Dana Pirrotta

CAMS 115
May 1, 2017
Final Essays
ESSAY ONE
The term epic stems from the Greek word epos, which directly translates into
word (Rubio 2017). Aristotle coined the the term, and typically, an epic is a long
narrative poem with many repeating verses that details legendary heroes performing
outstanding tasks or participating in valorous conflicts (Rubio 2017). Aristotle is also
responsible for other genres, such as the comedy and tragedy. Epics differ dramatically
from comedies and tragedies for the reasons previously stated, and also because the
contents of an epic will demonstrate the particular tenets of a specific cultures moral
nature.
The Lord of Aratta is a Sumerian story that ultimately teaches trade as a
prominent solution to battle (Rubio 2017). The story is riddled with challenges; the first
challenge is to fill a net with grain- surely an impossible feat. Enmerkar, however, is
clever, and first soaks the grains in water so they expand to a size that will not slip
through the net. The second challenge is to create a scepter out of a material that does not
exist. Enmerkar wraps a dried animal hide, various oils, and mud to create a new material
mixture and solve the riddle. The third challenge is to find a dog with no color, and
Enmerkar successfully acquired a dog with many spots, and therefore, has no one color.
Eventually, Inana suggests that the two kings trade instead of battle, and peace is restored
(Rubio 2017).
The lord of Aratta and Enmerkar is relatively unique in the sense that there is no
conflict or violence. This attribute makes it difficult to claim that this text is an epic, as
there is no violence, legendary acts, and is considerably short when compared to other
literary pieces with the title epic, such as The Epic of Gilgamesh. The text does feature
Inana, who informs the two that trading is the most effective way to both get what they
want. Although most epics do feature a God or Goddess, Inanas role in the story is less
mythical and more practical; she is there to offer a simple solution. The lack of divine
intervention and violence, aligned with an improper length, prevents this particular text
from being considered a classical epic. Although the riddles included may persuade the
epic title under the western ideology, it still falls short. There is no great conflict or battle,
and therefore Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta will most likely be seen as a parable, a
text that will teach a lesson. The point of this tale was to discover trade, not to glorify the
intellectual conflict between the two parties involved.
The presence of violence in the Enuma Elish, Anzu, and Hittite cycle of Teshub
and Kumarbi is apparent, and this fits into the perceptions of what is and is not
considered to be an epic. There are only a few true epics, according to the original
definition of the term, but under the western impression of an epic, these tales would be
considered of epic proportions. In regards to the western tradition of the word epic, epics
would simply just feature a legendary battle or event (Rubio 2017).
The Enuma Elish, commonly referred to as the Babylonian Creation Myth,
features the supreme theogony of Marduk and proves him as the chief god of Babylon.
The myth is named after its first line, which translates to when the sky above was not
named.(Rubio 2017) This is relevant to the text, because to the Babylonian people,
creation occurred through the assignment of a name- a title has the ability to create
existance. The epic begins with the introduction of two primeval gods, Apsu and Tiamat,
who represent freshwaters and oceans respectively. Several less relevant gods are created,
but their babble frustrates Apsu and he alarms Tiamat by telling her he wants to kill them.
Apsus vizier, Mummu, thinks killing the smaller gods is a good idea. (A vizier is a high
advisor or an official who is selected to provide advice (Rubio 2017). )Tiamat warns Ea,
the trickster god, who uses magic to force Apsu into a sleep-induced coma. He kills Apsu
in his sleep, and has sexual intercourse in his body with his wife, Damkina. From this
encounter, Marduk is conceived. He is given the winds to play with, and he spends a
considerable amount of time creating dust storms and tornadoes. This disrupts Tiamat
and the ability of all the other gods to rest. They align and decide to persuade Tiamat to
seek revenge. She creates 11 monsters, including a scorpion and snake, to aid her in her
desired victory. She elevates her new husband, Qingu, to the position of supreme god.
The other gods that do not agree with Tiamat turn to Marduk for help. Marduk offers to
save the gods if they make him their leader, and after agreeing to his conditions, he rips
Tiamat in half. From her severed corpse, he forms the Earth and the heavens. Marduk
then assembles the planets, stars, weather, and regulates the sun and moon. Marduk kills
Qingu, and creates humankind from his blood.
Marduks status is elevated over enlils in Babylon. Most importantly, Marduk
designates Babylon as the center of the universe. This itself serves a political function for
the babylonian community, who, at the time, were under the control of the Assyrians
(Rubio 2017).
This myth is most definitely an epic in regards to both the western tradition and
original sense of the term. The enuma elish is an appropriate length, features a legendary
hero and battle, and showcases a cultural phenomenon that demonstrates what a
community finds important. One of the main points of the enuma elish was to emphasize
the notion that Marduk would now be considered the supreme god of Babylon, with a
status elevated even beyond that of Enlils, the previous supreme god of the pantheon.
The epic also holds a political function, as it establishes the notion that although Marduk
was not always all powerful, he took over and now rules the pantheon. Politically, this
translates to how the people of Babylon did not approve of being under Assyrian control,
especially because Assyria was much smaller than Babylon. Ultimately, the text is
violently exciting, and is considered an epic under various conceptions of the term.
The battle between Anzu and Ninurta features magic, and violence- enough to
convince a disgruntled western audience. Anzu is a storm-bird who steals the tablet of
destinies, and hides them in his mountain top. Anu orders the gods to retrieve the tablet,
but each warrior chosen falls short and is defeated by the Anzu bird. Eventually, Nintura
is asked to attack the mythical monster, and is successful. He shoots Anzu bird with an
arrow attached to one of his own feathers. Anzu, similar to the Enuma Elish, features a
battle of mythic proportions. However, the Anzu story is relatively short, and does not
offer the typical lyrical repetition of most epics. This alone would discount the story as a
classic epic, but in western culture, this could easily be accepted as an epic.
Teshub and Kumarbi would also most likely be considered an epic in western
culture, but would not be considered in the usual sense of the term. The theogony
provides a sense of heated disagreement, but is not long enough nor mystic enough to
count as a classical epic. Although the theogony is relevant to the political and religious
tenants of the country, it is not mythical enough to be considered an epic.
The word lyric comes from the latin world lyricus, which means for the lyre.
It typically expresses passionate emotions that are depicted through a first-person style of
writing (Schmitz 2002: 41, 107-110). Lyrical poetry is often very repetitive, hence the
lyrical nature it is named for.
The Egyptian love sonnets in particular exemplify this passion. During this
period, love and sex were perfectly intertwined; one and the same. This view of blended
love and sex is formally called eros, and it wasnt until the 18th century that western
cultures began separating the two, and focused on agape, which describes a family love
and love that is non-sexual. (Rubio 2017) The lyrics in the egyptian love poems are
written in first person, and use beautiful analogies to describe sexual desires. Egyptian
love poetry emphasizes love in both the sexual and typical romantic sense. Countless
metaphors and analogies are used to beautify sexual innuendos. These poems are written
in first person, which in turn creates the idea of a deep love and desire. The Egyptian love
poems read in class are lyrical in the sense of their rhetorical motifs and organizational
nature.
The Sumerian Poem, The Wiles of Women, tells the blossoming romance of
Inanna and Dumuzi. After meeting the previous day, Inanna spends her time longing for
the evening in the hopes that Dumuzi will visit her. He does, and relentlessly propositions
her for sexual intercourse. Although she does not want to lose Dumuzi by rejecting sex,
she still craves his attention. She makes up a myriad of excuses for needing to be home at
a reasonable hour, but Dumuzi insists upon teaching her ways to lie to her mother so she
can stay out later. Eventually, Dumuzi makes his sexual intentions inherently clear, and
Inanna, frustrated with him, becomes furious, and tells him that she is not a slut from the
alleys. There is a lacuna in the text after this heated conversation, but Inanna is able to
convince Dumuzi to properly propose to her. They go to speak to her mother, who Inanna
is confident will be very pleased with the arrangement. This poem fits into my
understand of lyrical poetry in the sense that it is very romantic and passionate. The
Wiles of Women also includes pauses for musical accompaniment on the harp. Lyrical
poetry is repetitive in nature, and having a musical addition furthers the lyrical flow of
the text. A musical chorus is repetitive, and when partnered with lyrical poetry, it
contributes to the lyrical nature.
The next section, The Bridal Sheets, is especially repetitive. One particular
section talks about lying down extensively. With you will lie down, will lie down, with
you will lie down a bridegroom, with you will lie down Ama-Ushumgal-anna. This was
added to emphasize that tell-tale repetition that creates the lyrical flow of lyric poetry.
These love poems feature Inanna, Utu, and Dumuzi for the point of detailing the
tradition of the Sacred Marriage. Although the concept of the sacred marriage was
questionable under Medieval European culture, in Mesopotamia, the Sacred marriage was
a purely ceremonial ordeal. The current King would represent Dumuzi (titled Ama-
ushumgal-anna in this text) and the high priestess would represent Inanna (the babylonian
Ishtar)(Foster 2005: 392-409). The two would pretend to recreate the sexual actions
described. This feature is relevant because often, the high priestess would be the king's
daughter, and intergenerational incest was absolutely forbidden (Rubio 2017). As learned
in class, intercourse originally meant communication, and this is the style of
intercourse that takes place (Jacobsen 1987: 10-18). This ritual is necessary to claim the
kingship because it proves that the king has divine ties. A requirement to be king is to
have a mother goddess and a father that was a king, so the Sacred Ritual takes place to
establish the validity of the title of King (Foster 2005: 392-409).
The babylonian didactic poem of the Righteous Sufferer details the story of
Shubshi-meshre- Shakkan, who, for the pleasure of Marduk, is made to suffer. Themes
created in the Righteous sufferer are very similar to those in the Book of Job from the
Hebrew Bible. However, in the book of job, Job suffers as a test to prove his faith, while
in the righteous sufferer, Shubshi-meshre- Shakkan, suffers for no apparent reason, if
only for the enjoyment of Marduk. Eventually, marduks wife, Sarpanitum, takes pity on
the poor soul and allows him to see a spiritual dream. In mesopotamian stories, it is very
common for the wife of a god to step into an unfair situation to try to convince her
husband to change his mind (Rubio, 2017). After having two more visions, the sufferer is
forced to go through a river ritual in which it is believed that a guilty person would float.
This is comparable to the salem witch trials, where if a woman floated, she was found
guilty, and if she sank, she drowned. Fortunately for subshi-meshre-shakkan, he is found
innocent, lives, and his life returns to how it was before the evils of Marduk. He even
praises Marduk for his mercy to grant life when teetering on the edge of death, regardless
of the fact that Marduk created such senseless suffering originally. This poem serves a
rather political purpose in the sense that it conveys the notion that humans should not
question the actions of the gods, no matter how cruel or unusual their decisions are. This
is highlighted by the poem's ending where Marduk is still praised and loved.This theme is
very apparent through a great deal of Mesopotamian literature (Rubio 2017).
Various forms of literature can be analyzed through mimesis. The word mimesis
stems from the word mimos, which in Greek, means to mime, or copy (Rubio,
2017). It is challenging to hammer down one definition for the term because to each
individual, personal interpretations of life experiences will create variations in the
perception of the term. However, no matter what life journey an individual is on, there
are some experiences or feelings that the majority of humans can relate too (Auerbach
2013: 559). Memeism, as the greek word for imitation, describes writing that's core is
tied to reality. Eric Auerbachs book, Mimesis, opens with a comparison between the way
that the world is depicted in the Bible, and in Homers Odyssey (Auerbach 2013: 559).
The theory he focuses on throughout his entire work is the notion that western literature
has been built from the same representations. Through imitating the real world in writing,
the audience can equally enjoy similar experiences that they have had on Earth (Princeton
2012: 884-886).
There are several key examples of mimetic literature within Ancient
Mesopotamia. However, as a unit, the majority of literature in Ancient mesopotamia
could have fallen victim to mistranslations, and therefore we may have missed out on
more examples of memsis.
In the story of the eloquent peasant, Khun-anup, a man living in Wadi Naturn, is
the victim of theft while traveling to the city to participate in trade (Rubio 2017). His
donkey is stolen by Nemty Nakht, and the story details Khun-anups attempts to find
justice. The courts do not listen to his complaints, and this in turn even more emphasizes
the idea that regional leaders are not just. A mere donkey is stolen. Not the tablet of
destinies, not a magical plant that would grant morality, and not any other mythical,
astonishing object. Kun-aup loses a donkey- an average, run of the mill ass. This could be
considered an example of mimesis because it is something anyone could relate too. It is
very frustrating when something is stolen from you that seems very basic, but is a life
necessity. This tale is both mimetic and political, as it recognizes daily corruption in
society and skillfully passes the blame from the living pharaoh to corrupt regional
leaders. All blame is gracefully removed from the king (Rubio 2017)
Some Egyptian compositions, such as Sinuhe and the Shipwreck Sailor, are
unwitting precursors of Western mimesis.
Sinuhe just wants to return home, a very relatable desire. Although the average
Egyptian would not dare dream of leaving Egypt and living among a tribe of foreigners,
every Egyptian would connect with the feeling of wanting to die in the homeland. Even
beyond Egyptian culture, I believe most individuals would prefer to die in their
homeland. Sinuhe flees Egypt after the death of Amenemhat, and goes to Retjenu, where
he is accepted into a tribe.
This proves the relatively xenophobic culture of the Ancient Egyptians. They
were not very fond of outsiders, so the mere thought of leaving Egypt would be
blasphemous (Hollis 2009: 77-82). Although many people can relate to wanting to die in
their home, the part that makes sinuhe leave is not as mimetic because many ancient
Egyptians at the time would never have considered leaving Egypt. (Parkinson 2009: 21-
53).
The shipwrecked sailor also features memetic concepts that are depicted through
his fear of disappointing the king. The tale begins with a sailor returning from an oceanic
voyage, however, the expedition he was sent on was apparently a failure. An attendant
convinces him to calm down, and advises him on how to approach the king with such
failure. He repeatedly says the mouth of a man saves him, meaning that if the sailor is
clever, he will be able to portray the failed voyage as a success (Parkinson 2009: 54-101).
Although the tale includes mythical talking snakes, riches, and monstrous storms, the
underlying theme is the fear of disappointing the king, and ways to figure out how to
soften the failure. This is a very common human fear, and it makes sense that readers can
easily identify with it. (Parkinson 2009: 54-101)
There are some tales that do not mimic reality, but rather run parallels to other
tales that do, creating literary motifs. The Tale of Osiris and Isis is comparable to Setna
Khaemaus in the sense that two bodies were both hidden. Setna Khaemus had to suffer
the emotional distress of knowing the bodies of his wife and child were hidden, and this
runs parallel to how Isis was devastating over the butchering and hiding of her
husband/brother Osiris (Rubio 2017). The theme of longing for a dead relative or lover is
very relatable, and by having the bodies hidden in both stories, it emphasizes the pain
because the individual will never return spiritually, or physically.
As a collection of interpretations, mimesis does not directly apply the the majority
of Mesopotamian literature (Auerbach 2013: 559). The above texts do feature some
examples of mimesis, but ultimately, the points of the tales are to teach lessons and
solidify political agendas (Foster 2005: 392-409). Some pieces, like the ones discussed,
arguably have examples of memsis, but as a whole, I do not believe ancient
Mesopotamian work as a whole is mimetic (Rubio, 2017).
Story telling was an essential part of Greek and Roman culture, as it also was
across the globe in places such as Japan and China (Rubio 2017). In these cultures,
storytelling was adopted because of the emphasis placed on the importance of rhetoric.
Literature, art, and music are often seen as representations of a nations culture, and the
performances of such would also provide insight to a culture. As community that created
some of the most political philosophers (Aristotle and Plato), rhetoric was extra important
within the oral tradition of the Greek community, which differs from the performing
traditions of Mesopotamian cultures (Rubio 2017).
The focus on verbal artistry is apparent in Greek and Roman culture. The qualities
of Greek and Roman literature include rhetorical devices that are emphasized when
performed. The communication of some rhetoric could only be successful through verbal
communication. These works were created for entertainment purposes while many texts
in Mesopotamia and Egypt were for administrative purposes or religious purposes. These
cultures did not have the same passion for cultural entertainment, and therefore public
performances for entertainment purposes were not prominent. In ancient Egypt, many
texts, such as the tale of Sinuhe and the eloquent peasant were created for political
teaching, while others, such as the tale of Isis and Osiris, serves religious purposes. Texts
were rarely created just to enjoy.
It can be argued that the type of literature produced in ancient mesopotamia was
not formed for the purpose of entertainment and enjoyment, and more so to teach a
community lesson, serve as a political propaganda, or preserve a history. In ancient
mesopotamian, laments were performed by many community members in public,
however, these laments were for religious purposes, and performed only when necessary
(Rubio 2017)
The cultures found in Egypt and the Near East were similar in some aspects, but
offered stark contrasts in others. Although each culture had their own focus on literature,
the two distributed cultural ideas very differently. In Mesopotamian, literature was a way
to explain a natural occurrence, or provide a learning lesson. (Parkinson 2009: 131-143)
In Egypt, literature was often used as technique to validate the claim to the throne or
other political functions. (Rubio 2017).

ESSAY TWO

Writing in ancient egypt began as a way to record administrative actions. These

examples of literature were commonly found on tombs of the upperclass. . For example,
administrative texts would include business records and important trade deals that would
be derived from the more elite members of society (Rubio 2017). Although the lower
class did participate in trade, at this point, illiteracy ran rampant and many relaxed
transactions went unrecorded. Ancient Egyptian literature focuses on the roles of men in
society, particularly the kings and royal class. The Egyptians used papyrus as paper, and
the humidity of the climate was optimal for preservation. The twice a year flooding of the
nile created a rich agricultural society that could grow enormous amounts of the
papyrus. The deltas flooding created economic stability, which in theory would have led
to political stability, although Egypt was not often in such a state. Upper and lower Egypt
united between 3100 B.C and 2950 BC, and birthed a cultural explosion, leading to a
myriad of texts (Rubio 2017). There was a stark increase in literary texts due to changes
in the bureaucracy.
 This growth halted around the sixth dynasty when weaker kings lead the country.
Weak rulers created small subsections of the county to rule (nomes), however, all of these
changes affected the creation and continuation of literature.
The three main scripts of Ancient Egypt were demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphic.
Although it is a common misconception that hieroglyphs are intrinsically Egyptian, a
hieroglyph is any visual character that represents a meaning. The term itself directly
translates into sacred signs, and they were used from the first dynasty all the way until
the Romans arrived, scrawling over varieties of tombs and monuments. Although used
extensively, hieroglyphics slowly faded out from every day literature and records to a
religious script. When heretics were first discovered, it was believed that they were
reserved for the use of priests. However, hieratics were a cursive to hieroglyphics, and
were created for the use of writing on papyrus (Rubio 2017). Hieroglyphs were too
complicated to distinguish apart from one another on papyrus, and therefore, hieratics
were created. It was adopted as the everyday written language, as it was used for
administrative texts and its literary usage ran all the way until the third century. Both
hieroglyphics and hieratic scripts were sectioned into three different dialects. A dialect is
a particular form of language that is unique to a certain culture. The dialects created were
Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian, and Late Egyptian. Demotic texts belonged to a
completely different dialect than both hieratic and hieroglyphic texts because demotic
texts were very popular in a drastically different time period (Rubio 2017).
The first demotic texts discovered were contracts, and demotic script was the
most popular choice in the first millennium B.C. Demotic was a cursive hieratic, and
within a language with 23 signs and no true alphabet, it was very popular. On top of that,
the Egyptians, culturally, were xenophobic and did not welcome outsider influences,
therefore cutting their demotic off from the outside world (Hollis 2009: 77-82). As an
agricultural society, not many individuals were literate. People at this point were not very
concerned with the luxury of education, and focused on agriculture as the base of their
livelihood.
Demotic texts feature a style of literature with protagonists who use magic to
create trouble, and clever rhetoric is dotted throughout the texts (Rubio 2017) These
themes lasted all the way through the Roman periods, but the stories trayed from being
less educational, and more fictional; written in the style of folk tales. This can be
exemplified through the two stories regarding Setna we read in class. The Romance of
Setna Khaemus and the Mummies, and Setna II (also identifiable as The Adventures of
Setna and Si-Osire) are centered around a historical figure, but feature fictional elements,
such as possession and a journey to the underworld. Setne was the title of Ramses IIs
son, Khaemuas. His obsession with architecture and its preservation earned him respect
among the Ancient Egyptians, and he is credited with saving many artifacts that are
studied to this day.
Interestingly enough, the themes discussed throughout Demotic literature have
more similarities with Greek demotic than they did with older Egyptian pieces. Before
the first millennium, ,there were no full mythical narratives, and this is because the
narratives were passed down through generations of oral traditions.
Most of our sources for famous stories come from pyramid and coffin
texts. The coffin texts are a collection of funerary spells that were written on coffins.
They are partially derived from pyramid texts. Pyramid texts were reserved for royal use
only, so the commoners who could afford a coffin would have the funerary spells written
on them (Rubio 2017). This led to a cultural change because for once, the pharaoh didnt
have exclusive rights to the afterlife. Texts were also written on the walls of tombs,
canopic jars, and various papyrus papers. The earliest mentions of the tale of Isis and
Osiris were in the pyramid texts. This tale is one of the most replicated Egyptian myths of
its time, and was vastly popular among Ancient Egyptian communities. Osiris is the
eldest child (son) of Geb and Nut, and eventually marries his sister, Isis. Osiris
represented life after death in Egyptian culture, so often, representation of deceased kings
were made in Osiriss image.
Before demotic literature was a commonplace, the Ancient Egyptians created a
multitude of texts that are considered to be wisdom literature. Many of these
compositions feature prophecies, such as the The Words of Neferti and The Dialogue of a
Man and his Soul, and instruction, such as The Teaching of King Amenemhat and
Merikare. In Ancient Egyptian literature, a prophecy was more of a political play than an
actual prediction of the future.
For example, The Words of Neferti predicts that Ameny (presumably the
shortened name of Amenemhat I) will be a future king that will save Egypt from chaos
and foreign control. This text was written as a way to justify the right of Amenemhat I to
the throne, not to predict the demise and rise of Egypt (Rubio 2017).
The Dialogue of a Man and his Soul highlights the idea of instruction text, but this
time, rather creatively, through dialogue. Although instructional texts include
conversations between characters, the emphasis on dialogue in this text is very
unique.This style of dialogue, one that begins with an unhappy first person that is
convinced to change their mind by a third party posing as a god or other mystic is very
common (Hollis 2009: 101). Again, it serves a theopolitical purpose, as the speaker
weeps because his life is full of unprecedented suffering. His spirit, called the ba,
convinces him that death is far more uncomfortable. (Rubio 2017). This story aims to
prove that no matter how bad life may be, death is much worse.
Instruction literature was predictably used for academic purposes in many
schools. Being a scribe was a respected profession, and the process to become one was
intensive. Instruction literature was created during the Old Kingdom and continued
forward through history. Instruction literature is very formulaic in the sense that there is
always an elder/superior talking to an inferior/younger character. For example, a father
talking to his son, or a teacher addressing a student. Whatever the relation, the younger
party must be the older partys successor. The advice given varies from leadership style
to ethical behaviors in society.
In The Teaching of King Amenemhat, Amenemhat leaves a composition for his
son, Senwosret, on how to be a successful ruler. Amenemhat is not the author of this text,
and authorship is credited to man named Khety (Rubio 2017). Amenemhat tells his son
how to find justice during times of chaos, how to understand his role as the communitys
leader, and how to not only be king, but be a man as well. These motifs are very common
within instructional literature, and the rhetorical styles involved, such as syntax are very
apparent in other literary examples. The instructions provided by Amenemhat push them
into a new category. Although instructional, this text also is prophetic in the sense that it
predicts human nature. The Instructions of Amenemhat was written during the earlier
years of the Middle Kingdom. The teachings are provided in a monologue by
Amenemhat Is ghost, and he speaks to his son, Senusret I. The monologue rationalizes
not trusting anyone, among other key lessons. Some of these lessons include how to
maintain the kingship. The instructions end with a blessing for his son, Senusret, and
advice for his rein.
The Teaching for King Merikare follows the same instructional patterns. King
Khety is the speaker, but unfortunately, the date of the composition and its author still
remain unknown (Parkinson 2009). King Khety advises his son to defeat those who
oppose him, but genuinely show mercy during times of vengeance. He emphasizes not to
forget that he is still human, but to distinguish between his role and those of the people he
rules. The teaching also highlights the idea that although he will be a king, he still does
not compare to the Gods, and must still follow their wishes. Khety also tells Merikare to
watch out for the man that everyone listens to, for he will be a threat. This teaching is
comparable to advice and style of advice from Machiavellis The Prince (Rubio 2017).
The Prince is an analysis that details how to secure and maintain political power. The two
works share many concepts regarding the intertwinement of fear and love. (Machiavelli,
1995). A recurring theme of Wisdom literature is to excuse the king from failure.
The focus on the individual in Egyptian Literature is very prominent, and offers a
stark contrast to the literature developed in Sumeria. Sumerian literature often offers a
lesson that should be adopted by society, while Egyptian literature focuses on the health
and development of the individual, especially in political terms. Egyptian literature
focuses on individual growth and understanding, making a good portion of their literature
very applicable to the common population.
The Ancient Egyptians did not miss a change to convey political messages
through their literature, as emphasized in The Shipwrecked Sailor, The Tale of Sinuhe,
and The Eloquent Peasant. The Shipwrecked sailor teaches perseverance through
difficult times. It also teaches that trade is important, even if Egypt was xenophobic.
Sinuhe also has a similar moral. The Tale of Sinuhe is a funerary autobiography, but in
ancient egyptian culture, such texts were not written by the deceased individual. The
story of Sinuhe is about an official who flees Egypt after the death of Amenemhet I and
makes his new home in Retjenu (Rubio 2017). Sinuhe is accepted as a member of a tribe
after protecting the tribe from an enemy, and he marries and has children. His children
grow up to become chiefs of tribes, and when it is time for Sinuhe to die, his only desire
is to return to his homeland. He returns to and dies in Egypt. This tale focuses solely on
Sinuhe. In Ancient Egyptian culture, foreigners were not welcomed and anywhere
outside of Egypt was deemed inferior. To the typical Egyptian, leaving the country would
be ridiculous (Hollis 2009: 111-114). However, if any individual ever had feelings of
wanderlust, the story of sinuhe would pave the idea that even if you leave Egypt, you will
desire to return home, even if it is just to die. This story does not encourage leaving the
country in hopes of another life, for even Sinuhes new life with a wife and children
could not prevent his heart form yearning for Egypt. Sinuhe teaches that we always want
to return home.
Finally, The Eloquent Peasant teaches that corruption does exist, but it is not
derived from the Pharaoh. This is related to the concept of fatherly rule(Rubio, 2017).
This style of rule describes one in which the King is seen as a loving father figure who
would not purposefully do anything to harm his people.
 ESSAY THREE
One of the most universally renown stories stems from ancient Mesopotamia; The Epic
of Gilgamesh. The epic follows the story of the Gilgamesh, a Sumerian King who ruled
Uruk between 2700-2500 BC. The oldest version of the epic stems from 2000 BC, and
some historians even dare to argue that the Epic Of Gilgamesh was the masterpiece of
Babylonian literature. (George 2007: 447) The tale is based upon the ancient King
Gilgamesh, who reigned Sumerian Uruk in the year 2700-2500 BC (Tigay 2002: 3). The
oldest existing version of the story, however, is dated to approximately 2000 BC (Tigay
2002: 37).
Due to the epics age, the contents of the story have continuously evolved
throughout history. The Babylonian and Sumerian versions of the story have underlying
similarities, but both offer multiple stark contrasts, creating an interesting cultural blend.
(Rubio, 2017)
Although the plot is subject to such cultural variation, the standard Babylonian
version of Gilgamesh begins with describing his leadership style in Uruk. Gilgamesh is
infamous in babylon for but raping women on their wedding nights. This act is referred to
as ius primae noctis, which translates into the right of the first night. It describes the
legal right of the ruler to have sex with brides before their grooms. The term was made
popular during medieval Europe, but there is no evidence that this act was actually
prominent (Rubio, 2017). In the Sumerian version, a slight difference appears very early
on, as Gilgamesh relentlessly hassles young men.
Desperate, the citizens of Uruk pray to Shamash, the Sun God, to make a match
for Gilgamesh. Shamash listens to their pleads, and creates Enkidu. Enkidu is set free to
roam the Earth, and choses a nearby forest as his home. Unfortunately, Enkidu is
unknowingly sharing this space with a hunter, who becomes very frustrated when he
realizes that Enkidu is saving the animals from his hunting traps. The hunter, sick of this
nonsense, calls Shamhat, a temple harlot. Shamhat opens her body to Enkidu, who then
has sex with her for six days and seven nights. Upon orgasm, he loses his animalistic
nature and becomes civilized. Although Enkidu attempts to return to his animal world,
the other forest creatures are suddenly afraid of him. Shamhat and the Hunter take Enkidu
back to the hunters home for beer and bread, and begin to teach him about Babylonian
society. After hearing about the infamous Gilgamesh, Enkidu decides that it his duty to
stop Gilgamesh.
Although Enkidu has his mind made up, Gilgamesh has no idea of his existence.
During this time, Gilgamesh has two dreams that foreshadow Enkidus arrival.
Fortunately for Gilgamesh, his mother, the cow goddess, Nintura, can interpret dreams.
He dreams of a meteor and an axe, both of which Nintura interprets as a prophecy for
love and companionship (Rubio 2017)
When Gilgamesh and Enkidu meet, they fight. Ultimately Gilgamesh wins, but
he realizes the two are a perfect match and they immediately become close companions
and hug.
 The pair decides that they should go on Cedar Forest to slay the guardian of the
forest, Humbaba or Huwawa. Although the elders in the city advise them again their
pointless quest, the two go anyways.
They slay Humbaba, sever his head, and return home to Uruk with the tallest
Cedar tree to make a door dedicated to Enlil. After a bath, Gilgamesh throws a banquet at
which Ishtar is in attendance. She professes her love to Gilgamesh, who coldly rejects
her, and berates her for treating her other lovers cruelly. Embarrassed and angered, Ishtar
convinces her father, Anu, to let her release the Bull Of heaven, or the constellation
Taurus. Gilgamesh and Enkidu are able to slay the bull, and out of spite, Enkidu throws
the leg of the bull at Ishtar (Rubio 2017). The Gods are furious over the actions of the
pair, and decide that one must die.
Enkidu is selected to die, and falls ill. Gilgamesh mourns deeply, but is even more
considered with the inevitability of his own death. This is when the quest for immortality
begins. Gilgamesh travels to the underworld to meet the only other human granted
immortality. He makes it to the Mashu mountains that are guarded by two scorpion
monsters. The scorpions are confused by Gilgamesh, as he is both part god and part man,
but eventually decide to let him pass through. They warn him that he must navigate the
mountain in complete darkness and quickly, or the sun will burn him alive in the
morning. He survives this journey, and stumbles upon the ale house of Siduri. Siduri does
not believe that he is the king of Uruk initially, as he has cast aside his kingly robes and
cut his hair. She tells him that in order to meet Un-napishtim (the Mesopotamian Noah),
he must enter the underworld with Urshanabi, the boatman.
When they reach his boat, Gilgamesh reacts to the animated stone rowers
negatively and kills them all. Ur-Shanabi, alarmed, informs Gilgamesh that now he must
gather 300 rods to paddle across, for if they water touches them, they will die.
Fortunately, the two make it and are able to meet Ut-napishtin. Ut-napishtin is marginally
amused by Gilgameshs quest, as Ut-naphsitin was granted immortality after saving the
entire human race. He decides to humor Gilgamesh, and tells him that if he can stay
awake for a week. Gilgamesh almost immediately falls asleep, but Untaphistins wife
takes pity on him, and gives him the directions to find a magical plant that will make him
young again. He finds it at the bottom of the ocean, but loses it to a snake, who sheds its
skin as it slithers away. Gilgamesh finally realizes that he will not obtain immortality,
and that he can only live on through the deeds he has done.
The western label of epic clearly applies to the Epic of Gilgamesh. There are
epic heroes, battles, and a journey of mythical proportions. However, Rubio theorizes that
the epic of Gilgamesh should rather be viewed as an extensive folklore. He further
suggests that the Sumerian Gilgamesh better resembles the miscellaneous genre known
as Epyllion, a distinctive feature of the Hellenistic period. Epyllion occurs when mythic
acts and descriptions are transformed into short poems. (Rubio 2009: 49). Epyllion poems
closely resemble epics in regards to style, but are usually shorter.
As the oldest and one of the most prominent compositions in all ancient literature,
it is not surprising that other stories share quite a few similarities with the Epic of
Gilgamesh. The epic of Gilgamesh features a portion of the flood story with its feature of
Atrahasis. This story is included in Gilgamesh and also the Bibles story of Genesis
where Noah is instructed to build an ark to survive a flood. The epic also features ties to
Homers Iliad. The quest for immortality is apparent through both texts, and furthermore,
both stories end in failure. Just as Gilgamesh mourns Enkidu, Achilles grieves when
Patroclus dies (Rubio 2017)
The Sumerian version of this epic dates all the way back to the third millennium,
making it the earlier version of Gilgamesh. (Foster 2005: 2)The Old Babylonian Epic of
Gilgamesh is derived from the first portion of the second millennium, and was composed
of various oral traditions and Sumerian and Akkadian portions. This version of the epic is
very fragmented, and written in a Babylonian-Akkadian dialect (Tigay 2002: 12).
There are six Sumerian poems that revolve around Gilgamesh; Gilgamesh and
Akka, Gilgamesh and Huwawa A, Gilgamesh and Huwawa B, Gilgamesh and the Bull of
Heaven, Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld, and The Death of Gilgamesh ( 2009:
47). There is a seventh poem, the The Gudam Epic, and according to Foster, this poem
most likely also belonging with the above grouping. (2001: 99). It is these poems that
were compiled to create the Old Babylonian version of the Epic. By the first millennium,
there were 11 tablets. It is theorized that there could be up to four tablets from the Old
Babylonian version, and perhaps six from the Middle Babylonian tablet (Foster 2001:
xiv).
There was an additional 12th tablet that was added to this Babylonian version.
This tablet mirrors the story Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld. from Sumeria. In
this 12th tablet, Enkidu travels to the netherworld and gives his own rendition of the
experience. (2001: xxi).
When it comes to comparing the Babylonian and Sumerian versions of the epic,
the Sumerian story is significantly less developed, although the Sumerian epic includes
two extra poems, Gilgamesh and Akka, and The Death of Gilgamesh. (Gilgamesh and
Akka describes the failed attack on Uruk by the king of Kish, King Akka)(Rubio 2017).
Although the Babylonian versions do not include these two poems, certain portions of the
death of gilgamesh are apparent in the Babylonian account of Enkidus death. (Foster
2001: 99).
Poems such as Gilgamesh and Huwawa, Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven, and
part of Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld are all more directly seen in the
Babylonian version (Foster 2001: 99). In regards to Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the
Netherworld, while the Sumerian version focuses on the death of Gilgamesh, the
Babylonian version instead creates Enkidu, according to Tigay (Tigay 2002: 24). In the
Babylonian version, Enkidus character steers the plot, allowing the story to focus more
about Gilgameshs quest for immortality (Rubio 2017).
The original author of the original Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh is not
known, though many sources identify Sn-lequi-unninni, a priest of Uruk as responsible
for the first millennium manuscript in the standard Babylonian version. (Rubio 2017) It is
unlikely that he authored the text originally, and it much more likely that he was the
individual who scribed the oral version of the epic (Foster 200).
It is easily argued that the most prominent motif throughout the epic in both the
Sumerian and Babylonian versions is the quest for immortality, and the desire to live on
forever. (Tigay 2002: 26). The Babylonian version also highlights the notion that gods
should not be questioned for their destructive choices, and the strength of love in a
partnership (Rubio 2017).
Just as in the Tale of the Righteous sufferer, the gods should not be questioned.
Ishtar is allowed to wreak havoc on Babylon just to take her emotional revenge out on
Gilgamesh, and when that fails, aids in the planning of Enkidus death. She does
whatever she pleases no matter what its effect is to the humans, and is still confident that
they will worship her.
The strength of partnership and love is clear in the standard Babylonian version.
Enkidu is transformed into a human through sexual love, and finds the deepest bond of
friendship with Gilgamesh through a brotherly love. When Enkidu passes, Gilgamesh
mourns over him until his body begins to decompose, and demands that the finest
materials be used to make a statue in Enkidus honor (Rubio 2017). It is his love for
Enkidu that sparks Gilgamesh's quest for immortality.
Not only does Gilgamesh crave immortality, but he deeply fears death. Enkidus
death terrifies him, and he realizes that his death is also inevitable, no matter if he is king
or not. His journey to escape death speaks to the public because to some extent, every
human is fearful of death. It is in our nature to survive as long as possible. The fear of
death leads to a quest for true life, and Gilgamesh inadvertently learns how to be a good
man in his life through his quest with both Enkidu and alone. The transformation of
Gilgamesh from a tyrannical ruler to a calm and peaceful man is a major motif, and there
are other motifs of transformation throughout the text. Enkidu is transformed into a
human through sex with Shamhat, and the snake sheds his skin to become
younger. (2002: 188).
In conclusion, the story of Gilgamesh we know today was derived from several
sources spanning years apart, and has faced drastic revisions and alterations. It has served
as a foundation for many civilizations written works, and has inspired many other stories
years following. Today, we reflect on Gilgamesh as a noteworthy feat in literature, as it
has managed to remain a significant piece of writing for almost 5000 years (Rubio 2017).
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