35 Chapter 4 FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS Experimental studies of flow in closed conduits have been generally used to complement the theoretical analysis on the effects of viscosity on fluid flow. For laminar flow, there are very close correlations between the experimental ase predicted hy theor using the equations of motion with the shearing stres as determined from Newton's Law of Viscosity. In the case of turbulent flow, the experimental results have provided the complementary numerical values to the prediction equations as formulated from the boundary layer theory of Prandtl, the mixing length theory of Von Karman, as well as the various concepts introduced by other experimenters. The resulting validity and acceptance of these theories on turbulent flow for simple boundaries provides the direction of the investigations on the more complicated boundaries with a certain degree of confidence iS an 4.1 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES Tho circular pipe is the most common type of boundary used in the experimental study of flow in ed conduits. Variations in the Reynolds number may be achieved by using different sizes of pipes, by using different fluids, as well as by varying the discharge. ‘The roughness may be varied by using different materials of pipe. Oil, air, and water, are the fluids commonly used. The experimental set-ups for the oil pipe and for the air pipe are usually self-contained recirculating units fitted with a pump or blower. The water pipe unit may be connected to the water circulation system of the laboratory or it may also be aself-contained recirculating unit a. Oil Pipe Assembly Studies on velocity distribution and head loss in smooth pipes under laminar flow conditions may be undertaken on the oil pipe assembly (Fig. 4.1). The critical limit from Laminar to turbutent flow may also be determined by observations of the characteristics of the Jet trajectory. “The test section of the oil pipe assembly consists of a brass pipe about 5.80 meters long with an inside36 EXPERIMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS Fig. 4.1 Oil pipe assembly diameter of 21 mm, a transparent plastic section of about 30 mm in length with the same inside diameter, and a transparent housing at one end of the pipe. Piezometer taps are provided throughout the length of the pipe and connected to a manometer bank to measure the head loss. A stagnation tube is installed in the transparent section to measure the velocity profile, The housing at the end of the pipe enables the observation of the characteristics of the jet trajectory as the oil flow leaves the pipe. The flow of oil in the test section is provided by ‘centrifugal pump which draws the oil from a reservoir. Ww in the test section may be varied by the gate valve which is located just after the pump. In order to ensure the smooth entry of oil into the pipe, a bell-shaped transition is fitted at the upstream end of the test section ‘The discharge is measured by noting the time it takes to collect a certain amount of oil as it leaves the test section into the weighing tank at the downstream end. Oil which has accumulated in the weighing tank may be returned to the reservoir by means of the overflow conduit or by a quick-acting gate valve. This valve is linked to another quick-acting valve in the supply line ‘that would interrupt the flow into the test section while the weighing tank is being emptied. b. Air Pipe Assembly Studies on velocity distribution and head loss in smooth and rough pipes under turbulent flow conditions may be undertaken on the air pipe assembly (Figs. 4.2). Thetest section of the air pipe assembly consists of 125 mm - diameter and a.500 mm - diameter G.1. pipe all of which are about 8.94 m, long. A transparent housing is provided at the end of the 500 mm - diameter pi Piezometer taps are provided throughout the length of the pipe and connected to 2 manometer bank to measure the head loss. Stagnation tubes are installed in the transparent housings to measure the velocity profile. The piezometer taps and the stagnation tubes are all connected to a manometer bank to facilitate ‘measurement and visualization of the pressure profile along the length of the pipes. Air is fed to the pipes by a motor driven blower which sucks air through the open inlet and brings it to the constant head tank upstream of the pipes. The flow of air into the pipes is controlled by a blast gate located between the compressorand thetank, and by gate valves at the downstream end of the pipes. Three venturi meters of varying sizes are provided for discharge measurement. The use of any of the venturies is facilitated by the appropriate gate valve located upstream of the venturi meters. 500 mm - diameter brass pipe, ¢. Water Pipe Assembly Studies on the head loss in pipe fittings may be undertaken on the water pipe assembly (Figs. 4.3). The test section of the water pipe assembly consists of two parallel pipe lines of varying diameter and interconnected by various types of pipe fittings. Pipe fittings for Pipe Line #1 consists of a bell-mouthed entrance, a gradual enlargement, a gradual contraction,FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS 37 Test Sections Alr Blower Haod Tank Venoten Waire Monometer Bank Gate Vaive ir pipe assembly Monomater Fig. 4.3 Water pipe assembly a venturi meter, a long radius elbow, a long radius double-tee and a gate valve, Pipe Line #2 has a sharp edged entrance, @ sudden enlargement, a sudden contraction, anorifice, astandard 90° elbow, a standard tee and a globe valve. Piezometer taps. are’ provided upstream and downstream of the pipe fittings to measure the head loss. ‘These piezometer taps are brought in pairs to amanometer board containing differential manometers with Carbon Tetrachloride as fluid Water flows to the pipe system from the laboratory's constant head tank and from there brought back to the main reservoir for recirculation. Flow into the system is varied by means of a valve located at the entrance to the pipe lines as well as the valves located downstream forming part of the pipe fittings. Two 60° ‘V-notch weits are provided for discharge measurement,38 EXPERIMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS d. Water Tunnel Studies on the pressure distribution, including ibility of vaporization pressures, for flow in for flow around the water tunnel immersed bodies may be under:ak: (Fig. 4.4) The test section of the water tunnel consists of a transparent section 450 mm in length, 210 mm in Seuve - Pine wot ‘Vacuum Pump Ten ind 90 mm in width. The test section could accomodate conduit transitions as well as various types of bodies. Flow is directed to the test section throw converging inl Boundary transitions which are fitted in the test taps. for cr taps. are to 2 manifold of cock valves which is also section are equipped with piezomer: meas rement of pressure. The piezome conne: provided with a Bourdon gage. Fig. 4.4 Water tunnelFLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS 39 ‘The water tunnel is a closed system, It is initially filled with water from the constant head tank after which the water is recirculated through the system by means of a motor-driven pump. The pressure could be reduced by means of a vacuum pump. The discharge is controlied by means of a varidrive control knob which modifies the motor speed Pressure taps are located upstream and downstream af the converging inlet pipe which has boon calibrated beforehand. With the pressure known, the discharge is readily determined from the calibration curve which relates the discharge to the difference in pressure, ifference e. Hydraulic Bench The hydraulic bench (Fig. 4.5) is basically designed for use in a classroom to démonstrate some of the more common flow phenomena such as pressure changes due to variations in cross-section, orifi and fluid jets. Studies on pressure distribution as well as the head loss in transitions may also be carried out, flow, ize of th In view of th unit, however, accuracy of experimental results may be limited Fig. 4.5 Hydraulic There are three experimental units that may be used with the hydraulic bench, These are described in greater detail in succeeding sections ‘The flow in the hydraulic bench is provided by @ pump from a reservoir to the head tank of the experimental units and is controlled by a butterily valve in the supply line. Discharge is measured by means of tank located above the reservoir. This is somplished by noting the change in water level for 4 certain time interval. The change in water level is read from a piezometric tube on one side of the tank, Water is directed to or away from the tank by a swing type inflow valve, The tank is drained by means of a bottom orifice which is activated automatically when the flow @ volumett is directed away from it 4.2. VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION The velocity distribution for uniform flow in pipes depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent as welt as on the relative roughness of the pipe. In.as much as turbulent flow is inherently unsteady, the velocity at a point referred to in this discussion is meant to be the mean vaiue over a period of time 4, Laminar Flow For laminar flow, the velocity distribution may be determined by analysis using the equations of motion on a free-body diagram of a fluid element where the shearing stresses are formulated in accordance with Newton's Law of Viscosity. The result is a parabolic velocity distribution, which for a horizontal pipe is as follows: mor dp du dx where u- velocity ata distance r from the centerline +, - radius of the pipe = dynamic viscosity pla - rave of pressure drop40 EXPERIMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS In terms of the maximum velocity (u,,) at which r = 1, the velocity distribution may be written as follows: 7 ap 4u dx Experimental studies on the velocity distribution for laminar flow in pipes may be undertaken on the oll pipe assembly where a stagnation tube (Fig. 4.6) is provided in the transparent test section. The experimental progam should consider the variation of such parameters a the location where the velocity is measured and the Reynolds number. The position of the stagnation tube may be varied and its location is measured by the vernier Vernier — Stagnetion Tube Fig. 4.6 Velocity profile unit for the oil pipe assembly attached. Stagnation pressure may be measured by an cil manometer or by @ mercury manometer depending on the magnitude of the pressure. The static pressure may be estimated from the values of the pressures upstream of the stagnation tube. The Reynolds number may be varied by changing the discharge. Analysis of the experimental values may be correlated with the analytical values. One way of plotting the experimental results is shown in Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.7 Velocity distribution in pipes for laminar flow b. Turbulent Flow For turbulent flow, the form of the prediction equation for the velocity distribution may be determined using the boundary layer theory of Prandtl and the mixing length theory of von Karman. The general form of the equation depends on whether the pipe is smooth or rough and the corresponding equations areas follows: Smooth pipes: The velocity distribution consists of three segments corresponding to the laminar sublayer, the transition zone, and the turbulent coreFLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS 41 ~ In the laminar sublayer: B uw v ~ In the turbulent core “=C log" +p u v where u - velocity at a distance y from the pipe wail it, 5 v ~ kinematic viscosity A,B,C, and D are numerical constant and coefficients, Experimental studies on the velocity distribution for turbulent flow in pipes may be undertaken on the air pipe assembly where stagnation tubes (Fig. 4.8) are provided at the end of the test pipes. The experimental program should corisider the variation of such parameters as the location where the velocity is measured, the roughness of the pipe, and the Reynolds number. : The position of the stagnation tube may be 1 varied and its location is measured by the vernier 2 attached. Differences between the stagnation pressure 1 and the static pressure may be measured by a differential 1 manometer. The effect of roughness is considered with the brass pipeas an example of a smooth pipe while the GL. pipe represents an example of a rough pipe. The Reynolds number may be varied by changing the discharge. Analysis of the experimental results may be made to evaluate the numerical constants and coefficients in the prediction equations. A method of plotting the experimental results is shown in Fig. 4.9 Vernier ‘Stagnation Fig. 4.8 Velocity profile unit for the air pipe assembly Fig. 4.9 Velocity distribution for turbulent flow in smooth pipes42. EXPERIMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS ig. 4.10 for rough pipes. ed by the form of for smooth pipes and ir ‘The semilogarithmic plot is su: the prediction equation. Fig. 4.10 Velocity distribution for turbulent flow in rough pipes 4.3 UNSTABLE LAMINAR FLOW The parameter that is commonly used to characterize laminar flow is the Reynolds number. Ithas been universally observed that for flow in pipes with Reynolds number values of 2,000 or less, the flow is always laminar. On the other hand, laminar flow may still be possible for flows with Reynolds numbers ‘greater than 2,000 but that such flows are unstable. A small disturbance in the flow would cause it to become turbulent. One way of demonstrating this phenomenais by observing the characteristics of the jet at the end of the oil pipe assembly. The jet for laminar flow (Fig. 4.11) is characterized by a capillary fin below the main body of the jet. This is due to the parabolic nature of the velocity distribution such that the particles inthe lower region would be having different jet trajectories than the mai yw, Particles in the upper region, however, are carried with the main flow. The velocity distribution for turbulent flow is much more uniform than that for laminar flow so that the x turbulent flow (Fig. 4.12) does not have the ary fin of th laminar flow jet introduction of a disturbance upstream of the jet would enable one to determine the transition from laminar to turbulent flow eristics of th Variations of the discharge and thi 44 HEAD LOSS IN UNIFORM FLOW The form of the prediction equation for the head loss in pipes under uniform flow conditions may be determined by a dimensional analysis of the variables affecting the flow. This is generally known as the Darey-Weisbach resistance equation: LY (o. & h=f=— inwhin f=4{ Re D2g it which a e £) where h - head loss due to pipe friction £- friction factor L - length of the pipe D - diameter of the pipe V - average velocity Re - Reynolds number € - roughness height The value of the friction factor depends on ‘whether the flow is laminar or turbulent as well as on the relative roughness of the pipe.FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS 43 Fig. 4.11 Laminar flow jet at the end of a pipe on. " Fig. 4.12 Turbulent flow jet at the end of a pipe44° EXPERIMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS a, Laminar Flow For laminar flow, the pressure drop for uniform flow in a pipe may be analytically determined using the equations of motion on a free-hody diagram of a fluid element where the shearing stresses are formulated in accordance with Newton’s Law of Viscosity. The result is commonly known as the Poiseuille equation: 32uLV D Ap= where AP - pressure drop nu - dynamic viscosity L- length D- diameter V - average velocity ‘The equation may be rewritten in the form of the Darey-Weisbach equation as follows: ‘This provides the analytical expression for evaluating the friction factor as follows: 4. Re Experimental studies on the head loss for laminar flow in pipes may be undertaken on the oil pipe assembly. The experimental program should consider the variation of the Reynolds number. Piezometer taps are provided for measuring the head loss either by an oil manometer or a mercury manometer depending on the magnitude of the pressures. The location of these taps are shown in Fig. 4.13. Variations in the discharge would provide the range of Reynolds numbers desired for the study. Analysis of the experimental results may be made to correlate with the values from theory. One way of plotting the experimental results is shown in Fig. 4.14 which also includes th: resuits for turbulent flow in smooth pipes as discussed in the succeeding section, The logarithmic plot is chosen in order to obtain x straight line portion in the laminar flow region. b. Turbulent Flow For turbulent flow, the prediction equation for the friction factor (f) may be derived analytically from the results of the velocity distribution which have been determined experimentally, the equations of motion on a free-body of fluid element, and the formulation of the Darcy-Weisbach equation. The resulting equations are as follows: Smooth pipes: + = A,logRevi +B, where £- friction factor Re - Reynolds Number A, and B, are numerical coefficients and constants. Rough pipes: Jog +B, vt D where - height of roughness projections D - diameter A, and B, are numerical coefficients and constantsi | i FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS 45 ® ® * Dimensions are given in Fig. 4.13 Piezometer taps in the oil pipe assembly Fig. 4.14 Friction factor for smooth pipes Experimental determination of the head loss for turbulent flow in pipes may be undertaken on the air pipe assembly. The experimental program should consider the variation of such parameters as the Reynolds number and the relative roughness. Piezometer taps are provided for measuring the head loss by a water manometer. The location ofthe taps are shown in Fig. 4.15. Variations in the discharges and inthe sizes and materials of the pipes would provide the range of Reynolds number and relative roughness. Analysis of the experimental results may be made to evaluate the numerical coefficients and constants in the prediction equation for the friction factor. One way of plotting the experimental results is shown in Fig. 4.16. 4.5 HEAD LOSS IN PIPE FITTINGS For some pipe fittings, the head loss may be determined analytically by applying the equations of continuity, energy, and momentum. The case of the sudde! follows pension is an example in which the result is as where bh, - head loss V, - upstream velocity V, - downstream velocity A, - upstream cross-sectional area A, - downstream cross-sectional area For most fittings, however, the analysis is not as imple in view of the complicated boundary conditions, In such cases, the form of the prediction equation for head loss in pipe fittings is determined by analogy with the head loss for the sudden expansion as well as with46 EXPERIMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS 4 Piezometer 1op2 ore indicated Tops 28 ond 28 5x25 Dimensions om gin in Taps 26 ond 27 84 1.28 Fig. 4.15 Piezometer taps in the air pipe assembly that for uniform flow in pipes in that the head loss is proportional to the velocity head as follows: V - average velocity Experimental studies on the head loss in pipe fittings may be undertaken on the water pipe assembly. The experimental program should consider the boundary geometry of the fittings. For this purpose different types of fittings (Fig. 4.17) are installed. Piezometer taps are provided to measure the pressure drop by means of @ Fig. 4.16 Friction factor for rough pipes differential manometer with carbon tetrachloride as fluid, The discharge is measured by a triangular weir and may be varied by operating the appropriate valve.FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS 47 Legend’ a @ o a 8 @ o Bell mouthed entronce Gradual enlargement Gtodval contraction 5x4 venturl meter Long radius elbow Long radius double tee Sem © gate valve OB8E88e88o08 Sharped edged entrance Notes © Piezometer taps are indicated Sudden Entoroement by enciccled numbers Sudden contraction 1* Dimensions ore given in Orifice between flanges -154"S centimeters Standard 90° sibow Standard tee 2" globe valve Fig. 4.17 Fittings for the pipe assembly48 EXPERIMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS Analysis of the experimental results would enable the determination of the coe and its variation with Reynolds number and the boun: parameter. The results are usually given in tabular form, jent of head loss 4.6 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION The pressure distribution for non-uniform flow in closed conduits may be determined analytically from the equation of energy after evaluating the vel from the kinematic equations of idea! fluid flow. Even ies with the use of high speed computers, the formulation of the boundary conditions remains to be the major constraint in determining the pressure distribution analytically. The other limitations are the existence of separation and the possibility of vaporization pressures in liquid flow cases. Experimental studies on pressure distribution in closed conduit transitions may be undertaken on the water tunnel. The experimental program may consider the possibility of the existence of cavitation pressures: The particular boundary to be investigated must be provided with piezometric taps (Fig. 4.18) before it is ‘mounted on the test section of the tunnel. Pressures may bbe measured by a manometer or a bourdon gage, The ambient pressure in the tunnel may b: lowers vacuum pump to induce the occurrence of vaporization pressures in the test section. wee aaa Fig. 4.18 Piezometer taps in the boundary constriction in the water tunne! Analysis of the experimental 1 ble the corr sults would n with the values obtained by analytical methods. One way of plotting the experimental results is shown in Fig. 4.19 for various ambient pressures and in comparison with the flow net solution, The variation of pressu may also be demonstrated on the experimental unit of the hydrauli bench in which a venturi-type boundary (Fig. 4.20) is installed. In this unit, the test section is a transparent acrylic plastic pipe, about $20 mm long, with varying internal diameter from about 100 mm to 190 mm. Cylindrical head tanks with diameters of about 152 mm, are provided at both ends of the test section. Piezomete taps which are located along the entire length of the test tion are connected to a manom pressure 8 bank to show the variations i Fig. 4.19 Pressure variation for various stages of cavitation Fig, 4.20 Venturi-type boundary for the hydraulic bench ;