Guide for Writing Research Proposals and Theses

Department of Environmental Science and Engineering

Gannon University

The vast majority of the following guide was authored by

Anne Jones-Lee, PhD and G. Fred Lee, PhD, PE, DEE, of G. Fred Lee & Associates, El
Macero, California, as their document: GUIDE FOR WRITING PROJECT
PROPOSALS AND REPORTS

The document has been updated and modified by H.R. Diz, Ph.D., 1999.

This document provides guidance on content and style for the preparation of proposals-
reports. It also has applicability to preparation of professional papers and other written
materials. It was developed based on a review of problems typically encountered in the
development and review of written materials prepared by others. Becoming familiar with
and following this guidance will improve the quality of materials.

Additional information on style, grammar, punctuation, and format for written

professional materials can be found in a number of other publications, some of which are
cited in this document. When in doubt about grammar, punctuation, or spelling, consult
one of these guides and/or the dictionary.

This guidance is divided into the following major sections:

I. Sections of the Document

II. General Style, Punctuation, and Grammar
III. Data Presentation
IV. Suggested Style for References
V. Common Problem Areas
VI. Report Development and Sequence of Submission

Begin your proposal-report preparation by carefully reviewing this document. If you do

not have experience in writing, or do not know the rules of grammar, punctuation, and
composition, review the guides referenced herein on these topics. Obtain a copy or have
ready access to the following references during the preparation of your document:

standard dictionary
thesaurus
book(s) of English usage
US Government Printing Office Style Guide or ACS Style Guide

I. SECTIONS OF THE DOCUMENT

A written proposal-report will generally include the following items/sections. Each of

these major sections begins a new page of the document. There should be as many
headings and subheadings within the sections as necessary for clarity of presentation.
NOTE: Page numbering should be used such that pages prior to the Introduction are
numbered with Roman Numerals, and from the first page of the Introduction on are
numbered with Arabic numbers. The title page is numbered "i" but it is not printed on
the page, and is not listed in the Table of Contents; all other Sections listed below are
listed in the Table of Contents.

1. Title Page - The title page is to include the title of the document, the author's name,
and the date of submission, and if a thesis, according to the attached template (in Word
format).

2. Abstract - Present a brief summary of the document. Emphasis should be placed on

the substance of the findings discussed in the introduction, literature review, results,
discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. A brief summary is appropriate, but the
citation of references and a detailed discussion of results is not.

3. Acknowledgements - If funding or other assistance was provided, it should be

aknowledged here.

4. Table of Contents - List in outline style the title of each major section heading and
subheadings included in the proposal-report, in the order in which they appear in the text,
and the page number on which each heading appears.

5. List of Figures - List in columns each figure number, the figure caption, and the page
number on which the figure appears in the document. Include figures which appear in the
appendices; the number designation of an appendix figure is usually preceded by the
letter of the appendix in which it appears.

6. List of Tables - List in columns the table number, the table title, and the page number
for each table that appears in the document. Include tables which appear in the
appendices; the number designation of an appendix table is usually preceded by the letter
of the appendix in which it appears. Pages prior to the Introduction are numbered in
lower case Roman numerals.

7. Introduction - This section introduces the entire topic that was (will be) investigated.
It provides background information that describes the importance of the problem and why
it was investigated. It introduces the overall approach being taken for the study and
clearly defines the scope of the project undertaken.

8. Background (Literature Review of Previous Studies) - Provide a discussion of the

results of studies related to the problem you have defined. This review should be
organized so that the literature covering the various aspects of the topic you have defined
is addressed in an appropriate, well-organized sequence and manner. The relationships
between the methods and results of previous studies discussed and the topic of your
investigation (similarities and dissimilarities) should be clear.
The literature review should discuss the results of previous work pertinent to your study
on the basis of topics or issues, not on an author-by-author basis. That is, the literature
review of previous work is not simply a compilation of paragraphs about other people's
work. Its purpose is to describe what has already been done on the various aspects of the
topic or related topics and what work still needs to be done to answer the questions or
address the issues of your topic. Further, it is insufficient to simply indicate that someone
conducted a study about something. Focus should be on the results of the previous
studies, in light of the methods used, where appropriate, and their relevance to the work
at hand. Where a previous investigator's work incorporated a method or approach that
will not yield information that will address the problem at hand, extract what is
applicable and discuss why the rest is not applicable. Think about and critically evaluate
the work that you are reviewing, the methods and approaches used, and the conclusions
drawn by the investigator.

Literature should be summarized in your own words and properly referenced so that it is
clear which conclusions and statements were made by the author cited and which are
yours. In composing the literature review, it is insufficient to simply write a paragraph of
information and put a citation at the end of the paragraph.

If one author cites another author and you wish to use that cited information, you should
review and cite the original article. If you cannot review the original source of
information (e.g., because it was written in another language), you must indicate in your
writing that you are citing the material as discussed by the other author, not as though
you reviewed the original article yourself. In that case, you are to reference both the
original article and the article in which the reference appeared.

The general outline for the literature review section should be as follows:

Introduction to the topics covered in the literature review

Theoretical background to the topics - sometimes omit
Discussion of the previous work that is pertinent to each of the various aspects of
your project
Summary of what was learned from the literature
Need for additional work. In what aspects is the literature deficient in addressing
the problem?

The text citations should be in the "Author (date)" format. If there were two authors
of the article, the text citation should be: "Smith and Anderson (1987)." If there were
three or more authors, the text citation should be: "Smith et al. (1987)." The "et al."
designation should be written as shown; there is no period after "et".

While computer-based literature searches are often useful in identifying literature

pertinent to a particular topic, be certain you know which journals and other sources are
included in the data base for the search. It is rarely sufficient to rely solely on the
literature identified through such a search. Annual summaries of literature such as those
published by the Water Environment Federation frequently provide direction to papers
that should be read. Do not rely on the summaries provided in those publications,
however; read the original articles. Finally, do not rely on the information provided in
abstracts of papers for your literature; they should be used for screening the basic content
of papers.

9. Objectives - This section connects the previous ones to the following sections. You
should state clearly what your overall research goal is, including your hypothesis, if any.
You should then identify a number of objectives which will aid in the achievement of
your overall goal, and help to prove your hypothesis. The objectives can be in question
form, or may constitute a numbered list.

10. Methods - Discuss the approach to the experimental work that you conducted or plan
to conduct, the apparatus used, the methods of sampling and measurement,
mathematical/statistical techniques, sources of error, etc. If you have used an unusual
apparatus, you should provide a properly-labeled drawing of it, in addition to references
to its prior use in the literature review section. The descriptions of analytical methods
should be specific; indicating that "Standard Methods" were used is inadequate. Provide
the literature reference to the specific procedure, and describe options given in the
procedure that were followed and any deviations from the procedure. Specify lower
detection limits that were achieved with the procedures used, as well as the approaches to
data manipulation. Outline the quality control program followed and summarize the
results of that program. The procedure section should be in sufficient detail that with the
cited references, a reader could repeat the experiments exactly as you have done them.

11. Results - Present data in text, tables and/or in figures. (See Section 2 for a discussion
of the development of tables and figures.) Describe for the reader what you see in each of
the tables and figures. Do not simply indicate, however, that the data are presented in
Table 1 and Figure 1. Instead, tell the reader what each figure shows in levels or patterns
of concentration, etc. In studies in which samples have been collected from several
locations, provide a map showing the locations (see discussion of figures - maps) and be
certain that the locations presented in the table are shown on the map. Remember that
your reader has probably not been to the site or participated in the study. Also, discuss
anything that would impact the validity, completeness, or interpretability of the data.
Avoid the excessive use of abbreviations; where abbreviations are made, clearly indicate
what they mean the first time they are used.

12. Discussion - Present a discussion of the significance and implications of the results of
the study. This should not be a re-statement of the results, but rather a discussion of their
significance. The results should be compared to and discussed in light of the findings of
previous studies as discussed in the literature review. Consider the relationship of your
results to theory. Describe anomalies and plausible reasons for them.

13. Conclusions - Each of the conclusions of the study should be summarized in a short
paragraph. Conclusions are typically presented in a succinct, numbered form.
14. Recommendations - Specific recommendations for the utilization of the results in
water quality management should be developed based on the review of the literature and
the results of the investigation. Specific recommendations for further study should also be
presented. Each recommendation is usually presented in a separate, numbered paragraph.

15. Literature cited - Present a bibliographic listing of all materials cited in the text,
arranged in alphabetical order by lead author's last name. This should be carefully
checked against the items referenced so that no reference appears in the bibliography that
was not cited in the text, and so that each reference cited in the text is listed. Guidance is
provided in a subsequent section of this document on the proper format for the listing of
the literature citations. For citations to "personal communication," the name and
affiliation of the individual cited should be presented, as well as the name of the
individual who received the information and the date; sufficient information should be
provided so the reader could contact the person cited.

16. Appendices - Materials that support the data or discussions presented in the main
body of the text but are not the principal information for the report should be placed in an
appendix to the report. Principal data that appear only in figures in the text should be
presented in table form in an appendix. The appendices are typically identified by letter
and are given a title. A cover page should accompany each appendix, stating the
identification and title of the appendix. The text should discuss and make specific
reference to whatever appears in the appendix and its significance to the subject of the
report. Materials should not simply be collected and placed in an appendix. The titles for
the appendix(ces) should be listed in the table of contents, and tables and figures in the
appendices listed in the lists of tables and figures for the report.

II. GENERAL STYLE, PUNCTUATION, AND GRAMMAR

A. Resources

There are numerous books available which provide detailed guidance on style, grammar,
usage, and punctuation. One of the most complete is:

US Government Printing Office, Style Manual, Rev. ed.,Washington (for

sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C.) (1973).

Another useful, general technical writing style guide is:

Dodd, 3. S. (ed), The ACS Style Guide - A Manual for Authors and
Editors, American Chemical Society, Washington, D. C. (1986).

The following is a useful guide to the correct use of words:

 Fowler, H. W., A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, 2nd ed., Oxford
University Press, New York (1965).

B. General Style

As general, abbreviated guidance, the following items should be considered.

Write simply and clearly. Avoid short, choppy sentences as well as overly complicated
sentences. Make certain that you include all proper modifiers, conditions of the
statement, and assumptions you have made in making your statements. Be careful not to
state well-known information as though it represented new discoveries.

Write in the third person (refer to yourself as "the author;" never use "I" or "we").

Use the past tense when referring to the work that has already been completed. The
present tense is suitable for discussion of the results (e.g., "Samples were collected with a
Van Dorn sampler," but "The data in Table 3 show that ...")

Avoid trendy and trite words and phrases and wordy expressions (e.g., "at this point in
time").

Be certain that all mechanical aspects of the report/paper, such as number of spaces
indented at the beginning of paragraphs, are consistent throughout the document.

In general, footnotes are not used in technical writing. Carefully consider the information
that you may wish to put in a footnote and determine how it could be more appropriately
handled, such as by the use of a citation, words of explanation in the text, etc.

Information which has been obtained from another author's work should be clearly
referenced. Do not simply write a summary paragraph and place a citation at the end of
the paragraph; this makes it unclear which thoughts or information has been taken from
the cited author. Materials that had been taken from another source by the cited author
should show a reference to the original work with an indication that they are being
presented "as cited by" the cited work. In general such secondary references should not
be made; instead, the original work should be reviewed and cited as a primary reference
if it is important enough to be included.

Be especially careful in your use of words such as "this," "those," and "the author." Make
it clear whether you are referring to the study you have undertaken or to a study reported
in the literature.

C. Report/Paper Grammar, Usage, Organization

1. General Information.
It is important that good grammar, word usage, punctuation, spelling, and organization
are used in writing a report, not only for clarity of presentation, but also for their
reflection on the author. Use a dictionary, thesaurus, Webster's Book of Synonyms, and
guides to English grammar, usage, and punctuation as necessary. Be certain you know the
meaning of words, both technical and non-technical, that you use in your writing. Some
words with the same general meaning carry different implications; these may best be
understood by consulting a book of English usage as cited previously. This is especially
important when you have looked up a synonym for another word; check to be certain that
it is appropriate for your situation.

Be aware of the rules of proper punctuation. The hyphen, semicolon, and comma are
frequently used incorrectly; understand their proper use.

Mathematical expressions are subject to the usual rules of grammar and punctuation.
They should be numbered at the right margin in sequence and referred to in the text as,
"Equation 1..."

2. Development of Document Sections

A previous section of this document described the type of information that should be
included in the major sections of the report or paper. Each major section should be
introduced by an introductory paragraph. The introductory paragraph should clearly state
what you are going to talk about in that section and should take the reader at once into the
area to be discussed. Do not repeat the introduction to the report but rather introduce the
section of the report. The first few sentences should provide a brief indication of the
direction the section will take, and the nature of the goal of the section.

In your preparation of a section, keep clearly in mind the overall goal and scope of the
document you are preparing, and how the information you are writing supports the goal
and fits within the scope. This is especially important in the introduction, literature
review, discussion, conclusions, and recommendations sections. You should make these
connections clear to the reader in introducing a section as well as during the discussion of
the materials.

The material within a major section should be separated into sections for ease of reading
and understanding the material. The typical ordering of headings for sections of a report,
unless indicated otherwise by journal or sponsor requirements, are:

FIRST ORDER HEADING

First order: For headings of major sections. All capitalized letters, centered at the
beginning of a new page.

SECOND ORDER HEADINGS

Second order: All capitalized letters, beginning at the left margin. This heading does not
begin a new page. Generally two lines are skipped between the end of the previous text
and the second order heading.

Third Order Heading

Third order: First letter of each major word capitalized, beginning at the left margin.
Heading underlined.

Fourth Order Heading

Fourth order: First letter of each major word capitalized, beginning at the left margin. Not
underlined.

Fifth Order Heading. Fifth order: First letter of each major word capitalized, beginning at
the left margin. Heading underlined and followed by a period. Text begins on the same
line after two spaces are skipped.

It is important that standard approaches to sentence structure and paragraph development

be used throughout your document. You should consult a book on English composition if
you are not thoroughly familiar with these approaches.

Each major section should be concluded with a brief summary of the information
provided. This should tie the content of that section to the overall theme of the document
and show how it provides foundation or support for your work.

Once a section has been completed, re-read it to be certain that the direction that was
established for the section in the introduction has been followed and the goal
accomplished. You may find for example that your original direction for a section or
subsection of the literature review section was inappropriate based on your review of the
information that you have obtained from the literature. You would need to revise that
section accordingly. You should review each subsection for its content, clarity of
presentation, and relevance to the section as a whole. You should review each section for
its content, clarity of presentation, flow, and relevance to the document as a whole.

3. Tables and Figures

A subsequent section of this document provides detailed guidance for the development of
tables and figures for a report or paper. Generally, these should appear in the text on
separate pages placed on the page immediately following the page on which they are first
mentioned in the text. Unless requested by a publisher, they should never be collected
and placed at the end of a document. If a table is less than a half-page long, you may
place it within the text following your reference to it; a table placed within the text should
not be split onto two pages. However, this may present some difficulties in future
revision or editing of your work. In discussing figures and tables, present typical or
average values in the text as appropriate, and tell the reader what you see in the figure or
table.
The appendices should be used for materials which support the main bulk of the data, or
for presenting all of the original raw data. You should not place your important
calculations or the information which forms the basis upon which your conclusions were
reached in the appendix. The text should tell the reader what is in the appendix (e.g.,
"The average concentrations of compound x at the sampling stations are presented in
Table 2. The complete set of data is presented in Appendix A")

Unless absolutely necessary, do not cite in your discussion the page number on which a
table or other item appears in the document (e.g., do not write: "The table on page 10
shows ...") Often, as a result of re-drafting or editing, the page number on which an item
appears changes. It is generally difficult to find and correct all references to the page
numbers in the text with each re-draft of the document. This results in confusion for the
reader. Simply refer to the tables and figures by their given numbers.

Never present tables or figures without discussing them in the text. You must take the
reader through the table or tell him/her what you see to be the important points presented.
Do not assume that the reader will automatically grasp this from the data; tell the reader
what to look for.

Whenever you have to insert a table such that the table reads along the long side of the
paper, i.e., the 11-inch side, the table should be inserted in the text such that the top of the
table is at the left, along the binding side. Do not place a table with the bottom next to the
side that is normally bound. Once the table has been properly positioned for insertion into
the text, the page number should be placed as it is on all other pages.

Avoid using over-sized tables or figures in your report. If they cannot be reduced in size
and remain legible when photocopied, the information should be divided into additional
tables or figures.

4. Proofreading

The importance of proper proofreading cannot be overemphasized. A subsequent section

of this document describes the steps that should be taken to proofread a report or paper.

Be especially diligent about proofreading material and numbers that are presented in
tables and figures. Often, material is incorrectly copied by typists. It is up to you, the
author, to check to be certain that every number is properly listed both in the tables and
text. In going through several drafts, you will frequently find that errors are made with
each draft such that the numbers in the final version of the tables, figures, or text, may be
significantly different from those presented in the original material. This means that you
must go back to the original drafts or original data sets and compare the originals to the
final, typed material. You must also go back through the text systematically and check
every number given in the text to be certain that it is correct. If the text reads, "As shown
in Table 3, the concentration of xx was 2.0 units..." check Table 3 to be certain that this is
correct.

III. DATA PRESENTATION

A. Tables

Consider how to present your data. Many types of data that are collected for a study, such
as the chemical or physical characteristics of a water, are typically presented in tabular
form. The purpose of tabulation is to assist the reader in following the presentation and
discussion of the data in the text and in seeing the results clearly. A table should contain
sufficient information to enable the reader to understand its content; the table should be
able to stand on its own.

Check to ensure that each of the following aspects of the table has been taken into
account:

- The table should be numbered and referred to in the text by that number. All tables
presented should be mentioned explicitly in the text. Sufficient description of the table
should be presented in the text to guide the reader through what he/she should see in the
table.

- The table number should be followed immediately by a brief title which indicates the
content of the table. The title should be descriptive of the content, not simply "Results" or
"Data" but rather "Concentrations of ABC in XYZ River over Diel Cycle - Summer
1988." The table caption with number is placed at the top of the table. Some publishers or
sponsors specify the style to be followed in developing and numbering tables (for
example the designation of table numbers by Roman numerals) and the capitalization
approach to be used in the table title. Such specifications, when given, should be
followed. If no directions are provided, it is suggested that Arabic numbers be used, and
that beginning with the word "Table," the first letter of each word in the title, except
articles and prepositions, be capitalized. Whatever convention is used, it should be used
consistently throughout the report.

- There should be no vertical lines in a table, and only a minimum of horizontal lines
should be used. Generally, there is a horizontal line at the top and at the bottom of a
table. Additionally, there should be a horizontal line separating the headings from the
actual data. Additional horizontal lines may be necessary to make it clear to the reader
how groupings or sub-headings relate to the data.

- Present the data in an appropriate sequence within a table. This sequence may be by
location, by time, etc., as appropriate, and should serve to make the information and
discussion in the text easy to follow.

- Data presented should be properly aligned, and the numbers rounded appropriately. Do
not present more significant figures than can be justified. If concentrations are below
lower detection limits of analysis, this should be indicated in the table as "< xxx" with the
x's representing the particular lower detection limit. The numeral zero should not be used;
the notation of "trace" should not be used unless this term is clearly defined in the table.

- Proper and complete units of measure for each parameter must be presented. These are
typically given at the head of the column or row of data. The basis for reporting chemical
data should be made clear in the table. For example, in reporting nitrate data, it must be
indicated whether the units are "mg N/L" or "mg NO3-N/L." Similarly, when specific
conductance is reported, the associated temperature must be indicated; if these data were
corrected to a particular temperature, the method for making this correction must be
provided. Refrain from the use of the "ppm" or "ppb" designations; instead use mass per
volume or mass per mass designations (e.g., mg/L or mg/kg).

- Sample identification should be clear. A map must be provided to show where the
samples were collected and to orient the reader to the general location of the study area.
If "site numbers" are used to identify particular locations, these "site numbers" must be
identified on the map. (See section below on preparation of maps.) Data should not be
keyed to arbitrary designations in the report, such as sample bottle numbers. Where
replicate analyses were made and results reported, these should be clearly identified as
replicate analyses, replicate samples collected, or whatever applies.

- The basis of the numeric values presented in a table of data should be described. For
example, if it represents the result of a single analysis or the average of duplicate
analyses, etc., this should be specified. For replicate analyses, it may be appropriate to
also present an indication of the variability of the analysis by reporting a range or 95%
confidence level.

- If there are blank spaces in the table, such as for parameters that were not measured for
a particular sample or for times when samples were not collected, a dash (--) should be
entered into the table and a note placed at the bottom of the table explaining what the
dash means. If it carries more than one meaning within a table, it may be appropriate to
designate these different meanings with different symbols.

- Any special notations on the data should be made by asterisk (*) or by superscript
numbers or letters. A footnote having the same designation must be presented at the end
of the table and contain the explanation. The notation and explanation should appear on
all figures and tables in which it is applicable; that is, it is not sufficient to make the
explanation on only one of several tables in which the data appear. You should avoid
mixing types of symbols within a report.

- If your table contains data from sources other than your own work, such as may occur in
the literature review or in the discussion, the sources of the data must be provided on the
table and the reference included in the "Literature Cited" section of the report. In this
regard, do not perpetuate errors made by an original author if possible. For example, if
the original author presents more decimal places in his/her data than appropriate, round
them appropriately and make that notation on the table; if the units of measure have not
been properly designated on the original work and you can clarify them, do so and note
what you have done in the table. If the units of measure were unclear in the original
work, note that, as well, in your report.

B. Figures

Many times a figure, e.g., a graph or map, can convey data in a more readily interpretable
fashion than a table. Trends or patterns may be much more readily observed not only by
the reader but also by the author when presented in such a manner. However, an
improperly designed figure may present a deceptive, incorrect interpretation of the data.
For example the reader may be misled if: confidence intervals are not plotted are or not
available to show the precision of the data points; data points are connected when there is
no justification for this; or the scale used in presenting the data is inappropriate and does
not show differences between data points or exaggerates the difference. When a figure is
used to present the data in a report, the tabulated data should also be presented in the text
or in an appendix so that someone else may determine the original values for the key
data, rather than have to make estimates from a graph.

- The figure should be numbered with a brief caption which indicates the content of the
figure. The caption should inform the reader of the content/interpretation of the figure,
rather than simply reiterate the axes of a graph. Figures should be numbered in sequence,
and captions should appear at the bottom of the figure.

- Figures should be created with a computer, or imported into a computer by scanner

from professionally prepared orginal material. Lettering should be large enough to be
easily read; take into account whether the figure will be reduced in size during
reproduction or printing. Hand lettered or produced figures should be avoided whenever
possible. Figures created by MS Excel will automatically have a "Title" inserted above
the graph. Remove it! Be sure that the "legend" created by Excel is necessary and
appropriate, or else modify it. Include the R2 value and the equation on the figure only if
appropriate and necessary to add valuable information.

- Choose the simplest design (e.g., pie chart, bar graph, line graph, map, etc.) that will
convey the meaning and aid in the understanding and interpretation of the data. The
design should be appropriate for the data being presented. For example, for presenting
concentrations over time, a line graph may be most appropriate; for comparing
concentrations at several sampling sites, a bar graph may be most appropriate. To
illustrate the distribution of the parts of a whole, a pie chart may be best.

- After selection of an appropriate design, determine the proper handling of the

information within that design. For example, if you have selected a line graph of
concentrations over time or with distance downstream, you cannot assume that it is
necessarily appropriate to connect the plotted points with lines. Do not connect the points
on a line graph if there is a reasonable question about the behavior or position of the line
between points. A dashed line indicating the uncertainty of the position of the line may be
used to guide the reader's eye; the reason for the use of a dashed line should be provided.
Make the individual data points plotted on the graph obvious.

- Both axes of a graph must be labeled as to what they represent. The proper and
complete units of measure for both axes must be included.

- Be certain that the scales are appropriate for the accuracy of the data being presented.
Check your data for significant figures; do not express results more precisely or
accurately than they really are.

- A legend should be provided on each figure that gives the experimental conditions and
identifies various symbols used on the figure. A figure should be able to stand on its own.

- If you are including a figure from another source, make certain that it is legible. This
may mean that you must redraw the figure. Provide a proper reference to the source of
information at the bottom of the figure.

- You may find it helpful to show another author's data graphically, whether or not the
original author did. Sometimes you may find it useful to plot those data along with yours
if the assumptions and conditions of the data generated were the same or related. If
another author's data is plotted by you, you must indicate the source of the data used.

C. Maps

A map should be provided to indicate the overall location of the study site relative to a
place which most readers would know, as well as the location of the specific locations
from which samples were collected or measurements were made. The following aspects
should be taken into consideration in preparing maps for inclusion in reports or papers:

- It is often useful to show the general location of the study site on a drawing of the state
or country in which it is located, along with the large nearby cities. This map should not
contain extraneous information; thus if you copied the map from another source, or
reduced a road map, you should redraw the map to include only relevant information.

- In addition to the general location map, it is usually appropriate to provide a map

representing an enlargement of the study area identified. This area should be clearly
keyed to the location in the overall map by showing a city, or some common feature.

- Major features of topography or geography that may have relevance to your work
should be represented and identified. For example, if the focus of study is a river, show
the major tributaries, discharges, and watershed characteristics that may have a bearing
on the water characteristics such as wetlands, pastureland, farmland, etc. Show and
identify major roads, especially those from which samples of the waterbody may have
been collected.
- All maps should include a scale which shows metric units, and English units as desired.
Any "maps" which are schematic in nature and not to scale should be labeled, "Not to
scale."

- All maps should have a North designation.

- Any and all locations pertinent to your study area should be shown on the map. For
example, if the text indicates that the sampling station was 15 km upstream from the
ABC Plant, show the location of the ABC Plant on the map.

- When the map is completed, check it with the text for consistency. If the text reads that
the sampling site was 10 km off-shore, determine if the map and scale show that location
for the site. Be certain that the reader could return to the sampling locations based on the
information you have given.

IV. SUGGESTED STYLE FOR REFERENCES

Book:

Anderson, C. R., Saunders, A. B., and Weeks, F. W. 1957. Business Reports, 3rd ed.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 498 pp..

Journal article:
Riebel, J. P.. 1963. Writing Star Reports. J. Water Pollut. Cntrl. Fed., 8:32-40.

Theses, Dissertations:
Silverthorn, J. R.. 1955. The Basic Vocabulary of Written Business Communications,
M.S. Thesis, Education, Univ. of Indiana, Bloomington.

Personal Communication:
Schultz, J. R., 1965. Director of Environmental Affairs, DOW Chemical Company,
Midland, MI, Personal Communication to Frank Smith, January 4.

Conference Proceedings:
Vacker, D., Connell, C. H., and Wells, W. N. 1966. "Phosphate Removal through
Municipal Wastewater Treatment at San Antonio, Texas," Presented at annual short
school of the Texas Water Sewage Works Assn., Texas A & M Univ., College Station,
March 9, 1966.

Paper in a Book or Conference Proceedings:

Cushing, E. J. 1965. "Problems in the Quaternary Phytogeography of the Great Lakes
Region,"
In: Wright, H. E., Jr., and Frey, D. G. (eds), The Quaternary of the United States,
Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. 403-416.
Stumm, W. 1964. "Chemistry of Natural Water in Relation to Water Quality," In:
Symposium on Environmental Measurements, PHS Pub. No 999-WP-15, R. A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 299-323.

"Standard Methods":
American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association
(AWWA), and Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF). 1971. Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 13th ed, APHA, New York.

Other Materials:

Hazen, C., 1969. "The Role of a Secretary in the Environmental Engineering

Department," Water Chemistry Seminar Mimeograph, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
22 pp.

Additional notes regarding references:

Show complete pages of reference, state author's initials, and give complete title of
article.

Sufficient information should be provided so that the reader could obtain a copy of the
document cited. For documents that are not standard journal articles, books, etc., provide
the information necessary so a copy could be obtained by the reader.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater should not be
referenced in the text as "Standard Methods" or "APHA." The proper reference citation
for the text is either a number keyed to the citation in the list of references if that is the
system that is used or, if the author-date system is used, it should be referenced in the text
as "APHA et al. (1985)" or whatever the appropriate edition is. Members of the APHA
comprise only one of the groups of authors of this book. The AWWA and WPCF
members are also authors. Furthermore, there are other books of standardized methods.

Whenever preparing a list of references, be certain that you also list the references cited
in the tables and figures. Often, authors will leave these out. They should be part of the
literature cited section of the paper.

The references are to be listed alphabetically according to the first author's last name, in
the list of references. Where an author has more than one publication cited, they are listed
by date beginning with the earliest. For a group of publications in which an author is a
sole author, the first of two authors, or the first of many authors, the references should be
ordered as follows:

Author, S., 1984. "Title," ....

Author, S., 1987. "Title," ....
Author, T., 1982. "Title," ....
Author, S., and Anderson, J., 1984. "Title," ...
Author, S., and Author, T., 1978. "Title," ...
Author, S. and Author, T., 1982. "Title," ...
Author, S., Smith, J., and Webb, P., 1945. "Title," ...
Author, T., Author, S., and Webb, P., 1976a. Title," ...
Author, T., Author, W., and Smith, G., 1976b "Title," ...

Remember that the order of references is determined so the reader may find them readily.
Bear in mind what information on the citation the reader has been given in the text. For
example, the text citation, Author etal. does not indicate to the reader who the other
authors were, or which "Dr. Author" was the first. Therefore, in the examples above, all
of the "Author etal." citations must be listed together by date and where two appear with
the same date of publication, the designations "a" and "b" must be made as shown above.

V. COMMON PROBLEM AREAS

Listed below are suggestions and reminders to help avoid making some common errors.
This list should be carefully reviewed to be certain that these items are properly handled
in reports, theses, dissertations, and other technical writing.

1. Avoid using rambling collections of words that go on and on. Be succinct.

2. Reports, proposals, and papers should be divided into appropriate sections with
adequate use of headings, subheadings, tables, and figures. It is important to check to be
certain that the titles, headings, etc. that appear in the table of contents, and lists of
figures and tables are exactly the same as they appear in the manuscript.

3. Be consistent in your verb tense. Work done in the past should be discussed in the past
tense (e.g., "Samples were collected..."). Discussion should be in the present tense (e.g.,
"The data in Table 1 show that ...").

4. Avoid the use of parenthetical comments. Generally, if the information is of sufficient

importance to be included, it should not be made parenthetically.

5. The word "data" is plural and should therefore be accompanied by the plural form of
the verb (e.g., "The data are presented...").

6. "affect" vs. "effect" - "affect" is a verb; "effect" is usually a noun except when it means
"to bring about." Example: A chemical may affect water quality. A chemical may cause
an undesirable effect on fish.

7. Do not use "etc." as an indefinite, catch-all word. It should not be used unless a reader
could readily list a half-dozen additional items in the sequence. If this can be done, then
the writer should re-think the need for making the statement. Otherwise, the writer should
state what is meant.
8. The word "gauge" as listed in the dictionary for "gauging" of rivers is more commonly
spelled "gage" in the field; "gauge" is not the preferred spelling.

9. The notation, "et al. should be presented as shown, with a period after "al." It is not
preceded by a comma.

10. The abbreviation "i.e.," means "that is, ..." and indicates that the words following
represent a re-statement of the previous thought, or make specific a previous generality; it
does not introduce an example. It is the abbreviation for two words and hence both the "i"
and "e" are followed by periods; the period after the "e" is followed by a comma.

11. The abbreviation "e.g.," means "for example, ..." It is used to introduce examples.
Both the "e" and "g" are followed by periods, and the period after the "g" is followed by a
comma.

12. Any words, abbreviations, or acronyms which are not common usage should be
defined the first time they are used. Some states have a State Department of
Environmental Protection. To avoid confusion in your writing, when you refer to the US
Environmental Protection Agency, the acronym "US EPA" should be used, rather than
"EPA."

13. For words or abbreviations that have two or more acceptable spellings, use the
dictionary-preferred form. Under all circumstances, use only one form throughout the
document.

14. Use standard, consistent abbreviations for journals in the reference listing.

15. Do not include periods in common abbreviations, such as mL, L, g, etc. The plural
abbreviation is not used (e.g., 50 g rather than 50 gms).

16. Either write out the word "percent," or use the symbol "%." Do not mix them in the
text.

17. Capitalize the word "Figure," "Table," and "Chapter" in the text when it is
accompanied by the figure, table, or chapter number.

18. When the word "respectively" is used to indicate which descriptor is associated with
which item, "respectively" is always preceded by a comma. [e.g., "The ammonia and
nitrate concentrations were 0.03 mg N/L and 0.15 mg N/L, respectively."]

19. For punctuation that is optional, e.g., a comma preceding an "and" in a series, use one
or the other form, not both. Your writing is frequently less subject to confusion when
such a comma is used.

20. When using quotation marks at the end of a sentence, the period precedes the
"quotation mark."
21. Avoid using quotation marks for purposes other than to quote something said by
another. For example, do not use them for emphasis or to indicate an implied meaning,
such as, "The author said there would be an 'impact.'" [When a quote appears within a
quote, the inner quote bears single quotation marks.] Use of quotation marks for
emphasis or innuendo leaves the reader to guess what you mean by their use. Be explicit.

22. If you use another author's words, be sure to properly quote and cite them.

23. Citations of literature should be made consistently in the text. The preferred format is
"author (date)" such as, "As discussed by Smith (1985)." When the same author or an
author with the same last name has published more than one referenced report or paper in
the same year, they should be distinguished by letter notation BOTH in the text and in the
list of references. [e.g., Smith (1985a)]

24. Where information pertinent to your report was obtained by communication with
another individual by letter, telephone, etc., you should reference the material in the text
as, "According to Smith (1985),..." This citation should be presented in your bibliography
as a personal communication. Sufficient information should be given in the bibliography
so that a reader could contact the individual with regard to the statement. An acceptable
form is provided in the previous section of this document.

25. Be certain to indicate the form of the chemical in which the concentration is
expressed.

26. Use "mg/L" and "ug/L" rather than "ppm" and "ppb," respectively, for concentrations
in solutions. For reporting concentrations on a mass per mass basis, use mg/kg or ug/kg
designations.

27. If you have collected data using English units, give the metric equivalents in
parentheses. Metric units are standard in the field today.

28. Always use a zero before a decimal fraction (e.g., 0.23).

29. Write out numbers less than ten unless they are accompanied by units (e.g., "nine
samples were collected," but "the concentration was 9 mg/L").

30. With certain usage, a hyphen should be used between a number and the units. For
example, the paper is 11 inches long, but you use a 12-inch ruler. The former is a noun,
the latter is part of an adjective (The former "inches" - plural - matches the number which
is more than one. The latter "inch" - singular -does not match the number which is more
than one).

31. When noting a range of values, use the word "to" than a dash between them (e.g.,
"The review takes 2 to 3 weeks...")
32. Always specify that it is "0.45 u pore size membrane filters." Do not leave out "pore
size." The "0.45" refers only to the pore size, not the diameter or other feature of the
filter.

VI. REPORT DEVELOPMENT AND SEQUENCE OF SUBMISSION

Discussed below is the sequence of submission of various aspects of a report, proposal,

etc. Also discussed are various aspects of report development and proofreading that
should be considered before making any submissions.

A. Literature Review

The literature review should be begun early in the project. This review will identify work
that has already been done on a topic and will provide guidance for research that is still
needed. It also provides a basis for comparison of results of your work as they are
obtained. As the work progresses, the literature in other topic areas may need to be
searched and included in the literature review; current literature should be reviewed on a
continuing basis during the project.

B. Topic Outline

Once the work has progressed to the point at which writing may be begun (or if a formal
interim report is needed), a topic outline of the report including the items listed in item 1
above, tables, figures, and references should be developed. Sufficient information should
be provided in the outline to make the flow and progression of the report clear. Think
through the story you want to tell in the report.

C. Development of First Draft

Prepare a first draft of the report based on the finalized topic outline and the guidance
given in this document. The first draft (as well as subsequent drafts) are to be edited,
reviewed, rewritten, and re-worked BEFORE it is submitted for review. Each submission
is to reflect the best and most complete work of the author. Each section submission
should be complete, including a bibliographic listing of all references cited,and tables and
figures mentioned (even if from a prior chapter), so that the document can be reviewed
properly. The second and subsequent drafts must be submitted as complete units, unless
specific instruction or permission has been given to do otherwise.

Editing first draft. Review, Rewrite, Re-work. This should be done BEFORE submitting
the material for review.

1. Review the completed draft three separate times:

First - Review the manuscript for its organization. Does the information flow in a logical
sequence? Does one section logically progress from the previous section? Are topics
addressed completely in the sections in which they appear, or are bits and pieces of
information on the topic presented throughout the document? Are the connections
between topics made well?

Second - Review the manuscript for its subject matter. Consider what information must
be added or omitted. Omit redundant information. If necessary, re-review the
organization in light of added or deleted materials. Review each section to be certain that
it presents the type of information it should as described in item VI.C.1.b. below. Make
sure each subject is covered clearly and completely.

Third - Review the manuscript for the mechanics of presentation such as spelling,
grammar, word usage, sentence structure (punctuation, and placement of tables and
figures. If you are in doubt about spelling, check a dictionary; if you need a synonym, use
a thesaurus and check the meaning of the synonym in the dictionary to be certain it meets
your needs; if you are in doubt about punctuation, capitalization, grammar, or word
usage, review the references given at the end of this document.

Read the words of your report carefully; do they say exactly what you intend for them to
say? Check each reference as it appears in the document (author and date) against the list
of references. Review the section below that discusses the details of presentation of
references. Check the list of references for order and completeness. Check the tables and
figures to be certain that they are complete and follow the guidelines discussed above.
Each table and figure should appear in the text after the page on which it is first
mentioned in the text. Pages containing a table or figure should be numbered in sequence
with the text. Guidance to help avoid common errors in the mechanics of presentation is
provided in a previous section of this document.

2. Additional suggestions for chapter-by-chapter review:

Check to be certain that you have adhered to the direction given above for the general
content of each of the sections of your work. Overall review questions are given below:

Introduction - Statement of Problem

The introduction should include enough of the history of the problem to show how the
new data relate to certain earlier work.

Literature Review
Have you discussed all literature-previous work pertinent to the investigation?
Have you presented a summary of the key literature?
Have you presented a brief discussion of the additional work that needs to be done in the
topic area?

Experimental Procedure
Have you provided sufficient details and references on your procedure so that someone
else could duplicate your work?
Have you included a discussion of the results of the quality control program?
Experimental Data
Have you presented all the necessary data?
Have you given them proper emphasis?

Discussion
Have you adequately discussed your findings and their relation to previous studies?
Have you addressed the topics you indicated would be addressed in the introduction?
Have you met the objectives and undertaken the scope of work indicated?

Conclusions
Have you stated your conclusions in definite terms?
Did your discussion provide adequate substantiation for your conclusions?
Are your generalizations within the scope of your data?

Recommendations
Have you identified the recommendations that can be formulated based on the new
information that you have developed?

References
Have you provided complete information for each reference, including all authors, page
numbers? (Do not list "et al." in the list of references.)
Have you checked the accuracy of all information included, such as title of the article,
authors, page numbers, etc.? In the final copy, go back to the original journal and check
each reference for accuracy. See previous discussion for suggested style.
In some reports, it is permissible to use secondary references as sources of information
when it is difficult to readily obtain the primary source. List all references not examined
by the author but cited as secondary references preferably in a separate section in the
bibliography, headed "Literature Cited - Not Examined by Author."

3. The first draft should be typed, double-spaced allowing at least 1-inch margins on all
sides.

4. With a clean, typed copy, reread the entire document again, critically.

- Have you said exactly what you intended to say?

- Be on the alert for mistakes in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. All errors are to be
corrected properly and neatly.
- Carefully proofread for errors in the placement of decimal points, spelling of technical
terms, and for typographical errors. This is especially important if someone else typed
your document. All errors are to be corrected properly and neatly.

- Be certain all numbers have appropriate units.

- Check to be certain that figures and tables appear in the proper order and location.

D. Submission of First Draft

When you are certain that the draft has been done to the best of your ability, turn it in. Do
not submit any material unless you have carefully proofread it. Allow adequate time for
review.

E. Return of First Draft

The author will likely receive a set of written comments that cover the problems in the
overall document and/or specific aspects of the document. You will then prepare a second
draft of the document.

F. Further Revision

It is most important that the author make all changes, revisions, and corrections indicated
by the reviewer in the review of the material, or discuss with the reviewer the proposed
justification for not making them. Frequently, problems of a similar nature will be found
throughout the report; these may be indicated in the text or written comments the first
several times they appear, with a notation that the rest of the text should be reviewed for
this problem and corrected. This should be done; do not limit your revision and editing to
the specific items marked by the reviewer. Use the markings and comments of the
reviewer as a guideline to the types of problems to correct. Reread the entire document
thoroughly again before resubmitting it; check to be certain that errors pointed out by the
reviewer in one section are not made in another section.