Rock art research in the Dakhleh Oasis, Western Desert (Egypt) Petroglyph Unit, Dakhleh Oasis Project Pawet Poikowsk1* Ewa Kuciewrcz Eliza Jaroni Michal Kopusiewicz ngenza di condizioni pid umide, dell'Olocene, ¢ fino ai giomi nostri, T'Oasi di Dakhieh & sempre sta- ta abitata. Le sabbie del Deserto Ocei- dentale hanno coperto numerosiresti archeologici degli antichi abitanti, ma rnon tutti sono stati sepolti dalle dune, come ad esempio Varte rupestre, Inu ‘merovoli alture in arenaria nella parte centrale e orientale delf'Oasi ospitano ‘una grande quantita di petroglif, mar tellinatio incisi nella roccia, Lesistenaa di arte rupestre nell'Oasi ® stata men- zionata per la prima volta da Herbert Winlock nel 1908, Pit tardi, alla fine de= sli anni ‘90, Hans Winkler ha intrapreso ‘uno studio approfondito, ma dopo Tin- terruzione della seconda guerra mon- diale ci sono voluti pitt di 40 anni por riprendere il suo lavoro. Dal 1985 Yarte rupestre delfOasi vieno studiata dalla Petroglyph Unit, parte del programma a lungo termine Dakhteh Oasis Project. Il presente documento si concentra sui principali temi delle pit: recenti ricer che, come ad esempio le associazioni tra immagini di giraffe ¢ figure antropo- morte ¢ i! motivo “femminile’, caratteri- stico della regione, con le sue potenziali associazioni con il culto della fertilita. Infine, viene affrontata arte rupestre “storica’, specie del periodo dinastico, e si presentano le pid importanti questio- ni tooriche ¢ le earatteristiche principal del nostro approccio, Summary Since the onset of more humid condi- tions at the beginning of the Holocene pe- riod and up to the present day, Dakhleh Oasis has been continuously inhabited. ‘The sands of the Western Desert cov: ered. numerous archaeological remains of the ancient Oasis dwellers, but not all of them have been buried by dunes ‘and rock art is one of them, Countless sandstone hills in the central and east- ern parts of the Oasis are covered with petroglyphs, pecked, engraved or incised in the soft rocks. The existence of rock art in the Oasis was first mentioned by Herbert Winlock in 1908, Later on, in the late 30°, Hans Winkler undertook @ thorough study, but after the interrup- tion of World War IL it took more than 40 ears to resume his work, Since 1985 ‘rook art in the Oasis is studied by the Petroglyph Unit, part of the long:term Dakhleh Oasis Project. The present pa- per focuses on the main issues of the tat est rock art research in the Oasis, such ‘as the associations between giraffe image es and anthropomorphic figures, the ‘fe- ‘male” motif, characteristic ofthe regi and its potential associations with the fertility cult, Finally, “historical” rock ‘art, mainly from the dynastic period, is dealt with, Besides the brief overview of the petroglyphs found in the Central Oa- sis, the most important theoretical issues and main features of the approach are shortly described. Résumé Depuis Papparition de conditions plus humides, au début de lHolocéne, et jusqu’a nos jours, !Oasis de Dakhieh été continuellement habitée. Les sables du Désort Occidental ont cow vert de nombreux vestiges archéolo- giques des anciens habitants, mais non pas l'art rupestre. Les innombrables reliefs de gré's dans les parties centrale et orientale de oasis sont riches en pé- troglyphes ~ piqués, gravés ou incisés dans les roches tendres. Liexistence de art rupestre dans TOnsis a été men- tionné par Herbert Winlock en 1908, Plus tard, & In fin des années 30, Hans Winkler a entrepris une étude appro- fondie, mais apres interruption de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il a fallu plus de 40 ans pour reprendre le tra- vail qu'il avait eommeneé. Depuis 1985, Vart rupostre: dans YOasis est étudi par l'équipe Petroglyph Unit, qui fait partie du projet a long terme Dakhleh Oasis Project. Cet article se concentre sur les principaux enjeux des plus récentes études, tels les associations entre les images des girafos et des fi- gures anthropomorphes, le motif «{émi- nin», caractéristique de la région, et ses associations possibles avec le culte de la. fertilité, Ensuite, on discute art «his- torque», & partir de la période dynas- tiquo, et, pour finir, nous nous eonfron- tons avee les questions théoriques les plus importantes et les principales ca- ractéristiques de notre approche. Past research (Michat Kobusiewiez) Rock art in the Dakhleh Oasis was noted for the first time by Herbert Winlock on the Dard el-Ghubari, coming from Kharga (Winlock, 1936: 9-10). He recorded Bedouin tribal signs, as well as representations of giraffes and pubic triangles, which he perceived to be prehistoric, but was not sufficiently interested to continue studies of the issue. W.J. Harding King devoted more attention to the petroglyphs he had recorded in the eastern part of the Oasis, publishing a description of his findings in a famous book, Mysteries of the Libyan Desert (1925). His interest focused on tribal marks, but he also did not undertake any broader studies of petroglyphs as such, SAHARA 202018, = Poznait Archacological Museum Rack Art Unit Wodna 27, 61-781 Posnaf- Palae Gérkiiw ** Jagiellonian University Institute of Archaeology 11 Gotebia Str 31-007 Krakow (Poland) 2 Place de !Ancienne Mairie 66820 - Vernet les Bains (France) 8809 Inat, of Archaeology and Ethnology of Polish Academy of Science Centre for Prehistoric and Medieval Studies Rubiee Str, 46, 61-612 Poznan (Poland) Polkowakt - Kuciowix -Jaroni- Kobusiowice 101‘The German Hans Alexander Winkler laid a sound foundation for sci- entific research on the rock art of Egypt. Twice he took part in Sir Rob- ert Mond’s Desert Expedition, in 1996/1937 and 1937/1938, The Eastern Desert was the focus of the first field season, whereas the next year the expedition concentrated on the Western Desert and more specifically its eastern fringes from Qena to Aswan and along the road from the Nile to Kharga, from Kharga to Dakhleh and subsequently all the way to Gebel Uweinat, On the El Ghubari route from Kharga to Dakhieh Winkler found an extremely rich scatter of petroglyphs of particular significance for the current project. Those that he documented were later included in his two- volume publication (Winkler, 1938, 1939). Winkler proposed to distinguish a number of chronologically different groups in the rock art of the Western Desert, although he found some of these groups to be simultaneous. The oldest groups, which he described as being of Neolithic date, were: Earliest Hunters, Early Nile Valley Dwellers, Autochthonous Mountain Dwellers, Eastern Invaders, Early Oasis Dwellers and Uweinat Cattle Breeders. Later rock art was attributed to the Dynastic period, the Graeco-Roman ‘nd Coptic age and ultimately the Islamie period. ‘Winkler’s periodization and interpretation of Western Desert rock art was extremely modern for its time. His documentation was extensive and analysis exhaustive, but he also drew attention to the cultural and environmental context, He found rock art to be a rich source of data on the material culture, as well as beliefs and social organization of the dwellers of today’s desert. In the early 1980s Anthony Mills, founder and director of the multi- disciplinary Dakhleh Oasis Project (DOP), was surveying Dakhleh and observed numerous engravings in parts of the Oasis that Winkler had not visited. Consequently, in 1985 Lech Krzyzaniak joined the project, acting on behalf of the Archaeological Museum in Poznan, which he di- rected at the time, and the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw. The Petroglyph Unit that he formed continues to work within the DOP framework until today. Krayzaniak first traced Winkler's footsteps, locating many of the petro- glyphs which the German had recorded. Together with his wife Karla Kroper, he began to document the petroglyphs methodically, starting from the oldest linked to the Neolithic Bashendi cultural unit and the period of Egyptian domination in the Oasis in the times of the Fifth and Sixth Dy- nasties. Research started first in the eastern part of the Oasis, moving later to the Central Oasis, The results were published in numerous articles and communiqués (Krzyzaniak, 1987, 1990, 1993, 1999, 2001, 2004; Krzyzaniale & Kréper, 1985, 1990, 1991), He also instigated an experimental project, carving easily recognizable modern engravings and painting them with handmade pigments. Annual monitoring of these carvings should help to determine whether and to what extent winds could erode the pigments. Anumber of watch-posts identified already by Winkler was explored in the 1980s and 1990s. These Ancient Egyptian sites from the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties guarded against raiders from outside and monitored the caravan trade passing through the oasis (Kaper & Willems, 2002: 79-85). Numerous petroglyphs of Pharaonic age were discovered on the rock fac 8 of the hills on which the sentry posts were located (Krayzaniak, 2001 251-253) and were most probably carved by the soldiers stationed here. ‘This work was carried out by R.A. Frey, O. Kaper, M.R, Kleindienst, K. Kréper, L. Krayzaniak and M. MeDonald (Kaper & Willems, 2002). Ewa Kuciewiez. and Eliza Jaroni have participated in the work of the Petroglyph Unit uninterruptedly from 2000 and sinee 2004, follow- ing the premature demise of Lech Krzyzaniak, the unit has been directed by Michat Kobusiewicz on behalf of the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw. Joining the Unit periodically were Joanna Sawicka, Elzbieta Palka, Anna Longa and Andrzej Rozwadowski. Pawel Polkowski, who joined the team in 2011, has a research grant from the National Science Centre of Poland. The chief objective of the investi- gations in recent years has been the Painted Wadi in the central part of the Oasis and some chosen areas in its eastern part (Kobusiewicz, 2012; Kuciewicz, Jaroni & Kobusiewiez, 2006, 2008, 2010; Kuciewicz & Kob- usiewicz, 2012; Polkowski & Kobusiewiez, 2012), In 2008 Australian re- searchers from Monash University in Vietoria undertook an unsuecessful attempt to date rock art in the Oasis based on the patina covering it, 102 SAHARA 242013 —_Polkowk-Kuclewics -Jaront- KobusiewieeInvestigations in recent years have also covered the immediate neigh- bourhood of the Oasis. About 30 km to the southwest C. Bergmann dis- covered two sites of similar function as the watch-posts described above, eodenamed Dachla 99/38 and Dachla 99/39. Dynastic rock art was also discovered at these sites. The two sites were explored in 2000 by German scientists within the framework of the ACACIA project (Riemer et al., 2005). They also investigated Meri with its rich flint scatters and Neo- lithic rock art (Riemer, 2006). Another site of interest is Djedefre's Water Mountain situated about 80 km southwest of Dakhleh. It was discovered also by C. Bergmann (2011) and investigated by a group from Cologne headed by Rudolph Kuper (Kuper & Forster, 2003; Kropelin & Kuper, 2007; see KuhImann, 2002, 2005). One should note the research on the so-called Abu Ballas Trail, which also brought to light an abundance of rock art, as well as new data on Dakhleh's role in the context of Egyp- tian expeditions to the Western Desert during the Old Kingdom (Férster, 2007). Other scholars who have undertaken issues connected with rock art include F. Berger (2006, 2008, 2012), K.P. Kuhlmann (2002, 2005), D. James (2012) and 0. Kaper (Kaper & Willems, 2002; Kaper, 2009). In the past two decades reports of new findings of rock art. in the Western Desert have multiplied (Riemer, 2009a), being frequently a by- product of other excavation or survey work in search of settlement in the region. The DOP Petroglyph Unit continues to-coneentrate on rock art in the Oasis. The article is a presentation of the main research issues cur- rently undertaken by our team. Prehistoric rock art: animal representations (Eliza Jaroni) Changes of climate have shaped the specificity of the Eastern Sahi as a region in the past ten thousand years. Broad scale multidiscipli- nary research traces the dynamics of these changes and the adaptive processes taking place among the local dwellers. Correlated geologi- cal, paleobotanical, archaeozoological and archaeological data paint a picture of the natural environment, successive climatic stages and cultural mechanisms in this part of the Sahara in the Pleistocene and Holocene (Kuper & Krdpelin, 2006). Rock art is part of this “jigsaw puzzle” of data, enlarging on the socio-cultural and economic information that contributes to our know!- edge of the world of beliefs and the personal preferences and talents of those who made it, Animal representations are the most common theme of rock art in Dakhleh Oasis. Judging by stylistic criteria, ex- ecution techniques, superimpositions and archaeological as well a3 ar- chaeozoological data, it can be stated in general that most of the im- ages were associated with the prehistoric cultures of Bashendi A and B (ca 6420 BC-3950 BC) and Sheikh Muftah (ca 3800-2900 BC, until the Fifth-Sixth Dynasty in Egypt) (McDonald, 2002). Petroglyphs can be found on isolated hills or on chains of hills aligned more or less north-south, carved from the bedrock Nubian sandstone, No evident preferences regarding the location of the images have been established, except perhaps for a certain tendency to avoid the south side, The same can be said of the position on rock surfaces. Vertical rock faces forming “galleries” of a kind are just as common as flat rocks still in position and blocks loosened and broken owing to pro- cesses of erosion. Practical issues, that is, easy acess and facile execu- tion, seem to have dictated the choice of location," In a few instances, however, the present location made it difficult to impossible to docu- ment the glyphs, leading one to question how they were made in the first place. One possible explanation is a drifting sand dune or perhaps some other kind of deposit which had once facilitated access to these sites, forming a platform of sorts for the ancient authors. ‘The range of animal species represented in Dakhleh rock art is im- pressive, The following species have been identified, listed here in the order of the number of individuals: giraffe, antelope, oryx, ostrich, ga- zelle, unspecified birds, cattle, buffalo, dog, elephant, as well as hare, sheep, lion, zebra, erocodile and lizard. A comparison of these depictions with archaeozoological evidence from Dakhleh and its environs is par- SAHARA202013 * Although one should take into account the visibility of the petroglyphs and their potential role as messages. Some of the pic- tures are located in places that were diff- cult to access, which could speak in favor of ‘considerations other than practical Polkowshi-Kuciewice -Jarcai- Kebasiewicr 108ticularly interesting. The excavated faunal remains are dominated by gazelle, hare and bovid, but there is not a single giraffe bone among them. On the other hand, faunal remains of Barbary sheep are known from Ayn Asil site (Pantalacei & Lesur-Gebremariam, 2009: 250-251), but until now there are no depictions of these animals in the corpus of rock art from the Oasis, However, engravings representing Barbary sheep were discovered in Kharga Oasis (Ikram, 2009b: 274), as well as on Meri sites (Hendrickx et al., 2009: 196). In general, the picture is that of a typical Holocene fauna, reflecting the prehistoric world of the Egyptian Western Desert (Churcher, 1999). Correlation of different data suggests a savannah-like environment with permanent sources of water, seasonally covered with grasses and trees. Conditions were sufficient both for grazing the cattle, as well as for the existence of wild animals dependent on water sources (Churcher, 1999 ), It should be noted that animal images from later periods than the Holocene included camels, horses, asses and perhaps also ducks and geese. Most representations were engraved, but examples of the pecking technique, rubbing and a combination of methods were recorded as well. Animals were depicted in. groups (from a few to a few dozen), as well as singly. On the whole the images were static in quality and more or less simplified, but naturalistic in form. Giraffes escape this general statement to some extent as their repre- sentations reveal a wide stylistic range, from very schematic outlines of figures rendered with just a few lines to images rendering even such ele- ments as horns, ears, mane and hooves. The bodies of the animals take on different forms as well. Either there are parallel or oblique engraved lines of different thickness and depth or the bodies are characteristically potted, using the pecking technique (Fig. 1). When shown in groups ail the animals tend to face in one direction. Moreover, they were often rep- resented in association with human figures, a unique trait with regard to giraffe representations from Dakhleh. Thus, there are giraffes depict- ed being led on a line (mainly by men) (Fig. 2, 3), giraffes accompanying ‘female’ figures (Fig. 1, 4, 11; see below for a discussion of this motif), and giraffes with human figures of both sexes, There is also a scene of a hunter armed with a bow and accompanied by dogs hunting giraffes. Why was there such a preference for this particular animal species in Dakhleh Oasis? Why were the giraffes tethered and depicted in as- sociation with humans? The phenomenon was explained as a record of the domestication of the species and ritual binding (Krzyzaniak, 1990) ag well as by associations with the solar cult (Huyge, 2002: 200; Darnell, 2009; 90) and with rain (Van Hoek, 2003), Other interpretations are 104 SAHARA 202013 Polkowski- Kuciewice -Jaroni- Kabusiowicesurely possible as well, Interestingly, the archaeozoological material, not only from Dakhleh but also from the Western Desert as a whole, does not bear out this popularity of the giraffe in rock art. Skeletal remains are very scarce (Churcher et al., 2008), despite images being found also in other regions of Egypt, like Kharga Oasis (Ikram, 2009b) and the site of Meri located 60 km to the west of Dakhleh (Riemer, 2009), The dominance of animals in Dakhleh’s rock art, especially giraffes, may have been of a pragmatic nature, constituting a projection of contempo- rary fauna for the authors carving the glyphs. Animals were attractive hunting objectives for consumption purposes, extremely important as a source of protein in early hunter-gatherer societies or as a diet sup- plement in pastoral economies (Riemer, 2009b; Pollath, 2009). Hunting also was a source of pelts, hides and feathers coveted in the trade ex- ‘change with the Oasis and the Nile Valley. Neither should one exclude the prestigious character of elite hunting (Hendrickx et al., 2009: 231). Hunting of this kind could have also created the opportunity to capture live animals, such as giraffes for example, which could explain the “teth- ered giraffe” motifs, so popular in the Dakhleh area. But if the interest in giraffes as an animal was a factor of their specific and characteristic appearance, then why did not the elephant provoke a similar interest? Elephant bones have been recorded on sites belonging probably to both the Bashendi and Sheikh Muftah cultures, but depictions of the animal are known only from two sites in Eastern and Central Oasis (Churcher et al., 2008: 5-6; Winkler, 1939, pl. LVI, 1). The example from the Cen- tral Oasis is even more interesting, as it is fitted with a tail that is ex- aggerated and bushy like that of a giraffe (Fig. 5). Perhaps the author carving this particular animal representation had only heard of the ani- mal without having actually seen one? SAHARA 2U2013, Fig, 2, Petroglyph from Central Dakhieh, showing a giraffe being led bya man. Fig, 3.A “tethered giraffe” motif, Fig, 4, Anthropomorphic figures associated with giraffes, Eastern Dakhich Oasis. Potkoweak Kuclewice- Jaron - Kobuslewice 105Prehistoric rock art: “female” anthropomorphic representations (Ewa Kuciewier) Among the hundreds of prehistoric petroglyphs recognized in the Dakhleh Oasis, anthropomorphie representations, commonly referred to as female images, form an extremely large and intriguing group. Small- er or larger, but ‘always substantial numbers of such depictions have been discovered in the two areas intensively surveyed by the Unit. The first scholar to recognize and describe these representations was Hans Winkler (1939: 7-8, 27-80; pl. XXXIX-XLVIID, followed by members of the DOP Petroglyph Unit D.O.P. (Krzyzaniak, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1994, 2004; Krzyzaniak & Kréper, 1985, 1991, 1993; Kuciewicz, Kobusiewicz & Jaroni, 2007, 2008, 2010; Kuciewica & Kobusiewica, 2011, 2012), Anthropomorphie representations are not limited to the immediate vicinity of the Oasis, even though their range is still quite limited terri- torially. In recent. years their distribution has been extended to include the site of Meri 99/36, so-called ‘Ladies Hill! (Riemer, 2006: 499), in the Chufu region (Kuhlmann, 2002: 136; Berger, 2006; Riemer, 2009a: 40) and in the environs of Kharga Oasis (Ikram, 2009a: 75), that is, respec- tively about 50 and 80 km southwest of Dakhleh and about 180 km to the east of it. Although dating prehistoric art is an extremely difficult issue, certain indirect assumptions ~ iconographic, stylistic, degree of weathering, relation to other archaeological remains, ete. — allow us to say that the carvings were the work of members of the Neolithic culture Bashendi B, which functioned in the Oasis in the sixth and fifth millennium BG, possibly continuing in the Sheikh Muftah cul- tural unit (McDonald, 2002: 113), Further indirect confirmation of thi idea comes from the known range of these representations which cor responds to the territory still exploited around 5800cal BC, when the desertification process of the Sahara after the Holocene humid phase had begun (Kuper & Kropelin, 2006; Riemer, 2009a), ‘The anthropomorphic representations in question shared certain traits, like profile views (although front views were also present), a schematic upper body barely marked by a head, stiek-like trunk and truncated arms, and a strongly, even excessively emphasized lower body, often richly decorated. The degree of particularization of the figures dif- fers considerably, from extremely schematic forms consisting of just. a few lines, through diverse variants and variations, to sophisticated de- pictions including tattoos or painted body art, hairdos, bracelets and pendants, as well as other dress ornaments (Fig. 6). Occasionally, the feet and sometimes even parts of the legs were shown. Some figures had marked breasts, and a bulging belly on many of the silhouette 106 SAHARA242019 _Polkowski - Kuciewice- Jaron - Kobusiewice “Elephant Hill” in the Painted . Central Dakhieh Oasis.depictions could be suggestive of pregnaney. The figures appear alone, in pairs, often as mirror reflections (examples of figures connected by a line may be interpreted literally or as a symbolic joining, or as a metaphor of the sexual act, Fig. 7), as well as in groups. Interestingly, the ‘females’ were shown frequently in relation with animals, mostly giraffes (e.g. Fig. 4, 11) (see below). Diverse techniques were in use: incision, pecking, sunk relief or a combination of thes: Not all of the images have marked female sexual traits, hence Win- kler’s theory that they represented women cannot be accepted without reservations (Berger, 2008; James, 2012). On the other hand, no indis- putably male traits have been noted. The interpretation of these figures as females’ in this text is fully conscious, even while keeping in mind that not all of them needed to represent women. ‘The interpretation of these representations is expectedly diffi- cult, Winkler saw in them images of real female statuettes (Winkler, 1939:29). There are indeed cases when the central vertical axis around which the figure is constructed continues downward, beyond the bottom outlines of the silhouettes (e.g., Winkler, 1939: Pl. XLI, 1) (Fig. 7). The presence of repeated images of this kind, admittedly rare, is sufficient SAHARA2U2015 3. Some depictions of ‘women’ are very claborate, with evident dress ornaments and optlent coiffure, Eastern Dakhleh Oasis. Fig. 7. Group of females’ executed ‘on a loose block on the top of the hill. ‘Two of them are connected with a deeply incised line. Winkler’s site 62. Eastern Dakhleh Oasis. Polkowski - Kuciewice -Sareai -Kobusiewicr 107proof that we are not dealing with a mistake or artistic awkwardness, nut the reason for this form of depiction has not been explained, Certain scholarly interpretations saw in these figures fertility goddesses (Win- kler, 1939:29, Krayzaniak, 1990:96), or female sorcerers (Krayzaniak & Kréper, 1991:60). While it'may be going too far to imbue these figurines with divinity, broadly understood fertility associated with reproduction, fecundity and abundance could have played a role of some kind, Let: us consider the localization of these figures. The loose blocks ‘with such images found on hill slopes may have found their way there a8 a result of erosion processes, but a substantial number of the repre- sentations was engraved on exposed, evidently carefully chosen vertical rock faces which could be observed from afar, almost always high up and only rarely in the lower parts of the hills. No unquestionable orienta- tion has been ascertained, but a definite majority of the images occupied the eastern side of hill complexes, while the south side was generally avoided. The most striking of all are engravings on flat rock blocks on hill summits, so that the representations face the sky (Fig. 8). Moreo- ‘ver, in such cases the rest of the hill is usually devoid of petroglyphs or 108 SAHARA2U2013 _Polkowaki- Ruciowier -Jaroni- Kobusicwie Fig. 8. Example of an extremely ‘exposed location of a ‘women’ representation. Eastern Dakhleh, Oasis.has only a few additional representations. This while the surrounding. hills are literally packed with dozens, if not hundreds of rock carvings of different date. Meriting particular interest are images placed inside hollows scooped out of the rock on the summits of hills; these scoops are believed to be stationary querns. Winkler’s Site 67 (Winkler, 1939:8, Pl. XLIII,2; XLIV,1,2) embraces two flat-topped hills with dozens of shallow scoops of this kind on the northern side (Fig. 9). The hollows were prob- ably made by grinding either grain or some kind of minerals for making. pigments. Schematic ‘female’ representations were recorded in at least seven of these scoops (Fig. 10). The rock here is so soft that the carvings would have been obliterated had such a hollow been used again, even if only once. The interesting question is were these images inside the ‘querns’ carved anew after each use event or were they executed much later, when the scoops had already been abandoned. Another site with scoops and female anthropomorphic figures carved inside the hollows was located in the past season, meaning that more sites of this kind are to be expected. ‘The exposed and frequently isolated location of panels with ‘female’ representations argues in favor of their intentional place: SAHARA2U2013, Fig, 9 Numerous the top of a hill. Winkler's site 67. Eastern Dakhleh Oasis. Fig. 10. Simplified engraving of ‘woman’ inside a seoop. Winkler's site 67. Eastern Dakhlch Oasis. Polkowakt - Kuciowice -Jaroni- Kobusiowicr 100ment and their uncommon importance for the community which made them. The location on a hill summit could have had some link with rain as a source of potable water. The same can be said of the engravings inside the querns, where grain as a source of food could be associated with life and survival, A justified presumption, considering the rather oppressive natural environment in which their potential authors lived. Leaving aside the localization issue, let us return to questions of iconography. These purportedly female’ representations often appear together with animals, especially giraffes. As a matter of fact, giraffes dominate the set of animals shown in the prehistoric art of the Oasis. They come in ones as well as groups and were depicted with diverse tech- niques and in a whole range of styles. Representations of ‘tethered gi- raffes! are also quite common (images of this kind are frequent in Egypt as well as throughout the Sahara ~ e.g. Hallier, 1990; Allard-Huard, 1993, Vahala & Cervitek, 1999; Darnell, 2009: 90). Sometimes they are led by human figures, but often enough only a line is visible, running down from the neck or head of the animal. In assoeiation with anthropo- morphic representations, giraffes are depicted walking in a row together with a ‘female’ figure or apparently flocking around it. Going back again to the possible pregnancy of some of these figures, let us look at the scene illustrated in Fig. 11. The anthropomorphic figu: rine is accompanied by three giraffes with clearly emphasized protru- sions on their bellies. It should be mentioned here that images of giraffes with that kind of ‘swelling’ in the abdominal area were depicted in the rock art of the Oasis also not in connection with female figures, How- ever, following up on the maternity interpretational lead, it seems to be justified to take into consideration that at least some of the bulges in the belly area of the giraffes and anthropomorphic figures from Dakhleh Oasis depict pregnancy. Looking at this panel, one should also note the two lines connecting a giraffe with the ground, In another representation of a ‘female’ figure with a giraffe, found on a loose block on the northern slope of a hill, but probably not in its original position, the giraffe is represented with a complex pattern incised inside its belly (Fig. 12), A“channel” running to the animal's anus or vagina has been emphasized additionally. It remains a moot point whether this is a representation of a fetus or not, Superimposed on top of the single image ofa giraffe was an anthropomorphic female figure, executed in a very fine rubbing technique that is not well visible until the morning hours when sun rays falling at an acute angle bring it out clearly. The head of the fig- ure overlaps the animal's belly. As discussed above, while the images of tethered giraffes may reflect processes of domestication or at least attempts at taming these animals (Krayzaniak, 1990), there is another possible explanation, In many Af- MO SAHARA2U2013—Polkovaki - Kuelewir Jaron - Kobustowice Fig. 11. ‘Female’ figure with pregnant () giraffes. Central Dakhleh Oasi Fig. 12, Superimposed images of tthe woman’ and the givaffe with unidentified pattern inside, Bastern Dakhleh Oasis.rican cultures the giraffe is considered a potent rain animal connected with rain creating or evoking fertility (Van Hoek, 2003:60), In this con- text the recurring association of ‘females’ and giraffes, sometimes with prosumable signs of pregnancy, speaks in favor of the plausibility of the ‘suggested fertility factor in the interpretation of female representations from Dakhleh Oasis, Rock art landscapes in central Dakhleh Oasis (Pawet Polkowski) Petroglyphs from “historic” times, that is, from the late Old Kingdom through Arab and even modern times is another of the research issues, taken up by the Petroglyph Unit team. Currently the work is concen- trated in the so-called Central Oasis and focuses on a holistic approach to the phenomenon of rock art in these regions and on recognizing rela- tions between petroglyphs from different periods. Dynastic motifs are evident in the rock art of the Oasis, connected as a rule with the said watch-posts (Kaper & Willems, 2002; Kaper, 2009; Riemer ef al., 2005), but found also in places without any evident func- tionality (Krzyzaniak, 1999, 2001: 261-268, 2004: 187). Very rarely the petroglyphs are associated with hieroglyphic inscriptions (Krzyéaniak, 2004; 187, fig, 9) or single flyphs" (Fig, 184). Anthropomorphic figures and boat motifs appear seldom. The former are shown usually in a characteristic silhouette outline of the figure with the typical Egyptian apron; in some cases the figures hold a stave or staff, or both together, the arm being raised and bent at the elbow (Fig. 13a, b). The torsos are of triangular shape and the general impression is that of the canonical ‘human representation in ancient Egyptian art, As for boats, only four ‘images are known from the Central Oasis region (Fig. 13c). These sickle- shaped boats furnished with a steering oar can be assigned to type XX or XXII in the typology presented by P. Cerviéek (1974: 133-134). Cervigele dated both of these types to the Middle Kingdom, although the former of the two could also go back to the Old Kingdom. SAMTARA2W2018, Fig. 13. a, Fragment of a scene depicting a procession of human figures with staves; b, bearded?) human figure wearing a pectoral(?); ‘kle-shaped boat with steering ar juxtaposed with two ostriches; 4, faleon figure in hieroglyphie style. * Recognized potential hieroglyphic signs include D36, £20, E34, G5 and U6 (accard- ing to Gardiner, 1957 (2007), Polkowski-Kuetewier -Jaront- Kabusiowicr 112Dynastic rock art from the Oasis is represented mainly by two mo- tif’s: the pubic triangle and feet/sandals. The two motifs predominate in number. Pubie triangles are known from Dakhleh (Winkler, 1939: 13; Kaper & Willems, 2002: 86, fig. 7; Kaper, 2009: 171), as well as, from other regions of Egypt. and Nubia® (Verner, 1973: 105-116; Vahala & Cervigek, 1999; Ikram, 2009a: 76, fig. 12). They are widely believed to be of Graeco-Roman origin (Verner, 1973; Cerviéek, 1982, 1986), al- though Kaper’s investigations at Nephthys Hill have demonstrated that they could have been made as early as in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (Kaper & Willems, 2002: 88). The form of the petroglyph is quite homogenous, although’ there are numerous variations differing in the details (Fig. 14), The most common form is a triangle with the apex pointing downward, bisected by a vertical line ascending from this apex. The length of this line may differ, just as the shape of the vulva need not be an ideal triangle.' Other anatomical details were emphasized on occasion, like the clitoris (Fig. 14a) or perhaps folds of skin of the belly (Fig. 140, see Verner, 1973: 109, cat. no. 483). The pubic triangle motif is found usually in the midst of other engravings of the type and in packed groups of petroglyphs from different period Single finds of triangles are also known, often on vertical rock surfaces Feet or sandals® (Fig. 15, 16) occur most often in association wit other feet/sandals and with the deseribed pubic triangles. Called foot prints by some scholars (see Verner, 1973:13-48), they are rather an im- age of the foot or sandal seen from above. Many were carved only in outline, which could suggest a footprint, but there are enough known images with all the particularities visible to support the latter view. San- dals have not only an outlined sole, but also inner straps as well as short straps extending outwards. ‘The pattern of leather straps can be ren- dered extremely meticulously, although for the most part the image is quite schematic, In some cases the heel of the foot is marked and the toes 12 SAHARA242013 —_Polkowski- Kuciowie - Jaronk - Kobusiewice Fig. 14. a-d Different variants of representations of female anatomical parts, "Phe motif's known in connection with the so-called quarry marks (see Depauss, 2009: 95). “indeed, some of the petroglyphs presumed to represent female soz organs take on sn oval shape. © A motif known from Dakhleh as well as from other regions (Castiglione, 1968; 1970; Hellstrom, 1970; Verner, 1973; Vahala & Corvigek, 1909; Winkler, 1939; Kaper and Willems, 2002; Kuhlmann, 2005; Kaper, 2009). “Some of the petroglyphs, especially those executed in sunken relief, could have indeed been footprints in principle, see Fig. 16,visible. Naturally, toes are evident on images of feet, which in the area of Central Oasis, tend to range from schematic and not very natural shapes to detailed anatomical renderings of a human foot. The foot/sandal mo- tif oceurs in pairs,’ but it is much more frequent as single petroglyphs. Nonetheless, it is found usually in concentrations of rock art that were created gradually and possibly at long time intervals to judge by the diverse style and form of the representations. A clear majority occupies flat horizontal surfaces, repeating in this a trend already observed in other regions of Egypt and Nubia (e.g. Dunbar, 1941: 24; Verner, 1973: 34-39). This is not to say that some of the representations that are in situ are on vertical rock surfaces, The same observation has been made for Egyptian temples in the Nile Valley (Murray, 1904; Edgerton, 1937; Castiglione, 1970; Jacquet-Gordon, 2003), as well as for Ain Birbiyeh in Dakhleh (Mills, pers. comm.). Feet and sandals are depicted mostly on temple roofs and were made by priests of lower rank in the temple hierarchy who manifested thus their piety (Jacquet-Gordon, 2003; 3-5), as indicated in the inscriptions that are frequently associated with these motifs. So far, none of the petroglyphs from the Central Oasis were fur- nished with an inscription, which could mean that. the authors of these representations were basically illiterate. Various more or less legible signs occurring sometimes inside and in the neighbourhood of these mo- tifs could have constituted some kind of identity marks in association with the feet or sandals (Kaper, 2009), Petroglyphs from post-Dynastic times investigated by the Petroglyph Unit are foremost Christian and Arab in date. The first of these time horizons is represented mainly by representations of crosses (Fig.17a), some of simple Greek form, others more elaborate like the so-called Je- rusalem crosses (Verner, 1973: 60; Vahala & Cervitek, 1999: no. 213, 858, 945) and also swastikas (Mig. 17b). The swastika, however, also called crux gam mata, is not necessarily an early Christian symbol only, as it was imbued with symbolic connotations already in Pharaonie times (see Forster, 2007: 33, fig. 35; Kaper, 2009: 173). Petroglyphs from the Arab period, which are equally numerous in the corpus of rock art from the Central Oasis, include among others rep- resentations of camels. The weak patina and/or weathering observed on these engravings also point to a recent origin. The same can be said of some of the anthropomorphie figures, possibly some of the female sex organ images (but not in the shape of a triangle) and many other forms that are difficult to interpret. Among the latter there may be many wu- sum or Bedouin tribal marks (Winkler, 1938, 1939, 1952; Huyge, 1998: 1383-1385). Work on their identification has only just begun.’ Some of the shapes recall wusum known from Kordofan and Darfur in Sudan (MacMichael, 1913, 1922), others correspond to similar marks discov- ered in the Selima Oasis (Newbold, 1928); still others evince a formal similarity with evusum from Syro-Palestine (Field, 1952). There is much to indicate, however, that many of the signs taken as Arab tribal marks could have served a similar or other functions in much earlier times. Research on “historic” rock art is not restrieted necessarily to icono- graphic studies, Contextualizing the petroglyphs and considering them SAHARA 2472018 Fig, 15. Pair of sandals executed in sunken relief technique. Fig, 16. Horizontal surface covered ‘with sandals and feet engraved in different styles and superimposed on ‘one another. A bird figure (a. peacock?) is visible in one of the sandals, 7 In the sense that a pair consists ofa Left and right foot, the two executed in a similar style, similarly shaped and using the same techniques * Some have already been recognized by ‘Wal, Harding King (1926: 326-030). Potkownki- Kuclewier -Jaroni- Kobusiewicr 113within the landscape of which they were part is a very important part of the analysis, Standing behind this approach is the post-processual con- ception of landscape (Ingold, 1993; Tilley, 1994; Branton, 2009), the theo- retical assumptions of which have been discussed in detail elsewhere (Polkowski, in press). In short, landscape in this approach is not eonsi ered as natural environment, but-as a medium for human activity, which holds agency at the same time (Tilley, 1994: 19). The landscape consti- tutes a certain constancy in societies under continuous structuring, be- ing transformed on one hand and participating dynamically on the other hand, due to its agency, in a dialectic constituting of new meanings. Thus landscape is formed of material elements (natural, but also man-made) as well as immaterial ones, such as paths, emotions, memories, stories, smells, ete, It is biographical in nature (Ingold, 1993; 152-153; Tilley, 1994; 18, 33), meaning that stories and events, but also meanings are in some way recorded in it. Places embodying landscapes are a key concept: of the landscape theory. These places and the paths connecting them constitute the direct medium of social practice (Shanks & Tilley, 1987; Tilley, 1994; see Hodder 1986). The biographic character of landscape refers us also to the idea of the biographic nature of things (Kopytoff, 1986; Gosden & Marshall, 1999) and places (Roymans, 1995; Blake, 1998; Holtorf, 1998; 2002; but see Holtorf, 2008), In this approach rock art may be considered not only in the cultural context of its origin (¢.g. petroglyphs representing sandals in the context of Graeco-Roman occupation of Dakhleh), but: also in later contexts (the same petroglyph in the Christian, Arab and modern periods). In other words, one traces its biography, the way in which petroglyphs continue to be reinterpreted and their meanings transformed. After all, it is natural that an image created, for exam- ple, in the Neolithic was seen and reconceptualized repeatedly, and had its own ageney at the same time, frequently inviting action from a passer-by, in the form of a new carving next to the old one, if nothing else. One of the assumptions of this research is to trace the biography of rock art in different parts of the landscape of the Central Oasis, a landscape that could be called a palimpsest of meanings (Bailey, 2006: 203-208; Lucas, 2005: 37). An excellent example of the biographic nature of landscape in rock art is supplied by the so-called Gallery (Fig. 1) in the southern part of the Painted Wadi (Kuciewice ef al., 2008: 319-321). Judging by the style as well as content, a composition found there on one of the panels appears to have been created in several stages. Weathering and patina on the engravings also point to a gradual carving of the various figures filling the panel. Giraffe representations rendered in the pecking technique ap- pear to be the oldest of the set. They are surrounded by a few zoomorphic images combining techniques of rubbing and engraving, These images presumably depict gazelle or antelopes, as well as an ostrich, Dating in this case is difficult, the images being attributable to the Neolithic as much as to later times. Three anthropomorphic representations with female traits executed in sunken relief are also probably of Neolithic origin, It can be assumed with considerable likelihood that the giraffes, 114 SAHARA2(2013 —Polkow - Kuclowler- Jaron| - Kobusiowier Fig. 17. a, The Potent Cross with two additional crosses; b, swastika engraved between two quadrupeds oriented vertically (with head running down) and pubic triangle,antelope(?) and ‘females’ constituted a single and fairly coherent group, even if not carved all at one time. The anthropomorphic motifs, even if slightly later than the zoomorphie ones, appear to fit the composition perfectly, something that is made apparent by the same orientation of all of the figures which are turned to the same side. ‘The meaning of this picture must have been as unfathomable to later observers, as it is to us today. At least four or five of the depictions ap- pear to have been carved in the Dynastic period. At the extreme edges of the panel there are engraved representations of quadrupeds (a bull on the left side, an animal of unidentified species on the right), the carving apparently “fresher”, the lines not so weathered and consequently more distinct. A giraffe was also depicted, but its much more realistic style is so evidently different. from the Neolithic examples that it cannot be mistaken. The animal is much rounder in shape and more dynamic. Its bushy tail end brings to mind the old pictures. The image may be an imitation made in Pharaonic times. To my mind, it is very likely that the author was inspired by what he saw on the panel, which is dominated by zoomorphie representations. On one hand, the imitation refers to the form of the older giraffe images, on the other, it is much different owing to different stylistic traits and a different engraving technique.’ ‘There can be no doubt as to the Dynastic origin of the Seth animal motif present on the panel. It was carved in the very centre of the composition, obscuring to some extent the pictures of three of the gi- raffes, The petroglyph was carved meticulously and in detail, indicat- ing that the author was fluent in writing hieroglyphic signs, Its con- tral location cannot have been accidental as it focuses the observer's eye on itself in spite of its small size. It stands out like a stamp on the elaborate panel composition, which it was integrated with quite effec- tively by being made to face in the same direction as all of the other animal images, that is, to the left. The superimposition suggests that the author, presumably an Egyptian, ventured into a semantic in- teraction with the ancient rock art he found on the panel. He inter- preted the zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures, but it is difficult to say how he conceptualized them. One can only guess that he had no knowledge of the original semantic value of the images, so he would have drawn on his experience. He imbued the representations with meanings through the prism of his own culture, Whatever were these meanings, he intended to manifest them through his own petroglyph, thus entering into a dialogue with an ancient past. He tamed the panel and the place, in some way he appropriated the landscape. If this Egyptian created the petroglyphs anew by adding physically just one image, can we really say that rock art belongs only to the cultural context in which it was created? Different interpretational possibilities arise, if we decide to con- sider the meaning of the Seth animal motif itself. As Lord of the Oa- sis, Seth was the most important deity worshipped in Dakhleh (Kaper, 1997: 63-64). The animal of Seth in hieroglyphic writing, as well as in temple iconography, appeared in the Oasis at least into the Twenty- fifth Dynasty, supplying a possible terminus ante quem for most, if not all the figures depicted on the panel in the Painted Wadi. In the Nile Valley, Seth gradually lost in importance and the connotations associ- ated with the god deteriorated, but in Dakhleh his status remained unchanged despite having to compete with Amun-Nakht for the title of Lord of the Oasis. As a defender of the Sun God against the serpent Apophis, he gained in importance primarily as a protector, Thus he was obviously Dakhleh’s most important deity and defender. In this light his choice for the petroglyph that the anonymous Egyptian carved on the panel comes as no surprise. Could there be anything better than the Lord of the Oasis to habituate a place full of ancient pictures that may have appealed to the supernatural in the Egyptian mind? Conclusion Research covered in this article demonstrates the chronological and the- matic range of the program implemented by the Petroglyph Unit. The number and nature of petroglyphs found in Dakhleh Oasis is immense. ‘The team concentrates on sites that are already known as well as on sites SAHARA 242013 "The fourth somewhat isolated ropresenta- tion of a ‘female’ should perhaps be inter. proted in a similar way. In form it refers ‘the other figures, but it is more schematic ‘and was made using a different technique On the othor hand, the pecked giraffes ap: pear to obscure another female figure (an- finished or partly damaged), meaning that it may not only prevedo the Dynastic sta, but may even be the oldest petroglyph on this particular panel, Polkowski -Kuciewicr-Jaroni -Kebustewice 118,discovered in their archaeological reconnaissance of previously uncharted regions. Three doctoral dissertations are currently in preparation, rang- ing from the rock art of the Middle Holocene to modern petroglyphs and inscriptions, as demonstrated also in this article. One of the objectives of the team's research is to include rock art on the general archaeological discourse on Dakhleh Oasis and its environs. It should be understood that, after all rock art was not isolated from life in the Oasis and any narrative concerning this phenomenon should contextualize it appropriately. 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