Modified Documentation

[DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF COSINE FIRING SCHEME USING SINGLE PHASE CONVERTER]
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Power electronics is the application of solid-state electronics to the control
and conversion of electric power. It also refers to a subject of research in electronic
and electrical engineering which deals with the design, control, computation and
integration of nonlinear, time-varying energy-processing electronic systems with
fast dynamics. Solid-state devices are completely made from a solid material and
their flow of charges is confined within this solid material. This name solid state
is often used to show a difference with the earlier technologies of vacuum and gas-
discharge tube devices; and also to exclude the conventional electro-mechanical
devices (relays, switches, hard drives and other devices with moving parts).
The transistor by Bell Labs in 1947 was the first solid-state device to come into
commercial use later in the 1960s. In this article, similar solid-state devices such as
power diode, power transistor, MOSFET, thyristor and its two-transistor model, triac,
gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) and their
characteristics (such as i-v characteristics and turn-off characteristics) is also presented.
In power electronics circuitry, these switches act in saturation region and work in linear
region in the analog circuitry such as in power amplifiers and linear regulators. This
makes these switches highly efficient since there are lesser losses during the power
processing.
1.2 SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES

A. Power Diode
A power diode has a P-I-N structure as compared to the signal diode having a P-
N structure. Here, I (in P-I-N) stands for intrinsic semiconductor layer to bear the high-
level reverse voltage as compared to the signal diode (n- , drift region layer shown in
Fig. 2). However, the drawback of this intrinsic layer is that it adds noticeable resistance
during forward-biased condition. Thus, power diode requires a proper cooling
arrangement for handling large power dissipation. Power diodes are used in numerous
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applications including rectifier, voltage clamper, voltage multiplier and etc. Power diode
symbol is the same as of the signal diode as shown in Fig.1.
Fig.1 Symbol for Power

Diode
Fig.2 Structure of power diode
B. Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (Power)
MOSFET is a voltage-controlled majority carrier (or unipolar) three-terminal

device. Its symbols are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. As compared to the simple lateral
channel MOSFET for low-power signals, power MOSFET has different structure. It has
a vertical channel structure where the source and the drain are on the opposite side of
the silicon wafer. This opposite placement of the source and the drain increases the
capability of the power MOSFET to handle larger power.
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Fig.3
MOSFET
Symbol
Fig.4 MOSFET Symbols for Different Modes
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In all of these connections, substrates are internally connected. But in cases

where it is connected externally, the symbol will change as shown in the n-channel
enhancement type MOSFET in Fig. 5. N-channel enhancement type MOSFET is more
common due to high mobility of electrons.
Fig.5 N-channel Enhancement- Type MOSFET with

Substrate Connected Externally
C. Power Bipolar Junction Transistor
Power BJT is used traditionally for many applications. However, IGBT

(Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor) and MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-
Effect Transistor) have replaced it for most of the applications but still they are used in
some areas due to its lower saturation voltage over the operating temperature range.
IGBT and MOSFET have higher input capacitance as compared to BJT. Thus, in case of
IGBT and MOSFET, drive circuit must be capable to
charge and discharge the internal capacitances.
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Fig.6 (a) NPN BJT (b) PNP BJT
The BJT is a three-layer and two-junction npn or pnp semiconductor device as

given in Fig.22 (a) and (b). Although BJTs have lower input capacitance as compared to
MOSFET or IGBT, BJTs are considerably slower in response due to low input
impedance. BJTs use more silicon for the same drive performance.
In the case of MOSFET studied earlier, power BJT is different in configuration

as compared to simple planar BJT. In planar BJT, collector and emitter is on the same
side of the wafer while in power BJT it is on the opposite edges as shown in Fig. 7. This
is done to increase the power-handling capability of BJT.
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Fig.7 Power BJT PNP Structure
D. Insulated gate bipolar transistor

The IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) is a three-terminal electronic component,
and these terminals are termed as emitter, collector and gate. Two of its terminals
namely collector and emitter are associated with a conductance path and the remaining
terminal G is associated with its control.The sum of amplification is achieved by the
IGBT is a radio between its input and output signal. For a conventional BJT, the amount
of gain is almost equal to the radio to the o/p current to the i/p current that is called a
beta.
Fig.8 IGBT SYMBOL
E. Silicon controlled
rectifier
SCR usually has three terminals and four layers of alternating p and n-
type materials as shown in Fig. 9. The structure of the thyristor can be split
into two sections: npn and pnp transistors for simple analysis purposes as
shown in Fig. 10. It has three terminals named as cathode, anode and gate.
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Fig.9 Structural View of Thyristor
N-base is a high-resistivity region and its thickness is directly dependent on the forward
blocking rating of the thyristor. But more width of the n-base indicates a slow response
time for switching. Symbol of thyristor is given in Fig. 10.
Fig.10 Schematic Symbol of Thyristor
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1.3 ADVANTAGES
As semiconductor devices have no filaments, hence no power is needed to heat

them to cause the emission of electrons.
Since no heating is required, semiconductor devices are set into operation as
soon as the circuit is switched on.
During operation, semiconductor devices do not produce any humming noise.
Semiconductor devices require low voltages for their operation as compared to
vacuum tubes.
Owing to their small sizes, the circuits involving semiconductor devices are very
compact.
Semiconductor devices are shock proof.
Semiconductor devices are cheaper as compared to vacuum tubes.
Semiconductor devices have almost unlimited life.
As no vacuum has to be created in semiconductor devices, they have no vacuum

deterioration trouble.
1.4 DISADVANTAGES
Noise level is higher in semiconductor devices as compared to that in the
vacuum tubes.
Ordinary semiconductor devices cannot handle as much power as ordinary
vacuum tubes can do.
In high frequency range, they have poor response.
The semiconductor devices are temperature-sensitive. The maximum
temperature, the semiconductor devices can withstand, is very low (about 50
C). Even a small over-heating damages the semiconductor device. This is
because, at a higher temperature, the covalent bonds break up and the
semiconductor material forming the semiconductor device becomes conducting.
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE THESIS
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The class of firing schemes for thyristors consists various analog and
digital circuits used to create gate pulses which are given to the gate of thyristor in
order to trigger it. The various circuits like UJT relaxation oscillator triggering, RC
triggering, ramp and pedestrial triggering, etc. undergoes the problem of limited
firing angle. One cannot reduce the firing angle below = 26 using such circuits,
as the value of capacitor and resistor limits the firing angle. For the very precise
control of firing angle, Cosine Firing Scheme can be designed. Added advantage of
cosine firing scheme is that it can be controlled digitally using microcontrollers
also, thus can be used in closed loop applications.
The usage of rectifier is a common in industrial company nowadays. For the

time being, there are many rectifier listed on the datasheet of a power semiconductor
company. One of the rectifiers is known as uncontrolled rectifier, which has been
used to provide a constant output voltage. In the other hand, there is also controlled
rectifier that was used to regulate the speed of dc motor. In industrial application,
controlled rectifiers are widely used in DC welder, DC motor drive, and battery
charger. The controlled rectifier obtained power supply from a single phase or three
phase alternating current (AC) power. For home appliances such as hair dryers,
single phase input supply is used. Besides that, most of electronic devices virtually
require a DC voltage to perform tasks. In order to design the controlled rectifier for
the first time, it is better to understand the operation of single phase controlled
rectifier. The purpose of this dissertation is to design hardware of a single phase
controlled rectifier and its control circuit.
There are many ways to control or trigger the Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR) gate terminals which are called firing or triggering circuit. For instance, the
SCR gates can be triggered using Unijunction Transistor (UJT). At the present time,
more of the SCR is triggered using Ramp Comparator Scheme, RC triggering,
Pedestrial Triggering etc undergoes the problem of limited firing angle. For the very
precise control of firing angle, Cosine Firing Scheme (CFS) can be implemented.
Added advantage of CFS is that it can be controlled digitally using microcontrollers
also, thus can be used in closed loop applications. In this thesis, the development of
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firing circuit is done using analog approaches with Cosine firing Scheme.
1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS:

This thesis consists of six chapters.
In chapter one, it discuss about introduction to Power electronic devices,

semiconductor devices, advantages, disadvantages it is all about introduction,
objective of thesis and organization of the thesis
In chapter two, it discuss about the introduction to converters, rectifiers, single
phase converters using IGBT and brief discussion on different types of loads.
In chapter three, it discuss about introduction to firing schemes ,ramp control
scheme and its limitations, cosine firing scheme ,its block diagram and the
description of each block and its advantages.
In chapter four, it discusses about the simulation of cosine firing scheme and
simulink block diagram, design of cosine firing circuit for single phase converter
and description of each block.
In chapter five, it discusses about the simulation results obtained at each block
and the theoretical values compared with the simulated results.
In chapter six, it discusses about conclusion and future scope.
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CHAPTER 2
CONVERTERS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Converters are generalized class of power electronics circuits that alter signals
from one state to other. The alteration is in terms of magnitude and state (ac or
dc).Converters are basic building blocks of all modern power electronics, communication
devices as well as power transfer systems. The classification of converters is as follows:
Rectifiers - AC to DC Converters - These convert ac signals to dc signals and hence

change the state (ideally).
Inverters - DC to AC Converters - These convert dc signals to ac signals; usually the
conversion is accompanied with magnitude and phase modulation.
Cycloconverters - AC to AC Converters - These modulate ac signals to ac signals while
moderating magnitude, either stepping up or stepping down the level.
DC to DC Converters - These change the dc in terms of magnitude only.
2.2 RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms,
including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide
rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based
semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and
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motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker"
of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of
DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of
power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating
systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of
rectification alone produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of
current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and
computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by
a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic
filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a steady current. More complex circuitry that
performs the opposite function, converting DC to AC, is called an INVERTER.
2.2.1 Single-phase rectifiers
a) Half-wave rectification
In half-wave rectification of a single-phase supply, also called uncontrolled one-
pulse midpoint circuit, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed,
while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the
output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in a single-
phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but
pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than full-wave
rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency
from the output.
Fig.11 Half wave rectification
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b) Full-wave rectification
Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes. A full-wave bridge
rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or
negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to pulsating DC (direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage.
Two diodes and a centre tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and
any AC source (including a transformer without centre tap), are needed.[3] Single
semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-
diode bridges, are manufactured as single components.
Fig.12 A full-wave rectifier using four diodes: Graetz bridge rectifier

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is centre-tapped, then two diodes back-to-
back (cathode-to-cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required)
can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the transformer
secondary to obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the power
rating is unchanged.
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Fig.13 Full-wave
rectifier using
a centre transformer and 2 diodes
Very common double-diode
rectifier vacuum tubes contained
a single
common cathode and two anodes inside a single envelope, achieving full-wave
rectification with positive output. The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular examples of this
configuration.
2.3 SINGLE PHASE CONVERTER USING IGBT

The power circuit of Single Phase Unipolar inverter consists of four
bidirectional IGBT arranged in bridge form. The circuit diagram of the power circuit is
shown in figure 14.
Fig.14 power circuit using IGBT
The circuit diagram consists of four distinct IGBTs such that they are connected
as the bridge circuit. The input to the circuit is the 220v DC supply from the rectifier unit.
The IGBTs are triggered accordingly such that the AC output voltage is obtained at the
output. The operation of the circuit is as follows.
First the IGBT S1 and S4 are turned on by triggering the gate of
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the IGBT. During this time the input

supply is 220v DC and at the output the 220v
is applied across the load. The current starts
from the supply positive, S1, S2, load and to
the negative of the supply. The conduction path
for the first cycle of operation is shown
in figure 15.
Fig.15 Current conduction when s1 and s4 is on
During the next phase

or the cycle the IGBT S2 and S3 are turned on by
giving trigger pulse to the gate of the IGBTs.
During this period the input voltage is applied at the
output but in the negative direction. The current
conduction starts from the supply, S2, S3, load and
to the negative of the supply. The current conduction
is showed in the figure 16.
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Fig.16 Current conduction during when S2 and S3 is ON
As the two cycles continue the positive and the negative voltage is
applied at the load and the current direction changes in the two cycles. As the current
direction changes the alternative voltage is obtained at the load thus converting Dc
voltage to AC voltage.
Block Diagram
2.4 SINGLE PHASE CONVERTORS:

Single phase uncontrolled rectifiers are extensively used in a number of power
electronic based converters. In most cases they are used to provide an intermediate
unregulated dc voltage source which is further processed to obtain a regulated dc or ac
output. They have, in general, been proved to be efficient and robust power stages.
However, they suffer from a few disadvantages. The main among them is their inability
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to control the output dc voltage / current magnitude when the input ac voltage and load
parameters remain fixed. They are also unidirectional in the sense that they allow
electrical power to flow from the ac side to the dc side only. These two disadvantages are
the direct consequences of using power diodes in these converters which can block
voltage only in one direction. As will be shown in this module, these two disadvantages
are overcome if the diodes are replaced by thyristors the resulting converters are called
fully controlled converters.
Thyristors are semi controlled devices which can be turned ON by applying a
current pulse at its gate terminal at a desired instance. However, they cannot be turned
off from the gate terminals. Therefore, the fully controlled converter continues to exhibit
load dependent output voltage / current waveforms as in the case of their uncontrolled
counterpart. However, since the thyristor can block forward voltage, the output voltage /
current magnitude can be controlled by controlling the turn on instants of the thyristors.
Working principle of thyristors based single phase fully controlled converters will be
explained first in the case of a single thyristor half wave rectifier circuit supplying an R
or R-L load. However, such converters are rarely used in practice.
Full bridge is the most popular configuration used with single phase fully
controlled rectifiers. Analysis and performance of this rectifier supplying an R-L-E load
(which may represent a dc motor) will be studied in detail in this lesson.
a) RESISTIVE LOAD
Figure shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled half wave
rectifier supplying a purely resistive load. At t = 0 when the input supply voltage
becomes positive the thyristor T becomes forward biased. However, unlike a diode, it
does not turn ON till a gate pulse is applied at t = . During the period 0 < t , the
thyristor blocks the supply voltage and the load voltage remains zero as shown in fig
10.1(b). Consequently, no load current flows during this interval. As soon as a gate pulse
is applied to the thyristor at t = it turns ON. The voltage across the thyristor collapses
to almost zero and the full supply voltage appears across the load. From this point
onwards the load voltage follows the supply voltage. The load being purely resistive the
load current io is proportional to the load voltage.
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Fig .17 Resistive load

At t = as the supply voltage passes through the negative going zero crossing
the load voltage and hence the load current becomes zero and tries to reverse direction. In
the process the thyristor undergoes reverse recovery and starts blocking the negative
supply voltage. Therefore, the load voltage and the load current remains clamped at zero
till the thyristor is fired again at t = 2 + . The same process repeats thereafter.
b) RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE LOAD:
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Figure shows the circuit diagram and the waveforms of a single phase fully
controlled half wave rectifier supplying a resistive inductive load. Although this circuit is
hardly used in practice its analysis does provide useful insight into the operation of fully
controlled rectifiers which will help to appreciate the operation of single phase bridge
converters to be discussed later.
As in the case of a resistive load, the thyristor T becomes forward biased when the
supply voltage becomes positive at t = 0. However, it does not start conduction until a
gate pulse is applied at t = . As the thyristor turns ON at t = the input voltage
appears across the load and the load current starts building up.
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Fig. 18 Resistive Inductive load.

However, unlike a resistive load, the load current does not become zero at t = ,
instead it continues to flow through the thyristor and the negative supply voltage appears
across the load forcing the load current to decrease. Finally, at t = ( > ) the load
current becomes zero and the thyristor undergoes reverse recovery. From this point
onwards the thyristor starts blocking the supply voltage and the load voltage remains zero
until the thyristor is turned ON again in the next cycle. It is to be noted that the value of
depends on the load parameters. Therefore, unlike the resistive load the average and
RMS output voltage depends on the load parameters. Since the thyristors does not
conduct over the entire input supply cycle this mode of operation is called the
discontinuous conduction mode.
2.5 SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTERS

Figure 19(a) shows the circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge
converter. It is one of the most popular converter circuits and is widely used in the speed
control of separately excited dc machines. Indeed, the RLE load shown in this figure
may represent the electrical equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor.
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Fig. 19 (a) single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier circuit diagram &
Conduction table
The single phase fully controlled bridge converter is obtained by replacing all the
diode of the corresponding uncontrolled converter by thyristors. Thyristors T1 and T2
are fired together while T3 and T4 are fired 180 after T1 and T2. From the circuit
diagram of Fig 19(a) it is clear that for any load current to flow at least one thyristor from
the top group (T1, T3) and one thyristor from the bottom group (T2, T4) must conduct. It
can also be argued that neither T1T3 nor T2T4 can conduct simultaneously. For example
whenever T3 and T4 are in the forward blocking state and a gate pulse is applied to them,
they turn ON and at the same time a negative voltage is applied across T1 and T2
commutating them immediately. Similar argument holds for T1 and T2.
For the same reason T1T4 or T2T3 cannot conduct simultaneously. Therefore, the
only possible conduction modes when the current i0 can flow are T1T2 and T3T4. Of
course it is possible that at a given moment none of the thyristors conduct. This situation
will typically occur when the load current becomes zero in between the firings of T1T2
and T3T4. Once the load current becomes zero all thyristors remain off. In this mode the
load current remains zero. Consequently the converter is said to be operating in the
discontinuous conduction mode.
Fig 19(b) shows the voltage across different devices and the dc output voltage
during each of these conduction modes. It is to be noted that whenever T1 and T2
conducts, the voltage across T3 and T4 becomes vi. Therefore T3 and T4 can be fired
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only when vi is negative i.e, over the negative half cycle of the input supply voltage.
Similarly T1 and T2 can be fired only over the positive half cycle of the input supply.
The voltage across the devices when none of the thyristors conduct depends on the off
state impedance of each device.
The values listed in Fig 19 (b) assume identical devices. Under normal operating
condition of the converter the load current may or may not remain zero over some
interval of the input voltage cycle. If i0 is always greater than zero then the converter is
said to be operating in the continuous conduction mode. In this mode of operation of the
converter T1T2 and T3T4 conducts for alternate half cycle of the input supply.
However, in the discontinuous conduction mode none of the thyristors conduct
over some portion of the input cycle. The load current remains zero during that period.
2.5.1 OPERATION IN THE CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE:
As has been explained earlier in the continuous conduction mode of operation i0

never becomes zero, therefore, either T1T2 or T3T4 conducts. Fig 20 shows the
waveforms of different variables in the steady state. The firing angle of the converter is
.
It is assumed that at t = 0- T 3T4 was conducting. As T1T2 are fired at t =

they turn on commutating T3T4 immediately. T3T4 are again fired at t = + . Till
this point T1T2 conducts. The period of conduction of different thyristors are pictorially
depicted in the second waveform (also called the conduction diagram) of Fig 20.
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Fig. 20
Output
waveforms
in
continuous
conduction mode
CHAPTER 3
FIRING
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SCHEMES
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Power electronic devices may be used as switches, Thyristors or Silicon
Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) are widely used as switching devices in the
medium and large power levels starting from the kilowatts to several Mega
Watts at voltage levels of few hundred to several kilo volt levels. To turn on a
thyristor, various control schemes are used to generate gate pulses or firing
pulses which are supplied between gate and cathode of thyristor. The number of
degrees from the beginning of the cycle when the thyristor is gated or switched
on is referred to as the firing angle (alpha) and when the thyristor is turned off
is known as extinction angle (beta).
3.2 RAMP CONTROL SCHEME:

The first comparator translates the input sinusoidal voltage into a square
wave voltage. When the square wave voltage is high, the transistor (P-N-P
type) collector-base junction is forward biased; the transistor is non-conducting
stage (off) and the capacitor charges exponentially giving ramp rise of the
voltage at the output. However, as soon as the square voltage is negative,
transistor becomes on due to collector-base junction is reverse biased and the
capacitor discharges sharply giving a saw tooth like waveform as shown in Fig.
1. This triangular voltage can now be compared by the second comparator with
a variable reference d.c voltage (Vref) to get the firing pulse signal at Y. The
value of can be varied in the range 00 1800 by changing the value of the
reference voltage (Vref).
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Fig: 21 Ramp signal
3.2.1Limitations of the ramp control scheme:
Firing angle does not vary linearly with the dc control voltage.
It provides limited range of firing angle variation.
Any changes in the input supply, causes changed in the output.
3.3 COSINE FIRING SCHEME:

In this scheme, the supply voltage Vs is first integrated to obtain a cosine wave as
shown in Fig. 2. The cosine wave so obtained is compared with a reference d.c. voltage
(Vref). Therefore square pulses will be generated at the output terminal Y of the
comparator. The signal at Y is synchronized with the pulse and is delayed from the supply
zero crossing by an angle . obviously, the value of can be varied a range of 0 0
1800.
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Fig. 22 Basic idea of cosine firing scheme
3.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF COSINE FIRING SCHEME:

We shall first outline the scheme in terms of block diagram and then explain each block
in detail. Let Vab be the supply voltage feeding the converter for which the control pulses are
to be generated. With the help of a step down centre tapped transformer, Vab is transformed
into two power level voltage Va0 and Vb0. For obvious reason Va0 and Vb0 will be 180 0 out
of phase as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 23 Generation of Va0 and Vb0

T1 & T2 are to be fired when Va0 is positive and T3 & T4 are to be fired when Vb0 is positive.
For T1 & T2 the firing angle is to be measured from the instant when Va0 is zero and increasing
in the positive direction. The range of variation of is 0 0 to 1800. Similarly for T3 & T4 the firing
angle is to be measured from the instant when Vb0 is zero and increasing in the positive
direction. Basic idea for generating necessary pulses for T1 & T2 and T3 & T4 can be understood
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by referring figures 23, 24 and 25.

With reference to Fig. 25 the signal Va0 is integrated with the help of Integrator -1 and a
cosine wave will be obtained. This cosine wave is compared with a variable d.c. voltage Vr using
a comparator-1.
Noting that Vr is connected to the +ve terminal of the comparator-1, the output of the
comp-1 will be square wave and it goes to high state from the instant when Vr becomes greater
than the cosine voltage value. However the width of the pulse will vary as Vr is varied. Our first
aim will be to make the width of the pulse to be 180 0. This is achieved in the following way. The
output of the Comp-1 is fed to a block mono-1. Output of the mono will be a pulse of small width
at positive going edge of the input square wave. The output of mono-1 will thus give small pulses
separated by 3600
Fig. 24 Basic block diagram for cosine firing scheme

Fig. 25 Wave forms at different points of the circuit
The voltage Vb0 is similarly processed, i.e., it is integrated then compared with the same
variable d.c. with the help of comparator-2, output of COMP-2 will be a square wave and will be
shifted by 1800 from the output square wave of COMP-1. This is because of the fact that Vb0 lags
Va0 by 1800. The output of the COMP-2 is now fed to a block mono-2. Output of mono-2 will be
a pulse of small width at positive going edge of the input square wave.
The output of MONO-2 will thus give small pulses separated by 3600. This is
important to know that the fixed width pulse waveforms at the output of mono-1 and mono-2 are
shifted by 1800 as shown in Fig. 25. The outputs of mono-1 and mono-2 canbe used in conjunction
with to two S-R flip flops so as to generate two square waves each having a fixed width of 180 0
and mutually separated by 1800.

3.4.1 Description of each block:

Integrator:
Integrator uses an op-amp along with resistors and capacitors to realize the integrator
function. It provides a phase shift of 90 0 to the input voltage Va0 and thus a cosine wave is
obtained.
Comparator:
An op-amp is used as comparator. The variable dc voltage is applied to the non-inverting
terminal and the cosine wave is applied to the inverting terminal of the comparator.
Monoshot Block Using Exclusive OR-Gate:

A monoshot block is supposed to produce the thin pulses when the input rectangular input
signal Vi changes state from 0 to 1 as shown in Fig.6, a Monoshot block is shown with input signal
Vi and with the desired output signal V0.
Fig.26 Characteristics of a monoshot
In this project work under this paper, the Monoshot is implemented in an interesting way
by using Exclusive OR Gate. The truth table and representation of Exclusive OR Gate is shown
Fig.27. In Exclusive OR gate, the output is high or 1 when one of the inputs is high
or odd matching with the others and the output is low or 0 when both the inputs are same or even
nature.

Fig.27 Exclusive OR gate & its truth table
SR Flip-Flops to Get 1800 Width Pulse:

In the previous section we have seen that the variable width pulse obtain from the
comparator output is converted into a train of thin pulses separated by 360 0 at the output of the
Monoshot in Fig.28.
Fig.28 Basic logic diagram and truth table

AND Gate:
AND operation is performed between SR flip-flop outputs and carrier wave thus pulses
required for triggering the thyristors called firing pulses or gate pulses are obtained. The logic
diagram and truth table is shown in fig.29.
Fig.29 Logic diagram and truth table
3.5 ADVANTAGES
The advantage of this scheme is that the output voltage is proportional to the control
voltage.
The output voltage is independent of variation in input voltage.
This scheme also provides automatic negative feedback to the changes in the input ac
supply.
Single phase fully controlled converter is used to convert the single phase ac into dc which
is used for industrial applications such as dc motor loads. As per the industrial need,
controlled dc voltage with linear transfer characteristic is important in its applications.
CHAPTER 4
SIMULATION OF COSINE CONTROL
FIRING SCHEME
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Basic blocks are essential for any firing circuit shown in the fig.30. It is a single
line diagram which shows that the main supply is given to the converter and the logic
circuit for pulse generation, it is used for the synchronization. Isolation and amplification is
provided to the firing pulses. Isolation is provided as the control circuit uses very low
Power devices and amplification is provided because the strength of pulses produced by
the circuit is low.
Fig. 30 Basic block diagram

4.2 SIMULINK BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Fig.31 Simulink Block Diagram cosine control scheme

4.3 DESIGN OF COSINE FIRING CIRCUIT FOR SINGLE-PHASE CONVERTER
A sine wave block is taken and it is shifted 90 to generate cosine wave and then it is given
to Relational Operators and compared with the reference DC voltage for generating the square
wave, Monostable blocks are used for generating the pulses of small width which are displaced by
3600 Same is done with Vb0 by using Monostable and the pulses generated by Monostable-1 and
monostable-2 are shifted by 1800The output of Monostable-1 and Monoshot-2 can be used in
conjunction with two SR flip-flop so as to generate two square waves each having a fixed width of
1800.
4.4 DESCRIPTION OF EACH BLOCK

In this section, each part will be discussed separately. The type of component used and their
connections will also be explained.
a) Sine Wave Block
In-order to have cosine wave we use sine wave block by providing 90 0phase shift which
gives cosine wave as output from Sine Wave Block.
Fig.32 Sine Wave Block
b) Relational Operator
Relational operators < and >are used to compare input cosine wave and a reverence voltage Vr
Dc to get square wave output.
Fig.33 Relational Operator
c) Monostable Block
A Monostable blocks is supposed to produce the thin pulses when the input rectangular
input signal .V changes state from 0 to 1 as shown in Fig. a Monostable block is shown with input
signal from Relational Operator and with the desired output signal.

Fig.34 Monostable Block
d) SR Flip-Flops to Get 1800Width Pulse

In the previous section we have seen that the variable width pulse obtain from the
comparator output is converted into a train of thin pulses separated by 360 0at the output of the
Monostable.
Fig.35 SR Flip-Flop
e) High Frequency Waves

Pulse gating of thyristor is not suitable for RL loads, this difficulty can be overcome by
using continuous gating. However, continuous gating may lead to increased thyristor losses and
distortion of output pulse. So, a pulse train generated by modulating the pulse gate at high
frequency is used to trigger the thyristor. This high frequency wave is known as carrier wave and is
generated by using Pulse generator.
f) Logical AND Gate
AND operation is performed between SR flip-flop outputs and carrier wave thus pulses required for
triggering the thyristors called firing pulses or gate pulses are obtained. The logic diagram and truth
table is shown in fig.36

Fig.36 Logic diagram and truth table

CHAPTER-5
SIMULATION RESULTS
5.1 SIMULATION RESULTS

Firing pulses using Cosine control are supplied on bridge rectifier and then it is used
to drive different types of load. The simulation results at different stages are discussed.
5.2 COSINE WAVE GENERATOR

The output of cosine wave generator form sine wave input is shown in figure.
Fig.37 Input Sine Wave
Fig.38 Output Cosine Wave

5.2.1 Relational Operators

Inputs and outputs of relational operators with reference voltage Vr Dc are shown
below.
Fig.39 Input Relational Operators
Fig.40 Output Square Waves of Relational Operator

5.2.3 Monostable and Logical AND gate:

These blocks are supposed to produce the thin pulses when the input rectangular
input signal. Input to this Monostable block is the output of relational operator. Outputs
of Monostable and Logical AND gate pulses are shown below fig 41.
Fig.41 Outputs of Monostable block
5.2.4 SR Flip-Flop
The simulation result for generating the 1800 pulse width of SR flip flop-1 and 2
are shown in below fig 42.

Fig.42 Outputs of SR Flip-Flops
5.2.5 PULSE GENERATOR

The simulation result of Pulse Generator which is used to generate high frequency
which is shown in fig.43.
Fig.43 Output of PULSE GENERATOR

5.2.6 Output AND gates

Output of SR Flip-flop is ANDED with the output from Pulse generator give
output from Logical AND gate shown in below fig.44.
Fig.44 Output of AND gates
5.2.7 Total Output

When pulses from AND gates are given to T1, T2, T3&T4 of single phase bridge
rectifier with R (Resistive load=360ohms) =600
Fig.45 Output of R-Load bridge rectifier
Simulation result for output of Bridge Rectifier for firing angle =60 when given to RL load
(R=360ohms, L=150mH)

Fig.46 Output of RL-Load bridge rectifier
5.3 THEORITICAL VALUES AND ITS COMPARISION WITH SIMULATED RESULTS
5.3.1 Formulae:
Average output voltage for Full Bridge Rectifier Resistive load(R Load).
Vavg=Vm(1+cos)/
Where
Vmis maximum peak voltage value
is the firing angle
Average output voltage for Full Bridge Rectifier Resistive and Inductive load(RL Load).
Vavg=Vm(cos-cos)/
= tan-1(L/R)
Where
Vmis maximum peak voltage value
is the firing angle
is extension angle
5.3.1.1 Firing Angle :
Firing angle = cos-1(Vr/Vm)

Where
Vr is DC reference voltage compared with cosine wave by using Relational Operator
Vmis maximum peak voltage value of cosine wave
Theoritical Values And Its Comparision With Simulated Results
CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 CONCLUSIONS

The rapid developments in power electronics technology especially in rectification area to

provide a wide range scope of application of controllable DC voltage for industrial usage such as
DC motor drives and for electronic devices that virtually requires a DC voltage to perform tasks.
Thus, the controlled rectifier is quite useful and applicable of various types of load.
Gate pulses obtained by cosine control scheme have been effectively utilized to control the
dc output single phase fully controlled bridge rectifier on both resistive load and inductive load.
The present control scheme provides linear control transfer characteristics between input and output
i.e., firing angle is directly proportional to the dc control voltage. In this work, the firing circuit is
tested on MATLAB software and the theoretical results are in coordination with the simulation
results. Thus, presented control scheme can be successfully utilized to get the controlled dc voltage
for industrial applications.
.
6.2 FUTURE SCOPE
In the future fabricating the same on bread board using resistors, capacitors and IC chips. In
order to produce steady and smooth DC, a filter may be introduced at the output. Pulse
amplification and isolation circuitry may be replaced by driver ICs. Monostable are may be
replaced by zero-crossing detector and AND gates to avoid the false triggering due to output
bouncings.

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[DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF COSINE FIRING SCHEME USING SINGLE PHASE CONVERTER]

1.2 SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES

Fig.1 Symbol for Power

Fig.2 Structure of power diode

B. Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (Power)

MOSFET is a voltage-controlled majority carrier (or unipolar) three-terminal

Fig.4 MOSFET Symbols for Different Modes

In all of these connections, substrates are internally connected. But in cases

Fig.5 N-channel Enhancement- Type MOSFET with

C. Power Bipolar Junction Transistor

Power BJT is used traditionally for many applications. However, IGBT

Fig.6 (a) NPN BJT (b) PNP BJT

The BJT is a three-layer and two-junction npn or pnp semiconductor device as

In the case of MOSFET studied earlier, power BJT is different in configuration

Fig.7 Power BJT PNP Structure

D. Insulated gate bipolar transistor

Fig.8 IGBT SYMBOL

Fig.9 Structural View of Thyristor

Fig.10 Schematic Symbol of Thyristor

As semiconductor devices have no filaments, hence no power is needed to heat

As no vacuum has to be created in semiconductor devices, they have no vacuum

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE THESIS

The usage of rectifier is a common in industrial company nowadays. For the

1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS:

In chapter one, it discuss about introduction to Power electronic devices,

Rectifiers - AC to DC Converters - These convert ac signals to dc signals and hence

Fig.11 Half wave rectification

Fig.12 A full-wave rectifier using four diodes: Graetz bridge rectifier

2.3 SINGLE PHASE CONVERTER USING IGBT

Fig.14 power circuit using IGBT

the IGBT. During this time the input

Fig.15 Current conduction when s1 and s4 is on

During the next phase

Fig.16 Current conduction during when S2 and S3 is ON

2.4 SINGLE PHASE CONVERTORS:

Fig .17 Resistive load

Fig. 18 Resistive Inductive load.

2.5 SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTERS

2.5.1 OPERATION IN THE CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE:

As has been explained earlier in the continuous conduction mode of operation i0

It is assumed that at t = 0- T 3T4 was conducting. As T1T2 are fired at t =

3.2 RAMP CONTROL SCHEME:

Fig: 21 Ramp signal

3.2.1Limitations of the ramp control scheme:

It provides limited range of firing angle variation.

Any changes in the input supply, causes changed in the output.

3.3 COSINE FIRING SCHEME:

Fig. 22 Basic idea of cosine firing scheme

3.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF COSINE FIRING SCHEME:

Fig. 23 Generation of Va0 and Vb0

JNTUACEP,EEE DEPT Page 26

by referring figures 23, 24 and 25.

Fig. 24 Basic block diagram for cosine firing scheme

JNTUACEP,EEE DEPT Page 27

Fig. 25 Wave forms at different points of the circuit

JNTUACEP,EEE DEPT Page 28

3.4.1 Description of each block:

Monoshot Block Using Exclusive OR-Gate:

Fig.26 Characteristics of a monoshot

JNTUACEP,EEE DEPT Page 29

Fig.27 Exclusive OR gate & its truth table

SR Flip-Flops to Get 1800 Width Pulse:

Fig.28 Basic logic diagram and truth table

JNTUACEP,EEE DEPT Page 30