 is connected to the terminals of a 120 V ac generator (Fig. 76a). 2 Caleulate the value of the current in the reactor '. Calculate the power associated withthe reactor . Calculate the power associated with the ac enerator 4. Draw the phasor diagram forthe circuit S) roy al 9% ") aa 43 e z 20 4 Yoon Figure 7.6 Soe Example 7.2. Solution a, Current in the circuit E_ 120v = OV oa b= x ag ~* b. Power associated with the reactor: Q= FI= 120 x 30 = 3600 var = 3.6 kvar “Tis definon iin aprocrent with IBEB nd TBC sven‘This reactive power is absorbed by the reactor. «e. Because the reactor absorbs 3.6 kvarof reactance power, the ae generator must be supplying it. Consequently, the generator is a source of reactive power it delivers 3.6 kva. The reactive power Q ows therefore in the divection shown (Fig. 7.60. 4. The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 7.66. ‘Current flags 90” behind voltage & ‘This phasor diagran applies to the reactive load (ahe reactor) and the reactive source (the ae genera tor) a well as the Tine connecting then 7.8 The capacitor and reactive power Suppose now that we add a eapacitor having a reac- uit oF Fig 7.6. This yields the circuit of Fig, 7.7a, The current /, drawn by the ca we would tance of 4 2t0 the pacitoris , = 120 V4. 0= 30 Aand, ‘expect it leads the voltace by 90° (Fig. 7.7b). ‘The vector sum of f, and fis zero and so the ac _generator is no longer supplying any power at all to the circuit, However, the current in the reactor has not changed; consequently, it continues to absorb 30 x 120V) 6 kvar of reactive power. Where is this reactive power coming from? It ccan only come from the capacitor, which acts as a Ms Ie 0A co) r20v 0A Figure 7.7 See Example 7.8 ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 139 source of reactive power. The reactive power deliv- ered by the capacitor is equal to the current it car- res times the voltage across its terminals, namely Q = El, = 120 V X 30.4 = 3600 var = 3.6 kvar ‘The reactive power delivered by the capacitor is ex- pressed in vars or kilovars, Reactive power Q now flows from the capacitor ta the reactor. We have arrived at a very important conclusion: a capacitor is a source of reactive power Ik acts as 2 reactive power source whenever itis part of sine-wave-based, steady-state circuit. Let us take another step and remove the reactor from the circuit in Fig. 7,7a, yielding the cireuit of Fig. 7.82, The capacitor is now alone, connected to the terminals ofthe 2c generator. Istil carties acur- rent of 30 A, leading the vollage E by 90° (Fg, 7.8b). Consequently, the capacitor still acts as a source of reactive power, delivering 2.6 kvar. Where does this power go? The answer is thatthe capacitor delivers reactive power to the very generator to ‘8, Capacitor connected to an ae souree ». Phasor /, leads Eby 90° Reactive power flows from the capacitor tothe generator.140 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS which it is connected For most people, this takes a lite ime to accept, How, we may ask, cana passive device ike a capacitor possibly produce any power? ‘The answer is that reactive power really represents «nergy tat, ke a pendulum, swings back and forth without ever doing any useful work. The capacitor ‘cts as temporary energy-storing device repeatedly accepting eneray for brief periods and releasing it ‘again, However, instead of storing magnetic energy a a reactor does, a capacitor stores electrostatic en- cetzy (see Section 2.14) If we connect a yarmerer into the circuit Fig. 7c), it wil give a negative eading of EI = ~3600 var, showing that reactive power is indeed flowing from the capacitor tothe generator The generator is ow behaving Uke reactive load, but we sometimes preferto callita receive of reactive power which of course, amounts to the same thing. In summary, pacitive reactance alwens generates reactive power Example 7-3 ‘An ac generator Gis connected to a group of R, L, C circuit elements (Fig. 79). The respective elements cary the currents shown. Calculate the active and reactive power associated with the generator, 2a ay 162A 168 8 40 Figure 7.9 ‘See Example 7.3 Solution ‘The two resistors absorb active power given by 1 X 4) + (16.12 x 2) 784 + 520 = 1304 W ‘The 3.0 reactor absorbs reactive power (= 1 x 3 = 588 var The 3.5 1 capacitor generates resetive power PX. = 207 3.5 = 1400 var The RL, Ceireuit generates a net reactive power ‘of 1400 ~ 588 = 812 var This reactive power must be absorbed by the onerator; hence, as far as resetive power is con- ccemed the generator acts as a Ind, The active power absorbed by the resistors must bbe supplied by the generator; hence i is a source of active power = 1304 W. In conclusion, the ac generator isa source of a: five power (1304 W) and a receiver of reactive power (812 van. a 7.6 Distinction between active and reactive power ‘There is a basic difference between active and re- active power, and perhaps the most important thing to remember is that the one cannot be converted into the other. Active and reactive powers function independently of each other and, consequently, they can be treated as separate quantities in elecuic circuits Both place a buidea on the transmission line that carries them, but, whereas active power eventually produces a tangible result (heat, mechanical power, light, et.) reactive power only represents power that oscillates back and forth. All ac inductive devices sueh as magnets, trans formers, ballasts, and induction motors, absorb re- active power because one component of the current they draw lags 90° behind the voltage. The reactive power plays @ very important role because it pro ‘duces the ac magnetic field in these devices A building, shopping center, or city may be con- sidered 10 be a huge aetiverresctive load connected ‘oan electric utility system, Such load centers con: ‘ain thousands of induction motors and other elee- tromagnetic devices that draw both reactive power o sustain their magnetic fields) and active power (to do the useful work). This leads us to the study of loads that absorb both active and reactive power.7.7 Combined active and reactive loads: apparent power Loads that absorb both active power P and reactive ower Q may be considered to be made up ofa resi lance and an inductive reactance. Consider, forexam= ple, the circuit of Fig. 7102 in which a resistor and re- actor are connected to a source G. The resistor draws a.curtent fp, while the eactor draws a current fy According to our definitions, the resistor is an active load while the reactor is a reactive load ‘Consequently, J, isin phase with E while 1, lags 90° behind. The phasor diagram (Fig, 7.10b) shows thar the resuftant Tine current J lags behind £ by an an- gle 0. Furthermore, the magnitude of Fis given by vErR ® ® @ ==po Figure 7.10 4. Circuit consisting of 2 source teasing an active and reactive oad, ', Phasor diagram of the voltage and curren. ©. Active and reactive poner low from souree to load, ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 141 ‘The active and reactive power components P ‘and @ both flow in the same direction, as shown by the arrows in Fig. 7.10e. If we connect a wartmeter and a varmeter into the circuit, the readings will both be positive, indicating P = EJ, warts and Q = El, vats, respectively. Furthermore, if we connect an ammeter into the Tine, it will indicate a ewrrent of f amperes. As a re= sult, we are inclined to believe that the power sup- plied to the load is equal to ZF wats, But this is ob- viously incorrect because the power is composed of fn active component (watts) and a reactive compo- nent (vars). For this reason the product £1 is called ‘apparent power The symbol for apparent paweris Apparent power is expressed neither in watts nor in vars, but in voltamperes. Multiples are the kilo- vvollampere (kVA) and megavoltampere (MVA), 7.8 Relationship between P, Q, and S Consider the single-phase circuit of Fig. 7.1la com- posed of a source, a load, and appropriate meters ‘Letus assume that + the voltmeter indicates F volts + the ammeter indicates / amperes + the wattmeter indicates +P watts * the varmeter indicates +Q vars Knowing that Pand @ are positive, we know that the load absorbs both active and reactive power Consequently, the tine current /lags behind Ey, by an angle 0. Current 7 can be decomposed into two compo- nents J, and f,, respectively in phase, and in quad= rature, with phasor £ (Fig. 7.11b). The numerical values of J, and I, can be found dieectly from th in- strument readings 1, = PIE an 14> OE (72) Furthermore, the apparent power S wansmitted over the line is given by $= ZI, from which SE 73)142 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS @) Figure 7.11 4. Instrumants used to measure EP. and @ in a circu '. The phasor diagram can be deduced from the instrument reackngs. Referring to the phasor diagram (Fig. 7.116), ‘obvious that rR Pade Consequently, [ | E. S=P 4g That is, ay in which = apparent power [VA] P = setive power [W] Q = reactive power [var] We can also calculate the value of the angle 8 be- ‘cause the tangent of @ is obviously equal to fl ‘Thus, we have = arctan L/f, = arctan QP (7.5) Example 7-4 ——__________. Ap altemnating-current motor absorbs 40 KW of ac tive power and 30 kvar of reactive power. Calculate the apparent power supplied to the motor. Solution SaVP=O ar + 30 SOKVA aay Example 7-5 eae A.wattmeter and varmeterate connected into a 120 single-phase line that feeds an ae motor. They re spectively indicate 1800 W and 960 var. Caleutare 4 The in-phase and quadrature components Jy and I, b. The line current 7 ©. The apparent power supplied by the source 4. The phase angle between the line voltage and Tine corrent Sotution Referring to Fig. 7.11, where the load is now a mo- tor, we have PIE = 180/120 = 15.8 ou a) ay =A . The apparent power is $= EI= 120% 17 d. The phase angle 8 berween and Lis 6 = arctan QIP = arctan 96011800 = 28.1"e Example 7-6 —________ A voltmeter and ammeter connected into the induc tive circuit of Fig. 7.4a give readings of 140 V and 20, respectively, Cateulare 4. The apparent power of the load b. The reactive power ofthe load . The active power of the load Solution ‘a The apparent power is Su ET= 140 x 20 = 2800 VA = 2.8 RVA, b, The reactive power is Q= EI= 140 x 20 800 var = 2.8 kvar I a varmeter were connected into the circeit, it ‘would give a reading of 2800 var. c. The active power is zero, Ifa watumeter were connected into the circuit, it would read zero, ‘To recapitulate, the apparent power is 2800 VA, but because the current is 90° out of phase with the voltage, itis also equal to 2800 var. 7.9 Power factor ‘The power factor of an alternating-current device or circuit is the ratio of the active power P to the ap- parent power S, Its given by the equation power factor = P/S 76) where P = active power delivered or absorbed by the circuit or device {W] ‘$= apparent power of the cin it or device {VA] Power factor is expressed asa simple number, or as a percentage. Because the active power P can never exceed the apparent power S, it follows that the power factor can never be greater than unity (or 100 percent). ACTIVE REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 143 ‘The power factor of a resistor is 100 percent be- ‘cause the apparent power it draws is equal to the ac- tive power. On the other hand, the power factor of an ideat coil having no resistance is zero, because it does not consume any active power. “To sum up, the power factor ofa circuit or device is simply a way of stating what fraction of its ap parent power is real, or active, power. Ina single-phase circuit the power factor is also ‘a measure of the phase angle 8 between the voltage and current, Thus, referring to Fig. 7.11, power factor = PIS ElgEI id = eos Consequently, power factor = cos @= PIS. 7.7) where power Factor = power factor ofa single-phase circuit or device 6 = phase angle between the voltage and current If we know the power factor, we automatically know the cosine of the angle botween & and J and, hence, we can calculate the angle. The power factor is said to be lagging if the current lags behind the voltage. Conversely. the power factor is said to be leading ifthe current leads the voltage. Fc iots 2 gsatassonasnsandtassstaneeeesnaassaaas Caleulate the power factor of the motor in Example 7-5 and the phase angle between the line voltage ‘and line current, Solution 8002040 = 0.882 oF 88.2% Cagging) 882 therefore, @ = 28.1°M4 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS Example 7-8 A single-phase motor draws a current of 5A from a 120 V, 60 Hz line, The power factor of the motor is 65 percent. Catewlate a. The active power absorbed by the motor b. The reactive power supplied by the line Solution 1. The apparent power drawn by the motor is Sig = EF = 120 X 5 = 600 VA ‘The active power absorbed by the motor is Py = Soy C088 an = 600 x 0.65 = 300 W b. The reactive power absorbed by the motor is Qn = VSP aay veu0? = 390° = 456 var Note that the motor draws even more reactive power from the fine than active power. This burdens the Tine with a relatively large amount of acnpro- ductive power, 7.10 Power triangle ‘The S* = P® + G relationship expressed by Eq. 7.4, brings to mind a right-angle triangle. Thus, we ean show the relationship between 5, P, and Q graphi- cally by means of a power triangle, According to convention, the following eules apply: 1. Active power P absorbed by a citcuit or device is considered to be positive and is drawn hori- zontally 10 the right Active power P that is delivered by a circuit or device is considered to be negative and is 605 = 12A from which the reactive power generated is Q. = 12 x 60 ‘The current in the resistor is ola = 58 720 var : In ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 149 @ by ay ra Figure 7.17 ‘4, Solving ae circuits by the power triangle method, 1. Voltages and currents in the circuit, See Example 70, from which the active power absorbed is P=5 x 60 =300W "The apparent power associated with emninals 1-3: Sa VP + = V308 + 720" = 780 VA ‘The current fh, mus, therefore, be A. = Sy, = 780/60 = 13. The voltage aeross the inductive reactance is, Ey = IK, = 13 X 8 = 104V ‘The reactive power absorbed by the inductive ctance is Oe = Bas X fy = 104 X 13 +1352 var130 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS. ‘The total reactive power absorbed by the circuit is =O, + c= 1352 - 720 = +632 var ‘The total active power absorbed by the cireuit is P=300W ‘The apparent power absorbed by the cirenit is S= VP +O = V300" + 6322 100 VA ». The voltage ofthe line is therefore Eq, = Sih, = T0013 = 53.9. ¢. The impedance between terminals 2-1 is Z> Bah, = 53913 = 4.150 Example 711 ‘A single-phase 12.47 kV transmission line several kilometers long feeds @ load C from a substation (Pig. 7.18), The line has a resistance of 2.4.0 and a reactance of 15 Q. Instruments atthe substation in- dicate that the active and reactive power inputs to the line are 3 MW and 2 Mvar, respectively. Cateulare ) the fine current and its phase angle with respect to the line voltage at the substation b) the active power absorbed by the load ©) the reactive power absorbed by the load 4) the bine voltage a the load ©) the phase angle between the voltage at the load and that atthe substation Solution 28) Apparent power delivered t the Tine: S=VP EG =VPFE 3.60 MA Line current 5 _ 3600000 vA EF inamv ~ 74 Power factor atthe substation FP= 7 hits 0.833 5 36MVA 125War oz MW T 7 substaionf AF} oad am 2an Tearw Toa 3aMw eet 26 MW 2 Mvar 075 Mar vearny soaauy {eas ee 9A 280.8 Figure 7.18 Voltages, curents and power. See Exemple 7-11 Phase angle between the voltage and current at the substation: 6 = arocos 0.833 = 33.6" ') Active power dissipated in the line: PL = RP = 24 x 289° 02x 10° = 02MW [Active power absorbed by the loa Pe = Puy ~ P= 3 MW ~0.2 MW 28MW ©) Reactive power absorbed by the line: Q.,= Np = 15 289? = 1.25 % 10 = 1.25 Mvar Reactive power absorbed by the load: Q. = Quin ~ Oy = 2 Mvar ~ 1.25 Mvar = 0.75 Mvar ) Apparent power at the load So = VP, VIF toe verte 10.03 KVPower factor at the load end of the line Po 28MW S.~ 290 MVA = 0.965 04 96.5% Phase angle between the voltage and current at the Toad: 152° {tfollows that the phase angle between the voltage at the substation and that at the load is (33.6 15.2) = 18.4 Fig, 7.18 summarizes the results ofthis analy. sis, We could have found the same values using vector algebra. However, on account of its sim plicity, the power method of solving this problem is very appealing. 7.15 Power and vector notation If vector notation is used to solve an ae eitewit, we ‘can readily determine the active and reactive power associated with any component, including the souiees. We simply multiply the phasor voltage £ across the component by the conjugate (J*) of the current that flows through it.' The vector product BT* gives the apparent power Sin terms of P + jQ. Where P is the active power and Q the reactive ower absorbed (or delivered) by the component. A positive value for P or Q means thatthe can\- ponent absorbs active or reactive power, Negative values mean that the component delivers active or reactive power. When calculating the £/® veetor product, it is very important to follow a standard procedure in or- der to obtain the correct result. The procedure ap- plies to circuits that use the double subscript nota- tion or the sign notation (see Sections 2.4 and 2.5). Consider Figure 7.19 in which a circuit element Zis part ofa larger “rest of circuit.” We want to cal- ‘alate the active and reactive power associated with clement Z. We note that current J flows from termi- nal a to terminal b, ie. in the sequence ab. Consequently, when calculating the product £1*, the subscripts of voltage E must be written in the "Wa coment sa vale 20, conga ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER 151 Se Eyl @ +e ) Er restatercut | gy Figure 7.19 Method of wilting power equations ‘same sequence ab (not ba). The apparent power $ associated with Z is therefore written S= Eat Tt would be incorrect to write S = Bgl In Fig. 7.19b, sign notation is used, and its seen that current J enters Z by the (+) terminal Consequently, the apparent power is given by S= tet ‘The E\J* product is preceded by a (+) sign because ‘current fis shown as entering by the (+) terminal of element Z. Inthe case of Fig. 7.19¢, we write S =~ El" be- ‘cause the current enters Z by the (~) terminal LF we want to, we can determine the apparent power associated with the “rest of circuit” (roe). ‘Thus, in Fig. 7.19, because the current circulates from b to ain the roc, we would write:152 ELECTRICAL MACHIVES AND TRANSFORMERS Swe = Erall Similarly, in Fig. 7.19, we would write Sige = +E Letus illustrate the procedure by a few examples Example 7-12 In the cireuit of Fig, 7.19¢, the following values are aiven Ey= 10228 p= 4.280" Calculate the active and reactive power associated. with element 2, Solution We have {= 4 240°; therefore * = 4 2—40° Since the current flows into the (~) terminal, the power equation must bear a (=) sign: S= Ey = ~10 225° x 4 2-40" 280 £~-15* = 280 (cos(—15°) + jsin (-15) 2105 +j728 =P +i ‘Thos P= 270.5 Wand Q = +72,5 var We conclude that element Z delivers 270.4 W of active power and absorbs 72.5 var of reactive power Example 7-13 Given the cireuitof Fig. 7.20in which Ej. ~ 30.278, determine the power associated with the eapacitor whose reactance is 10.0, Solution Going ew around the circuit, we can write (see Sections 2.32 t0 2.39) Ey — 10 103) D2 78° T= 10)” 125 2 = 55° 246 2 133° = +246 247° Figure 7.20 Soo Example 7-13, ‘The voltage across the capacitor is given by Ent H-1p=0 Ey = 10j1 10) x 2.46 2-47" = 24.6 £(-47° + 90°) = 246 243" (Current in the capacitor flows from terminal 2 to ferminal 3, Consequently, the power associated with the capacitor is Eni 24.6 £43" x 2.46 247° 60.5 290° 605 (cos 90" + j sin 90°) 0-605) =P+i9 Hence P = 0 and Q = ~60.5; Consequently, the ae- tive power associated with the capacitoris zero, and ‘tdelivers 60.5 var of reactive power, Example 7-14 — ‘The circuit in Fig. 7.21 is composed of a 45 Q re- sistor connected in series with « 28 01 inductive re- actance. The source generates a voltage described by the phasor Ey, = 1592.68°, Coleulare &. The magnitude and phase of the current 1i 45a veo Figure 7.21 Solving an ac crit using vector notation bo. The magnitude and phase of the voltage across the resistor and across the reactance cc. The active and reactive power associated with the resistor, the reactance, and the source Solution a, Applying Kirchhoff's voliage law (see Section 2.32), we obtain Figg + Eng + Boy = Ey, + 451 + 281 =0 1592.65" + 14S + j28) =0 159.2 65 45 + 28 ‘Transforming the denominator into polar coor- dinates, we obtain amplitude = V45* + 28* = 53 phase angle = arctan 28/45 = 31.89° hence 45 + j28 = 53231.89° 159 2 65° 3 2 31.89" = 3233.11" and so = 32 (65° ~ 31.89) », Voltage across the resistor is Eg 451 45 x 323211° 135233,11° ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 153 Voltage across the reactance is Eqy = i287 28 x 3233.11 BAZ (33.11 + 90°) = 842123. ©. The conjugate J* of the current Fis f= 3233.11" "The apparent power associated with the resistor is 3.119 2-33.11) = 40520° 405 (cos 0° + j sin 0") 405 (1 + j0) 405 Thus, the resistor absorbs only teal power (405 W) because there is no j component in “The apparent power associated with the reac tance is Sy = Bal™ (842.123.1184 33.11) = 252290" 252 (cos 90° + j sin 90°) = 2520+ 1) [252 ‘Thus, the reactance absorbs only reactive power (252 var), ‘The apparent power associated with the source is S,= Bgl? = -Eyl* (59265) 3233.11) ~ATIE(65° ~ 33.11") ~ATTE31.89° 477 (eos 31,89° + j sin 31.89°) =477 (0,849 + j 0528) ~405 ~ 5252184 BLECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRA} The active and reactive powers are both negative, which proves that the source delivers an active power of 405 W and a reactive power of 252 var, 7.16 Rules on sources and loads (sign notation) We are often interested in determining whether a de- vice is an activelreactive source or an activesreactive Tose without making a complete mathematical analy sis, such as we performed in Section 7.15. To enable us to positively identify the nature of the source or load, consider Fig. 7.22 in which a device A carries a line current J. The device is part ofa circuit The voltage between the terminals is Z, and one Of the terminals bears a (+) sign. The phase angle between F and / can have any valuc. As a tesult, I ‘can be decomposed into two components, Jy and I that are respectively parallel to, and at right angles to E. Let J, be the component of F that is parallel to E. It will therefore be either in phase with, or 180° ‘out of phase with E. Similarly, Z, can be either 90° behind o 90° abead of B. ‘The circuit diagram, together with the phasor e~ Iationships between E and 7, enable us to state whether a device is an active load or an active source. The following rule applies: 1. Adevice is an active load when 4, voltage F and component J, are in phase and b, the fine current J is shown as entering the (4) terminal. Otherwise, the device is an active source ‘The following rule also applies: 2. Adevice isa reactive load wh 8, component [, lags 90° behind voltage E and b, line current J is shown as entering the (+) terminal, Otherwise, the device is a reactive source. ‘Baced on these rules, and observing the phasor rekt- tionships in Fig. 7.22, we deduce that device A is an active load because Jy sin phase with E. Also, device ‘Aisa reactive source because [, is 90° ahead of E. “These ules are ia aprooment with IEEE and IEC conventions FORMERS lectica! ‘vice A Figure 7.22 Device A may be an activelreactve source or ‘actvelreective load depending upon the phasor rele tionship between and 7.17 Rules on sources and loads (double subscript notation) ‘Weean also tel whether a device is an active source fr active load when double subscript notation is used. Consider Figure 7.23 in which a device A car- ries a current / flowing in the direction shown. The voltage between terminals a and B is Eyy. The fo lowing rule applies: 3, Adevice is an active load when: 4. voltage Zyy and component are in phase and bb, Hine current is shown as entering terminal a Otherwise, the device is an active source The following rule also applies 4. Adevice is a reactive load when a. current J, lags 90° behind voltage By and i iP Figure 7.23 ‘Samo circuit as in Fig. 7.22 except that double- ‘subsoript notation is used,ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 158 b. line current /s shown as entering by termi nal a 2. The reactive power absorbed by the reactor ‘The apparent power absorbed by the reactor Otherwise, the device is a reactive source. Rratlaico cent ate aaa Based on these rules, and observing the phasor rela ‘d. The peak power ouput of the reactor fe. The duration of each positive power pulse tionships in Fig. 7.23, we dedee that device A isan 7-11 Using the ules given in Sections 9.1 and active source because /, is 180° out of phase with Fy, 7.17, determine which of the devices in Fig, Also, device Ais a reactive load because lags 12a through 7.24F ats as an ative (ore 90° behind! Ey active) power source 7-12 Asingle-phase motor draws a curent of Questions and Problems 12.A at a power factor of 60 percent, CCleulate the in-phase and quadrature com- Practical level ponents of current f, and /, with respect to- 7-1 Whats the unit of ative power? reactive totes oes ower? apparent power? 7-13 A single-phase motor draws a current of 16 capacitor of 500 kvar is placed in parallel isin 40 Ven lie Aces ‘vith an inductor of 400 kar. Calculate the iarasees nists ti sites eatin apparent power of the group. 2765 W. Calculate the power factor of the 7-3 Neme a lac device that can generate reac- motor and the reactive power it absorbs tive power. 7-14 Ifa capacitor having a reactance of 30 (is Ted Name a state device that absorbs reactive connected in parallel with the motor of power. Problem 7-13, calculate: ‘7-5 What is the approximate power factor, in ia m “ue power reading tive apuneyl percent, of a capacitor? of a coil? of an in- a ecisraidmaee ce eran eee eee 6. The epparent power ofthe se line 7-6 ‘The current in a single-phase motor lags The ine conent 50° behind the voltage. What isthe power ‘The power traf the motodcapactr factor ofthe motor? combination Intermediate levet TAS oo coy ere ection 7.14) and without drawing any 7-7 large motor absorbs 600 KW ata power Adele factor of 90 percent. Calculate the apparent brserelen aera teezseilntiete power and reactive power absorbed by the soins tmachine 7-16 An induction mator absorbs an apparent 7-8 A200 uF capacitor is connected to @ 240 Y, Lstladoete dated aviedieriahete percent, Calculate: 60 He source. Calculate the reactive power a ted y te motor it generates, Ih The reactive posserabsorbed by the motor 7910 0 resistors connected across a 120V, What purpose des the reactive power serve 80, ie ‘source. Kersereals ae 7-17 Acircuit composed of a (2 0 resistor in a. The active power absorted by the resistor seties with an inductive reactance of 5 0 2 The pent rover shoe sr ee ¢: The peek power abr by esis The acive power abated bythe ester 4. The duration of each positive power pulse ‘b. The reactive pawer absorbed by the inductor 7-10 A100 reactance is connected toa 120, (60 Hi Tine, Caleulate: The apparent power of the circuit 4. The power factor ofthe ciccutOf Fe ot TS elo fo fo 7 “/ See Problom 7-15, 718 A coil having a resistance of $ Q and an in ductance of 2 H cartes a direct current of 20 A, Calculate! ‘a The active power absorbed bb. The reactive power absorbed Advanced level 7-19 A motor having a power Factor of 0.8 ab- sorbs un aetive power of 1200 W, Calculate the reactive power drawn from the line In Problem 7-13, if we place a capacitor of 500 var in parallel with the motor, calculate ‘a The total active power absorbed by the system '. The apparent power ofthe systern The power factor ofthe system 7.20 136 Panda re- 1 is connected in parallel with acitive reactance of 10 0. Ifthe sup- ply voltage is 200 Y, cateulate ‘a. The reactive power absorbed by 2, ‘The reactive power generated by the capacitor . The active power dissipated by the coil 4. The apparent power ofthe ‘The power factor atthe terminals of a 120 V source is 0.6 lagging (Fig. 7.26). Without using phasor diagrams, calculate! a. The value of £ i, The impedance ofthe load Z the cilFigure 7.26 See Problem 7-22. 7-23 In Figs. 7.27a and 7.276, indicate the mag nitude and direction ofthe active and reac- tive power flow. (Hint: Decompose Fito fy and Jy, and treat them independently.) Industrial application 7-24 A single-phase capacitor has x rating of 30 kvar, 480 V, 60 Hz. Calculate its capaci tance in microfarads, 7-25 In Problem 7-24 caleulate a The peak vollage across the capacitor when itis comnecced to 2460 V source 1, The resulting energy stored inthe capacitor Ar that instant, in joules 7-26 Safety cules state that one minute after aca pacitor is disconnected from an ae line, the voltage across it must be 50 V or less, The discharge is done by means of a resistor that is permanently connected across the capacitor terminals. Based on the discharge ‘curve of a capacitor. calculate the discharge resistance requited, in ohms, for the capaci- {or in Problem 7-24. Knowing the resis- tance is subjected to the service voage when the capacitor isin operation, calculate its wattage rating, 7-27 A132 KV, 60 Hz single-phase line con- ‘heels @ substation to an industrial load. The line has a resistance of 2.4.9, and a teac- ‘ance of 12.0. The metering equipment at the substation indicates that the line voltage is 12.5 kV and thatthe line is drawing 3 MW of active power and 2 Mvar of reactive ower. Calculate: ‘. The current flowing inthe fine ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER ST — a E1200 See BA wo [ieee Figure 7.27 See Problem 7-23, D. The active and reactive power consumed by she tne . The active, reactive and apparent power ab- sorbed by the toad 4. The voltage across the load 7-28 A2 hp, 230 V, 1725 r/min 60 Hz single- phase washdown duty motor, manufactured by Baldor Electric Company, has the fol- owing characteristis: Full load current: 11.64 15.5% power factor: 74% weight: 80 Ib a Calculate the active and reactive power ab- sothed by this machine when it operates at fall fone. b, Ifa 40 microfarad capacitor is connected across the motor minal, calculate the line current feeding the motor. . Will the presence ofthe capacitor affect the ‘temperature ofthe motor? 7-29 A single phase heater absorbs 4 kW on a 240 V line. A capacitor comnected in parallel with the resistor detivers 3 kvar tothe line, a, Calculate the value ofthe line eusrent. bs, tthe capacitor is removed, calculate the new line caren, efficien