Sire ewe ue Nhe coerce tects (wild | Zu | Architecture Education in the Islamic WorldNumQ The Aga Khan Award for Architecture Architecture Education in the Islamic World Proceedings of Seminar Ten in the Series Architectural Transformations in the Islamic World Held in Granada, Spain April 21-25, 1986Contents Seminar Participants ‘Welcoming Remarks His Excellency Antonio Jara Andreu, Mayor of Granada His Excellency Jose Rodrigues de la Borbolla, President ofthe Junta de Andalucia Opening Speech His Highness the Aga Khan Opening Statement His Majesty the King of Spain Don Juan Carls 1 Keynote Address Emilio Garcia Gomez Introduction Willian Porter Approaches to Education The Eadueation of the Muslim Architect Spiro Kostof Session One: Islamic Culture, Modernity and Architecture ‘The Architecture of Unity Christian Norberg-Sch Islamic Culture, Modernity, Architecture Mohammed Arkoun Comments Session Two: Architecture as Art Defining an Art of Architecture Renaia Holod Architecture as Art Oleg Grabar Comments Session Three: Technology, Form and Culture Education towards an Architecture of Islam S. Gulzar Haider 3 38 8‘Technology, Form and Culture in Architecture: Misconception and Myth Willan Porter ‘Comments Session Four: Architecture and Society Architecture and Society Mhan Tekeli Architecture and Society Ismail Serageldin Comments ‘Background essay: Current Islam Faces its Tradition ‘Mohammed Arkoun Experience ‘An Overview of Architecture Education in Islamic Countries| ‘Suha Ozkan Architectural Education in Iraq Rifat Chadir ‘Architectural Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Jamel Akbar Architectural Education in Turkey in its Social Context Haluk Pamir Architectural Education in Pakistan and Problems of the Architectural Profession Kausar Bashir Ahmad The Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Ronald Leweock CRATerre ‘Hugo Houben, Patrice Doat and Hubert Guillaud Comments ‘Training Architects: Wolf Tochtermann Further Examples Some Comments Bangladesh M. Mobashsher Alt Egypt Abdel Mohsen Barrada 0 65 1S 108 12 3 BI 152 102 167 im 14 179 18India 186 BV, Doshi Iran 188, Darab Diba Syria 190 ‘Alladine Lolah Tunisia 192 Ali Djerbi Looking Ahead Workshops 194 Comments 200 Conditions and Prospects, 206 Kamil Khan Mumtaz and Ahmet Evin Closing Remarks His Highness the Aga Khan 210 Editor ‘Almet Evin Production Manager ...... Patricia Theseira Cover Wtaton Amr, The Half he Graphics by Vicom Design Associates, Singapore ‘Ambassador dst (photo: C Norberg Schutz) —_nedems conexp by Hemanand Les Seminar Photographs: by Gary Otte ‘Associates, Cambrige, Mase "US Printed by rasa Pres, Singapore © Me Aga Khan Awards 1986His Majesty the King of Spain Don Juan Carlos] Her Majesty the Queen of Spain Dona Sofa of Greece Professor Abdelhalim I. Abdelalim Architec’Planner raver 61 Mohy Eain Abou EL-EZ Dokki Giza Egypt Associate Professor of Architecture, Caio University Director of Community Design Collaborative (CARAVAN) Seminar Participants His Highness the Aga Khan Her Highness the Begum Aga Khan His Highness Prince Amyn Aga Khan Her Highness the Begum Sultan Mohammed Shah Aga Khan Architect NIGERIA Professor Adeyinka deve House? Etsu Nupe Road Main Campus ‘Ahmedu Bello University Zaria Nigeria Head, Department of Architectute snd Schoo of “Architecture, Zaria, (Chsirman, Board of Edvcation, Research and ‘Technology, Africa Union of Architect, Journalist, Mr José Aguilera Radio Exterior de Espana Prado del Rey Madrid Spain Special Radio Correspondent for broadcasts t0 the Arabic-speaking counties. Professor Ad Musa ‘Ahmad Architect SUDAN University of Khartoum P.O Box 21 Khartoum Sudan Chairman, Department of Architecture Khartoum, Designed the residential complex of Omdurmnan Islamic University, and published widely on residential architecture i the Arab world Dr Jamel Akbar Architect King Faisal University PO Boxzw7 amnam Sau Arabia Assistant Professor of Architecture ‘ioe Dean for Graduate Studies and Research Professor Meer “Mobashsher Alt BANGLADESH Bangladesh Univesity of Engineering & Technology Dhaka? Bangladesh ‘Chairman, Department of Architecture Director, Housing and Environmental Research (Cell, Facalty of Architecture and PlaningProfesioe Mohammed Historian Arkoun ALGERIA, FRANCE 2Square Port Royal 75013 Paris France Director, institute of Arabic and Islamic Stu, (Chaitman, History of Islamic Civilisation and ‘Arabi Literature, Univesity of Pats Member, Steering Committee, Aga Khan Award for Architecture Profesor Ricardo Aroca| Architest Hernander-Ros SPAIN’ Rafael Calvo 1 28010 Madrid Spain Vice Rector, Polytechnic University of Madd Professor, Superior Technical Sehool of Architec ture, Madrid Professor Abel Mesen Architect Morrada EGYPT Caio University Cairo Egypt Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering Architect/Desgner SPAINCANADA Mr Rolph Blakstad ‘Apdo. $8, San Carlos Tira Spain ‘Specialist in traditional architecture Tvestigator and practitioner of Islamic building crafts and ceramics Seminar Partcipanes ArshitectPlannee RAO Me Rift K. Chad S92 Memorial Drive Cambridge, Ma 0238 USA In private practice; visting scholar, Harvaed Uni- versity Founder and President, lng Consult, Baghdad. Member ofthe 193 Master Jury, Agu Khan ‘Award for Architecture Honorary fellow, RIBA ‘Aathor of Taha Set Hammersmith, Concepts ‘ad Influences. MrMohamed Chakor Journalist MoROcoO Internacional dela Maghreb Arab Press Espronceda 326 Biicio BFE 2003 Madrid Spain Senior reporter ofthe Maghreb Arab Pres forthe Therian Peninsula nd Latin America Professor Charles Correa Architect INDIA 9, Matthew Road Bombay 400008 India ‘Works include townships and major buildings in Tain (Consultant tothe Hyderabad Development Au thority for Conservation ofthe OW City Chairman, Housing Board, Bombay Metropolitan ‘Authority Recipient RIBA Gold Medal, 1984 Member, Steering Commitee, Aga Khan Award for Architecture ‘Author UNITED KINGDOM, 63, High Steet Alderney (Chante! Islands United Kingtiom Wolter, Board Member of CARE Briain, Architec!Youratist UNITED KINGDOM MrPeter Davey ‘The Architectural Review 9, Queen Anne's Gate London SwiH98Y “United Kingdom itor, The Architecural Review Mr Rafael De La Hox Architect Arderis SPAIN Pde la Castellana, 2 206 Madd Spain President, High Council of Spanish Schools of Architecture ‘Former Presiden International Union of Archi- tees (UIA) Professor Darab Diba Architect TRAN ‘Avenue Atrigha 4, Nour Steet Tehran 19177 Iran Professor and former Chairman, Department of ‘Architecture, Tehran University Consultant, Ministry of Housing and Ministry of Culture Professor AUDjerbi Architect, ‘TUNISIA Institut Tehnlogique d'Art Architecure etd Urbanisme Route de Armée Nationale Tunis Behsdere Tunisia Professor and former Director, Institut Technolo- sique,be an architect oF not, in much the same way that one might enroll in a department of literature without having the slightest inci nation to be a professional writer This, then, will become the place that trains future preservationists and elients who will com- ‘mission buildings for themselves and others, journalists and critics who will write about architecture, or educated people who be- ‘come conscious of what a great legacy our ‘built world is and what it takes to bring it about, and who will move on to another ‘career with this consciousness in their ming, ready to impart it to their children, or, perhaps, exercise itn their neighbourhood Architecture then can be a fundamental discipline of human learning, as, indeed it fs, and not always and finally only a profes 4) The answer to the question, “Of what use is the study of history in the education of an architect?” is another question: “What kind of history?” Whether we are training professionals o ‘educating students who are simply “majo ing” in architecture, history is central — and for the same reasons. The history of archi- tecture, properly taught, has general valid- ity. Or, rather, there is not, in my view, one kind of history for architects and another kind for others. Tam, of course, quite sensitive to the fact that architects ae interested in history often asarich quarry of form. That isa perfectly valid interest. Buildings are based on other buildings. Sinan was obsessed with Hagia The Education of the Muslim Architect Sophia because of its shapes, the size ofits dome. He quarried it, stripped off its speci fiecultural programme, and surpassed it at Selimiye in Edirne. For this kind of formal recall there is no need for historians. But form is always a receptacle of me and architectural meaning is ultimately Todged in history, in cultural contexts. That is what must be explained, that is where the historian comes in. Every shape, every bend in the road has a precise explanation, Form {nvoles institutional arrangements, laws, economics, oF what Dogan Kuban once cal- led in these seminars “the inertia of cultural bbchaviour."” Muslim students must know of ‘matters like wagf, of social programmes like llyes, ofthe history of institutions lke the tekke which are organisational and cultural ‘concepts fist, before they become architec- tural types. They should know about the ascendance of the state in the modern period and how it undermined the role of ‘community groups, private patronage, and similar agencies of rapport between archi tecture and people. [agree wholeheartedly with Dr Mona Serageldin and Francois Vigier who deplore the superficial appliqué ‘that passes fora renaissance of Islamic archi- tecture, and who make it clear that in order to go beyond this cosmetic subterfuge, pro- fessional curricula will have to undergo ma- jor reforms. They have pointed out that architectural history courses must stress the social, cultural and ecological factors that gave rise to specific architectural forms, rather than treating these forms as a purely plastic art and that the evolution of insti- tutions and their influence on the spatial ‘organisation of cities must be unclerstood. ing, would goa step further As long as archi: tectural history is taught asa separate acade- ‘mic discipline, it will emain poorly inte- arated with the instruction of design. We ust find new ways to organise studios. We ‘must incorporate the complicated historical processes at work on the environment into the immediate culture of studio instruction. Bruno Zevi has been attempting this fusion imhis Istituto Storico-Critico in Rome, but it is form-making he has foremost in mind as students disset the workings of Michelange- Jo's dome for St Peter's, for example, in clever analytical models and such. The building process is part of history, surely, bbutitis not what I have in mind. To make architectural history, as T understand the field, a partner in the act of contemporary design would indeed inspire continuities of the Sort we so admire in great cities like Fez or Florence or Vienna. At the practical level of conservation this partnership comes naturally. To do that job properly ane has to know how to study and interpret tuilding fabrics in terms of mate- rials and techniques; one has to be able to read and interpret surviving drawings and other such empowering documents, and be able to resuscitate the physical reality that they record, 5) The ewrent architecture education every wherein world ill prepares the graduating student for the realities of professional Practice. ‘This sin the nature of a summation, of ‘course. All along [ have been leading up to this conclusion, What Ihave actually deli- vered is much less prescriptive than you might have wished: I apologise. My purpose hhas been to establish a general climate for the study of architecture, to pinpoint mis- placed intentions and suggest new attitudes, ‘because I think schools af architecture are in some ways dusty and anachronistic as they are presently constituted Thave noteven touched on the question of preparing students for what is rather alar- ‘ingly reerred to as “the outside world” Basically, think we might agree, students ‘who come out are rather naive about the ‘economicaspeets of building, and the reali ties of clients and how to secure com- missions. They have, as I discussed, roman- ticnotions of their roles, and are quite con- {used as to how they should behave profes- sionally, Low they can be effective. And they have only the murkiest notions about ethics. They do not know how to be active in social and politcal issues through their pro- fession. This is no longer a strong point in the architectural world, The architect as 2 pblic figure has been in decline for quiteThe Education of the Muslim Architect some time, The key issue here is this. An architect i a trained professional who solves design problems. A palace fora corrupt rul~ er isa design problem, sois a concentration camp. Should you design them? Somebody obviously does. Would you change your mode of designing to continue being em- ployed after a radical change of regime that favours a design language that is not your Atany rate, architectural education cannot be value-free. Who we are individually, who ‘we are culturally, is part of the equation. If the architect has to persuade a cient that doing things this way rather than that way will produce a more humane environment, ‘or more splendid one, or a more honest ‘one, them his own convictions, his values will certainly condition his brief. You might even bbe able to make a case that architectural education should be completely redirected, so that it becomes predominantly value- based, rather than knowledge-based and skill-based Here isa related issue: would you design, should you design, something for a culture that is mot yours? Many Western firms, as ‘we all recognise, do so with gusto You have seen their Work in Islamic countries in all your seminars. Was this so because until quite recently internationalism was an ati- cle of professional faith? In a conference on educating students ofthe so-called develop ing countries in European schools, held while back in Neweastle-upon-Tyne, John Habraken of MT argued that “a profes- sion can only be a profession when it shares certain principles, theories and methods that it holds valid and useful in all circumstances and in all places We are also worried about spiritual tres passing, if T may call it that, Hassan Fathy said in One of the Award seminars that he could have designed the church at Goutna needed by the non-Muslim community, but he refused to do so, he called in a Christian todo the job Will Mustim students inthe future refuse to design projects that are unfamiliar to them as Muslims, or anti- thetical tothe Muslim way of life? "Now we are not sosur. Here is where that core concern, the nature of Islamic architecture, comesin. The two extreme positions were stated with some passion in the very fist Award seminar, and wish I could have heard the presentations in person. ‘Seyyed Hossein Nasr argued that “There is, no way of discussing Islamic architecture and evading the problem of the principles of Islamic architecture and what Islamic archi- tecture means, There is no way of avoiding ‘meaning. God is meaning (ma'na). We have to be atthe quest ofthis meaning.” He ‘proposed that Islamic architects be trained ‘once again inthe traditional way, thatthe old crafts resurrected, and thereby the old ‘ways brought back. All this reminded me of, Augustus Welby Pugin one hundred and fif- ty years ago and his advocacy of the Gothic style asthe only vehicle fora reformed society. Itreminded me of the moral argue ‘ments ofthe anti-machine Arts and Crafts Movement in England and elsewhere all through the ater nineteenth century Dogan Kuban, the product of a secular Mus- lim country would have none ofthis. He said: Islamic architecture is “something cre- ated by those people who call themselves, Muslims. It isas simple as that.” So, pre sumably, inthis accepting view a skyscraper cean be Islamic architecture and s0, 100, a five hundred room hotel, ifthey happened to be designed! by Muslim architects Thisisno minor matter. If westernization is taken to be a fundamental disruption of Islam- Jcculture,a terminus past quem non, then a whole range of building types from factories {0 office buildings would be outside the pur- view of an Islamic architect who wishes 10 remain within the bounds of his culture. The application of Islamic decor will not absolve the design, since a Frenchman could do as ‘much and just as easily. The only honorable ‘course might be to try to reinterpret the ‘programme within the experience of Islamic tradition, Certainly apartment towers hav ‘their counterparts in things like the rab" type Cf collective housing in Cairo. The hotel could also be reinterpreted in ine with the traditional way of putting up guests and visi tors — and work from that toa new form that has nothing to do withthe high-rise hotel I started ths talk with autobiographical de- tails, spoke of being a Greek raised in ‘Turkey, of Istanbul and its lesson of urban continuities. hope you will not think me too preachy if I returm to these prelimi: naries, in order to point out their relevance to what I have randomly been implying all through this paper. Because of who Tam. and what I do, | find talk about a violently disrupted tradition a bit unsettling. Wester- nised buildings of the nineteenth century in some Islamic countries are already on their way to being appropriated into the tradition, «28 the International Style, uncompro- ‘misingly historical to the last, has already ‘been absorbed into the great historical trad tions of the West. Time may mellow the ‘appeal of mote recent specimens of modern architecture in Islamic lands. History heals Survival confers dignity. It would be ‘counterproductive,if nt impossible, 0 attempt to separate Iskamic culture from ‘modern culture. And this separation might not even be the Islamic thing to do. The unity of Islam from the start accommodated pluralism. It accepted and absorbed alien elements into its sturdy frame. The culture itself changed and developed all along; its vigour was its principal drive. To reduce the vast wealth of Islamic architecture tits “essentials” leads either to an unedifying catalogue of common features — minarets, ‘miltabs and the like — or else to such gerieric headings as “dexterous handling of , “adoption of geometric form seale”, teresting structural forms”, and so forth. (I ‘am quoting from the paper delivered by Mr Khwaja in your opening seminar of 1978) ‘These reductions can only impoverish and restrit the education of the Muslim archi- tect, and deprive the West ofthe benefits of our all 100 spasmodic commonality.The Architecture of Unity Christian Norberg-Schulz In our contemporary culture, architecture education isin a state of criss. We have today a better knowledge in most fields than ever before, and better technological means at our disposal, but still in most places, the built environment is decaying because of ‘meaningless construction. Thus, we may talk about a general environmental crisis, and accordingly, a crisis of architectural ‘education, As an architect and an educator, have been giving much thought to the reasons for tis state of affairs “My conclusion is simple: we have forgotten the language of architecture. Firstly, we hhave forgotten to experience architecture as, ‘a meaningful expression of human life in 2 certain place, and secondly, we have for- gotten the use of the language of arc ture as a means to serve man’s need for ‘meaning and belonging. With the word lan- ‘guage, therefore, intend what keeps and ‘communicates man's modes of being in the ‘world. To recover the language of architec- ture isthe primary aim and the basis of architecture education. The purpose ofthis paper is to show what that means, using Islamic architecture as an illustration I do not pretend to explain Islamic architec ture, but merely wish to demonstrate an approach that may help us to accomplish the needed return to architecture. Let me ‘emphasise: before we can teach architec- ture, we have to know what architecture is, and at this seminar that means asking the question: What is Islamic architecture? Task this question aso to prepare for another, concluding question: Ist possible and ‘meaningful to create an Islamic architecture today? Islamic architecture is experienced as a posi- tive fact as soon as we visit an Islamic environment; itis there as an immediately recognisable presence, from Afganistan to ‘Arabia, from Egypt to Andalusia is there as something which tells us that we are no longer in Graeco-Roman and Christian Europe. Another world becomes manifest, world which makes us feel different and which demands different perceptions from us. Also we know it when we arein an European city, rather than an Indian or Chinese one, and we know it before we encounter any human being or see any writ- tenssign. And yet, these different worlds are basicaly similar, consisting of towns, streets, buildings. things and people, In what, then, does the difference consist? How, then, do we know where we are? We know where we are because human life takes place in spaces determined by natural ‘elements and buildings possessing a distinct character. Evidently such “characters” are ‘more or less general. When Tsay that we know it when we are in a European city, T ‘may add that we also know that we are in an English rather than a German one. Yes, we ‘even may distinguish a Tuscan one from a Sicilian one, but that would demand a cer tain level of knowledge on the part of the visitor. ‘The spaces we experience when we travel bout are primarily public rather than pri- vate, and they may be urban spaces as well as interiors of public buildings. The differ- ence between environments, therefore, stems from different spatial properties, which may be clasified in the broad cate gories of volumetric types and various kinds ‘of boundaries. We immediately perceive the ‘sug or bazaar of an Islamic city asa dstinet type of volume, and the same happens when ‘we enter a mosque, such asthe famous one in Cérdoba To recognise an Islamic city, however, we do not have to visit particular places; we feel the Islamic presence every- where, duc to a characteristic treatment of the spatial boundaries, just as we experience European cities as such for the same reason. First of al, Islamic architecture becomes _manifest inthe wall, where the Islamic sense ‘of being in the world is kept and visualised, Certainly, not all walls in all Islamic cities are treated in the same way, but basic pro- perties and motifs are omnipresent, albeit swith varying frequency. And, just as impor- tant, those properties that distinguish Euro- pean cities are asa rule absent ‘What, then, are these basie properties? ‘The Islamic wall may in general be charac terised as.a dematerialised “skin” which, to a greater or lesser extent, is covered by a Caro, astet Photo © Norberg-Schulz ‘complex, linear ornamentation. The plastic, anthropomorphic elements that determine the European wall of classical derivation are centre lacking. The Islamic wall is, more ‘over, different from the transparent wall of Gothic architecture. The latter, certainly, also appears as a kind of network of slender ‘members, but, while the Islamic lines are abstract and without bodily presence, the Gothic ibs are experienced as ines of force: they make up a structure rather than an ‘ornament. The Islamic wall, thus, has a less obvious relationship to the earth than the European ‘one; it doss not stand and rise in the same structurally determined way, but seems to express. a more general kind of being in space. This goes together with its particular ‘geometricorganisation. The other bound- aries of Isamie space have an analogous character. Thus, the floor isa carpet-like, extended surface, and in the mosque itis, in fact, covered with geometrically pattertiedThe Architecture of Unity Alara, the Hall of te Ambassadors, detail Photo” C. Norberg Souls carpets. The ceiling finally, shows the char- acter of the Islamic boundary in a part caularly pronounced way, Here the surface often dissolves completely into a trans- parent, luminous necwork of insubstantial forms, without, however, losing its general continuity A certain distinction between up and down is nevertheless present ‘The ceiling and hhigher part of the wall are often white with a very dense ornament, whereas the lower part and the floor gains a somewhat more ‘concrete presence due to the use of coloured slazed tiles. Another characteristic difer- ‘ence from the traditional European walls the lack of pictorial representation; when recognisable “figures” appear, they are al: \ways swallowed up by the ornament and become integral parts of comprehensive totality. Asa substitute for the European mage, however, calligraphic elements con- sisting of quotations from the Qur'an, are introduced. Due to the ornamental charac- tor of Kufie script, these also become part of the totality In general, the spatial boundary of Islamic architecture may be described 28 acon tinuous, insubstantial surface structured by a ‘boundless ornament, where aint echoes of ‘the world of things appear and disappear. An omnipresent luminosity accentuates the general feeling of integration and unity. The primary manifestation of Islamic achitec- ture, therefore, consists in a comprehensive character”, rather than a set of distinct figural elements ‘This does not mean, however, that Islamic architecture negates building types and for- ‘mal motifs, No architecture could do with ‘out these, since character always has to gain presence “as something”. A study of architectural history shows thatthe building types of any culture are based on general ‘volumetric types, such asthe rotunda, the basilica and the hypostyle hall, three spatial forms that possess general validity, because they derive from the fundamental structures ‘of existential spatility: centre (goal), way and domain, The mosque, for example, basically a hypostyle hall, where a dome is, sometimes introduced to mark or symbolise centre In Islamie architecture, the general volumetric types are, however, significantly reinterpreted and modified. Like the orma- ‘mental wall, cities and buildings consist of clements which are integrated rather than separate, and often of indeterminate exter sion. The hypostyle mosque, thus, isin prin- ciple an “open’” form, where spatial ele ‘ments could be added or taken away without destroying its meaning. (Consider this in re lation to Albert's famous dictum that in a classical composition “nothing may be added or taken away except for the worse”) In Islamic architecture figurative elements, such as tower, dome and courtyard, are therefore points of orientation within a comprehensive totality, rather than final, symbolic goals. They appear out ofa totality given aprion, which they do not constitute butrather are submitted to, Here we artive at the basic difference between Islamic and European architecture. Inthe latter, the “place” is constituted by the buildings or stitutions” (thats, to use Louis Kahn's, term, the “place” in European architecture is determined from within”), whereas in the former itis determined from “without”, being “given” as an eternal fact. In the man-made environment, even an ‘eternal fact, however, must become present asset of different places Hence, the Islam: ie city comprises spatial as well as formal variety. Asa first, spontaneously perceived differentiation, we recognise the difference ‘between the urban space of everyday life, and the interiors of mosques and other prin- cipal buildings. While the former generally appears as an “informal” and multifarious labyrinth, and often has a somewhat run- down and shabby look, the latter exhibit a high degree of formal order and articulation, and generally a perfect upkeep. Evidently, therefore, Islam admits thatthe organised tunity thats the basic characteristic ofits architecture does not apply directly to rea ties of man’s temporal, everyday-life world Asa consequence, Islamic architecture is “introverted” and its meaning becomes ‘manifest primarily in enclosed gardens, courtyards and interiors. What is given as an eternal fact feom “without” thus becomes visible from the inside. Horseshoe Arch0 The Architecture of Unity Although it shuns figural forms, Islamic architecture, like any other architectural sys- tem, needs recognisable elements. The horseshoe arch may be mentioned as one of the typical motifs of Islamic architecture. In contrast tothe semi-circular arch of the ‘Western tradition, the horseshoe arch has the centre higher th fore, seems to rise and open up. Thus, i loses it structural quality and becomes an ‘ornamental form, combining repose and radiating lightness, In general, the horse- shoe arch shows how a motif may become a distinctive “sign”, representing a whole architectural system. This is possible be- ‘cause it unifies basie properties ofthe system ina simple form. More complex and particu: lar, but of equal importance, are the mugar- ‘nas which in Islamic architecture are used to take care ofthe transition from plane to ved surfaces, Basically the mugaynas are lated to the squinches and pendentives of European architecture, but they interpret the transitional surface in a fundamentally different way. Consisting of a more or less complex “honeycomb” of small niches, the ‘maugarnas limainate any kind of plasticity ‘and make the ommamental and luminous quality ofthe Islamic boundary stand forth ina particularly fascinating way. ts foot, and, there The Great Mosque of Cordoba, interior Photo © Norberg Schulz ‘The light that is visualised and geometrised by the mugarnas, is focussed by the mikrab, the large niche which in every mosque indi- cates the gibla, or direction towards Mecca Although itis empty and devoid of any Pictorial imagery, and hence does not repre- senta symbolic goal, the muhirab is experi- ‘enced as a place of primary significance Accordingly, itis often given a particular elaborate decoration. Being simultaneously ‘empty and rich, the mihrab seems to express the very content of Islamie architecture, In the Islamic mausoleum basic meanings also stand forth in an elementary way. The ‘mausoleum usually consists of a cube crowned by a dome, and since it represents 2 reality which reaches beyond daily life, this form evidently offers a key to the Islam conception of the world. A related voli- metric composition is found in the Dome of Alhambra, the Hall ofthe Two Sisters, dome the Rock in Jerusalem, where a dome rises Phowo C Norberg SchuleThe Architecture of Unity above an octagonal substructure. A study of the hidden geometry ofthe plan shows that it represents an elaboration ofthe dome= ceube theme. When the Dome of the Rock ‘was built between 688 and 692 A D , Mecca ‘was inaccessible to pilgrims, and Jerusalem temporarily became the centre of the Islamic ‘world. The building must be understood as an expression of the function, rather than a ‘mere echo of Byzantine models, as is often suggested in the literature on the subject. “The cube theme also appears in the Ka'ba at Mecca. The very word Ka’ba in fact means “cube”, and because ofits form, the Ka’ba manifests the basic directions of space: the cardinal points, the zenith and the nadir. ‘Here the cube is complemented by the dome of the sky itself, rather than by a built symbol. The presence of the circle, how- ever, becomes manifest in the surrounding floor-pattern. The Ka’ba is covered by a black cloth (kiswa) which is changed every year. Thus the abstract shape is transformed into a living body, which is “clothed” asifto protect its mysterious meaning. A lastelement characteristic ofthe Islamic environment has to be mentioned: the minaret. While other buildings extend hori- zontally, the minaret is nothing but a vertical axis, As such, itis also a kind of “centre”, bbut rather than being a goal like the Dome of the Rock or the Ka’ba, it acts as a mere “reminder” of heaven, Therefore its pos: tiom in relation to the adjacent buildings is relatively free, and in contrast to the Gothic steeple, it does not rise up in space, but appears as simply “being there”, expressing thus ana priori link between earth and sky. “My description of the elements and basic formal properties of Islamic architecture has revealed a singularly structured and unified conception of the built environment Every- ‘where spaces and buildings are characterised as belonging to the same comprehensive ‘world, by means ofa boundless surface ‘ornament. Although it does not appear throughout, this ornament is potentially ‘omnipresent, and also the various kinds of introverted rooms are submitted to acon- tinuous spatial network. In the mosque the spatial pattern is directed towards Mecea, “whereby the whole Islamic environment be- comes centred. ACt the centre we do not find particular image, but a condensed viswa- lisation of that general order which every- where is suggested, ‘What is Islamic architecture? The question comprises a “how” as well asa “why”, So far we have been concerned withthe how. It is now time to ask why Islamic architecture hhas become asitis. Five times a day all Muslims recite their declaration of faith and thus express their submission o a common understanding of the world, The very word “Islam” in fact ‘means “submission”, and the mosque (mas. id) accordingly becomes the “place of prostration” or “surrender” ‘The Istamic ‘redo implies that there is only one Being, and everything that exists partakes of this sole Being: "There is no divinity but G The world, therefore, is understood as the self-revelation of God, as transmitted by the Prophet: “Iwasa treasure concealed, and wishing to be recognised, Tereated the world.” At the same time, however, God is exalted above the world, and all things, although they partake in divine Being, have ‘an ephemeral nature. They are transitory and pass away, and it would be funda ‘mentally wrong to give them too much ‘importance. Hence, the disorder and fre quent decay of the Islamic urban scene. Ln social terms the unity of being means that everybody is equal, as partakersin the mma, or community of believers. Thus we understand why the Islamic conception of “form” does not mean outline and figure, but the stamp of an essential unity. And, \when individual forms sometimes appear, they are treated as archetypes rather than individual things. Ibis important to empha sive that the Islamic unity isnot the result of gathering and synthesis, bt given a priori, everywhere and at all times, Islam, thus, considers itself the original religion, which returns to Abraham, thats, to the begin- ning, unity which contains all qualities can only be expresssed as a comprehensive pattern or ‘ornament, a weaving of horizontals and verticals. ‘The carpet, in fat, is the most Jerusalem, Dome ofthe Roek, axonomenie section Drawing P Ginous air Creswell typical expression of Ilamicart Iris an insubstantial object which contains the directions of earth and sky, and where acci= dental forms may appear, which, however, submit to the general patter, In the given world the unity ofthe real is ‘made manifest by light, a “being” that is everywhere at the same time as it remains invisible. Thus, the Qur'an says. "God isthe light of the heavens and the earth” (XXIV, 435). Light is hence understood as a spiritual presence, which, when it meets the stuff of the earth, gives everything its presence. The Spanish-Islamic philosopher ibn-Masarra ‘wrote: "Without the sunbeam falling on ‘them as they float inthe ai, the minute particles of dust would not be visible, and ‘without the dust particles the sunbeam itself ‘would not show "This metaphor implies that without the presence ofthe spit, the ‘world would not possess any reality Since light is difused along straight lines, it ‘may be visualised asa geometrical star-like2 ‘The Architecture of Unity Henning Larsen, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riyadh Photo: Courtesy of H. Larsen pattern of interwoven rays. An ornament of stars that interpenetrate and develop out of each other is therefore the clearest represen tation of divine presence and unity. At the ‘same time as this pattern is infinitely ex- tended and therefore at rest, it also contains rhythms which endow the woeld it comprises ‘with a temporal movement, When light meets inorganic and organic ‘matter respectively, two “forms” result: cerystallike strutures such as the mugarnas ‘and continuous floral patterns such as the arabesque, In both cases “form” implies geometry. ‘The point of departure is the cit- cle, the perfect form without beginning and cend. By dividing it by four, five, six or eight, patterns arise which may be extended infi- nitely. Since the first ordinance of Islam isto bear witness to divine unity, and sinoe this, unity becomes manifest 2s geometrical pat- terms of visualised light, the architect isthe ‘muhandis, that i, “he who geometrises’ Divine unity however, is also revealed inthe ‘word of the Qur'an, and, accordingly, the Islamic ornament comprises the calligraphic ‘elements already mentioned. Thus, the ‘word appears within the comprehensive pat- tern, making it speak. Arabic script is also a kind of weaving of horizontals and verticals, and may, therefore, easily be integrated in the general pattern. As Lhave already pointed out, the script substitutes the themes of Christian iconography. Since cali- ‘graphy gives visible form to the word, itis considered the most noble of the ars. Thave maintained that the Islamic ornament has to be related to certain volumetric forms ‘to gain real presence, Among these, the dome and the cube are of basi significance. ‘The circular dome, therefore, represents the uniform sky, whereas the square cube isa visualisation ofthe earthly domain of dffe- rences and conflicts. By means of ornamen- tation the two are united at the same time that a certain differentiation of pattern and colour preserve the identity of both. Itis ‘mportan: to note that the heavenvearth relationstip in Islamic architecture always proceeds from above, in contrast to Euro- pean architecture, where the characters of standing and rising are dominant. The interoretation of Islamic architecture, however, is not exhausted by explaining its religious hasis, Since Islam originated in a natural environment of a particular kind, it also has to be related to the properties of this envionment. Islam thus has to be understood as an answer to the problem of making human dwelling possible inthe de- sert [tis certainly an important fact that Islam was born in a desert-like land, and that it mainly became diffused in regions of similar characteristics. To dwell in the desert puts man face to face withthe hardest possi- ‘le task, in a physical as well as a psychologi- cal sense. The desert does not contain any fixed point to hold on to; itis boundless, ‘monotonous and barren. As a consequence the ancient Egyptians related it to death,and the very word “desert” comes from de- scree, o abandon, Asit does not offer any protection, the desert isthe very negation of “place”. The presence of an oasis does not change tis fae; psychologically the oasis remains a dream, a paradise which belongs to another world. phenomenological esctiption ofthe desert substantiates these general remarks, and also offers indications about how to make dwelling in thiskind of environment possible Inthe desert the complexities of our every~ day ie world are reduced ta few, simple ‘phenomena: the infinite extension ofthe ‘uniform, barren ground; the immense, cmbracing vault ofthe cloudless sky the bburing sun which gives an almost shadow Jess light; the dry, warm air, which make us breathe a diferent envizonment. Asa whole, the desert seems to make an absolute ‘and etemal order manifest. This order, how ver, remains distant Itis suggested by the sky rather than the earth, The course ofthe sun, thus, describes an almost exact median, and divides space into Orient, Occident, ridnight and midday, that i, qualitative do- mains thatin the South ae commonly used as denotations forthe cardinal points. Sun- set and sunrise conneet day and night with- out transitional effects of light, and create a simple, temporal rhythm. The change of seasons is hardly felt, and the dimension of ‘time in general supports the sense of an cteral order. ‘The earth, on the contrary, is distinguished by the chaos of emptiness, and does not offer man a sufficient existential foothold. It does not contain any individual places, but forms a continuous, neutral ground. Since there are no boundaries, no things appear, and nothingness reigns. In the desert, there- fore, man does not encounter the mult farious forces of nature, but experiences its ‘most general properties. This isthe exis- tential situation behind the Arabic proverb: “The further you go into the desert, the closer you come to God.” Monotheism, the belief that there is only one God, in fact came into being in the desert countries of the Near East. Both Judaism and Chris- ‘ianity are related to the desert, and in Iskam The Architecture of Unity ‘monotheism found its most consistent expression. For the Muslim the conception ‘of the one God isthe only dogma, and by proclaiming the unity of God, the Muslim ‘confirms the unity of his world, a world that hhas the genius loc of the desert as its natural ‘model. For the desert dweller, the genius {foci becomes a manifestation of the Abso- lute. Existentially, the deserts in a very part: cular way, and its being has to be known as such to make dwelling possible. Islam demonstrates that the Arab has become a friend of the desert, and the desert dete ‘mines his basic attitude to the world: tavhid, ‘the consciousness of divine Unity. Thus, the desert is no longer understood as death, but thas become a basis for life. ‘This does not mean, however, that the Arab settles in the desert. To settle, he needs an ‘enclosed area, a defined place within the infinite environment. To enclose a space is, hence, the original act of desert architec ture. The next acts to structure this space in accordance with the understood world, that is, wth the order of sky and earth. As has already been pointed out, the sky offers the abstract form, whercas the earth offers the ‘concrete materials and elements which serve to give the eosmie order presence. Thus, in the oasis, the slender trunks of the trees that rise from the Nat expanse ofthe ground seem tomake the more general order of hori zontals and verticals that constitute Islam. ie space manifest. The first mosque at ‘Madina had palm trunks to support the roof, and in the Umayyad interiors the presence of the palm grove is stil felt, Within the abstract order of desert space, no truly plas- tic objects are possible, the classical play of light and shadow is extinguished, and every- things reduced to surface and line. Islam itself and Islamic architecture belong together as one answer to the problem of ‘making the desert a dwelling place, in the full sense ofthe term Through Islam, the nomadic life of the Bedouin gains a new dimension, Its eternal repetitive pattera of life becomes part of a spiritual reality, and in the pilgrimage to Mecca this facts ritually enacted. This does not imply, however, that Islam is reduced to a result of environmental determinism, When man makes friends with ‘an environment, in the sense suggested above, he understands Truth, and in the case of Islam, a Truth that transoends the locality where it was revealed. That is, the ‘Truth revealed by the desert also discloses, basic qualities of the world in general ‘Understanding and becoming friends with the desert, however, does not imply that one repeats the environmental character in de- sert architecture, Rather, the courtyards and interiors of Islamic architecture represent a complement tothe desert Asartficial oases they are protected places, distinguished by blue and green, the colours of water and vegetation, and by white, the colour of freshness and illumination, in contrast the yellow of the burning sun The Istamicim- age of paradise is accordingly a walled-in ‘garden containing four rivers which indicate the cardinal points, atthe same time as they reflect the sky, uniting the high with the low. ‘My description of Islamic architecture con- tains the basic components of the language of architecture: topology, morphology and typology. Topology refers to man’s actions in space, that is, his orientation. Islamic space is infinite rather than goal-oriented, although itis directed on the Ka’ba. Itis therefore relatively free from local implica tions, whereas European space becomes manifest asa particular place. Morphology refers to man’s identification with certain ‘environmental characters that are embodied by the built forms. Islamic architecture, however, does not know the concept of ‘embodiment, in accordance with Islam's, negation of incarnation. Ihave used the term “dematerialisation” to express this. ‘The lack of embodiment however, does not ‘mean that things disappear, They are cer- tainly there, but are characterised as non- ‘material entities. ‘Thus, we find most ofthe formal elements used in European architec- tre, but they are interpreted differently, by means of a particular treatment ofthe spa tial boundaries. Finally, typology refers to the constituent, recognisable parts of architecture, such as the dome, the cube, the courtyard, the col-umn and the arch, Again, Istamic architec- ture presents t0 us a known world, which, however, is interpreted inthe light ofthe ‘general concept of unity. The architectural ‘elements, thus, are not understood as indivi= ‘dual presences, but as ephemereal reflee- tions of the Divine. Together, topology, morphology and typo- Iogy constitute the language of architecture, a language that, inthe particular case of Islam, possesses an unsurpassed consistency and generality ‘Thus, we arrive atthe concluding question: Isitpossible and meaningful to create an Islamic architecture today? Since Islamic architecture primarily is a manifestation of a religious conception of the world, it evident- ly depends on the strength and integrity of its spiritual basis. Our time is, as we all, know, not very favourable tothe spiritual dimension, and generally aims at reducing everything to what is measurable. Islam, therefore, certainly isin danger. On the ‘ther hand, it might possibly help bring forth a renewal of spiritual values. The need for such a renewal is commonly felt. Be- cause of its general and timeless character, Islam architecture has kept alive through the centuries in various places and under chang. ing conditions. Ithas, however, also been open toa necessary adaptation to circum- stances. Without giving upits basic Arabic {ualitis, it has become particularised as Persian, Egyptian, Moorish, Indian and Turkish, and I cannot see any reason why it should not also become modern, ‘To substantiate this position, [have to say a few words about the ends and means of ‘modem architecture. As an expression of, the open and dynamic contemporary world, ‘modern architecture developed the concept of free plan (plan libre), and in accordance withthe aims of modern art, i also wanted to get rid of any literary content. As a result, ‘modern architecture became abstract or ‘non-figurative, and hence opposed to the traditional values of European architecture, Itis evident that modern architecture inthis regard approaches what I have called “ab straction” in Islamic architecture. But, there are also basie differences. Modern The Architecture of Unity architecture did not have any spiritual basis, but, rather, took the possibilities offered by ‘modern technology as its point of departure. In this respect it represents a continuation of the European structural tradition. In the Jong run, thats, when all memories of the past had been erased, the non-figurative approach led to emptiness or to arbitrary caprices. Today we experience a reaction against ab- tract modernism. Rather than the pursuit of an international style, the present post- ‘modernism wants to express the complexity ofthe contemporary world. An architecture ‘of pluralism is hence coming into being, ‘which is both new and old, and aims at the creation of environments with different ‘characteristics. In my opinion this ought to happen without losing the basic concept of openness, In any event, as a result, we ex- perience today a great variety of architec- tural forms, and the problem of meaning has become more important than the demand for structural honesty, Against this background, a modern, oF rather, a post-modern, Islamic architecture seems possible and even necessary. Islan is ‘one of the great cultural powers of the present world, and it certainly ought to find a contemporaty architectural manifestation, that is, anew interpretation ofits traditional values. Annew Islamic architecture, however, can only develop if we know what Islamic architecture in truth is. Many of the buildings erected in Islamic countries today show a lack of such an understanding, and simply exhibit a meaningless juxtaposition of Islamic motifs. Fortunately positive ‘exceptions exist, and, in order to close in an ‘optimistic vein, I shall quote one important example ‘The new Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Riyadh (1980-1984) by the Danish architect Henning Larsen certainly represents an inspiring contribution tothe development of ‘anew Islamic architecture. Larsen has studied, understood and revived the basic ‘qualities T have discussed above. His point of departure was a fortresslike, introverted block containing a courtyard, interpreted as, ‘an enclosed garden. During the design process, the courtyard became a system of interrelated spaces, all of which possess a certain volumetric identity, recalling the covered bazaar streets, gardens and interiors of traditional Islamic architecture. At the ‘same time, they form a continuous network, ‘where spaces appear and disappear within a ‘comprehensive unity. The character is thoroughly Islamic, since the spatial boundaries are treated as sufaces rather than as plastic valet. Islamic ornament also ‘appears at critical points to give the surface ‘an appropriate interpretation, and the light centering from above revives the ancient symbolism, [Being a modesn ministry, the Riyadh building demonstrates thatthe expression of, Islamic unty is not tied to traditional building tasks. Unity isa timeless and universal concept, and, therefore, it may ‘become manifest over and over again, and inany circumstance, ifonly we understand its architectural implications In Islamic architecture the concept of unity is set to work, andevery Islamic building, therefore, ‘becomes an imago mundi, inthe most fandamencal sense of the word. As an imago ‘mundi, Isamie architecture offers an ‘explanation of the nature of architecture in ‘general, and, thus it extends its importance beyond the borders ofthe environment, where Islam was born, It thereby also offers ‘abasic contribution to our understanding of, the language of architecture, and, hence, t0 contemporary architecture education,Islamic Culture, Modernity, Architecture ak Mohammed Arkoun How should one analyse and articulate these three different concepts that refer to so ‘many complex activities? Since we are deal- ing with architectural education, we must ‘examine Islamic culture and modernity in the perspective of architectural activity to- day. Thus, our search and thought wil be directed towards students and professionals, in architecture. In other words, we have to answer questions such asthe following: ‘What place should Islamic culture have in the training of students at schools of archi tecture? ‘What aspects of Islamic culture are relevant to this waining? How should these aspects be taught to en- ‘courage modern thinking in Islam as well as in architecture? ‘How should one approach modernity itself in order to bring into our knowledge of Islam and of design practice creative ‘methods and new exploration? Other questions will be raised in the course of tis essay. Our aim is to introduce archi- tects to the main difficulties that have accumulated since Islamic culture had t0 face the impact of modernity in the nine teenth century. The objective knowledge of these difficulties is a prerequisite for any improvement inthe curriculum followed in schools of architecture. I shal start with basi information on Islam: ieculture and modernity. With these refer- ences in mind, we can try to think afresh about a key concept in Islamic history: the ‘concept of rupture. Islamic Culture ‘This expression is used currently today by Muslims and non-Muslims alike to stress the {impact of Islam on all levels of social and historical existence in the so-called "Muslim societies”, Since Islam is used as a mobils- ing reference by many political movements, all important activities in societies are deseribed as “Islamic”. That is why we need to question the legitimacy of the expression, Islamic culture. Itwould be enlightening to ask why we speak more commonly of Western culture with its different national expressions — German, English, French, Spanish culture — than of “Christian culture”. Why, on the contrary, do we use more often and more naturally the expression Islamic culture than terms such as Egyptian, Turkish or Iranian culture? The difference is due to the histor- ‘cal process that generated a secularised cul ture in one case, but strengthened and ‘peneralised a religious perception in the other. If we study carefully this historical process, we can correct the false image of Islam thats imposed by Muslim tradition ‘and translated without adequate explanation bby many Orientalists In the classical age of the history of Islam, that is, during is frst five centuries, i. between the seventh and eleventh centuries AD , aclear distinction was made between ‘mundane culture named adab and religious culture practiced as religious sciences (‘lm diniyya). Adab i iteratuse, poetry, lan- guage, the wisdom of nations, history, ‘geography, education, the social code of ‘good behaviour, scientific skills that can be ‘mastered in a rational and educated way, ‘and professional activities, especially those ‘of the officals in the administration ofthe Caliphate, Udaba were those cultivated, learned, active writers, poets, physicians, philosophers, judges, government ministers ‘who constituted the urban elites in classical ‘Muslim socieiy. Their knowledge and social activities were related to mundane realities or the terrestrial life called dunya. Religion, cor din, was, of course, present, but asa general, accepted set of beliefs, explana tions, rules rites and visions relating man, the creature, to God, the Creator. The state ran by the Caliph, davela, had to apply reli- ‘gious law to maintain the mundane life along the lines and in the spirit aught by religion ‘These are the three d's — din, dunya, davsta; tee differentiated but ar- ticulated spaces in which all human exist- cence has to unfold.. There has been a rich Titerature dealing with the relations between the three d's; many books on ethics and politics are entitled Adab al-dunya wa't-in, comprising the knowledge and education that one needed in mundane and religious existence. eis not right to repeat that “Islam” does not separate religion and polities. Ofcourse, the theological and egal view insist on the prio: ity of religion asthe revealed truth to orga- nise and to rule the City according to the Divine Will, but this theoretical claim did not prevent the development of a mundane culture and a political practice that was actually cut off from religious principles ‘The differentiation between religious think ing, knowledge and life on one side, and ‘mundane culture and profane existence on the other, reached a high degree of elabora- tion with the dominating philosophical trend under the Buyid dynasty (320-454 A F1932- 1052 A.D ). During this period, a humanist calture expressed in Arabic was developed primarily in Irag-Iran. One has to speak, then, not on an homogenous Islamic cul ‘ture, but on cultural ends in an Islamic context, How this humanist achievement came to be replaced by rigid “orthodox” teaching in the official schools, or madrases, founded by the Seljuk dynasty (429-590 4 1110381194 ‘AD ) is another historical step which needs special attention. The concept of orthodoxy is understood in the Muslim tradition to em- ‘body the authentic continuity ofthe original teaching of the Qur'an and the Prophet. However, historically, itis the trans- formation of culture and thought asi has been imposed by political power, by the Caliphate and the various princes, or umara, who conquered their position by force. One very significant example can help to illus- trate orthodoxy as an ideological concept that shaped the culture in an Tslamic context from the eleventh tothe twentieth century, After the year 432 A H/1041 A D.,an impor- tant text known asthe official creed of the “Abbasid Caliph al-Oadir(d422/031) was ‘Frequently read in public gatherings. This text a rigorous Sunnite definition of what a ‘rue Muslim should believe. Among many strict beliefs set forth in a dogmatic style,16 Islamic Culture, Modernity, Architecture theres a prohibition against refering to the theory of God's created Speech, which ‘embodied an important tenet ofa rival theological schoo, that ofthe rationalist ‘Murtaziltes. This meant that political power —the Caliph — could decide theological issues without any intellectual confronta~ tion, It was a decisive shift from religious and intellectual concerns to ideolo: sical-dogmatic atticudes that have in- creasingly dominated all cultural life in Mus- lim societies to this day. We have so far presented the learned urban culture expanded in the Islamic Empire dur- ing the classical age. This culture was shared to various degrees by the architects who built che monuments, mosques, palaces, and houses for the urban tich. It was not neces- sarily shared through a writen Iiterature;, ‘oral ways of teaching and communication ‘were more efficent than written ones. The aesthetic and mythic environment was also expressed and shared through various arts, crafts, celebrations, collective rites that were all related to very ancient culture that were ‘adapted and vivified in the new Islamic con- text. Architecture, painting, planning were influenced by Byzantine, Iranian, Roman, Indian, Turkish, Mughal, and other tradi- tions. That is why itis difficult to speak generally of “Islamic” architecture, When wwe speak of architecture in the spirit of Islam, we forget that Islam itself asa religion and a system of thought has been influenced by several traditions of culture that were deeply rooted in the Middle East a long time before the manifestation of the Qur'an. ‘There is, particularly, a common ancient ‘Mediterranean space that was perpetuated and expanded by Roman, Byzantine, (Christian and Islamic empires until the time of the creation of the West as a new cultural entity, one characterised by modernity, Islam cannot be presented as a purely Oriental religion and culture, isolated from the Mediterranean world of myths, arche- types, systems of thought, tradition of know- ledge, ways of representation, rules of life, types of forms, urban fabric and rural ex: ploitation, This broad historical and anthropological view of culture i the Islamic context is re- jected and negated by the strong and wide- spread ideological vision of Islam that has been imposed throughout the present Mus- lim world by political movements labelled Islamic” movements, Here we face a big issue. The most impressive architectural projects performed inthe last twenty years in several Muslim countries are ether just produced by modern technology or are ‘more influenced by the conventional, forma- listic, standardised representations of a so- called “Islamic” culture or tradition than by ‘the pluralistic and rich trends which charac ‘erised cultural life during the classical period, as we have discussed. Many mos- ‘ques illustrate this fact. ‘The urgent task of modern teachings to ‘emancipate the present vision fom apolo- etic, scholastic and conformist perception ‘of the Muslim heritage. donot mean that ‘ve must go bac to the culture and arhitec- tute ofthe clasical age, a return that i the ‘ypical, mythological elim of the Mustim atid that was developed under the name ‘of Salaiya This involved a retum tothe form and the substance of religion asit was exemplified by tne Sal, the pious ancestors ofthe time ofthe Prophet and the so-called Rightly Guided (Orthodox) Caliphs. To get free ofthis pious dream, we mus first ‘understood what is meant by modernity and how Islam can be presented today through a system of thought open othe new scientific spirit Modernity AlLaspects of our existence in contemporary societies is ordered and produced by what is called modernity, Modernity characterised by acontinuous and rapid technological and intellectual change is our present way of life and thought. All societies are not equally concerned with and affected by modernity, and modernity does not have everywhere and forall groups in a given society the same components and expressions, but ne society, ‘no group, is totally untouched by modernity, whether positively or negatively. Because modernity is among us, in us, we need to make a special effort in order to subject it toa critical evaluation. We are used to preceiving tradition in opposition to ‘modernity, primitive or archaic cultures in ‘opposition wo modern civilisation and know ledge, During the colonial period and even today, Western thought developed. theory ‘of modern civilisation based on a Euro- centric outlook that has been used for legiti- mising Wesern domination over under- developed, “traditional”, primitive societies. ‘This outlook is still evident in the way in Which aspects of Muslim societies are de- scribed today, and many Islamists insist on the oppositon of Muslim tradition to mod: ernity. What does this mean? To what ex- tent and in what conditions can any given tradition be opposed to modemity? ‘The frst danger we should avoid is that of reducing modernity to all contemporary aspects of life as opposed to those of anti- ‘The mental context ofthis collective dis: ‘course explains the sematic manipulation made of the Qur'an by all those who select ‘verses or fragments of verses, cutting it from their linguistic and cultura-historical con- text to introduce it in the present ideological ‘context with rights and all the elated voca- bulary used in the contemporary political dliscourse. Itis just the same procedure used by architects who cut classical buildings and their semiotic envizonment and introduce it ina totally different urban fabric and with different semiotie functions ‘What do all these remarks mean? To what conclusions do they necessaily lead? We ‘can provide some answers if we follow two inseparable ways of thinking and research: 1) The imaginary production of societies. 2) The search for a more adequate relation between knowledge and realityIslamic Culture, Modernity, Architecture ‘The Imaginary Production of Societies Any given society in any given time is pro ‘duced by the continuously combined, inter- acting activity of reason and imagination However, the history ofthe past is usually presented asa rational or, atleast, a rations lisedl process, which excludes the parti= cipation of imagination Imagination isthe privilege of poets, artists and prophets; it creates images, paraboles, symbols to add ‘an aesthetic dimension to the realities of Inuman existence, orto show a transcendent truth beyond the ordinary explanations of reason. This is the creative imagination that is at work in all myths and symbols invented by each community to recapitulate its origins and permanent values. However, imagi- nation is also receptive to ilusions, incorrect representations of reality, images of truth generated through social and politcal rival: fies in which competing groups interpret a common heritage — like Islam as expressed in the Qur'an and the experience of Moham- ‘med in Madina — in accordance with their divergent interests and aims, Mythological and ideological systems of representation are thus derived from the original myths and symbols shared by several groups or dfe- rent ethno-cultural communities, These sys- tems are generated, memorised and used as a model of eollective thinking and acting thanks tothe social “imaginary” and collec tive memory. The contemporary Islamic dis- course, as Ihave presented it, is a typical ilustration ofthe social “imaginary” gener ated out of the time of Revelation and Prophetic teaching and producing the his tory of societies through representations of that era which are taken asthe authentic continuity of the revealed Truth in ilo Tem pore. We have seen that the central charac: teristic ofthese representations the negi- tion of history and the disguising of pro- cedures in order to transform socal, psycho- logical, politcal realities into idealised im- ‘ages of the eternal Message ‘The disguising process covering the actual history with idealised images started at least as eatly asthe political triumph of Mu’awiya in A D 661 when the original experience of articulating political power tothe Authority ‘of God was reversed and the political power began couse the Authority of God just as an idealised image to be manipulated by the ‘lama to legitimise the so-called Caliphate This was the first rupture in the history of Islam. The second rupture was intellectual and cultural after the ninth century, cass al pluralist Islamic thought started to be neg: lected and forgotten under the pressure of “orthodoxy”. The third rupture appeared after the nineteenth century when Western ‘modernity was introduced in Muslim societies, The intellectual and scientific dis- tance between “orthodox” Islam and mod- cemity has been deepened by two divergent ‘evolutions. Muslims continued to oppose an imaginary vision of a Golden Age of Islam to conquering modernity, exploring more and more the world, human existence, societies, history. According to them, mod- ernity says “Man is the vice-gorent of God fon the earth”. They repeat this against all the concrete economic, social, political forces operating in present-day societies; ‘again they cover up reality with so-called religious teachings, Architecture as an Integrating Activity ‘What are the consequences ofthis historical evolution and the present socio-cultural situation for architecture as an integrating ‘activity? Architecture and the urban fabric inthe last twenty years eannot be evaluated ‘outside the conflicting visions and the diver- gent interests of the new social classes in ‘Muslim societies, ‘A useful distinction must be made between ‘an integrated architecture and an integrat- ing, but not necessarily integrated architec ture. The firsts people building for people according to commonly shared culture, needs, tools, materials, economic possi- bilities or solidarties. The second is oficial, ‘conceived and performed by highly trained architects forthe upper classes, the ruling political elite or rich individuals. The values involved it the two are different. The inte- grating funetion ofthe official architecture ‘depends on its capacity to include collective concerns, basic needs, deeply rooted aspi- rations, forms and symbols crossing social and economic frontiers. Mosques, cathe drals, synagogues, and temples are integrated and integrating monuments as long as they hhave been built by a collective effort: crafts- ‘men, mascns, engincers and highly inspired artists sharing the symbolic beliefs of the ‘taditional societies. Itis not only a question ‘of styles and forms of building; the status of the work itself contributes to strengthen the integrating function ofthe built environ- ‘ment Once a salary is paid to every worker by an anonymous state ora big firm, ancient ‘emotional relations to the work change ‘With the end ofthe participation of mem bers ofa traditional guild, people, a village or inhabitants of a quarter ofa city, the symbolic capital shared by the group ise placed by strict technical exocution of the work in the time that has been set and paid for, excluding aesthetic, ethical and spiritual investments by the individual in a colleetive enterprise ‘The links between the built environment, the workers, the work and the shared sym- bolic capital can be illustrated by a com: parison berween the ancient mosques in ‘Damascusor Kariouan, for example, and the recently constructed Mosques of Brus- sels or Geneva, Inthe first, the functions are essential, numerous, dynamic and far- reaching, and include the whole socio- cultural space; in the seconel case, the mos- que isan isolated, abstract space — indeed, an isolating place, cutoff from the rest of socio-cultural lie instead of integrating itin any sense ‘The same disintegration can be noticed in ‘Muslim societies themselves, where modern ‘economiesand demographie pressures have produced te situation described by Charles Correa about Bombay.* Great, inspired architects can produce masterpieces of architecture, richly conceived and beaut fully design in total harmony with the physical elements and spaces However, ‘these masterpieces, like the NationalIslamic Culture, Modernity, Architecture a Assembly built by Louis Kahn in Dhaka can be, atthe same time, totally alien to the whole society. However, such successful ‘masterpieces as pure architectural perfor~ ‘mances are very rare In Musim societies ‘we mostly find Western models reproduced cither with a highly sophisticated tech nology, or on a modest scale for average people. The historical rupture described above is translated in a discontinuous built ‘environment where rich modern villas, mod ‘ern hotels, banks, and airports eo-exist with poor public housing, ancient deteriorated ‘medinas, spreading haphazard housing, ‘slums. These show clearly a dislocated socie- ty, a dependent economy anda dis- integrated culture Any attempt to improve this situation has to consider architectural education as. totalis- ing enterprise for integrating very large societies in a modern style of life. Programs cof training i schools of architecture should include not only the history is Islamic at, ‘but also the history of Islamic thought com- bined with social and cultural anthropology “The past of Muslim society is very present ‘and active, as Ihave shown, but only in the form of oppressive ideology In the name of Islam, this ideology is imposing forms of architecture and shapes of urbanism which are relevant neither to Muslim tradition, nor ‘to moderne and culture. The problem of privacy, for example, is all based on a legal Status of women thats in trong opposition 10 the modern conception of human rights ‘This alienating vision and practice can be stopped only with « scientific knowledge of all the issues involved, Inthe meantime, architects should refuse to translate an alienating ideology into built forms, even ‘when they are gencrously paid by kings, ‘emirs and presidents would even say that theotogical culture isa relevant topic for emancipating the archi- tects and the users from imaginary repre- sentations of the past and its “religious values, or from a positivist, functionalist conception of modemity. I say “theological culture" not theology as a specialised disc pine, How can one deal with any religio (question without a theological culture? And, hhow can one establish a critical distance from modernity if traditional values are not ‘objectively confronted with modernity? ‘What I am proposing here is new and far from the dominating trends of architectural ‘education, If architecture i a free artistic creation, it does not need a systematic study of literary and historical descriptions. Ifitis ‘a major activity engaging for long periods the relations of people to the landscape, the ‘modes and ways of adapting the space 10 the individual and the collective existence, then architects, more than other professionals, should have a sold knowledge of all the determining aspects of human life. Itseems ‘to me that one of the most decisive problems inall Muslim countries today i the elimina tion of women from all public activities and the obligations put on them by law to devote ‘their life to domestic tasks, when men Keep ‘a monopoly of all civil decisions and public activities With such rigorous separation, archaic and traditional eulture is kept and ‘transmitted by women at home, while ‘modern constraints, behaviours and perfor- ‘mances are accepted and imposed outside ‘Thisis another psychological and even psychic rupture which governs the whole society; and there is no way other than theo- logical culture or brutal revolution to deliver “Muslim societies from this overwhelming ‘contradiction When architects from big firms aceept to design in such ideological ‘environments without any intellectual responsiblity, because they are not aware of ‘the issues at stake, they simply participate in strengthening for many years visions that are collectively alienating. ‘The Aga Khan Award for Architecture has been created precisely to face these historie- al problems in the Muslim world. How isit possile to insert modern thinking and tech- nology in archaic and traditional societies? How isit possible to evaluate with a modern scientific approach — against all ideological and apologetic claims — the positive values of the Muslim Tradition to infuse it into our modernity? These are two constant, insepar- able ideals of the Award, The originality of the Award isto master the past, the present and the future of Muslim societies through architecture and urbanism as integrated and integrating activities. This is at one and the ‘same time a cultural and a political revolu- tion withthe greatest implications for a new civilisation, Reference Notes * OnabQadirs cred, ct G Maks, bu Agile a résrgence deem haduionaiteaa este (Ves er tage) Damasers, 199. pp 321 2 Onthisconcept.ct MAskoun.Al-urath muha veoh jabiponhseslbytin Aura aad data ar ftemaan at ais (Birt, 188). ° Lam reporting hee objections cutemly raised by “aden and ulamo ater several ectares gave asin and Western universes “C1 € Contes, The New Bombay (Bombay 19)2 Comments Chadicji Professor Arkoun has stated that in our everyday life we are becoming more and ‘more secular, a natural development of the twentieth century; yet, intellectually, we seem to e livingiin the Middle Ages. In terms of architecture, we are still looking at itin the same way we look at Islam, thats, in terms of religion. The so-called “Islamic” architecture is really a cultural form of ex- pression rather than a religious one andl that, is why [think the designation “Islamic” architecture is inappropriate and mis- leading, for then we can also speak of “Christian” or “Hindu” architecture. ‘There are those who speak of the modern architecture of our part ofthe world asa product of new ideotogies and as being strongly influenced by what is considered to bea search for unity. Personally, Tdo not believe there is such a thing as unity. When T design, I design for a secular purpose and derive inspiration from the forms that sur round me, a tradition that I would like to live with and see continue. Itis not because of Some belief that I create, but rather to preserve my identity and individual charac- ter within the context of international cultu- ral evelopment; nor is it withthe intent of rejecting internationalism that I design, but rather with a view to contributing towards it by enriching it with variety and colour. Arkoun agree totally with Mr Chadirji. We really should not use in our discussions here, and in the activites ofthe Award the word “slam” or “Islamic” when referring to cul- ture. This leads to misinterpretations and, in ‘the ideologicalpolitical trends of today's Muslim world, it can even be extremely dangerous and result in unfortunate conse- quences. The main reason for tis is that such a presentation of Islam is totally di- voreed from historical truth, ‘What exists in our societies today and what are the actual forces governing them? To answer these questions we must not speak of “Islamic culture” or “Islamic architecture” because these concepts are t00 wide and are therefore impossible to define. What we should rather ask is what is going on in ‘Morocco, or Algeria or fraq. or any other Islamic society. Nobody would think of pre- senting the architecture of Western societies such as that of, for example, Germany, France or England, by describing some spe- cific characteristic ofa church or palace built there, Nobody would do this. Then why do wwe do this when speaking of Islamic archi- tecture? The basis for historical masterpieces that were produced inthe classical age of Islam no Tonger exis today because the culture behind them no longer exists. We must therefore look to the Muslim societies of today for our answers and solutions in order to understand the nature of our task Diba "The architectural concepts which govern to- day's moder architecture were possible be- cause of a well-defined Western civilisation that was formulated by the industrial revolu- tion, a soaring economy, scientific dis- coveries, philosophers and writers. This per- ‘mitted the development of well-defined architectural programmes as we know them today in the major architectural schools of ‘Western countries. ‘What we need inthe Islamic countries is 2 precise definition of concepts taken from the Qur'an to guide usin our architecture. With- out such an analysis and understanding of the Qur'an, architectural production in Isa _mic counties risks falling prey to chaos which can result ina hybrid architecture of ‘bad quality, representing only a caricature of Islam devoid of spiritual precepts. This is ‘an urgent problem facing architecture schools and their students: to formulate pre~ ‘cepts and concepts based on our own cvili- sation and culture in order to find the means and the proper guidelines for teaching and ‘creating architecture for our environment. Saad ‘With reference othe statement made by Professor Dia, I must express my deep con- cern abou the way in which many architects Took for architectural recipes inthe Holy Books. There isa vast ference, Tm afraid, between the Holy Books and cookery books! We desperately need to redefine the culture towhich we belong, and thereby be able to identify the architecture which shouldbe taught to our students. Abdethalin Professor Arkoun identified two distinet points in tie development of Islamic thought ‘hich he considers to be crucial for under- standing the obstacles facing Islamic thought and culture. The fist is the suppression of rationalism by forbidding the works of ibn ‘Russhd onthe autonomy of reason; and the second, the rupture that took place in Tsla- ‘mic culture as a result ofthe impact of mod- cerity. He also suggested that no works of intellectual value can be traced between the first and the second, Hence, the task of ro- ‘thinking architectural education in the Isla-Comments 2 mic world willbe confronted with this pro- bblem. The only intellectual discourse that thas been permitted since the suppression of the autonomy of reason is politically moti- vated with no real value forthe task at hand With regard tothe first point, I tend to agree with Professor Arkoun, However, T would like to suggest that philosophical texts are not the only means of recording the intel- Jectual development of a given culture. Buildings, artifacts and all other tangible forms of intellectual expression can aso be considered equally valid “texts” embodying ‘an explicit or implicit record of a particular period in the ereative development of that cculcure. Tam convinced that through a systematic analysis of Islamic buildings we could formulate a discourse, or any number ‘of discourses tracing the intellectual development of Islamic history. The soul of Islamic culture is embodied more in its buildings than in other ofits creative forms of expression As for the second point with regard to the rupture in Islamic thought caused by mod- cemity, it seems to me that we will not neces- sarily find solutions to our problems by simply adopting a modern way of thinking, On the contrary, itis more important to identify a new mode of thinking which will not only get us out of our problems caused by the rupture but, hopefully, solve the very problems of modernity itself. This, believe, to be important, and possible. The answer pethaps lies in reinvigorating the spirit of the ‘autonomy of reason, yet within the confines of slam, Makiya {tscems to me that we ought to try to put ‘emphasis not mainly on what and why of Islamic architecture but on how to train architects for building in Islamic environ- ‘ments, Curricula are crucially important and their design should take into account the need to cultivate a sense of and aptitude for the appreciation of a cultural environment. "The future architect should understand the heritage of the past so that he would not ‘mindlessly copy but try to compete with ex- amples of that heritage. Moreover, schools ‘also need to create the right atmosphere for the understanding and discrimination of so- cial and ethical values, for what they provide isthe basis for undertaking practice after ‘graduation. It is necessary to impart a puri fied vision of architecture so that practice ‘can be pursued with a clear grasp of pur pose. Kostof would like to address some ofthe issues that Mr Chadirji and Professor Arkoun spoke of. None ofthe societies ofthe Holy ‘Book have anything to contribute to archi- tecture. Infact, monotheistic religions begin with an enmity of architecture, especially ‘monumental architecture. Its part oftheir baggage to deny an architectural tradition because in itis embedded the values they ‘want to replace. The firs notion of a church in the Christian tradition isa place and a ‘community of people without an architec- ture. The word ekklesia refers to a com- ‘unity of people, not to a building, There- fore, we should not rely in our discussions ‘on suppor for an architectural tradition from the Holy Books themselves. They are predicated on something quite different. Teis ‘only when the religion has survived the ini tial generation or two does it realise that one ‘cannot have a universal impact without hav- ‘nga construct, a building of some sort. tis then that the mosque develops as a building type. In the beginning, any building or open space would serve because, asin the case of (Christianity, the community was important, not the structure. ‘My second point is about this notion of Islam iearchitecture, I cannot tell you how much agree when itis said that there is no such thing as Islamic architecture, ifit is under- stood to be a prescriptive description for some kind of stylistic entities or formal evi- dence. Islamic architecture indeed exists if ‘we understand i as being the entire spec- trum of buildings in the entire world of Islam produced over a number of centuries: that is, Islamic architecture, as.a broad term, used, if we must, in the same way as one ‘could refer to Christian architecture. What the West did, I think, was to begin the pro- ‘cess of discrimination very early. Islam re~ fuses to do that. We used to refer toa ‘Christian architecture, and that was five hundred years ago. Then we began to dis- criminate and speak of a medieval architec ture, and then of classical, Gothic, Romanesque and so forth, The process of discrimination means that we begin to recog- rise the wealth of the tradition produced and to realise that there isa certain cohesion which may come from regional identification rather than from one’s religion. In other ‘words, to carry on endlessly about the impe- rial courtyard house as being characteristic of Islam isto ignore the fact that this house \was also typical in ancient Mesopotamia and Assyria. We are impoverishing the dis- cession if “Islamic” is understood to be some kind of a universal term referring to a style. Dela Hoz Both the teaching and practice of architec- ture are based on an alternative method pro- vided by technology and art. The final result is architectural ereativity, an important cultural expression. The teaching of Islamic architecture shares the difficulties inherent inthe teaching of any architecture. In add tion, since it involves a culture different from European cultures, the ones called “modem”, the teaching of modern Islamic architecture entails adding a new element of complexity Islamic culture, that ofthe believers who subject themselves to a superior order, represents a biological approach to human existence, whereas European culture is basi- cally rationalist. Both ofthese distinct philo- sophies, cultures or different readings of the universe encountered cach other, for the firsttime, in Andalusia, a millenium ago. As ‘an Andalusian, I know how impossible it is ‘to integrate them into a single culture justa ‘as water and oil da not mix The Spanish spirit suffers and benefits creatively from this on-going struggle. In my understanding the teaching of modern Islamic architecture ‘must accept this fact and not try to find a simplification that impoverishes both eul- tures ‘The goal wil be to train new archi- tects whose hearts vibrate to a rhythm dic tated by their brains Gonzalez-Valearcel ‘The subject ofthe training of Islamic archi tects should be focussed. on studying in depth the Islamie architecture of the past, the actual “architecture without architects ‘which is found nowadays. not on trying to ‘create an Islamic architecture completely ‘opposed tothe examples of architecture from the colonial periods. ‘Asa Spanish architect who for many years has taken care of Toledo. a town that is ‘exemplary for its integration of vat tures and religions, and whic acoom- plished, through its famous school of trans- Jators, the noble mission of transmitting the ‘advanced cultute ofthe Caliphate of Cordo- ba im the dark ages of medieval Europe. 1 hhave been able to see how the Islamic way of lite, which, from my point of view, was an integration of various classical cultures from the ancient world, persists inthe city life of Toledo. [think thatthe revival of Islamic architec- ture and urbanism should be based on two critical studies On the one hand, one should study the past Islamic culture in its most developed era, and, on the other hand, one should study the vernacular architecture, so {ull of wisdom and intuition, These must be pursued with socio-economic studies and re- ligious and political ones, not forgetting modern technology and the actual way 10 conceive urbanism. In addition, one must not forget Western architecture From these critical studies should emerge a synthesis that could offer the best way to define the identity of the present and future Islamic world in terms ofits own cultural tradition, Comments 1. Pamie My question is addressed to Professor Arkoun who could pethaps explain what kind of a social system mode he is referring {o. Instead of explaining social relationships inhistorical terms, I think an analytical approach would be more appropriate in ‘which the interrelationships among religion, education, architecture, would be defined Astowhether Western societies are secula rised, its my belief that they are not. There is ahigh culture and a low culture, or popu- lar culture, whieh has become more secu larised Professor Arkoun's discussion of ‘modernity is really based on everyday social relationships and I do not think Western societies are secularised in those terms. For ‘example, we ean see the in uence of Christ- ianity in the planning of parks, ety planning. and everyday business relations. Also in Turkey, for instance, whch is considered t0 be asecularised state, people are returning to astyle of life that is rooted in Islam, So this question of secularisation is really not all that simple Before we ean talk about whether there are aetual differences be- ‘ween Eastern and Western Islamic and Christian — societies in terms of secularisa- tion, we should first define their social sys- tem That differences exist there is no ‘doubt, but what these differences are is still tobe determined, Correa With regard to the idea of rupture within Islam, T really do not think it matters in terms of architecture because that is what it {s actually all about a kind of compulsive intervention without necessarily undet- standing the problem The poet. for exam= ple, does not really have a basis for action, i his poem he illuminates life, insight beyond material statistics Te seems to me that there isa reason to accept the intervention of rupture as long as ‘we make it something positive, and perhaps use ita a catalyst for new forms of creative expression Serageldin “The conceot of “rupture” isindeed an im- portant one, It permeates much ofthe dis cession inthis room, Its reflected in the ‘need for constantly asserting the uniqueness ‘of the Muslim environment, its differences from the rest ofthe world and its “separate- ness” from the broad world trends, Thisis a serious problem, and reflects an ambiguity ‘which results from the intellectual rupture about which Professor Arkoun spoke 2s well as from the political rapture of historic con- ‘inuity manifested by the colonial experi- ‘ence and the socio-economic ruptures result- from accelerated modernisation during the last generation “To the problem at hand: recognition of these realises requires that we bring a dis- criminating eye tothe survey of our heritage and an open mind to the possibilities the ‘world bas 0 offer. To accept and integrate me of the new and reject and discard some fof the old as well as some ofthe new: this is the way powerful, self-confident cultures cope with the world and keep renewing themselves. A flight from current problems {nto the realm ofthe past is neither Feasible nor desirable Itis the critical, open attitude that is re- ‘quired to create an intellectual climate for adequate discourse and instruction in our universities Architectural education per se ‘cannot be isolated from this overall ntel- lectual environment. Norberg-Schulz | would like to make a comment on Pro- fessor Arkoun's paperin which he suggests ‘we not use the word “Islamic™ because itis “dangerous”; and I venture to say thatif we {do not do what is “dangerous” we will never ‘get anywhere [think we should not hesitate toconfront the “danger”, Man today is in a seemingly paradoxical situation confronted withthe desire for the particular, a return to what is local, while at the same time forced to cope with what isComments 2% zeneral and of universal scope. Man feels lost in the modern world; he needs roots and therefore there is much talk today about particular localities, their problems and situations, We should certainly be interested in what is happening in Morocco, ia India or in any other country. However, we also live ‘in a world encompassing all countries and cultures: we are all part of a universal, glob- alentity. Our meeting here for this seminar has brought us all together from many diffe- rent countries; and we can talk together be- ‘cause we have a common understanding, ‘common belief in certain values, We do not necessarily share the same interpretation of these values, but, nonetheless, we under- stand one another when we speak of Islam, for example ‘The unique national character ‘of Morocco takes on a new dimension, a ‘deeper meaning, when itis related to Islam. France, for instance, gets its full meaning in relation to Europe, and we, a this seminar, take on a new meaning in relation o each other. Let us guard ourselves against frag ‘mentation, emphasising the local to the detriment ofthe general. We should not be reluctant to use the word “Islamic, but rather happy and proud to use it. Let us ‘avoid the error so common in Europe which isto deny one’s identity and lose self confidence. With respect to architecture, [agree with Professor Kostof that architecture isthe en- tire number of buildings; but it is also some- thing else From that number of buildings we can and must extrac principles which _make those buildings stand out wich their value and meaning_Ifwe do not do that, then we are left with meaningless fragments Asin human life, we have to create unity and balance between the general and the particular, Barrada Ithas been mentioned that there is no such thing as an Islami architecture and some ‘even argue that indeed it never existed. fit did not exist, or does not exist, we would hhave to invent it because ofits crucial role in helping restructure the disintegrated cul tures we find in most parts of today’s Islamic world. It would certainly be better, of course ifit were based on the continuation cof what is considered to be tradition, but it need not be: Arkoun ‘One of the main difficulties facing Muslim societies today isthe problem of how to interpret the Qur'an for various purposes — such asthe one we are discussing here — of hhow to create an Islamic architecture based ‘on Qur’anie precepts. We must remember thatthe new generation of young people since the 1950s and 196ts has been brought ‘up in a new ideological atmosphere, in societies fighting to be free from colonial rule. And now we have to speak to this, {generation of activists, we have to answer their questions that have no reference to Islamic cultural tradition or Islamic thought as they should and would be known through the study of history “Their questions are those which we hear in the ideological dis course of official media spread throughout the so-called "Islamic" societies; they want to know, for example, how to organise poli tical institutions on a Quranic basis “The point is that i impossible to initiate a new intellectual and cultural approach to the Quranic text. During the first five centuries ofthe Hira, Muslim thinkers developed an extremely elaborate and complex scence of rege called thea afgh in which we find the principles and methodtogy of how tovead andinterpce the Quran, the Ilanic daw, Itisanintellectualy ch scence But today’s young generation does noteven Know what ws fight How do we intco- duceitto these young people? How do we reintroduce an intellectual distance othe ‘uranitsey sit used to be inthe csi age? This isthe tremendous historical rp tre from which we are sffering today Its impossible and nave to ask what the re- moder architecture This isa totaly rele vant question What shouldbe asked i: What are the cultural and intellectual conditions of today? Islamic thought has o approach the Ouran inthe eltral context of modernity. which has ceated intellectual conditions in know ledge historical andintelectually, ile rent fom thse othe Mile Ages The ‘Skence af linguists wed for eaing ad interpreting the Ou an by Taba te ret txegete of the Quran sno fone! relevaat today Theseience of al aigh-— thats the methodology of Ilanicjunspradence isnot based on te same concept of istry as is ued today by eodern cuore. This that histoans call an eptemologeal rap tare in hiking and culture, Bull these isetes are totally ignored today and we re ttn solely onan ieclgial vel which, unfortunatly, minted by pole forces and further confounded bythe West’ dis Course about Islam. We nd eminent cho- of the West who take the floor and make solemn proclamations about slam ‘What they prodaim s toallyirelevant tothe ‘questions that are being raised bythe young Muslim generation oftoday Such the ise at hand, how to confront these acteurs sociaur The tasks very eat indeed.Defining an Art of Architecture Renata Holod For a historian of architecture treating the record of the pastas art presents a variety of difficulties and challenges. The considera- tion of any building forts design qualities can be an end in itself, and often the study of architecture within an architectural curri= culum stresses this aspect perhaps to the exclusion of other approaches. Yet formal analysis alone cannot in the end yield that density of discourse on architecture which is. atthe same time explanatory of the past and generative forthe present. The other approaches are, briefly, archeological and chronological, contextual ina poltial, so cial and cultural sense. By archeological and chronological, I mean the close examination Of a building or a setting i all ofits details and ll of is periods of construction and use For itis only with this base of data that even the most simple analytical tasks can be achieved ‘The recording of the building is the first necessary step. The fact that very few ofthe buildings within the millennial history of the Islamic world have been fully recorded and analysed presents a major ‘obstacle to developing a fine-grained picture ‘of what was built at any one time, or, in other words, of what was the constructional ‘ethos and praxis. To develop criteria for detecting quality in a building, its own inti- ‘mate context of related buildings has to be found. Can we be sure what was considered to be the art of architecture when any one of the buildings ofthe Islamic architectural record ‘was constructed? It has been said that there exist no manuals or theoretical works on architecture within the Islamic world where the qualitative aspects of architecture were Clearly spelled out.' And, even more, that architecture was only building and that, asa craft it possessed no concomitant intel- Feetualisation of the process and product. It is perhaps true that no single work exists on the model of an Albertian treatise. Atleast, ‘none has surfaced inthe customary places that i, associated with philosophical texts. Tt ‘may be premature, however, to characterise ‘whole traditions of architeture as being with- ‘out any intellectual component or any intel- Jectualisation, when litle real investigation of their cultural and intellectual contexts has A diagras forthe laying ou ofthe ada} fn Caio by Ion alSara,afourteenb-century Source Chester Beaty Library, Dublin, Ms 102 fol 52 fier David King, of 15 ran fora water cistern, Bukhava, sixteenth century Slide. Universi of Pennyleania, from Batkanov, fn ‘occured. This paper will indicate some areas of investigation which appear to be quite promising for developing the bases for a theory of Islamic architecture.” And itis ‘only from this vantage point that one can bbegin te shape conceptions of architecture as art thatare inherent in Islamic civilisation Sources forthe discovery ofthe theoretical ‘bases fer the making of architecture inthe Islamic world must be sought in several fields that may be far flung and unrelated t0 ‘each other but are nevertheless related to fone or another aspect of architecture. Thus. rather than generating a theory from the exterior and developing criteria for judging a work of architecture as art or not, I shal attempt to sketch out those areas which, in ‘my opinion, are fruitful ground for the dis: covery ofthe attitudes and patterns of ‘thought about the usage of architecture within slamic high culture — the pre condition for discourse on architecture. Lam purposely presenting a series of examples ‘which would reveal a similar density and preoccupation with aspects ofthe built environment which we find in other civilisa- tions (Chinese, Classical or European, for instance) with better articulated or better publicised conceptions of art and aesthetics.” ‘The concept of art and the concept of archi- tectureas art are culturally bound and must therefore be investigated within their own terms." A preliminary survey of those ateas withia Islamic civilisation which, all agree, had de- veloped a particularly rch, varied and con. scious internal commentary reveals that with: inthem there existed a use of and a pre- ‘covupation with the built environment, if rot wit architecture itself. The areas which did yield information were literature, philo- sophy, jurisprudence, geometry, astronomy, (of which all eveal an encouraging richness that must now be exploited and developed into a fully articulated system of analysing and evaluating Islamic architecture Iethen comes as no surprise that al-Magelsi, philosopher writing in the tenth century ‘would develop the classic argument about the existence of God in terms of the con- struction of a building. Itis a coneretisationDefining an Artof Architecture 2 Which drew directly upon his own experi- ence of the major transformation the Islamic ‘world was undergoing at the time. By all accounts this was its single most intense ‘urbanisation (and construction) phase prior to the contemporary period.* If it were permissible to imagine the crea tion ofthis world without a creator, it would infact be possible to imagine the existence ‘fa building without a builder, a piece of ‘writing without a writer, ofa design without ‘a designer, of an image without a painter It ‘would, in fact, be permissible to the one ‘who sees a solid residence and a firm build- ing o believe the following: a pile of earth ‘was gathered together without a gatherer; it Was then mixed without a mixer until eohe- sive and moist; then it was moulded into bricks of perfect proportion and admirable squareness without someone to plan it in advance and to fashion it; then the founda- tions of the residence laid themselves out, its footings strengthened themselves, its pillars and transoms rose up, so that is walls could be extended and ts comers completed; and ‘mud bricks flew into the air, landed on their proper sides and arranged themselves in the ‘most beautiful order; then the joists and beams fell on their own according to the ‘measurements of the apartments and of the sectors and were cut for building without anyone gathering them and cutting them: then the wood was hewn without a hewer, sawed without a sawyer and smoothed with- ‘outa plane; when (these wood pieces) are ‘completed, the uneven paris straightened ‘out they rise on their own grooves, trans form into ceilings over rooms and their pik lars rise under them; then a sheating covers them (ceilings), doors open and shut on their own; then the building is covered with lime and mud, paved and plastered; itis decorated with different kinds of ornaments and designs. And so the work is finished, the building is completed, its separate parts united in the best fashion and the most per fect arangement, Not one of its partitions, bricks, or wooden beams appear without the ‘viewer's admiration for its wisdom and its purpose, all ofthis without the maker who ‘made it, the fashioner who fashioned it, the Detail ofa pln fora mosque, Bukhara, siscenth contry ‘Slide. Universiy of Pennsylvania, from Balkan fn Madrasa Ghiyahiyya, Kargird, plan Side: University of Pnnsyivaia from O'Kane, fnz expert who formed it, the planner who plan ned Not only does al-Magdisi discuss the build- ingin great detail and with an acute aware ness ofthe construction process but also he admires quality in building, “ts wisdom and purpose”. The use of the building process in philosophical and theological literature should nt only be regarded asa typical argument fr the existence of God. Itis aso, it my opinion, highly indicative of the way in which thinking about building and about architecture permeated the many spheres of intelletua life in the tenth contury A.D "If

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