Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2004 J D Edwards
ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND SYSTEMS COURSE NOTES
These notes were prepared for a Year 2 course module in the Department of Engineering and
Design at the University of Sussex. The module runs for ten weeks, and absorbs 25% of student
time.
This introductory course in electrical machines follows on from the Year 1 course
Electromechanics, with a similar philosophy. It avoids the traditional mathematical derivation of
the theory of AC and DC machines, and makes extensive use of field plots generated with MagNet
to explain the principles. With this physical background, the theory is developed in terms of circuit
models and phasor diagrams.
Field plots are particularly useful for explaining armature reaction and compensating windings in
DC machines, and for demonstrating the action of variable-reluctance and hybrid stepper motors.
They also show the essential unity of the conventional rotating machines; there are similar plots for
the stator and rotor field components and the resultant field in DC, synchronous and induction
machines.
5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 30
5.1 Introduction 30
5.2 Characteristics 31
5.3 Salient-pole machines 35
5.4 Linear synchronous motors 37
6 INDUCTION MACHINES 39
6.1 Introduction 39
6.2 Characteristics 40
6.3 Losses and efficiency 46
6.4 Parameter determination 48
6.5 Single-phase induction motors 50
6.6 Dynamic conditions 52
6.7 Linear induction motors 54
1 INTRODUCTION
This course follows on from the Term 3 course Magnetic field plots
Electromechanics. Its purpose is to explore in
greater depth the AC and DC machines that were A magnetic field plot is often a useful way of
introduced in the earlier course. The approach is picturing the operation of an electromagnetic
that of the application engineer rather than the device. Numerous plots have been specially
machine designer, concentrating on the basic prepared for these notes, using the MagNet
principles, characteristics, and control. Since electromagnetic simulation software, to develop
induction motors account for more than 90 per cent the basic concepts with a minimum of
of the motors used in industry, the course gives mathematics.
particular emphasis to these machines.
References
Course components References to books are listed in section 10, and
The course has three closely linked components: cited in the text of the notes with the reference
lectures, problem sheets and laboratories. In number in square brackets.
addition, there is a design assignment, which
introduces some of the basic ideas and problems of
Background material
design by considering a very simple device: an
electromagnet. The course assumes a familiarity with the contents
Lectures will use video presentation and of the Term 3 course Electromechanics, so the
practical demonstrations. These notes provide basic principles covered in that course will not be
support material for the lectures, but they are not a repeated. Students are expected to have a copy of
substitute. Regular lecture attendance is essential. the printed notes for Electromechanics [1], and
Problem solving is a vital part of the course. further information will be found in references [2]
Problem sheets will be issued at the first lecture to [4].
each week, and methods of solving the problems
will be discussed in each lecture.
The laboratory runs from week 4 to week 9,
with three 3-hour experiments:
EMS1: Speed control of induction motors.
EMS2: Characteristics of a power transformer.
EMS3: Control of a stepper motor.
Experiment EMS1 is a sequel to the simple DC
motor-control experiment in Electromechanics.
EMS2 introduces some important electrical
measurement techniques as well as exploring the
properties of a transformer. EMS3 explores a
stepper motor and controller of the kind widely
used in industry.
Introduction 1
2 TRANSFORMERS Sinusoidal operation
2
1.8
1.6
Flux density B, T
primary secondary 1.4
N1 turns N2 turns 1.2
1
Figure 2-1: Transformer with source and load 0.8
0.6
0.4
Voltage relationships 0.2
Kirchhoffs voltage law applied to the two 0
windings gives: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
d
Magnetic intensity H, kA/m
v1 e1 R1i1 N 1 R1i1 (2-1)
dt
Figure 2-2: Silicon transformer steel.
d
v 2 e 2 R2 i 2 N 2 R2 i 2 (2-2)
dt
Current relationships
If the resistances R1 and R2 are negligible, then
equations 2-1 and 2-2 become: The relationship between the primary and
secondary currents can be found by considering the
d
v1 N 1 (2-3) magnetic circuit of the transformer. From the basic
dt magnetic circuit equation, we have:
d F N 1i1 N 2 i2 R (2-9)
v2 N 2 (2-4)
dt In a well-designed transformer, the reluctance R is
Dividing these equations gives the important result: small, so equation 2-9 becomes:
N 1i1 N 2 i2 0 (2-10)
v1 N 1
(2-5)
v2 N 2 This gives the counterpart of equation 2-5 for
voltage:
i1 N 2
(2-11)
i2 N 1
Transformers 3
a m cos t
b m cos( t 120) (2-18)
c m cos( t 240) m cos( t 120)
Figure 2-7 shows flux plots for the transformer at
the instants when t = 0, 120 and 240.
(a)
3-phase transformers
(c)
Figure 2-5: 3-phase transformer model. Figure 2-7: 3-phase transformer flux plots:
(a) 0, (b) 120, (c) 240.
The corresponding fluxes are shown in figure 2-6.
There is no requirement for another limb to form a
flux return path, because the fluxes a, b and c
sum to zero in a balanced 3-phase system. The
proof is as follows. From equation 2-18, the sum is
given by:
a b c
a b c m
cos t cos( t 120) cos( t 120) (2-19)
cos t 2 cos t cos120
cos t cos t 0
Figure 2-6: 3-phase transformer flux.
In a balanced system with sinusoidal phase Because the fluxes in the three limbs sum to zero at
voltages, the fluxes will be given by: all instants of time, there is no leakage of flux from
the core, as the flux plots in figure 2-7
demonstrate.
N V2 N 1
Time domain Frequency domain 2 2
1 Z L 2L
Z
v2 N 2
n
V2 N 2
n (2-20) N2 I2 N 2 n
v1 N 1 V1 N 1
Thus the combination of an ideal transformer of
ratio n and an impedance ZL can be replaced by an
n n
i1 N 2 I1 N 2 (2-21) equivalent impedance ZL / n2.
i2 N 1 I 2 N1
The following properties of the ideal transformer Referred impedances
may be deduced from equations 2-16 and 2-17:
The voltage transformation is independent of Figure 2-10(a) shows an ideal transformer with a
the current, and vice versa. load impedance ZL connected to the secondary.
If the secondary is short-circuited, so that
Another impedance Z2 is in series with ZL. The
input impedance of this circuit is:
v2 = 0, the primary terminals appear to be
Z2 ZL
Z in
short-circuited since v1 = 0.
(2-24)
If the secondary is open-circuited, so that n2
i2 = 0, the primary terminals appear to be open-
circuited since i1 = 0. The input impedance of the circuit in figure 2-
10(b) is:
The output power is equal to the input power,
Z in Z2
so there is no power loss in the element. ZL
(2-25)
n2
Impedance transformation The two expressions for Zin will be identical if:
Z2
The ideal transformer has the important property of Z2
(2-26)
transforming impedance values in a circuit. n2
Consider an ideal transformer with an impedance
ZL connected to its secondary terminals, as shown
in figure 2-9.
Transformers 5
Z2 2.4 Circuit model of a transformer
In a practical transformer, the winding resistances
Zin and the core reluctance are not zero. In addition,
ZL there will be some power loss in the core because
of eddy currents and hysteresis in the magnetic
material. All of these effects can be represented by
N1:N2 (a) the equivalent circuit [3, 4] shown in figure 2-12.
I1 jx1 I2 = nI2 jx2 R2 I2
Z'2 R1
I0
+ I0m I0c +
Zin ZL
V1 jXm Rc V2
N1:N2 (b)
Figure 2-10: Referred impedance 1. N1:N2
The impedance Z'2 is termed the secondary Figure 2-12: Transformer equivalent circuit.
impedance Z2 referred to the primary.
This circuit is based on the ideal transformer
In a similar way, a primary impedance Z1 can
element, with additional circuit elements to
be referred to the secondary, as shown in figure
represent the imperfections. The resistances R1 and
2-11. In this case, the referred impedance is given
R2 represent the physical resistances of the
by:
windings, and Rc represents the power lost in the
Z1 n 2 Z1 (2-27) core. The reactance Xm, known as the magnetising
reactance, allows for the current required to
Z1 magnetise the core when the reluctance is not zero.
Reactances x1 and x2, known as leakage
reactances, represent the leakage flux that exists
Zin ZL when the magnetic coupling between the primary
and the secondary is not perfect. Figure 2-13 shows
the leakage flux when the core has an artificially
N1:N2 low relative permeability of 10, and one winding at
(a)
a time is energised. In practice, the leakage is much
less than this, so the leakage reactances are
Z''1 normally very much smaller than the magnetising
reactance Xm.
Zin ZL
N1:N2 (b)
Figure 2-11: Referred impedance 2.
jXm Rc
(b)
N1:N2
Figure 2-13: Transformer leakage flux:
(a) left coil energised, (b) right coil energised.
(a)
In the circuit of figure 2-12, the current I2 is
the effective value of the secondary current as seen jx1 jx2
R1 R2
from the primary side of the transformer. It is also
known as the secondary current referred to the
primary.
The current I0 is the no-load current, which is jXm Rc
the current taken by the primary when there is no
load connected to the secondary. It has a
component I0m, known as the magnetising current,
which represents the current required to set up the N1:N2
magnetic flux in the core. The current I0c is the
core loss component of the no-load current. (b)
Re jxe
Approximate equivalent circuit
Transformers 7
Open-circuit test Short-circuit test
With the secondary unconnected, I2 = 0, so the If the secondary terminals are short-circuited, the
equivalent circuit reduces to the form shown in ideal transformer in figure 2-14 can be replaced by
figure 2-15. a short circuit, so the equivalent circuit takes the
form shown in figure 2-16(a). In a typical power
I1oc
transformer, the shunt elements Rc and Xm are at
least 100 times larger than the series elements Re
+
and xe. Consequently, the shunt elements can be
neglected, and the circuit reduces to the form
V1oc jXm Rc shown in figure 2-16(b).
Re jxe
Z1oc
V1oc 1 (b)
(2-30)
I1oc 1 1
Figure 2-16: Short-circuit test.
Rc jX m
The values of the elements Re and xe can be
In terms of magnitudes, equation 2-30 becomes: determined from measurements of the input voltage
V1sc, current I1sc and power P1sc as follows. The
Z1oc
V1oc 1
(2-31) input power is entirely dissipated in the resistance
I 1oc 1 1 Re, giving:
Rc2 X m2
Re
P1sc
(2-34)
Re-arranging equation 2-31 gives the value of Xm: I12sc
Xm
1
(2-32) The input impedance of the circuit is given by:
I1oc
2
2
1
Z1sc Re jx e
V1sc
V1oc Rc (2-35)
I1sc
From figure 2-14(c), it follows that the turns ratio In terms of magnitudes, equation 2-35 becomes:
is given by:
Z1sc Re2 x e2
V1sc
(2-36)
n 2 2oc
N V
(2-33) I 1sc
N 1 V1oc
Maximum efficiency
Q S sin VI sin Im( VI*) (2-44) The secondary voltage magnitude is:
V2 I 2 Z L 16.3 6.0 j 2.5
S VI P Q
2 2
(2-45) 16.3 6.5 106.0 V
If the voltage phasor V is chosen as the reference (c) Primary current
quantity, and defined to be purely real (V = V + j0),
then the power relationships take a simple form: The no-load current is:
94.70%
Pout 1597
The circuit acts as a current divider, where the
Pin 1686 current in the secondary branch is given by:
jX m I1
I2
Z 2 Z L jX m
(2-48)
2.7 Current transformers
The use of transformers for measuring current has where I1 is the primary current referred to the
been introduced in Electromechanics [1], where secondary, and Z2 = R2 + jx2. In a well-designed
the danger of open-circuiting the secondary has transformer, the secondary impedance Z2 is very
been explained. This section introduces the small in comparison with the referred magnetising
important topic of measurement errors. reactance Xm, so this term introduces very little
error. Equation 2-48 shows that it is desirable to
keep the load impedance ZL as small as possible if
Current transformer errors the error is to be minimised.
In a well-designed current transformer, the core In practice, current transformers are designed
flux density is low and the core is made from a for a specified maximum secondary voltage at the
high-quality magnetic material. Under normal rated secondary current. This defines a maximum
operating conditions, the core loss will be apparent power for the secondary load, or burden.
negligibly small, so the core loss resistance Rc can Typically, a small current transformer will have a
be omitted from the equivalent circuit. A circuit rated secondary burden of 5 VA. With the usual
model for a current transformer connected to a load secondary current rating of 5 A, this implies that
therefore takes the form shown in figure 2-19. the maximum secondary voltage is 1 V, and the
maximum impedance magnitude is 0.2 .
Transformers 11
Worked example 2-2 2.8 Transformer design
A current transformer has 10 turns on the primary The majority of single-phase transformers use the
and 100 turns on the secondary. It has a rated shell type of construction shown in figure 2-21.
secondary current of 5 A, the magnetising
reactance referred to the secondary is 10 , and the
maximum burden is 5 VA. If the primary current is
50 A, determine the secondary current, and hence
the percentage error in the current measurement, if
the secondary load is (a) purely resistive, (b) purely
inductive. The transformer secondary impedance
may be neglected.
(a) Resistive load
Since the burden is 5 VA and the secondary current
is 5 A, the secondary voltage is 1 V, and the
resistance is 1 / 5 = 0.2 . The turns ratio is n =
100 / 10 = 10, so the primary current referred to the
secondary is 50 / 10 = 5.0 A. The secondary load
current is:
jX m I1 j10.0 5.0
I2
RL jX m 0.2 j10.0
Figure 2-21: Shell-type transformers.
(RS Components Ltd)
The magnitude is given by: Normally the core laminations are made in two
10.0 5.0 10.0 5.0
parts, termed E and I laminations, as shown in
I2 4.999 A figure 2-22.
0.2 j10.0 10.002
The percentage error is thus:
5.0 4.999
e 0.02%
5 .0
(b) Inductive load
Since the impedance magnitude is the same as
before, the load reactance is 0.2 . The secondary
current is now:
Figure 2-22: E and I laminations.
jX m I1 j10.0 5.0
I2
jX L jX m
The centre limb is twice the width of the outer
j 0.2 j10.0 limbs because it carries twice the flux, as shown by
The magnitude is given by: the flux plot in figure 2-23.
10.0 5.0
I2 4.902 A
0.2 10.0
The percentage error is thus:
5.0 4.902
e 1.96%
5 .0
b
2a
mean turn
6a
a
Winding resistance
Thermal model
The total cross-sectional area of the two windings
The rate of cooling depends on the exposed surface is the window area of height 3a and width a. Each
area of the transformer and the temperature rise winding occupies half of this area, so the conductor
above ambient. An exact calculation is complex, cross-sectional area for each winding is:
since it needs to take account of temperature
gradients within the transformer as well as the Ac 1.5k s a 2 (2-50)
cooling conditions on different surfaces. where ks is the conductor space factor, which
A simple thermal model ignores temperature allows for insulation and space between the turns.
gradients, and the power loss in the core. It just For simplicity, it will be assumed that the
considers the I2R loss in the windings, and assumes primary and secondary windings are placed side-
that this heat escapes through the exposed surfaces by-side on the core, and that they have the same
of the windings. It is assumed that the temperature number of turns N. From figure 2-25, the mean turn
rise is proportional to the power loss per unit area: length of each winding is:
l m a 4a 2b ( 4)a 2b (2-51)
Transformers 13
If the winding has N turns, then the total length of Equation 2-55 gives:
wire is Nlm, and the cross-sectional area of the wire
3k s a 4 (5 2 )T
is Ac / N. The winding resistance is therefore: I2
k c N 2 {( 4)a 2b}
l Nl m N {( 4)a 2b}
2
R (2-52)
1.5k s a 2
3k s a 4 (5 2 ) T
A Ac / N
I
k c N 2 {( 4) a 2b}
Temperature rise 3 0.4 (10 10 3 ) 4 (5 2 )(90 30)
If the RMS current in one winding is I, the power 0.04 21.9 10 9 (1230 ) 2
{( 4) 10 10 3 2 30 10 3 }
loss is I2R. The cooling surface area of the
winding, from figure 2-25, is:
0.216 A
As 1.5a ( 4a 2 a ) 4a 2 a 2
(2-53) Thus, I = 216 mA, so the transformer rating is
a 2 (10 4 ) 230 0.216 VA = 49.7 VA.
Substituting in equation 2-49 gives:
k c Pl k c I 2 R k c N 2 I 2 {( 4)a 2b}
Rating and size
T (2-54)
As As 3k s a 4 (5 2 ) A relationship between the apparent power rating
of the transformer and the dimensions can be
Thus, the current is given by: obtained by substituting for N from equation 2-56
3k s a 4 (5 2 ) T
in equation 2-55:
I
2
2 Bm ba 3 3k s (5 2 ) T
(2-55)
k c N 2 {( 4)a 2b}
VI (2-57)
From equation 2-10, the number of turns is: k c {( 4)a 2b}
A transformer has a primary wound for 230 V, and From equation 2-58, if the dimensions of the
the core measures 60 50 30 mm. The maximum transformer are doubled, the rating will increase by
winding temperature is 90C, the ambient a factor of 11.3. A similar result is obtained for the
temperature is 30C, the winding space factor is increase in the power output of a DC machine
0.4, the cooling coefficient is 0.04 Km2/W, and the when the dimensions are doubled see section 3.2.
resistivity of copper at 90C is 21.9 nm. If the
maximum flux density in the core is 1.4 T and the
frequency is 50 Hz, determine (a) the number of
turns on the primary, (b) the maximum current in
the primary.
Solution
From figure 2-26, a = 10 mm and b = 30 mm. From
equation 2-56, we have:
N
2V
4fabBm
2 230
1230
4 50 10 10 3 30 10 3 1.4
14 Electrical Machines and Systems Course Notes
3 DC MACHINES
350
300
The generated voltage and the developed torque Figure 3-1: Magnetisation characteristic.
are given by:
ea K f r
In this example, the relationship is almost
[V] (3-1) linear up to the rated field current of 0.5 A, but
there is significant non-linearity above this value,
Td K f ia [Nm] (3-2) when parts of the magnetic circuit saturate. There
where K is the armature constant, f is the field
is also a small residual flux when the field current
is zero, giving a corresponding generated voltage.
flux, and ia is the armature current. Note that the
rotor angular velocity r must be in radians per
For the initial part of the magnetisation
characteristic, it is approximately true that f if.
second (rad/s) and not in rev/min. If the rotational
Equations 3-1 and 3-2 then become:
speed is nr rev/s or Nr rev/min, then:
ea K i f r
2 N r
(3-4)
r 2 n r [rad/s] (3-3)
Td K i f ia
60
(3-5)
In a permanent-magnet machine, the field flux
f is fixed, but in a wound-field machine, it is a
function of the field current if. Armature equation
DC Machines 15
3.2 DC machines in practice
Slotted armature
Armature reaction
DC Machines 17
P r Td 2 r Bav AV (3-14)
Power output and size Thus, the maximum power output of a DC motor is
roughly proportional to the product of the armature
The developed torque may be calculated from the volume and the armature speed.
equation f = Bli, even though the armature
In practice, the current loading A also increases
conductors are in slots. For this purpose, the
with size, so the power output of large machines is
machine will be represented by a simple model
further increased. To quantify this, assume that the
with the conductors on the surface, as shown in the
power dissipation per unit surface area is constant.
flux plot of figure 3-9.
Let d be the radial depth of a conducting layer
representing the armature conductors. The
resistance of an element ds of this layer is:
l
dR (3-15)
d ds
ds
r The cooling surface area of the element is dS =
l ds, so the power dissipation per unit area is:
l
( A ds ) 2
2
A2
dP ( di ) dR d ds
(3-16)
dS l ds l ds d
limited speed increase is possible, for the following In section 3.2, it was noted that the armature
reason. The torque is related to the armature reaction field could cause local saturation of the
current through equation 3-2: field poles, thereby reducing the value of the field
flux f. This effect increases with the armature
Td K f ia [3-2] current ia, and therefore with the developed torque
If f is reduced, there will be a compensating Td. From equation 3-19, a decrease in f will cause
increase in ia to maintain the torque, and there is a the speed r to rise. Armature reaction therefore
risk of exceeding the current rating of the machine. has the opposite effect to armature resistance,
which causes r to fall with increasing torque load.
There is an important difference, however. The
Small motors effect of resistance is linear, as illustrated in figure
3-8, but the effect of armature reaction is non-
In small motors, with power ratings below 1 kW, linear. At low values of armature current, the
inequality 3-17 does not hold, so it is not uneven distribution of flux density in the field pole
permissible to neglect the Raia term. The rotational is insufficient to cause saturation, so there is hardly
speed then depends on the developed torque, as any reduction in the field flux. At high values of
may be seen by substituting for ia in terms of Td in current, on the other hand, there may be a
equation 3-6: significant reduction.
v a Ra ia K f r It is possible, therefore, for the speed of a
motor to fall with increasing load when the
K f r
Ra Td (3-20)
K f
armature current is low, but to increase with load
when the current is high. This increase in speed
Thus, the speed is given by: can be very undesirable, leading to instability with
some kinds of load. A large DC motor generally
r a d2
va R T includes some form of compensation for armature
K f ( K f )
(3-21)
reaction.
A simple method of compensation is to provide
A graph of speed against torque is a straight line, a second winding on the field poles, connected in
as shown in figure 3-10. The no-load speed, which series with the armature (figure 3-11), to increase
is the speed when the torque is zero, is given by: the field MMF when the armature current
increases. The resulting motor is known as a
compound motor [3, 4]. However, this cannot
DC Machines 19
compensate for the non-linear nature of the
armature reaction effect.
N
S N
S
Figure 3-11: DC compound motor.
Compensating winding
Starting of DC motors
Figure 3-12: Compensating winding model.
When the speed is zero, the armature generated
voltage is also zero. From equation 3-6, the
corresponding armature current is given by:
ia 0
va
(3-23)
Ra
larger than the normal running current. In a small
r 1 e t / r 0 1 e t /
V
motor, it is permissible to connect the armature
K f
(3-27)
directly to a constant-voltage supply. The armature
where r0 is the no-load speed and the time
can withstand the stalled current for a short time,
constant is given by
and it will accelerate rapidly. As it does so, the
generated voltage will rise and the current will fall
to its normal value. Ra J
(3-28)
However, a large motor must not be started in ( K f ) 2
this way because the armature resistance Ra is very
low, and the stalled current would be large enough The armature current can be determined by
to cause serious damage. An electronic controller substituting for r in equation 3-6:
V Ra ia K f r
for speed control will limit the starting current to a
safe value. If this is not available, a variable (3-29)
resistance must be connected in series with the Ra ia V (1 e t / )
armature and the value progressively reduced to
zero as the armature accelerates. V t /
ia e ia 0 e t / (3-30)
Ra
Transient conditions Figure 3-15 shows graphs of the normalised current
When the voltage applied to a DC motor is ia / ia0 and the normalised speed r / r0 against the
changed, the speed will not change instantly normalised time t / .
because of the inertia of the rotating system. If J is
the moment of inertia and TL is the mechanical load 1
Speed r / r0
torque, Newtons second law gives:
0.8
d r
Current, Speed
J Td TL (3-24) 0.6
dt
Mechanical loss torque is assumed included with 0.4
TL. Substituting for Td in terms of ia from equation
3-2, and ia from equation 3-6, gives: 0.2 Current ia / ia0
d r K f ( v a K f r )
TL
0
J (3-25)
dt Ra 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time t /
The solution of equation 3-25 gives the speed as a
function of time after a change in the applied
voltage. It should be noted that the derivation of Figure 3-15: Starting performance.
equation 3-25 has neglected the inductance of the
armature circuit. See reference [10] for the
difference this makes to the transient behaviour.
As an example, suppose that TL = 0 and the
motor starts from rest with a suddenly applied
voltage va = V. Equation 3-25 becomes:
d r
r
Ra J V
K f
(3-26)
( K f ) 2 dt
DC Machines 21
3.4 Shunt and series motors
So far, it has been assumed that the field flux f is Series motor
independent of the conditions in the armature. This
is the case in a permanent-magnet motor, and in a Figure 3-16 shows the connection of a series motor
wound-field motor where the field winding is to a voltage source. The characteristics are readily
supplied from a separate voltage source. The latter deduced if the following assumptions are made:
is sometimes termed a separately excited motor. The field flux is proportional to the current.
There are two ways of introducing constraints The resistance of the windings is negligible.
between the armature and field of a wound-field
motor. In a shunt motor, the field winding is +
i
connected in parallel with the armature. In a series ea
motor, the field winding is designed to carry the
r
full armature current, and it is connected in series v +
with the armature.
DC Machines 23
4 INTRODUCTION TO AC MACHINES 1
+ +
Va
V12
4.1 Review of 3-phase systems Vb
+
Industrial AC motors use 3-phase alternating + Vc 2
current to generate a rotating magnetic field from 3
stationary windings. The 3-phase supply may be
taken from the AC mains, or it may be generated Figure 4-1: 3-phase star connection.
electronically with an inverter. In either case, the
requirement is a symmetrical set of sinusoidal The corresponding voltage phasor diagram is
currents with relative phase displacements of 120. shown in figure 4-2.
Formally, 3-phase sets of currents and voltages
may be defined as follows in the time domain:
ia I m cos( t )
V31 Va V12
ib I m cos( t 120) Vb
ic I m cos( t 240)
(4-1)
Vc
I m cos( t 120) V23
(a)
c' b'
b c
(c)
a'
Figure 4-7: AC machine flux plots:
Figure 4-6: 3-phase conductor groups.
(a) phase a, (b) phase b, (c) phase c.
Introduction to AC machines 25
When all three phases are energised, the individual
phase fields combine to give a resultant field.
Consider the instant when t = 0. From equation
4-1, the currents in the three phases are:
ia I m , ib 1 2 I m , ic 1 2 I m
(c)
(a)
The total field is the sum of the component fields. 2lrBm sin t (4-6)
If the currents are given by equation 4-1, then where r is the radius and l is the axial length. The
substituting in equation 4-4 gives the result: induced voltage in the coil is thus:
B Ba Bb Bc 23 kI m cos( t ) d
(4-5) e 2 lrBm cos t
Bm cos( t )
(4-7)
dt
See references [3, 4] for further information about
sinusoidal fields.
Introduction to AC machines 27
Speed of the rotating field
Ns
60 f
a' a' [rev/min] (4-10)
p
a' a'
c b
b' c'
a
(a)
a
b' c'
c b
a' a'
b c
c' b'
a
(b)
Introduction to AC machines 29
5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES the two axes. The flux plots in figure 5-2 show (a)
the field produced by stator currents at a particular
instant of time, (b) the field produced by the rotor
5.1 Introduction magnets, (c) the resultant field when both sources
are active.
In a synchronous machine, the rotor is magnetised
and it runs at the same speed as the rotating
magnetic field. Permanent-magnet rotors are
common in small machines, so the machine
structure is similar to that of the brushless DC
motor shown in figure 3-4. Figure 5-1 is a
simplified model of the structure of this type of
machine, where the rotor has surface-mounted
segments of permanent-magnet material. Other
forms of rotor with embedded magnets are also
possible.
(a)
As with DC machines, there is no fundamental Figure 5-2: Synchronous motor flux plots:
difference between a synchronous motor and a (a) stator field, (b) rotor field, (c) resultant field.
synchronous generator. In a motor, the magnetic
axis of the rotating magnetic field is ahead of the
magnetic axis of the rotor, resulting in a positive
torque that depends on the displacement between
5.2 Characteristics
Circuit model
+ +
+
V V E
Synchronous Machines 31
The voltage E is termed the excitation voltage.
It represents the voltage induced in one phase
by the rotation of the magnetised rotor, so it E
corresponds to the magnetic field of the rotor I
shown in figure 5-2(b) or 5-3(b).
The reactance Xs is termed the synchronous
jXsI
reactance. It represents the magnetic field of
the stator current in the following way: the V
voltage jXsI is the voltage induced in one phase
by the stator current. This voltage corresponds
to the magnetic field of the stator shown in I
figure 5-2(a) or 5-3(a).
Figure 5-6: Phasor diagram: generator.
The voltage V = E + jXsI represents the
voltage induced in one phase by the total In power system studies, it is customary to reverse
magnetic field shown in figure 5-2(c) or 5-3(c). the reference direction for the current, so the
current is then represented by the phasor I in
The resistance Ra is the resistance of one phase figure 5-6.
of the stator, or armature, winding. For operation as a motor, V leads E by an
The resistance Ra is usually small in comparison angle , as shown in figure 5-7. The phase angle
with the reactance Xs, so it may be neglected in is now less than 90, indicating a flow of electrical
most calculations from the equivalent circuit. The power into the machine.
resulting approximate equivalent circuit is shown
in figure 5-5, described by the equation: V
N
V jX s I E (5-1)
jXsI
jXs E
I I
M
+ +
E
V
Figure 5-7: Phasor diagram: motor.
3VE sin
3VI cos Td s (5-4)
Excitation control
Xs
The developed torque is thus given by: In a wound-field synchronous machine, the
excitation voltage E can be controlled by varying
3VEsin
Td
the excitation current in the rotor field winding.
s X s
[Nm] (5-5)
This has consequences for the machine
characteristics, as will now be shown for the case
This has a maximum value when = 90, given by: of a synchronous motor.
If the torque load on a synchronous motor is
Td max
3VE
s X s
(5-6) held constant, the power output will be constant,
and if losses are neglected, there will be a constant
Equation 5-5 may therefore be written in electrical power input per phase given by:
normalised form: P VI cos (5-8)
sin
Td In normal operation the terminal voltage V is
(5-7)
Td max constant, so the quantity I cos must be constant.
In figure 5-9, the line AB is drawn parallel to the
A graph of this normalised torque is shown in imaginary axis, and its distance from the axis is
figure 5-8. Positive values of represent motor I cos. This line is the locus of the current phasor
operation; negative values represent generator I.
The length of the line MN is XsI cos, which is
operation.
1
also constant, so the line CD, parallel to the real
axis, is the locus of the excitation voltage phasor E.
Normalised torque
0.5 A
motor
N V
0
generator jXsI
-0.5 E
C I D
-1 M
-180 -90 0 90 180
Load angle, degrees
If the mechanical load on a synchronous motor Figure 5-9: Locus diagram for constant load.
exceeds Tdmax, the rotor will be pulled out of
synchronism with the rotating field, and the motor
will stall. Tdmax is therefore known as the pullout
torque.
The torque characteristic shown in figure 5-8
has an important practical consequence. If the rotor
Synchronous Machines 33
If the value of E is progressively increased, by specially designed for the higher values of rotor
increasing the current in the rotor field winding, and stator current.
the point M will move towards D, and the angle
will decrease. Figure 5-10 shows the condition
where = 0. This is the unity power factor
A
condition, which gives the minimum value for I.
Let E0 be the value of E that gives this condition,
and 0 the corresponding value of . I
A
V N
jXsI
I V N
E
jXsI C D
E0 M
C D B
M
Figure 5-12: Leading power factor condition.
A V jXsI E
V
E jXsI
C D
Figure 5-13: Synchronous compensator.
Is
V
q-axis
It
Il
The relationships between the currents can be Figure 5-15: Salient-pole machine model.
expressed in terms of power, as follows. We have:
The rotor has a path of easy magnetisation,
It Il I s (5-9) known as the direct-axis or d-axis, where the
reluctance is low. This is also the axis of the
The complex power is given by:
magnetic flux produced by the rotor field current.
S t VI *t V ( I l I s ) * VI *l VI *s S l S s (5-10) An axis at right angles, known as the quadrature-
axis or q-axis, has a higher reluctance because of
Equating the real and imaginary parts of equation the larger airgap.
5-10 gives: Figure 5-16 shows the armature flux in a non-
Pt Pl Ps (5-11) salient machine produced by a particular set of
currents in the armature (stator). The flux axis is at
Qt Ql Q s (5-12) 45 to the rotor d-axis.
Synchronous Machines 35
Figure 5-17 is a flux plot for same current pattern However, if the windings are connected in delta
in the salient-pole model. Saliency has the effect of (figure 4-2), the third harmonic voltages will
moving the axis of the armature flux towards the accumulate round the delta:
v va vb v c
d-axis.
1
2
1
sin 2
3V
Td
Iq E
Id Ra I jXdId 2 X q X d
I (5-18)
2
Xd
1 sin 2
3V
2X d X q
Figure 5-18: Salient-pole phasor diagram. from which it follows that the ratio Xd / Xq should
be large for a good design. Say [5] describes
If the armature resistance Ra is neglected, the several different design techniques that have been
torque developed by a salient-pole synchronous used to give high values of q-axis reluctance and
machine is given by [4]: therefore low values of Xq to maximise the
VEsin V 2 1
reluctance torque.
1
Td sin 2
3
Reluctance motors have many of the
s X d 2 X q X d (5-17) advantages of induction motors, with the added
(a) (b)
property that the speed is locked to the frequency
of the AC supply. However, they are prone to
Term (a) in this equation represents the normal instability under certain operating conditions,
synchronous torque, which may be identified with particularly at low frequencies when operated from
equation 5-4. Term (b) represents a component of variable-frequency supplies for speed control [12].
torque due to the saliency of the rotor. This
component is termed the reluctance torque, which 5.4 Linear synchronous motors
vanishes when the rotor is cylindrical, for Xd is
then equal to Xq. See section 7.1 for a discussion of Many applications require motion in a straight line
reluctance torque. Figure 5-19 shows graphs of the rather than rotary motion, for example in
two torque components and the resultant torque. automation systems. Linear motors provide this. In
concept, a linear motor is a rotary motor opened
1.25 out flat. Figure 5-20 shows the linear counterpart
of the rotating field model of figure 4-6, and figure
Normalised torque
Synchronous Machines 37
A tubular linear motor can be derived from the
structure in figure 5-22 by rolling it up around the
longitudinal axis. Figure 5-24 shows an industrial
motor of this kind. Tubular motors have a
(b) particularly simple structure, since the primary
windings are circular coils that encircle the
secondary magnets.
(c)
(d)
Figure 5-21: Flux plots for travelling field:
(a) 0, (b) 30, (c) 60, (d) 90.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5-23: Linear motor flux plots:
(a) primary, (b) secondary, (c) resultant field.
(a)
Induction Machines 39
The magnetic field produced by the rotor It is useful to define a quantity s, known as the
current in an induction motor is very similar to the fractional slip, as follows:
N N r s r
corresponding field in a synchronous motor, but
s s
the underlying mechanism is completely different. slip speed
s
(6-2)
Consequently, the motor characteristics are also synchronous speed Ns
completely different.
It follows that the slip varies in the opposite way to
If the rotor of an induction motor is driven the rotor speed. When the rotor is running at the
mechanically so that it runs faster than the rotating synchronous speed, so that Nr = Ns, the fractional
field, the direction of power flow reverses and slip is s = 0. When the rotor is stationary, so that
machine functions as a generator. Induction Nr = 0, the fractional slip is s = 1. From equation
generators are not widely used, but they have found 6-2, the slip speed and the rotor speed in terms of s
application in wind-powered generators. are given by:
Induction motors are simple and robust, and
their self-starting capability is a particular slip s r s s (6-3)
advantage. At least 90 per cent of industrial drives
are induction motors. A typical small motor is r s s s (1 s ) s (6-4)
shown in figure 6-4.
The frequency of the rotor currents is
proportional to the slip speed, and therefore
proportional to s. When the rotor is stationary,
s = 1, and the rotor frequency must be equal to the
stator supply frequency, so we have the important
result:
f r sf s (6-5)
Induction Machines 41
The corresponding inverse relationships are: and the rotor current is:
rc2 x m2 Z pIs
Rc (6-12) Ir (6-22)
rc Zr
rc2 x m2
Xm (6-13) Worked example 6-1
xm
A 4-pole 3 kW star-connected induction motor
If the core loss is small, so that Rc >> Xm, then
operates from a 50 Hz supply with a line voltage of
rc << xm, and we have the following approximate
400 V. The equivalent-circuit parameters per phase
relationships:
are as follows:
xm X m (6-14) Rs = 2.27 , Rr = 2.28 , xs = xr = 2.83 ,
Xm = 74.8 , rc = 3.95 .
X m2
rc (6-15) If the full-load slip is 5%, determine:
Rc
(a) the no-load current,
(b) the full-load stator current,
x m2
Rc (6-16) (c) the full-load rotor current,
rc
(d) the full-load speed in rev/min,
The value of rc depends on Xm, and therefore on the (e) the full-load developed torque.
frequency. When the speed of an induction motor Solution
is controlled by varying the frequency (see section
8-4), the resistance Rc is approximately constant. The phase voltage is:
Under these conditions, rc is proportional to the
Vs 231 V
Vline 400
square of the frequency, so the modified equivalent
circuit is less useful. In this section, however, the 3 3
frequency is assumed constant, so the modified The impedances are:
circuit will be used.
Values of the stator and rotor currents are Z s Rs jx s 2.27 j 2.83
easily determined by first defining impedances as
Zr jx r j 2.83 45.6 j 2.83
follows: Rr 2.28
Z s Rs jx s s 0.05
Z m rc xm 3.95 j 74.8
(6-17)
Zr jx r
Rr
(6-18) (3.95 j 74.8)( 45.6 j 2.83)
Zp
Zm Zr
s
Z m Z r ( 3.95 j 74.8) ( 45.6 j 2.83)
Z m rc jxm (6-19) 31.1 j 20.3
The parallel combination of the magnetising
branch and the rotor branch is: (a) The no-load current is:
Zp I0
ZmZr Vs 231
Zs Zm ( 2.27 j 2.83) (3.95 74.8)
(6-20)
Zm Z r
2.97 A
so the stator current is: 231 231
6.22 j 77.6 77.9
Is
Vs
Zs Z p
(6-21)
211 j 5.89
Figure 6-8 shows the input current as a
I r Ir 4.62 A
211 function of slip for the same motor. Observe that
45.6 j 2.83 45.7 the starting current, when the rotor is stationary, is
about six times the full-load current of 5.69 A. This
(d) The synchronous speed is: ratio of starting current to full-load current is a
60 f 60 50 typical figure for induction motors.
Ns 1500 rev/min
p 2 Stator phase current, A 35
so the full-load speed is: 30
N r (1 s ) N s (1 0.05) 1500 25
1425 rev/min 20
15
(e) The full-load developed torque is:
10
3I r2 Rr 3 ( 4.62 ) 2.28
2
Td 18.6 Nm 5 full load
ss 2 50
0.05 0
2 0 300 600 900 1200 1500
Rotor speed, rev/min
Typical characteristics
Figure 6-7 shows the torque/speed characteristic Figure 6-8: Current/speed characteristic.
for the 3 kW motor used in the worked example.
Developed torque, Nm
Developed torque, Nm
are re-connected in delta. This method has been 30
superseded by electronic soft starting (see section brake motor generator
0
8.4), where the applied voltage is gradually region region region
increased. -30
-60
Motor driving a load
-90
When a motor drives a mechanical load, the
operating point is given by the intersection of the -120
motor torque/speed characteristic with the -1500 0 1500 3000
corresponding load characteristic, as shown in
Rotor speed, rev/min
figure 6-9.
Figure 6-10: Extended torque characteristic.
70
60
50 motor Brake region of the characteristic
Torque, Nm
40
The rotor speed is negative in the brake region, so
30 we may put r = |r |. From equation 6-2, the
20 load fractional slip is given by:
10 s r s r
s
s s
0 (6-23)
0 300 600 900 1200 1500
Rotor speed, rev/min so s > 1. The gross mechanical power output given
by equation 6-7 is therefore negative:
Figure 6-9: Motor driving a load. Pmech (1 s ) s Td [6-7]
r
Pem 1
Pmech 1 s
60 (6-28)
Developed torque, Nm
60
Generating region of the characteristic 30
In the generating region of figure 6-10, the
machine torque is negative, so we may put Td =
0
|Td|. The fractional slip is also negative: s = |s|, -30
and the resistance Rr / s is negative in the rotor
branch of the equivalent circuit. It follows that the -60
electromagnetic and mechanical power values,
given by equations 6-6 and 6-7, both become -90
negative, but the power loss (equation 6-8) remains 0 750 1500 2250 3000
positive: Rotor speed, rev/min
Pem s Td s Td (6-25)
Figure 6-12: Torque characteristic: Rs = 0.
Induction Machines 45
Figure 6-13 shows the effect on the motor With this change in Rs, the full-load slip is
torque of halving the values of the leakage approximately halved, and therefore the full-load
reactances xs and xr. This has little effect on the rotor loss is halved. The penalty for this increased
characteristic near to the synchronous speed, but it efficiency is that the starting torque is much lower.
increases the starting torque and the breakdown For operation from a fixed-frequency supply,
torque significantly. the design of an induction motor is a compromise.
A low value of Rs is desirable to give high
90 efficiency, but this also results in a low value of
Developed torque, Nm
80 starting torque.
70 (b)
An ingenious solution to this conflict between
60
efficiency and starting torque is to make the rotor
50
(a) with very deep slots, or even with two concentric
40
rotor cage windings [4, 5, 6]. These designs exploit
30
the fact that the frequency of the rotor currents is
20
sfs (equation 6-5), which is very low when the rotor
10
is running normally, but is equal to the supply
0
frequency when the rotor is stationary. Skin effect
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 in AC conductors [3, 4] causes current to flow near
Rotor speed, rev/min the surface at high frequencies, with a consequent
increase in the effective resistance. The special
Figure 6-13: Torque/speed characteristics: rotor windings have a low resistance at the full-
(a) original, (b) leakage reactance halved. load slip frequency, when the current is uniformly
distributed, but a high resistance when the slip
Figure 6-14 shows the effect of halving the rotor
frequency is high during starting.
resistance Rr. This has the effect of compressing
the characteristic towards the synchronous speed When the motor is supplied from a variable-
end, because the torque is a function of Rr / s, so frequency inverter (see section 8.4), the starting
the value of s must change in the same ratio as Rr condition is handled automatically without the
to give the same torque. Thus the value of the need for a high-resistance rotor, so a low resistance
breakdown torque is unchanged, but the slip at can be used for optimum efficiency.
which it occurs is halved.
70
6.3 Losses and efficiency
Developed torque, Nm
Users comparing different motors need to know the The loss segregation method of determining
efficiency with high accuracy. efficiency is given in several national and
international test specifications [7, 8]. It requires
the following steps to determine all the losses
Loss components under specified load conditions (usually full load).
The motor losses are considered to have five 1. Determine the stator I2R loss PRs from equation
components as follows: 6-31, using the measured values of the stator
phase resistance Rs and phase current Is.
(1) Stator I2R loss: PRs 3 I s Rs
2
(6-31) 2. Determine the core loss Pcore and the friction
and windage loss Pfw from a no-load test (see
(2) Rotor I2R loss: PRr 3 I r Rr
2 below).
(6-32)
3. Determine the rotor I2R loss PRr as follows,
based on equation 6-32, using measured values
Pcore 3 I m rc
2
(3) Core loss: (6-33) of the input power Pin and the slip s:
PRr 3 | I r |2 Rr 3s | I r |2 sPem
Rr
(4) Friction and windage loss: Pfw (6-34)
s
(5) Stray load loss: Pstray Pem Pin PRs Pcore (6-35)
The total loss is the sum of items 1 to 5. Core loss where Pem is the electromagnetic power
is the eddy-current and hysteresis loss in the transferred to the rotor.
magnetic core of the machine, mostly in the stator, 4. Determine a value for the stray load loss Pstray.
which is represented by the resistance rc. Friction This is the least satisfactory part of the
and windage loss is the total mechanical power loss procedure, because of the uncertainty in this
within the motor, from bearing friction and quantity. As yet, there appears to be no
aerodynamic drag on the rotor. Stray load loss is an satisfactory test method for stray load loss. The
additional loss under load, which is not included in
Induction Machines 47
American standard [8] specifies a special test, 6.4 Parameter determination
known as the reverse-rotation test, but this has
been shown to give inaccurate results in many The parameters of the equivalent circuit in figure
cases. The IEC standard [7] avoids this 6-6 are usually determined from three tests:
difficulty by assuming that Pstray is 0.5% of the A DC measurement of the stator phase
input power Pin, but this is too low for small resistance
motors, and it fails to penalise badly designed A no-load test, essentially as described above
motors with a high value for Pstray. for efficiency determination
A locked-rotor (or blocked-rotor) test, where
the rotor is prevented from revolving
No-load test
These tests resemble the open-circuit and short-
In the no-load test, the induction motor is run circuit tests for determining the equivalent-circuit
without any mechanical load attached to the shaft. parameters of the transformer.
The input power then just supplies the losses in the
motor, and the slip is negligibly small. Under these
conditions, the rotor current is very small, so the DC resistance test
rotor I2R loss is negligible, and we have:
In small or medium-sized machines, up to about
Pin PRs Pcore Pfw (6-36) 100 kW, a DC measurement of the primary
winding phase resistance will give an accurate
By definition, the stray load loss is not included in value for Rs in the equivalent circuit. If the
the no-load test. Stray no-load losses, if they are machine is star connected, then a measurement
significant, are considered included in Pcore and Pfw. between any pair of line terminals will give 2Rs. If
Re-arranging equation 6-36 gives it is delta connected, the corresponding
Pin Pin PRs Pcore Pfw
measurement will give 2Rs/3. The measurement
(6-37)
should be made for all three pairs of terminals and
If the stator terminal voltage Vs is reduced, the the average taken.
rotor speed will be virtually unchanged because the In large machines, above about 100 kW, the
slip remains small, so Pfw will remain constant. value of Rs at the normal operating frequency may
Since Pcore varies approximately as Vs2, a graph of be significantly larger than the DC value because
P'in against |Vs|2 will approximate to a straight line of skin effect in the stator conductors.
as shown in figure 6-15. Extrapolating this line to
zero volts gives the value of Pfw, and the core loss
is then given by No-load test continued
Pcore Pin PRs Pfw (6-38) Since the rotor current is small in the no-load test,
the rotor branch may be removed from the
equivalent circuit of figure 6-6, giving the
simplified form shown in figure 6-16.
P'in jxs
Is Rs
+
rc
Vs
Pfw
jxm
|Vs|
Figure 6-16: No-load equivalent circuit.
Figure 6-15: No-load test graph.
Induction Machines 49
DC resistance test: Pcore Pnl Pfw 3I nl2 Rs
(2)
Rs
RDC 4.54
2.27 214 50 3 2.97 2.27 104 W
2 2
Pem Pfl PRs Pcore
Locked-rotor test:
3290 221 104 2965 W
Vs 25.7 V
Vline 44.5
3 3 (3) PRr sPem 0.05 2965 148 W
lr
I 5. 70
1.25 6.5 Single-phase induction motors
xr 2.51
xlr f 0 1.25 50
2 f lr 2 12.5 Single-phase operation of a 3-phase motor
V 231
2 2 Figure 6-18: Single-phase connection.
X nl s Rnl2 (6.20)
2
nl
I 2 . 97
77.5
10
s
jxm 0 Total
torque
-10
Vs Negative
-20 sequence
jxm
-30
Rr -1500 -750 0 750 1500
2s
rc Speed, rev/min
Irn
Induction Machines 51
Losses
PRs 2 Rs I s2 (6-45)
If skin effect in the rotor is negligible for the
negative-sequence component of rotor current, the Figure 6-22: Single-phase induction motor.
I2R loss in the rotor is given by: The phases of a 2-phase winding are displaced in
PRr
2 2 space by 90 (for a 2-pole machine), corresponding
Rr ( I rp I rn ) (6-46)
to the 90 time-phase displacement between the
currents. As with a 3-phase winding, it may be
shown [3, 4] that a 2-phase winding with 2-phase
Danger of single-phase operation currents can produce a rotating magnetic field.
If one stator line is accidentally disconnected from Once the motor has started, it is possible to
a 3-phase motor, it will continue to run as a single- disconnect the capacitor, and the motor will
phase motor. The motor slip will increase so that continue to run with a single winding, but the
the developed torque continues to match the load performance is not as good.
torque, but the stator and rotor currents will be The shaded-pole principle [3, 4] is used in very
abnormally high. Table 6-2 shows the computed small single-phase induction motors such as the
full-load performance of the example 3 kW motor, one shown in figure 6-23. They are widely used for
(a) with a normal 3-phase supply, (b) with one line driving small cooling fans.
disconnected.
Table 6-2: 3-phase and 1-phase operation.
3-phase 1-phase
Full-load slip 0.05 0.082
Stator current magnitude 5.56 A 11.6 A
Rotor current magnitude 4.63 A 10.5 A +ve,
11.2 A ve
Stator I2R loss 211 W 611 W
Rotor I2R loss 147 W 538 W
Total I2R loss 358 W 1150 W
Figure 6-23: Shaded-pole induction motor.
This large increase in the I2R loss will cause the (RS Components Ltd)
motor to overheat very rapidly, resulting in serious
damage unless it is disconnected from the supply. This type of motor has a single winding on the
For this reason, it is essential for motor control stator, energising a pair of poles. A part of each
gear to detect single-phase operation and pole is enclosed by a ring of copper, known as a
disconnect the supply immediately. shading coil. Currents are induced in the rings,
giving the effect of a rudimentary 2-phase winding.
Current, A
For both of these conditions, a dynamic model is
required. The 2-axis theory of the induction motor 0
[4, 9, 10] treats the machine as a system of coupled
circuits described by differential equations. This
-25
model is valid for all conditions, transient as well
as steady state. Although the theory is beyond the
scope of this course, it is useful to consider some -50
of the results from this model obtained by 0 100 200 300
numerical solution of the differential equations. Time, ms
The equations of the 2-axis model are given in
Appendix 10.1. (a)
120
Starting transient
90
The torque/speed characteristics in section 6.2
Torque, Nm
Induction Machines 53
DC braking (a)
Torque, Nm
connecting a DC supply. The resulting stationary 0
magnetic field induces currents in the rotor that -20
oppose the rotation a process termed DC braking
or DC injection braking. A common -40
implementation with a star-connected induction -60
motor is to link two line terminals together, and 0 200 400
connect the DC source between this point and the
Time, ms
third terminal, as shown in figure 6-25.
(b)
Figure 6-26: Induction motor DC braking:
+ (a) rotor speed, (b) torque.
V
Observe that the negative torque is maintained
for a short time after the rotor reaches zero speed,
because the rotor inductance forces current to
Figure 6-25: DC braking connection.
continue flowing, resulting in a brief speed
When the speed of an induction motor is controlled reversal. This in turn causes the rotor current to
by an inverter (see section 9), DC braking can be change sign, and the torque goes positive, bringing
achieved without altering the connections to the the rotor to rest.
motor.
Figure 6-26 shows the rotor speed and the
developed torque for the example 3 kW motor 6.7 Linear induction motors
when DC braking is initiated from the full-load As with synchronous motors, a linear form of the
speed of 1425 rev/min. The DC source voltage is induction motor can be derived by unrolling a
120 V, and total moment of inertia is 0.011 kg rotary motor, so the travelling-field model of figure
5-20 is applicable. Figure 6-27 shows the primary
1500 of a small linear induction motor.
Speed, rev/min
1000
500
-500
0 200 400
Time, ms
2
m.
Figure 6-27: Linear induction motor primary.
(c)
(a) (d)
Figure 6-30: Linear induction motor flux and
current plots: (a) 0, (b) 30, (c) 60, (d) 90.
Figure 6-30(a)(e) show plots of the magnetic Figure 6-31: Maglev vehicle with linear
flux in the motor and the currents in the conductors induction motor propulsion. (HSST Corporation)
when t = 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 respectively.
The current magnitude is represented by a colour The behaviour of a linear induction motor can
that ranges from blue for minimum to red for differ significantly from that of an equivalent
maximum. rotary motor [3, 4]. Linear motors usually have
large airgaps, so the magnetising current is larger
than in a rotary motor. In addition, a linear motor
has two ends that have no counterpart in a rotary
motor. In a short-primary machine, transient
currents can be generated as secondary conducting
material enters the active region at one end and
leaves it at the other end. These transient currents
can reduce the force on the secondary and increase
the losses, particularly at high speeds. Short-
secondary machines do not suffer from this
problem, because the secondary conducting
material is always in the active region.
Induction Machines 55
7 STEPPER MOTORS Hybrid stepper motors make use of permanent
magnets to enhance the reluctance effect. They can
be made with very small step angles typically
7.1 Introduction 1.8 and they can develop large values of torque.
Although they require a more complex type of
The conventional AC and DC machines are electronic driver, hybrid stepper motors are the
designed for continuous rotation of a shaft. It is most popular variety.
often desirable to control the speed, but most
applications do not require precise control of the
angular position. 7.2 Variable-reluctance principle
Specialised applications such as automation
Consider an electromagnetic system of any kind,
systems do require this kind of control. Often it is
energised by a coil carrying a current i. If the
achieved with a feedback control system
displacement of any part of the system causes a
change in the reluctance R of the magnetic circuit,
incorporating a position sensor, a drive motor, and
a controller. The position measured by the sensor is
the inductance L will also change. In the
compared with the desired value, and the
Electromechanics course notes [1] it is shown that
difference used to control the motor until the error
the x-component of force on that part is:
is acceptably small. AC and DC motors used in this
L R
fx 12 2
way are termed servomotors, but they will not be 1 2
2i (7-1)
considered further in this course. x x
where is the magnetic flux through the coil.
Another way of achieving position control is to
Similarly, if rotation through an angle causes a
use a special type of motor known as a stepping
motor or stepper motor. These motors are not
designed primarily for continuous rotation, change in the reluctance and the inductance, then
although they can work in this way if required. the corresponding torque is:
Instead, they are designed to turn the output shaft L R
T 1 2
12 2
through a precise angle whenever the currents in 2i (7-2)
the windings are switched in a particular way by an
electronic driver. Each switching action results in Equations 7-1 and 7-2 can be very useful for
one increment or step in the rotor position. determining forces and torques in devices where it
There are three basic types of stepper motor: is possible to calculate the inductance or the
simple permanent-magnet, variable-reluctance, and reluctance. These equations also explain the
hybrid. Simple permanent-magnet stepper motors principle of a variety of practical devices that
are similar to permanent-magnet synchronous develop a force or a torque because the reluctance
motors, except that the stator currents are switched of the magnetic circuit can change.
instead of varying continuously. They are no
longer widely used, and they will not be considered Alignment torque
further.
Variable-reluctance stepper motors are simple Figure 7-1 shows a simple variable-reluctance
applications of the variable-reluctance principle actuator, where a short steel bar can rotate between
introduced in section 7.2. They do not contain the poles of an electromagnet.
magnets, and they are easy to control, but they
have relatively large step angles. A variant of the
variable-reluctance stepper motor is the switched
reluctance motor, which is designed for continuous
rotation.
Stepper Motors 57
7.3 Variable-reluctance stepper motors
Figure 7-4 shows a 3D model of a simple variable-
reluctance stepper motor with a 4-pole rotor and a
6-pole stator.
(a)
a
c' b'
b c
a'
(c)
phase A +I 0 I 0 +I
Switched reluctance motors
phase B 0 +I 0 I 0
Although variable-reluctance stepper motors are
not very widely used, the same principle is As with the variable-reluctance motor, one phase at
exploited in a type of motor known as a switched a time is energised, but the current in each phase
reluctance motor [3, 4]. These are designed for has to change direction.
continuous rotation, with the electronic driver
controlled by a position sensor on the motor shaft
instead of using externally generated pulses.
Switched reluctance motors are very simple in
structure, and can be competitive with inverter-
controlled induction motors in some applications.
They suffer from the disadvantages of torque
pulsation at low speeds, and noise. Switched
reluctance motors are beyond the scope of this
course but are covered in the Year 3 course
Electrical Machine Drives.
Stepper Motors 59
Consider the situation when phase A is
switched off and phase B is switched on. Poles B1
and B2 are symmetrically positioned with respect to
the rotor teeth, but the flux densities in the two
gaps are very different. Pole B1 has S polarity, so
the flux density in the gap between this pole and
the rotor N disc is high. Since pole B2 has N
polarity, the flux density in this gap is low. The
converse holds for the S rotor disc. The result is
(a) that the rotor is pulled into a new alignment
position shown in figure 7-10.
It is not possible to show 2D flux plots for the
hybrid stepper motor because the field is
essentially 3D. Magnetic flux passes along the axis
from the permanent magnet to one rotor disc,
crosses the gap to the stator poles, then along the
poles to the other rotor disc, and returns to the
other end of the magnet. Figure 7-11 shows shaded
(b) plots of the flux density magnitude in the two discs
and the poles when phase B is energised, but the
rotor has not yet moved to the new alignment
Figure 7-8: Hybrid stepper motor model: position. This demonstrates the effect of the
(a) complete, (b) frame and two coils removed.
permanent magnet in concentrating the field in the
Figure 7-9 shows the situation when phase A is required gaps.
energised. Stator pole A1 has S polarity, so it aligns After one complete cycle of excitation, or four
with the N rotor disc; stator pole A2 has N polarity, steps, the rotor will have moved by one tooth pitch
so it aligns with the S rotor disc. from its original position. If there are n teeth on the
rotor, there will be 4n steps per revolution, so the
B1 step angle is 90 / n degrees. Practical hybrid
stepper motors usually have a large number of
teeth on the rotor, resulting in a small step angle. A
A2 typical step angle is 1.8, giving 200 steps per
N A1
revolution, with 50 rotor teeth.
The maximum torque can be estimated from
equation 7-5 as follows. Let Bm be the flux density
B2
in a gap due to the permanent magnet, and Be the
(a) flux density due an energised pole. If the magnetic
circuit is unsaturated, the total flux density in one
gap will be Bm + Be, and in the other gap it will be
B1 Bm Be. If p is the number of active pairs of teeth,
the resultant torque is thus:
pl g drB12 pl g drB22 pl g dr
Tm ( B12 B22 )
0 0 0
A2 S A1
pl g dr
{( Bm Be ) 2 ( Bm Be ) 2 }
B2 0
4 pl g drBm Be
(b)
0
Figure 7-9: Phase A energised:
(a) N polarity end, (b) S polarity end. (7-6)
B2 Be Bm 1
2 Bs (7-7)
(b) It is possible to energise both phases at the
same time, giving the pattern of phase currents in
Figure 7-10: Phase B energised: table 7-2.
(a) N polarity end, (b) S polarity end. Table 7-2: Motor phase currents.
phase A +I +I I I +I
phase B I +I +I I I
This sequence gives a larger torque with the
same step angle, and is the normal mode of
operation. The current in each phase is a square
wave, and there is a phase shift of 90 between the
two currents. A combination of the patterns in table
7-1 and table 7-2 will give eight steps for each
(a) cycle of excitation, which is termed the half-step
mode. The normal mode is the full-step mode.
Stepper Motors 61
characteristic, where the restoring force increases The nature of the currents in the motor phases
with displacement. will depend on the type of electronic driver see
The maximum restoring torque T = Tm occurs section 7.6 as well as the speed and the properties
when n = 90, corresponding to a displacement of of the motor. At low speeds, a typical driver will
a quarter of a tooth pitch. If an external torque maintain constant currents in the motor phases for
exceeding Tm is applied, then the rotor will slip a the duration of each step, so the current waveform
tooth it will move to the next equilibrium approximates to a square wave.
position one tooth pitch away. The maximum At high speeds, however, the waveform may be
position error, just before tooth slipping occurs, is very different from a square wave, because the rate
therefore a quarter of a tooth pitch. This is equal to of rise of current is limited by the phase
the step angle in a hybrid stepper motor. inductance. If the speed is high enough, the current
will not reach its desired value before the end of
the step period. The waveform is then
Multi-step operation approximately triangular, decreasing in amplitude
With each switching of the motor phase currents, as the stepping rate increases. There will be a
the rotor of a stepper motor will move to a new corresponding reduction in the motor torque.
step position. Since the rotor has inertia and the
restoring force has a spring-like characteristic, the
Start/stop rate
rotor will oscillate about its new equilibrium
position. If the currents are switched at a low rate, If the stepping rate is not too high, a stepper motor
the rotor will move in steps, but it will oscillate at will start from rest and run in the slewing mode
each step position. If the oscillation has not when the winding currents are switched at a
decayed to a low level before the next switching constant rate. Similarly, if the rate is not too high,
instant, resonance is possible, where the oscillation the motor will stop suddenly when the current
amplitude increases at each step until the rotor switching stops. Above a critical stepping rate
motion becomes erratic [11]. This can happen the start/stop rate the motor may lose steps when
when the time interval between steps is an integer it starts, and over-run or gain steps when it stops.
multiple of the oscillation period. If the stepping As long as the start/stop rate is not exceeded, the
rate is Sr steps per second, and the oscillation rotor moves by a number of steps equal to the
natural frequency is fn hertz, the condition for number of switching steps. The start/stop rate
resonance is therefore: depends on the total inertia of the rotating system
as well as the properties of the motor and driver.
k 1, 2, 3,
1 k
, (7-9)
Sr fn
Pullout torque
The critical stepping rates for resonance are
therefore given by: Like a synchronous motor, a slewing stepper motor
will stall when the applied torque exceeds the
Sr k 1, 2, 3,
fn
, (7-10) pullout torque. The value of this torque depends on
k the phase current waveform, so it varies with the
stepping rate. At low stepping rates, when the
phase current waveform is almost a square wave,
High-speed operation the pullout torque is substantially constant. At
When the stepping rate is higher than the higher rates, as noted above, the mean current will
oscillation natural frequency, rotor motion is fall, and the pullout torque will be reduced.
continuous, and the small speed variation between
steps can be ignored. This mode of operation is
known as slewing. It resembles the steady-state
operation of a synchronous motor.
1400
1200
Stepping rate, steps/s
b
1000
800
600
a c
400
200
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time, s
Stepper Motors 63
7.6 Stepper motor control The circuit operates as follows:
To supply positive current to the motor phase,
Electronic drive circuits transistors Q1 and Q4 are turned on, connecting
terminal T1 to +Vd and terminal T2 to Vd.
A driver for a stepper motor usually comprises When Q1 and Q4 are turned off, current can
three sub-systems: continue to flow in diodes D2 and D3, returning
A power drive that supplies current to the energy to the supply, until the current falls to
motor windings. zero.
A logic sequencer that generates the required To supply negative current, transistors Q2 and
control signals for the power drive, in response Q3 are turned on, connecting terminal T1 to
to step demand pulses. Vd and terminal T2 to +Vd.
A controller that generates the required When Q2 and Q3 are turned off, current can
sequence of step demand pulses. continue to flow in diodes D1 and D4, returning
These sub-systems may be combined in a single energy to the supply, until the current falls to
unit. More commonly, the controller is a separate zero.
item that may take the form of a plug-in card for a If transistors Q2 and Q3 are turned on before Q1
computer, and the logic sequencer is combined and Q4 cease to conduct, both arms of the bridge
with the power drive to form a drive module. will short-circuit the power supply. This
Most hybrid stepper motors require a bipolar undesirable condition is known as shoot-through.
power drive, which can reverse the direction of the To ensure that it cannot happen, a delay is often
current through the winding. Some types of motor introduced between the positive and negative half-
can use a simpler unipolar drive, which turns the cycles of the current waveform, as shown in figure
current on and off without reversing its direction, 7-15.
but this requires two coils on each pole. Bipolar
drives are the preferred choice. They usually 100
employ chopper action for controlling the current
Current, %
Q1 Q3
D1 D3 Figure 7-15: Phase current waveform.
T1 motor T2
phase
Q2 Q4
D2 D4
Rc
Vd
Figure 7-14: Bipolar power drive.
Stepper Motors 65
8 POWER ELECTRONIC CONTROL If the diodes are replaced by thyristors, as
shown in figure 8-3, the output voltage can be
controlled by varying the firing angle the point
8.1 AC/DC Converters on the cycle where the thyristors are turned on by
applying a gate drive signal. The gate drive circuits
AC/DC converters convert alternating current or are not shown in figure 8-3.
voltage into direct current or voltage [3, 4]. In most
applications, the power flow is from the AC source U1 U3
to the DC load, and the process is called
R +
rectification. If the power flow reverses, the +
process is called inversion. vs vL
When the source voltage vs is a sinusoidal Figure 8-4: Thyristor bridge output voltage.
alternating quantity, the output voltage vL is
unidirectional. Figure 8-2 shows the output for two The mean output voltage is now given by:
cycles of the input voltage, as a percentage of the Vd Vd 0 cos (8-2)
maximum value of vs.
where Vd0 is the diode bridge output given by
100 equation 8-1 and is the firing angle. Thus, the
Voltage, %
50
Figure 8-2: Diode bridge output voltage. 0
-50
The mean output voltage is given by:
-100
Vd 0 0.900V
2 2V 0 180 360 540 720
(8-1)
Time phase, degrees
where V is the RMS value of the AC input.
Figure 8-5: Output voltage when = 90.
50
0 100
Voltage, %
-50
-100 50
0 180 360 540 720
0
Time phase, degrees 0 180 360 540 720
Current cannot flow in the reverse direction Figure 8-9: 3-phase diode bridge output.
through the thyristors, so the circuit will not work
with a passive load if > 90. However, current
Figure 8-10 shows a 3-phase thyristor bridge, and
figure 8-11 shows the corresponding output voltage
can continue to flow in the forward direction if the
waveform when the firing angle is 30.
load contains a voltage source, such as a battery or
a DC motor armature, with the polarity shown in
figure 8-6. The DC source eL then supplies power U1 U3 U5
to the converter, which returns power to the AC
supply. In this mode, the converter is operating as a R +
an inverter.
b vL
U1 U3 eL c L
+
+ U2 U4 U6
vs R
100
Voltage, %
Vab, %
bridge, one transistor at a time is switched on,
connecting an output terminal to either +Vd or 0
Vd. As in the stepper motor drive, the diodes
provide paths where load current can continue to -100
flow when the transistors are turned off. It is 0 180 360 540 720
essential that one transistor has ceased to conduct Time phase, degrees
before the second transistor in the same leg is
turned on, otherwise the DC supply will be short-
circuited. This is the same problem of shoot- 100
through that was mentioned in section 7.6.
Vbc, %
0
Six-step inverter
-100
The simplest mode of operation is to control the 0 180 360 540 720
switches so that the voltage waveform at each Time phase, degrees
output terminal is a square wave. Figure 8-13
shows the voltages with respect to the mid-point of
the DC supply, as a percentage of the DC supply 100
voltage Vd. The line-to-line voltages are then quasi-
Vca, %
square waves, as shown in figure 8-14. Because 0
there are six switching transitions per cycle, this is
known as a six-step inverter. -100
0 180 360 540 720
50
Va, %
DC link inverter
If the core flux density Bm is held constant, this With these definitions, the torque equation 6.9
equation shows that the magnitude of the voltage is becomes:
proportional to frequency. The same principle
VEsin V 2 1 1
applies to AC machines, which gives the constant
Td
3
sin 2
volts per hertz rule for variable-frequency s X d 2 X q X d
operation. (8-10)
V E sin V 2 1 1
0
Equation 2-10 was derived on the assumption 3
0 0
s0 2 X q 0 X d 0
sin 2
that the resistance of the winding is negligible. X d 0
This is usually a good approximation at the normal
AC mains frequency of 50 Hz, but it does not hold Thus the torque depends on the load angle but is
at very low frequencies. If the transformer independent of the frequency.
secondary is open-circuited, the flux density in the
core is determined by the current in the primary
winding, which in turn depends on the input Induction motor soft start
impedance:
In section 6.2, it was noted that the starting current
I1 1
V V1 of an induction motor is typically six times the full-
(8-5)
R12 (L1 ) 2
Z1 load current. In addition, as shown in section 6.6,
there is a large transient torque when the full
where L1 is the self-inductance of the primary. At supply voltage is suddenly applied to the motor.
very low frequencies, the current will be These problems can be reduced by soft starting
determined by the winding resistance R1 rather than gradually increasing the applied voltage. This is
the reactance L1. The constant volts per hertz rule easily accomplished with an AC phase controller
therefore ceases to apply at very low frequencies, of the form shown in figure 8-18, connected
where a constant voltage is required. between the 3-phase supply and the load [12].
a1 a2
Synchronous motor speed control
Vs Rr
100 jXm
Voltage, %
s
0
Td
3 2 Rr 3 2
s s s
Ir I r Rr (8-11)
Figure 8-19: Phase controller output voltage s
The RMS value of the output voltage falls as the The quantity ss is the slip angular frequency, so
firing angle increases, reaching zero when the developed torque will be constant if the rotor
= 180. current and the slip frequency are held constant.
Constant slip frequency is the preferred operating
mode, so it is necessary to explore the
Induction motor speed control
consequences of this constraint when the frequency
As with the synchronous motor, the most effective is varied. As with synchronous machines, we
way of controlling the speed of an induction motor introduce a frequency ratio k = f / f0, where f is the
is to vary the supply frequency. For optimum operating frequency and f0 is the base frequency. If
performance, the supply voltage must also be s0 is the fractional slip at the base frequency f0,
varied to maintain a constant magnetic flux density corresponding to a synchronous speed s0, then:
in the machine. The principles of variable- s s s0 s 0 (8-12)
frequency operation may be deduced from the
equivalent circuit of figure 6-6, reproduced below: The fractional slip s at frequency f is thus:
s0 s 0 s0 s 0 s0
s
Is Rs jxs jxr Ir
s k s 0
(8-13)
k
I0
+ The value of the rotor resistance element in the
rc equivalent circuit is:
Rr
Vs
r r
s Rr R kR
(8-14)
jxm s s0 / k s0
and the values of the reactances are:
The core loss resistance is given by equation 6-15: x s kx s 0 , x r kx r 0 , X m kX m 0 (8-15)
Torque, Nm
with Rs = 0 in the equivalent circuit and the voltage 50
40
proportional to frequency. The slip is 5% at 50 Hz, 20 30 40 50
30
which is close to the full-load value. This gives a 20 10
theoretical torque of 20.3 Nm, shown by the blue 10
horizontal line in figure 8-20. All of the 0 2.5
torque/speed curves have the same shape, with the 0 300 600 900 120 150
same value of breakdown torque, and the full-load 0 0
slip speed is 75 rev/min in each case. Rotor speed, rev/min
100
Figure 8-23: Variable-frequency operation:
80
Torque, Nm
Phase voltage, V
180
70
120
60
50
Torque, Nm
60
40
10 20 30 40 50
30 0
20 0 10 20 30 40 50
2.5
10 Frequency, Hz
0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 Figure 8-25: Voltage-frequency relationship for
a 3 kW induction motor.
Rotor speed, rev/min
The required characteristic is very nearly a
Figure 8-24: Variable-frequency operation: straight line that does not pass through the origin.
2.5, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 Hz, variable V / f. Many inverter manufacturers provide an adjustable
Although the performance at full-load slip is characteristic of the form shown in figure 8-26,
now constant throughout the speed range, the where the boost voltage Vb, break-point voltage Vp,
breakdown torque and the starting torque are still and break-point frequency fp can be set as required.
significantly reduced at low frequencies. This is
another effect of the stator resistance Rs. In larger
motors, Rs is a smaller proportion of the motor
impedance, so the characteristics approach the
ideal more closely.
In equation 10-1, p d / dt and r is the rotor angular velocity in rad/s. The resistances Rs and Rr are the
normal stator and rotor resistances in the equivalent circuit, and the inductances are related to the
equivalent-circuit reactances as follows:
X m M
x s ( Ls M ) (10-2)
x r ( Lr M )
The variables vsd, vsq, isd and isq are the 2-axis stator voltages and currents. These are related to the 3-phase
terminal voltages and currents by the equations:
i
isd 1 12 12 sa
i 3 isb
23
2
(10-3)
sq 0 2
3
isc
v
v sd 1 12 12 sa
v v sb
23
2
(10-4)
sq 0 2
3 3
v sc
Provided there is a 3-wire supply to the motor (no neutral connection), there is an inverse transformation
giving the 3-phase variable in terms of the 2-axis variables:
isa 1 0
i 2 1 3
isd
2
sb 3 2
isq
(10-5)
isc 12 23
v sa 1 0
v 2 1 3
v sd
2
sb 3 2
v sq
(10-6)
v sc 12 23
Appendices 77
The variables vrd, vrq, ird and irq are the corresponding 2-axis rotor voltages and currents. They are related to
the physical currents in an equivalent 2-phase rotor winding by the equations:
ird cos sin ir
i
rq sin cos ir
(10-7)
v rd cos sin v r
v
rq sin cos v r
(10-8)
where is the angle between the axis of the phase of the rotor and the a phase of the stator. The inverse
form of these equations is:
ir cos sin ird
i
r sin cos irq
(10-9)
Rs 0 0 0
0 0
R
Rs 0
0 0
(10-13)
0 Rr
0 0 0 Rr
Ls 0 M 0
0 M
L
Ls 0
M 0
(10-14)
0 Lr
0 M 0 Lr
0 0 0 0
0 0
G
0 0
0 Lr
(10-15)
M 0
M 0 Lr 0
To solve problems such as starting or DC braking, equation 10-11 must be re-arranged in a suitable
form for numerical solution with all the derivatives on one side:
pi L1{v ( R G r ) i}
di
(10-17)
dt
In addition, there is the mechanical equation of motion:
d r
J Jp r Td Tl M (ird isq isd irq ) Tl (10-18)
dt
where J is the moment of inertia of the rotating system, and Tl is the load torque (which may be a function
of the rotor speed r).
Equations 10-17 and 10-18 represent five simultaneous first-order non-linear differential equations,
which can be solved by standard numerical methods such as Runge-Kutta to determine the stator currents
and the rotor speed as functions of time. If the motor has P pairs of poles, two changes are required to the
equations: (a) the left-hand side of the torque equation 10-16 is multiplied by P; (b) in equation 10-1, r is
replaced by Pr.
Appendices 79
10.2 List of formulae Pout Pin Ploss
1 loss
P
General principles Pin Pin Pin
Efficiency:
1
Pout Ploss
Magnetic force on a current element: df idl B
Pout Ploss Pout Ploss
Conductor in a magnetic field: e Blu , f Bli
Transformers
Ampres circuital law: H.dl i Ni d d
Voltage: v1 N 1 , v2 N 2
Materials: dt dt
B B ( H ) r 0 H , 0 4 10 7 H/m Current: N 1i1 N 2i2 R 0
Magnetic flux and flux linkage: BA, N Sinusoidal operation: V1m 2 fN 1 ABm
d d d
Faradays law: e N (Li ) n
v2 i1 N 2
Ideal transformer:
dt dt dt v1 i2 N1
l
DC machines
Resistance: R
l
A A Basic equations: ea K f r , Td K f ia
L R Linear approximation: ea K i f r , Td K i f ia
Force: f x i 2 2
x x
(linear system)
Armature equation: v a Ra ia ea Ra ia K f r
L R
Torque: T i 2 2
(linear system)
Ra negligible: r
va
2 K f
f B
0
Magnetic force per unit area:
A
Small motors: r a d2
va R T
K f ( K f )
Series motor: i f ia i
va Vm cos( t )
Induction machines
3-phase torque: Td
3 2 Rr
s [rad/s], n s
f
s
[rev/s], Ir
p p s
1-phase torque: Td
1 2 Rr 1 2 Rr
s s s
I rp I rn
N s 60n s 2s
60 f
[rev/min].
p
Equivalent series/parallel elements:
Synchronous machines X m2 Rc2
rc Rc xm Xm
Non-salient model: V jX s I E Rc2 X m2 Rc2 X m2
3VEsin rc2 x m2 rc2 x m2
Non-salient torque: Td Rc Xm
s X s rc xm
Salient-pole torque:
Loss components:
3 VEsin V 2 1 1
P.oss PRs PRr Pcore Pfw Pstray
Td sin 2
s X d 2 X q X d
PRs 3 I s Rs , PRr 3 I r Rr , Pcore 3 I m rc
2 2 2
Xd 2
1 sin 2
3V
Reluctance motor: Td
2X d X q
PRr 3s | I r |2
Rr
sPem s( Pin PRs Pcore )
s
Speed control frequency ratio k f / f 0
No-load test
V kV0 , E kE 0 , s k s 0
Pin Pin PRs Pcore Pfw
X d kX d 0 , X q kX q 0
Pin Pfw | I s |2 ( Rs rc ) 2
V E sin V 2 1 1
Td 0 sin 2
3
0 0
s0 X d 0 2 X q 0 X d 0
Appendices 81
Speed control
Td
3 2 Rr 3 2
s s s
Ir I r Rr
s
s s s0 s 0
s0 s 0 s0 s 0 s0
s
s k s 0 k
r r
Rr R kR
s s0 / k s0
x s kx s 0 , x r kx r 0 , X m kX m 0
Stepper motors
l g drB 2
Alignment torque: Tm
0
4 pl g drBm Be
Hybrid stepper: Tm
0
Restoring torque: T Tm sin n
Stepper resonance: S r k 1, 2, 3,
fn
,
k
AC/DC converters