Professional Documents
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Civil Law Memaid Pt. 2 (UP, 2013)
Civil Law Memaid Pt. 2 (UP, 2013)
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Substantial Compliance
Art. 809, CC. In the absence of bad faith, forgery, or Advantages Disadvantages
fraud, or undue and improper pressure and
influence, defects and imperfections in the form of (a) Simple and easy to (a) No guarantee as to
attestation or in the language used therein shall not make the capacity of the
render the will invalid if it is proved that the will was (b) Induces foreigners in testator
in fact executed and attested in substantial this jurisdiction to set (b) No protection against
compliance with all the requirements of Article 805. down their last violence, intimidation
wishes or undue influence
Substantial compliance rule applies only in cases (c) Guarantees the (c) May not faithfully
when such defects and imperfections can be absolute secrecy of express the will of the
supplied by an examination of the will itself the testamentary testator due to faulty
dispositions expressions
Examples: (d) Can be easily falsified
(a) Whether all pages are consecutively numbered and concealed
(b) Whether the signatures appear in each and every
page
(c) Whether the subscribing witnesses are three Witnesses Required for Probate [Art. 811]
(d) Whether the will was notarized [Caneda v CA] (a) At least one witness who knows the handwriting
and signature of the testator; explicitly declare
WITNESSES
that it is the testators
Qualifications [Art. 820, CC] (b) If contested at least 3 of such witnesses
(1) Of sound mind (c) In the absence of a competent witness, expert
(2) Aged 18 years or over testimony may be resorted to
(3) Not blind, deaf or dumb
(4) Able to read and write General Rule: The holographic will itself must be
presented for probate [Gan v Yap (1958)]
Disqualifications [Art. 821, CC]
(1) Person not domiciled in the Philippines Exception: If there is a photostatic copy or xerox copy
(2) Those who have been convicted of falsification, of the holographic will, it may be presented for
perjury, or false testimony. probate [Rodelas v Aranza (1982)]
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Effect of insertion written by another person on the Prohibition is applicable only to joint wills executed by
validity of a holographic will Filipinos.
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Place of Testators Governing Law contained in a previous one which is void as to its
Revocation Domicile form [Art. 835, CC].
(1) Law of the (1) Tolentino: Reproduction in the codicil is
place where required only when the original will is void as
the will was to it form; in all other cases, reference to the
Foreign Country made; or original will suffices to republish it through the
(2) Law of the codicil.
Outside the place in which (c) If after making a will, the testator makes a second
Philippines the testator will expressly revoking the first, the revocation of
had his the second will does not revive the first will, which
domicile at the can be revived only by another will or codicil.
time of (1) PRINCIPLE OF INSTANTER: Revoking clause
nd
revocation in the 2 will is NOT TESTAMENTARY in
character but operates to revoke the prior will
Doctrine of Dependent Relative Revocation INSTANTER upon the execution of the will
nd
The rule that where the act of destruction is containing it. The revocation of the 2 will
st
connected with the making of another will so as to does not revive the 1 will which has already
fairly raise the inference that the testator meant the become a NULLITY.
revocation of the old to depend upon the efficacy of
the new disposition intended to be substituted, the Republication vs. Revival
revocation will be conditional and dependent upon the
efficacy of the new disposition; and if for any reason, Republication Revival
the new will intended to be made as a substitute is
inoperative, the revocation fails and the original will (a) Takes place by an act (a) Takes place by
remain in full force. [Molo vs. Molo, 1951] of the testator operation of law
(b) Corrects extrinsic (b) Restores a revoked
The failure of the new testamentary disposition upon and intrinsic defects will
whose validity the revocation depends is equivalent
to the non-fulfillment of a suspensive condition and
hence prevents the revocation of the original will.
ALLOWANCE AND DISALLOWANCE OF WILLS
Revocation vs. Nullity Probate Requirement
Probate a Special Proceeding required to establish
Revocation Nullity the validity of a will and in order to pass real or
personal property [Art. 838, CC]
(a) By the act of the (a) Proceeds from law
testator (b) Inherent in the Matters to be proved in probate
(b) Presupposes a valid testament, be it an (1) Whether the instrument which is offered for
act intrinsic or an probate is the last will and testament of the
(c) Takes place during extrinsic defect decedent
the lifetime of the (c) Invoked after the (2) Whether the will has been executed in
testator testators death by accordance with the formalities prescribed by law
(d) Testator cannot his heirs (3) Whether the testator had testamentary capacity
renounce the right to (d) Nullity of a will can at the time of execution of the will
revoke be disregarded by
the heirs through Issues to be resolved in probate proceedings [Art.
voluntary 839]
compliance General Rule: the probate court cannot inquire into
therewith the intrinsic validity of testamentary provisions. Only
the extrinsic validity of such wills may be examined.
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(b) Valera vs. Inserto (1987): Claimants are all heirs who are to succeed him in his property and
and they consent either, expressly or impliedly, to transmissible rights and obligation [Art 840, CC]
the submission of the question of intrinsic validity
to the court. A will shall be VALID even though it (1) should not
(c) Pastor vs. CA (1983): Probate court may pass contain an institution of an heir or (2) such institution
upon the title thereto, but such determination is should not comprise the entire estate or (3) the
provisional and not conclusive, and is subject to person so instituted should not accept the
the final decision in a separate action to resolve inheritance or be incapacitated to succeed.
title.
In such cases, the testamentary dispositions made in
Revocation v. Disallowance accordance with law shall be complied with and the
remainder of the estate shall pass to the legal heirs
Revocation Disallowance [Art. 841, CC].
Voluntary Act of the Given by Judicial Decree EXTENT OF GRANT [ART. 842, CC]:
Testator Freedom of disposition depends upon the existence,
With or Without Cause Must always be for a kind and number of compulosry heirs.
legal cause (1) No compulsory heirs Full power of disposition
May be partial or total Always total, except (2) One with compulsory heirs cannot disregard the
when the ground of rights of the latter (i.e. legitime)
fraud of influence for
example affects only EFFECT OF PREDECEASE OF HEIR (ART. 856, CC):
certain portions of the Any heir who dies before the testator or is
will incapacitated to succeed or renounces the
inheritance transmits no rights of the testator to his
Effect of Final Decree of Probate, Res Judicata on own heirs. This is without prejudice to the rights of
Formal Validity representation. [Tolentino]
The probate of a will by the probate court having
jurisdiction thereof is usually considered as IDENTIFICATION OF HEIRS, MANNER OF INSTITUTION [ART.
conclusive as to its due execution and validity, and is 843-849; 851-853]
also conclusive that the testator was of sound and
disposing mind at the time when he executed the FALSE CAUSE [ART. 850]:
will, and was not acting under duress, menace, fraud, The statement of a false cause for the institution of
or undue influence, and that the will is genuine and an heir shall be considered as not written unless it
not a forgery. [Mercado vs. Santos, 1938] appears from the will that the testator would not
have made such institution if he had known the
Grounds for Denying Probate (SUM IFF) falsity of such cause.
(1) If the Signature of the testator was procured by
fraud; PRETERITION
(2) If it was procured by Undue and improper The preterition or omission of one, some, or all of the
pressure and influence, on the part of the compulsory heirs in the direct line, whether living at
beneficiary or some other person; the time of the execution of the will or born after the
(3) If the testator acted by Mistake or did not intend death of the testator, shall annul the institution of
that the instrument he signed should be his will heir; but the devises and legacies shall be valid
at the time affixing his signature thereto; insofar as they are not inofficious.
(4) If the testator was Insane or otherwise mentally
incapable of making a will at the time of its If the omitted compulsory heirs should die before the
execution; testator, the institution shall be effectual, without
(5) If the Formalities required by law have not been prejudice to the right of representation. [Art. 854, CC]
complied with; or
(6) If it was executed through Force or under duress, Concept [Art. 854, CC]
or the influence of fear, or threats. (a) There must be a total omission of one, some or all
of the heir/s from the inheritance. [Balane citing
INSTITUTION OF HEIRS Seangio vs Reyes (2006)]
Institution of Heirs an act by virtue of which the (b) The omission must be that of a compulsory heir.
testator designates in his will the person or persons (c) The compulsory heir omitted must be of the direct
line.
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(d) The omitted compulsory heir must be living at the (1) Neri vs. Akutin (1941): When there are no
time of the testators death or must at least have devises and legacies, preterition will result in
been conceived before the testators death. the annulment of the will and give rise to
intestate succession.
COMPULSORY HEIRS IN THE DIRECT LINE
A direct line is that constituted by the series of SUBSTITUTION OF HEIRS
degrees among ascendants and descendants DEFINITION
(ascending and descending). [Art 964 par.2] Substitution - is the appointment of another heir, so
that he may enter into the inheritance in default of
PRETERITION V. DISPOSITION LESS THAN LEGITIME the heir originally instituted. [Art 857, CC]
BALANE:
(a) If the heir in question is instituted in the will but KINDS
the portion given to him by the will is less than his Brief or Compendious [Art. 860, CC]
legitime there is no preterition. [Reyes vs (a) Brief Two or more persons were designated by
Barretto-Datu (1967)] the testator to substitute for only one heir
(b) If the heir is given a legacy or devise there is no (b) Compendious One person is designated to take
preterition. [Aznar vs Duncan (1966)] the place of two or more heirs
(c) If the heir had received a donation inter vivos from
the testator the better view is that there is no Reciprocal
preterition. The donation inter vivos is treated as If the heirs instituted in unequal shares should be
an advance on the legitime under Articles 906, reciprocally substituted, the substitute shall acquire
909, 910 and 1062 the share of the heir who dies, renounces, or is
(d) The remedy, if the value of inheritance, legacy or incapacitated, unless it clearly appears that the
devise, or donation inter vivos is only for intention of the testator was otherwise. If there is
completion of his legitime under Articles 906 and more than one substitute, they shall have the same
907 share in the substitution as the institution.
EFFECTS OF PRETERITION [ART. 854, CC] Fideicommisary Substitution. The testator institutes
(a) The institution of the heir is annulled. an heir with an obligation to preserve and to deliver
(b) Devises and legacies shall remain valid as long as to another the property so inherited. The heir
they are not inofficious. instituted to such condition is called the First Heir or
(c) If the omitted compulsory heir should die before the Fiduciary Heir; the one to receive the property is
the testator, the institution shall be effective, the fideicommissary or the second heir. [Art 863, CC]
without prejudice to the right of representation.
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(2) Secondary: Those who succeed only in the absence Direct Ascending Line
of the Primary compulsory heirs: (a) Rule of division between lines
(a) Legitimate Parents and Legitimate (1) The father and the mother shall inherit
Ascendants, with respect to their Legitimate equally if both living. One succeeds to the
Children and Descendants. (They will inherit entire estate of the child if the other is dead.
only in default of legitimate children and their [Art. 986, CC]
descendants) (2) In default of the mother and the father, the
(b) Illegitimate Parents with respect to their ascendants nearest in degree will inherit. [Art.
Illegitimate Children. (They will inherit only in 987]
default of the illegitimate and legitimate (3) If there is more than one relative of the same
children and their respective descendants). degree but of different lines, one half will go
Note that other illegitimate ascendants are to the paternal ascendants and the other half
not included. to the maternal ascendants. [Art. 987]
(b) Rule of equal division
(3) Concurring: Those who succeed together with the (1) The relatives who are in the same degree shall
primary or the secondary compulsory heirs: inherit in equal shares. [Art 987]
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Legitimat
Surviving Relatives Legitimate Children Surviving Illegitimate e Parents Illegitimate
[LC] & Descendants Spouse [SS] Children [ILC] [LP] & Parents
Ascendant [ILP]
s
14 ILP alone 1/2
15 ILP, SS 1/4
Steps in Determining the Legitime of Compulsory or a brother or sister, is obliged to reserve such
Heirs property as he may have acquired by operation of
(1) Determine the gross value of the estate at the law for the benefit of relatives who are within the
time of the death of the testator. third degree and who belong to the line from which
(2) Determine all debts and charges which are said property came.
chargeable against the estate.
(3) Determine the net value of the estate by Concept of Reserva Troncal [Art. 891, CC]
deducting all the debts and charges from the (1) A descendant (prepositus) inherits or acquires
gross value of the estate. property from an ascendant (origin or mediate
(4) Collate or add the value of all donations inter source) by gratuitous title or from a brother or
vivos to the net value of the estate. sister
(5) Determine the amount of the legitime from the (2) The same property is inherited by another
total thus found. ascendant (reservista) or is otherwise acquired by
(6) Impute the value of all donations inter vivos made him by operation of law from the said descendant
to strangers against the disposable free portion (prepositus)
and restore it to the estate if the donation is (3) The said ascendant (reservista) must reserve the
inofficious. property for the benefit of the relatives of the
(7) Distribute the residue of the estate in accordance deceased descendant within the third civil degree
with the will of the testator. and who belong to the line from which the said
property came (reservatarios).
Remedy of a Compulsory Heir in case of Impairment
of Legitime Parties: [Balane (2010)]
Extent and Nature of Remedy (1) Origin or Mediate Source either an ascendant of
Impairment any degree of ascent or a brother or sister of the
st
Total omission of a Annulment of institution Prepositus; responsible for the 1 transfer
compulsory heir who is a and reduction of legacies (2) Prepositus the first transferee of the reserved
direct descendant or and devises [Art. 854, property
ascendant (preterition) CC] (3) Reservista an ascendant of the Prepositus other
Testamentary Reduction of the than the Origin or Mediate Source; the one
dispositions impairing or disposition insofar as obligated to reserve the property
rd
diminishing the legitime they may be inofficious (4) Reservatarios within the 3 degree of
or excessive [Art. 907, consanguinity from the Prepositus [Cabardo v.
CC] Villanueva (1922)] belonging to the line from
Partial impairment Completion of the which the property came
legitime [Art. 906, CC]
Impairment by Collation reduction of Requisites for Reserva Troncal [Chua vs. CFI(1977)]
inofficious donations donations [Arts. 771 and (1) That the property was acquired by a descendant
911, CC] (Prepositus) from an ascendant or from a brother
or sister (Origin or Mediate Source) by gratuitous
RESERVA TRONCAL title,
Art. 891. The ascendant who inherits from his (2) That the Prepositus died without (legitimate*)
descendant any property which the latter may have issue,
acquired by gratuitous title from another ascendant, (3) That the property is inherited by another
ascendant (Reservista) by operation of law, and
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rd
(4) That there are relatives within the 3 degree Two Views
(Reservatarios) belonging to the line from which (1) Reserva Maxima: The entire property will be
said property came. considered acquired as legitime and therefore
wholly reservable
Note: Only legitimate descendants will prevent the (2) Reserva Minima: One half is reservable, the other
property from being inherited by the legitimate half is not subject to reserva troncal [Tolentino, p.
ascending line by operation of law [Balane] 284]
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testator to make a will or to change one already testator to make a will or to change one already
made; made;
(4) A refusal without justifiable cause to support the (6) The loss of parental authority for causes specified
parent or ascendant who disinherits such child or in this Code;
descendant; (7) The refusal to support the children or
(5) Maltreatment of the testator by word or deed, by descendants without justifiable cause;
the child or descendant; (8) An attempt by one of the parents against the life
(6) When a child or descendant leads a dishonorable of the other, unless there has been a
or disgraceful life; reconciliation between them.
(7) Conviction of a crime which carries with it the
penalty of civil interdiction. Disinheritance of a spouse [Article 921, CC]
Article 921. The following shall be sufficient causes
Disinheritance of parents and ascendants for disinheriting a spouse:
Article 920. The following shall be sufficient causes (1) When the spouse has been convicted of an
for the disinheritance of parents or ascendants, attempt against the life of the testator, his or her
whether legitimate or illegitimate: descendants, or ascendants;
(1) When the parents have abandoned their children (2) When the spouse has accused the testator of a
or induced their daughters to live a corrupt or crime for which the law prescribes imprisonment
immoral life, or attempted against their virtue; of six years or more, and the accusation has been
(2) When the parent or ascendant has been found to be false;
convicted of an attempt against the life of the (3) When the spouse by fraud, violence, intimidation,
testator, his or her spouse, descendants, or or undue influence cause the testator to make a
ascendants; will or to change one already made;
(3) When the parent or ascendant has accused the (4) When the spouse has given cause for legal
testator of a crime for which the law prescribes separation;
imprisonment for six years or more, if the (5) When the spouse has given grounds for the loss
accusation has been found to be false; of parental authority;
(4) When the parent or ascendant has been (6) Unjustifiable refusal to support the children or
convicted of adultery or concubinage with the the other spouse.
spouse of the testator;
(5) When the parent or ascendant by fraud, violence,
intimidation, or undue influence causes the
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Note: The moment that testator uses one of the acts Legacy Devise
of unworthiness as a cause for disinheritance; he
thereby submits it to the rules on disinheritance. A gift of personal property A gift of real property
Thus, reconciliation renders the disinheritance given in a will given in a will
ineffective. It is bequeathed It is devised
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Thing pledged by debtor Only the pledge is extinguished; the debt remains
To a creditor Shall not be applied to his credit unless the testator so declares
Order of payment of a debt (a) If testator does not really owe the debt, the disposition is void
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Order of Payment in Case the Estate Is Not Sufficient to Cover All the Legacies and Devises
Order of Preference
LIPO RPSESO
(a) Legitime of compulsory heirs (a) Remuneratory legacy/devise
(b) Donations Inter vivos (b) Preferential legacy/devise
(c) Preferential legacies or devises (c) Legacy for Support
(d) All Other legacies or devises pro rata (d) Legacy for Education
(e) Legacy/devise of Specific, determinate thing which forms
a part of the estate
(f) All Others pro rata
Application
(a) When the reduction is necessary to preserve the (a) When there are no compulsory heirs and the entire estate
legitime of compulsory heirs from impairment whether is distributed by the testator as legacies or devises; or
there are donations inter vivos or not; or (b) When there are compulsory heirs but their legitime has
(b) When, although, the legitime has been preserved by already been provided for by the testator and there are
the testator himself there are donations inter vivos. no donations inter vivos.
NOTE: Art. 911, CC governs when there is a conflict Note: Art. 950, CC governs when the question of reduction is
between compulsory heirs and the devisees and legatees. exclusively among legatees and devisees themselves.
How Legacy or Devise Delivered [Art. 951, CC] Effect of ineffective legacies or devises [Art. 956, CC]
(1) The very thing bequeathed shall be delivered and In case of repudiation, revocation or incapacity of the
not its value legatee or devisee, the legacy or devise shall
(2) With all its accessions and accessories bemerged with the mass of the hereditary estate,
(3) In the condition in which it may be upon the death except in cases of substitution or accretion.
of the testator
(4) Legacies of money must be paid in cash Ground for Revocation of Legacies and Devises [Art.
957, CC] - (TALO)
(1) Testator Transforms the thing such that it does
not retain its original form or denomination
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(2) Testator Alienates the thing by any title or for any (c) The right of Accretion applies to the free portion
cause. Reacquisition of the thing by the testator when the requisites in Art. 1016 are present.
does not make the legacy or devise valid, unless it is (d) If there is no substitute, and the right of
effected by right of repurchase. Representation or Accretion are not proper, the
(3) Thing is totally Lost during the lifetime or after rules on Intestate succession shall apply.
the death of the testator
(4) Other causes: nullity of will, non-compliance with THE INTESTATE OR LEGAL HEIRS
suspensive condition, sale of the thing to pay the (1) Relatives
debts of the deceased during the settlement of (a) Legitimate ascendants
his estate. (b) Illegitimate parents
(c) Legitimate children
(d) Illegitimate children
(e) Surviving Spouse
Legal or Intestate Succession (f) Brothers, sisters, nephews and nieces (BSNN)
(g) Other collateral relatives
(2) Surviving spouse
GENERAL PROVISIONS (3) State (through escheat proceedings)
Intestacy that which takes place by operation of law
in default of compulsory and testamentary Intestate succession is based on the presumed will of
succession. Not defined in the Civil Code. the decedent. That is, to distribute the estate in
accordance with the love and affection he has for his
INSTANCES WHEN LEGAL OR INTESTATE SUCCESSION family, and in default of these persons, the presumed
OPERATES: [ART. 960, CC] desire to promote charitable and humanitarian
(1) If a person dies without a will, or with a void will, activities [Balane].
or one which has subsequently lost its validity
(2) When the will does not institute an heir FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES IN INTESTATE SUCCESSION:
(3) Upon the expiration of term, or period of Rule of Preference between Lines
institution of heir [Balane, 426] (a) Those in the direct descending line shall exclude
(4) Upon fulfillment of a resolutory condition those in the direct ascending and collateral lines;
attached to the institution of heir, rendering the (b) Those in the direct ascending line shall, in turn,
will ineffective [Balane, 426] exclude those in the collateral line.
(5) When the will does not dispose of all the property
belonging to the testator. Legal succession shall Rule of Proximity
take place only with respect to the property which The relative nearest in degree excludes the farther
the testator has not disposed (mixed succession) one. [Art. 962[1], CC], saving the right of
(6) If the suspensive condition attached to the representation when it properly takes place.
institution of the heir does not happen or is not
fulfilled Rule of Equal Division
(7) If the heir dies before the testator The relatives who are in the same degree shall
(8) If the heir repudiates the inheritance, there being inherit in equal shares. [Arts. 962[2], 987 and 1006,
no substitution, and no right of accretion takes CC]
place
(9) When the heir instituted is incapable of Exceptions: [Balane, 427-428]
succeeding, except in cases provided in the Civil (a) Rule of preference between Lines
Code (b) Distinction between legitimate and illegitimate
(10) Preterition Intestacy may be total or partial filiation. The ratio under present law is 2:1. [Art
depending on whether or not there are legacies 983, in relation to Article 895 as amended by
or devises [Balane, 426] Article. 176, FC]
(c) Rule of division by line in the ascending line [Art.
Note: In all cases where there has been an institution 987 [2], CC]
of heirs, follow the ISRAI order: (d) Distinction between full-blood and half-blood
(a) If the Institution fails, Substitution occurs. relationship among brothers and sisters, as well
(b) If there is no substitute, the right of as nephews and nieces. [Art. 1006 and 1008, CC]
Representation applies in the direct descending (e) Right of representation.
line to the legitime if the vacancy is caused by
predecease, incapacity, or disinheritance.
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Rule of Barrier between the legitimate family and the Blood relationship is either full or half-blood. [Art.
illegitimate family (the iron-curtain rule) 967, CC]
The illegitimate family cannot inherit by intestate
succession from the legitimate family and vice-versa. Note: As among brothers and sisters and nephews
[Art. 992, CC] and nieces, there is a 2:1 ratio for full-blood and half-
blood relatives. Direct relatives are preferred. But
Rule of Double Share for full blood collaterals this distinction does not apply with respect to other
When full and half-blood brothers or sisters, collateral relatives.
nephews or nieces, survive, the full blood shall take a
portion in the inheritance double that of the half- INCAPACITY [ART. 968, CC]
blood. [Arts. 895 and 983, CC] General Rule: If there are several relatives of the
same degree, and one or some of them are unwilling
Note: or incapacitated to succeed, his portion shall accrue
(1) If one of the legitimate ascendants, illegitimate to the others of the same degree.
parents, legitimate children or illegitimate
children survives, the brother, sisters, nephews, Exception: When the right of representation should
and nieces (BSNN) are excluded. take place.
(2) If one of the legitimate ascendants, illegitimate
parents, legitimate children, illegitimate children Note: This accretion in intestacy takes place in case
or surviving spouse survives, the other collateral of predecease, incapacity, or renunciation among
relatives and the state are excluded. heirs of the same degree. The relatives must be in
(3) If any of the heirs concur in legitimes, then they the same relationship because of the Rule of
also concur in intestacy. Preference of Lines.
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Legitimate children. Surviving spouse, and the other relatives should be illegitimate because
Illegitimate children of the iron-curtain rule. [Art. 994, CC]
Divide the entire estate such that the surviving
spouse is deemed one legitimate child and each Illegitimate parents only
illegitimate child getting of what the legitimate Entire estate goes to the illegitimate parents. [Art
child gets. [Art. 996, CC and Art. 176, FC] 993, CC]
Legitimate parents only Illegitimate parents and children of any kind (whether
Divide the entire estate equally. [Art. 985, CC] legitimate or illegitimate child)
Illegitimate parents are excluded and do not inherit;
Legitimate ascendants only (excluding parents) For the rule on the respective shares of the children,
Divide the entire estate equally but with the see numbers 1, 2 or 10, whichever is applicable.
observance of the rule of division by line. [Art. 987,
CC] Legitimate brothers and sisters only
Divide the entire estate such that full-blood
Legitimate parents and illegitimate children brothers/sisters gets a share double the amount of a
Legitimate parents get of the estate, illegitimate half-blood brother or sister. [Art. 1004 and 1006, CC]
children get the other . [Art. 991, CC]
Legitimate brothers and sisters, nephews and nieces
Legitimate parents and surviving spouse Divide the entire estate observing the 2 is to 1 ratio
Legitimate parents get of the estate; The surviving for full and half-blood relationships with respect to
spouse gets the other . [Art. 997,CC] the brothers and sisters, with the nephews and
nieces inheriting by representation, if proper. [Art.
Legitimate parents, surviving spouse and illegitimate 1005 & 1008, CC]
children
Legitimate parents get of the estate; surviving Nephews and nieces only
spouse and the illegitimate child each get each, Divide the entire estate per capita, observing the 2 is
the latter to share among themselves if more than to 1 ratio. [Arts. 975 and 1008, CC]
one. [Art. 1000, CC]
Other collaterals (Arts. 1009 and 1010)
Illegitimate children only (a) Divide entire estate per capita.
th
Divide the entire estate equally. [Art. 988, CC] (b) Collateral relatives must be with the 5 degree of
consanguinity.
Illegitimate children and surviving spouse
Illegitimate children get of the estate; the Note: the nearer relative excludes the more remote
surviving spouse gets the other . [Art. 998, CC] relatives.
Surviving spouse and legitimate brothers and sisters, Provisions Common to estate
nephews and nieces
Surviving spouse gets of the estate, while the rest
and Intestate Succession
gets the other with the nephews and nieces
inheriting by representation if proper. [Art. 1001, CC] RIGHT OF ACCRETION
Surviving spouse and illegitimate brothers and sisters, DEFINITION AND REQUISITES [ARTS. 1015-1016]
nephews and nieces Definition of Accretion [Art. 1015, CC]
Surviving spouse gets of the estate while the rest It is a right by virtue of which, when two or more
gets the other with the nephews and nieces persons are called to the same inheritance, devise or
inheriting by representation, if proper; Note that all legacy, the part assigned to one who renounces or
cannot receive his share or who died before the
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testator is added or incorporated to that of his co- Cause Of Testamentary Succession Intestate
heirs, co-devisees, or co-legatees. Vacancy Legitime Free Portion Succession
Successio n Succession
Requisites [Tolentino p. 497-499]: n
(1) Unity of object and plurality of subjects (two or
more persons are called to the same inheritance Incapacity Represent Accretion Representa
or same portion thereof) -ation Intestate -
(2) Vacancy of share (one of the heirs dies before the Intestate Succession tion
testator, or renounces the inheritance, or is Successio Intestate
incapacitated) n Succession
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implied or from acts which one would have no (b) Imputing or Charging crediting the donation as
right to do except in the capacity of an heir. an advance on the legitime (if the donee is a
(3) Implied acceptance - Within thirty days after the compulsory heir) or on the free portion (if the
court has issued an order for the distribution of donee is a stranger). [Balane p 522]
the estate in accordance with the Rules of Court, (c) Reduction determining to what extent the
the heirs, devisees and legatees shall signify to donation will remain and to what extent it is
the court having jurisdiction whether they accept excessive or inofficious.
or repudiate the inheritance; if they do not do so (d) Restitution returning or the act of payment of
within that time, they are deemed to have the excess to the mass of hereditary estate.
accepted the inheritance. [Art 1057, CC]
PERSONS OBLIGED TO COLLATE
Forms of Repudiation [Art. 1051, CC] General Rule: Compulsory heirs
(1) in a public instrument acknowledged before a Exceptions:
notary public; or (a) when the testator should have so expressly
(2) in an authentic document equivalent of an provided [Art. 1062, CC]
indubitable writing or a writing whose (b) when the compulsory heir should have
authenticity is admitted or proved; or repudiated his inheritance [Art 1062, CC]
(3) by petition presented to the court having
jurisdiction over the testamentary or intestate Grandchildren who survive with their uncles, aunts,
proceeding or first cousins and inherit by right of representation
[Art 1064, CC]
Heirs in Two Capacities [Art. 1055, CC]
(1) If a person is called to the same inheritance as an Note: Grandchildren may inherit from their
heir by will and by law and he repudiates the grandparents in their own right, i.e., as heirs next in
inheritance in his capacity as a testamentary heir, degree, and not by right of representation if their
he will be considered to have also repudiated the parent repudiates the inheritance of the
inheritance as a legal heir. grandparent, as no living person can be represented
(2) If he repudiates it as a legal heir, without his except in cases of disinheritance and incapacity. In
being a testamentary heir, he may still accept it in this case, the grandchildren are not obliged to bring
the latter capacity. to collation what their parent has received
gratuitously from their grandparent.
COLLATION
CONCEPT OF COLLATION
Surviving spouse NOT obliged to collate.
(a) To collate is to bring back or to return to the
WHAT TO COLLATE
hereditary mass in fact or by fiction property
which came from the estate of the decedent, (a) Any property or right received by gratuitous title
during his lifetime by donation or other during the testators lifetime [Art 1061, CC]
gratuitous title but which the law considers as (b) All that they may have received from the
an advance from the inheritance. (Art 1061, CC) decedent during his lifetime. [Art 1061, CC]
(b) It is the act by virtue of which, the compulsory (c) Expenses incurred by the parents in giving their
heir who concurs with other compulsory heirs in children a professional, vocational or other career
the inheritance bring back to the common shall not be brought to collation unless the
hereditary mass the property which they may parents so provide, or unless they impair the
have received from the testator so that a division legitime; but when their collation is required, the
may be effected according to law and the will of sum which the child would have spent if he had
the testator. lived in the house and company of his parents
(c) In reducing inofficious donations, the last to be shall be deducted therefrom. [Art 1068, CC]
donated should be the first to be reduced. (d) Any sums paid by a parent in satisfaction of the
(d) Rationale for collation: If donations inter vivos will debts of his children, election expenses, fines, and
not be collated, then the rule on legitimes shall similar expenses shall be brought to collation.
be circumvented or disregarded. [Art 1069, CC]
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Expenses for support, education (only elementary (a) Judicial Partition done by Court pursuant to an
and secondary), medical attendance, even in Order of Distribution which may or may not be
extraordinary illness, apprenticeship, ordinary based on a project of partition.
equipment, or customary gifts [Art. 1067, CC] (b) Extra-judicial partition made by the decedent
himself by an act inter vivos or by will or by a third
Generally not imputable to legitime/ cannot be person entrusted by the decedent or by the heirs
collected, subject to exceptions themselves. [Paras]
(a) Expenses incurred by parents in giving their
children professional, vocational or other career PARTITION INTER VIVOS (ASKED IN 85)
unless the parents so provide, or unless they It is one that merely allocates specific items or pieces
impair the legitime. [Art. 1067, CC] of property on the basis of the pro-indiviso shares
(b) Wedding gifts by parents and ascendants, fixed by law or given under the will to heirs or
consisting jewelry, clothing and outfit, except successors. (Art. 1080, cc)
when they exceed 1/10 of the sum disposable by
will. [Art. 1070, CC] Who may effect partition
(c) Neither shall donations to the spouse of the child (1) The Decedent, during his lifetime by an act inter
be brought to collation; but if they have been vivos or by will [Art.1080, CC]
given by the parent to the spouses jointly, the (2) The decedents heirs [Art.1083, CC]
child shall be obliged to bring to collation one- (3) A competent court [Art. 1083,CC]
half of the thing donated. [Art. 1066, CC] (4) A third person not an heir designated by the
decedent [Art.1081, CC]
Note: Parents are not obliged to bring to collation in
the inheritance of their ascendants any property Who Can Demand Partition
which may have been donated by the latter to their (1) Compulsory heir
children. [Art 1065, CC] (2) Voluntary heir upon fulfillment of condition if any
[Art 1084, CC]
PARTITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ESTATE (3) Legatee or devisee
PARTITION (4) Any person who has acquired interest in the
Concept estate
(a) Separate, Divide, Assign. Partition is the
separation, division and assignment of a thing When Partition Cannot Be Demanded
held in common among those to whom it may (1) When expressly Prohibited by the testator for a
belong. The thing itself or its value may be period not exceeding 20 years [Art 1083, CC]
divided. [Art. 1079, CC] (2) When the co-heirs Agreed that the estate shall
(b) Owned in common. Before partition, the whole not be divided for a period not exceeding 10
estate of the decedent is owned in common by years, renewable for another 10 years
the heirs. [Art 1078, CC] (3) When Prohibited by law
(c) Thing or value may be divided. [Art 1079] (4) When to partition the estate would render it
(d) Acts deemed partition. Every act which is intended unserviceable for the use for which it is intended
to put an end to indivision among heirs and
legatees or devisees is deemed a parition, Prohibition To Partition
although it should purport to be a sale, an (1) The prohibition to partition for a period not
exchange, a compromise, or any other exceeding 20 years can be imposed on the
transaction. [Art 1082, CC] legitime.
(2) If the prohibition to the partition is for more than
A void partition may be valid if: 20 years, the excess is void.
(1) the will was in fact a partition (3) Even if a prohibition is imposed, the heirs by
(2) the beneficiaries of the void will were legal heirs mutual agreement can still make the partition.
The titles of acquisition or ownership of each Effects of Inclusion of Intruder in Partition [Art 1108,
property shall be delivered to the co-heir to whom CC]
said property has been adjudicated. [Art. 1089 CC] (1) Between a true heir and several mistaken heirs
partition is void.
PARTITION INTER VIVOS (2) Between several true heirs and a mistaken heir
Judicial v. Extrajudicial Partition transmission to mistaken heir is void
(3) Through error or mistake, share of true heir is
allotted to mistaken heir partition shall not be
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rescinded unless there is bad faith or fraud on the proportionately among the heirs. [Art. 1095
part of the other persons interested, but the latter CC]
shall be proportionately obliged to pay the true
heir of his share. The partition with respect to the
mistaken heir is void. [Sempio-Dy] End of Warranty
The obligation of warranty among co-heirs shall
Right of Redemption in Partition cease in the ff. cases:
(a) Should any of the heirs sell his hereditary rights (a) The testator himself has made the partition
to a stranger before the partition, any or all of the (1) Unless it appears, or it may be reasonably
co-heirs may be subrogated to the rights of the presumed, that his intention was otherwise,
purchaser by reimbursing him for the price of the but the legitime shall always remain
sale, provided they do so within the period of one unimpaired.
month from the time they were notified in writing (b) When it has been so expressly stipulated in the
of the sale by the vendor [Art. 1088, CC] agreement of partition
(b) Strangers those who are not heirs on the (1) Unless there has been bad faith
succession. (c) When the eviction is due to a cause subsequent to
the partition, or has been caused by the fault of
EFFECTS OF PARTITION the distributee of the property. (Art. 1096, CC)
Effect
A partition legally made confers upon each heir the NULLIFICATION OF PARTITION
exclusive ownership of the property adjudicated to Causes for Rescission or Annulment
him [Art 1091, CC] (a) A partition may be rescinded or annulled for the
same causes as contracts. [Art 1097, CC]
Warranty (b) A partition, judicial or extra-judicial, may also be
(a) After the partition has been made, the co-heirs rescinded on account of lesion, when any one of
shall be reciprocally bound to warrant the title to, the co-heirs received things whose value is less by
and the quality of, each property adjudicated at least one-fourth, than the share to which he is
[Art. 1092 CC] entitled, considering the value of the things at the
(b) The reciprocal obligation of warranty referred to time they were adjudicated [Art. 1098, CC]
in the preceding article shall be proportionate to (1) This article applies only to cases of partition
the respective hereditary shares of the co-heirs; among-coheirs
(1) But if any one of them should be insolvent, the (2) Lesion is the injury suffered in consequence of
other co-heirs shall be liable for his part in the inequality of situation by one party who does
same proportion, deducting the part not receive the full equivalent for what she
corresponding to the one who should be gives in a sale or any commutative contract
indemnified. (c) The partition made by the testator cannot be
(2) Those who pay for the insolvent heir shall impugned on the ground of lesion, except when
have a right of action against him for the legitime of the compulsory heirs is thereby
reimbursement, should his financial condition prejudiced, or when it appears or may be
improve [Art. 1093 CC] reasonably be presumed, that the intention of the
(c) An action to enforce the warranty among the co- testator was otherwise. [Art. 1099, CC]
heirs must be brought within ten years from the (d) Preterition of a compulsory heir in the partition
date the right of action accrues. [Art. 1094 CC] [Art 1104, CC]:
(d) If a credit should be assigned as collectible, the (1) Partition shall not be rescinded unless bad
co-heirs shall not be liable for the subsequent faith or fraud on the part of other heirs is
insolvency of the debtor of the estate, but only for proved.
his insolvency at the time the partition is made. [Art (2) The culpable heirs shall share in the damages
1095, CC] of the prejudiced compulsory heir
(e) The warranty of the solvency of the debtor can proportionately.
only be enforced during the five years following (e) A partition which includes a person believed to be
the partition. an heir, but who is not, shall be void only with
(f) Co-heirs do not warrant bad debts, if so known to, respect to such person. [Art. 1105 CC]
and accepted by the distributee.
(1) But if such debts are not assigned to a co-heir, (a) The action for rescission on account of lesion shall
and should be collected, in whole or in part, prescribe after four years from the time the
the amount collected shall be distributed partition was made. [Art. 1100, CC]
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(b) The heir who is sued shall have the option of 5 years from To enforce warranty of solvency
indemnifying the plaintiff for the loss, or partition of debtor of the estate at the
consenting to a new partition time partition is made
(c) Indemnity may be made: 4 years form Action for rescission of partition
(1) By payment in cash or partition on account of lesion
(2) By the delivery of a thing of the same kind
and quality as that awarded to the plaintiff.
(d) If a new partition is made, it shall affect neither
those who have not been prejudiced nor those
who have not received more than their just share
[Art. 1101, CC]
(e) An heir who has alienated the whole or a
considerable part of the real property adjudicated
to him cannot maintain an action for rescission on
the ground of lesion, but he shall have a right to
be indemnified in cash [Art. 1102, CC]
(f) The omission of one or more objects or securities
of the inheritance shall not cause the rescission of
the partition on the ground of lesion, but the
partition shall be completed by the distribution of
the objects or securities which have been omitted.
[Art. 1103, CC]
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with the policy of the law that a corporation should Exceptions: (1) Where immovable property or real
manage its own affairs. rights are contributed:
(a) The contract must appear in a public instrument;
Also, the arrangement would allow corporate and
property to be subject to risks not contemplated by (b) Attached to such instrument must be an
the stockholders when they originally invested. inventory, signed by the parties, of the property
[Mendiola v. CA (2006)] contributed. [Articles 1771 and 1773]
Although a corporation cannot enter into a (2) Where the capital is at least P3,000, in money or
partnership contract, it may, however, engage in a property:
joint venture with others [Auerbach vs. Sanitary (a) The contract must appear in a public
Wares Manufacturing Corp. (1989)]. instrument; and
(b) It must be recorded in the SEC. Failure to
There is no prohibition against a partnership being a comply with these requirements, however,
partner in another partnership. [De Leon (2010)] does not affect the liability of the partnership
and the partners to third persons. [Articles
OBJECT OF THE CONTRACT 1768 and 1772]
OBJECT OF UNIVERSAL PARTNERSHIP
A universal partnership may refer to: DURATION OF THE CONTRACT
(1) All present property: COMMENCEMENT
(a) The partners contribute all the property A partnership begins from the moment of the
which belongs to them to a common fund, execution of the contract, unless it is otherwise
with the intention of dividing the same stipulated. [Article 1784]
among themselves, as well as the profits they
may acquire therewith. [Article 1778] TERM
(b) The property contributed includes all those As to period, a partnership may either be:
belonging to the partners at the time of the (1) For a fixed term or particular undertaking; or
constitution of the partnership. (2) At will, the formation and dissolution of which
(c) A stipulation for the common enjoyment of depend on the mutual desire and consent of the
any other profits may also be made. parties. Any one of the partners may, at his sole
However, the property which the partners pleasure, dictate the dissolution of the
may acquire subsequently by inheritance, partnership, even in bad faith, subject to liability
legacy or donation cannot be included in for damages. [Ortega v. CA (1995)]
such stipulation, except the fruits thereof.
[Article 1779] EXTENSION
(2) All the profits: A partnership term may be extended by:
(a) It comprises all that the partners may acquire (1) Express renewal of the agreement; or
by their industry or work during the existence (2) Implied renewal, when the requisites concur:
of the partnership. (a) The partnership is for a fixed term or
(b) Only the usufruct over the property of the particular undertaking;
partners passes to the partnership. [Article (b) It is continued after the termination of the
1780] fixed term or particular undertaking without
When the articles of universal partnership any express agreement.
does not specify its nature (all present
property or all the profits), the partnership A continuation of the business by the partners or
will be considered as one only of all the such of them as habitually acted therein during the
profits. [Article 1781] term, without any settlement or liquidation of the
partnership affairs, is prima facie evidence of a
OBJECT OF PARTICULAR PARTNERSHIP continuation of the partnership. The effect of such
A particular partnership has for its object determinate continuation is that the right and duties of the
things, their use or fruits, or a specific undertaking, or partners remain the same as they were at such
the exercise of a profession or vocation. [Article 1783] termination of the period, but this time, the
partnership is considered to be at will. [Article 1785]
FORM OF THE CONTRACT
General rule: The contract may be constituted in any
form. [Article 1771]
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regard to the share of the latter in the DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER CONTRACTS
partnership; Partnership Joint Venture
(11) Ostensible, who takes active part in the business
of the partnership and is known by the public; Operates with firm name Operates with no firm
(12)Secret, who takes active part in the business, but and legal personality name and legal
is unknown to the third persons as a partner; personality
(13) Silent, who does not take active part in the business, but may be known to be a partner by third persons;
(14)Dormant, who does not take active part in the Generally relates to a Usually limited to a single
business and is not known or held out as a continuing business of transaction
partner; various transactions of a
(15)Original, who has been a partner since the certain king
constitution of the partnership;
(16)Incoming, who is about to be taken as a member Corporations may not Corporations may enter
into an existing partnership; enter into a partnership into joint ventures
(17) Retiring, who is withdrawing from the
partnership. It would seem therefore that under Philippine law, a
joint venture is a form of partnership and should thus
Industrial Partner Capitalist Partner be governed by the laws of partnership. [Auerbach vs.
Sanitary Wares Manufacturing Corp. (1989)]
Form of contribution
Partnership Co-Ownership
Industry Money or property
Generally created by Generally created by law,
Share in profits either express or implied and may exist even
contract without a contract
Just and equitable share According to agreement;
if none, in proportion to Has a separate juridical Has no separate juridical
contribution personality personality
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Partner cannot dispose of Stockholder has the right Capital is contributed Capital is not contributed,
his interest so as to make to transfer his shares although fees are
the assignee a partner, without consent of others collected from members
without consent of others
Partnership is primarily The members are liable
Duration has no limitation The term is 50 years, but liable; the partners are individually for debts
may be extended liable only subsidiarily which they authorized or
ratified
May be dissolved at any May only be dissolved with
time by one or all of the the consent of the state Share in profits may be Share in profits is equal
partners stipulated; otherwise, in
proportion to contribution
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SUIT FOR DAMAGES Without such agreement, they shall be kept at the
Before a partner may sue another for alleged principal place of business of the partnership.
fraudulent management and resultant damages,
liquidation must first be effected to determine the Every partner shall, at any reasonable hour, have
extent of the damage. Without liquidation of access to and may inspect and copy any of them.
partnership affairs, a partner cannot claim damages [Article 1805]
[Soncuya v. De Luna (1939)].
BASIS OF RIGHT
RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PARTNERSHIP TO Since a partner is a co-owner of partnership
PARTNERS properties, which include the books, and has a right
In the absence of any stipulation to the contrary, to participate in the management of its affairs, the
every partner is an agent of the partnership for the books should not be in the exclusive custody or
purpose of its business. As such, it is responsible to control of any one partner [De Leon (2010)].
every partner:
(1) For amounts, and the corresponding interest REASONABLE HOUR
from the time the expenses were made, which he "Any reasonable hour" has been interpreted to mean
may have disbursed on behalf of the partnership; reasonable hours on business days throughout the
(2) For obligations he may have contracted in good year, not merely during some arbitrary period of a
faith in the interest of the partnership business; few days chosen by the managing partner [Pardo v.
and Lumber Co., (1925)].
(3) For risks in consequence of the management of
the partnership. [Article 1796] RIGHT TO A FORMAL ACCOUNT
Any partner shall have the right to a formal account
as to partnership affairs:
(1) If he is wrongfully excluded from the partnership
business or possession of its property by his co-
partners;
Rights and obligations (2) If the right exists under the terms of any
agreement;
of partners inter se (3) If, without his consent, a partner has derived
profits from any transaction connected with the
RIGHT TO ASSOCIATE ANOTHER IN SHARE formation, conduct, or liquidation of the
Every partner may associate another person with him partnership or from any use of partnership
in his share. property;
(4) Whenever other circumstances render it just and
The admission of the associate to the partnership, reasonable [Article 1809].
however, requires the consent of all the other
partners, even if the partner having an associate is a ACCRUAL OF RIGHT
managing partner [Article 1804]. General rule: The right to a formal account of
partnership affairs accrues only when the
SUBPARTNERSHIP partnership is dissolved. Ample protection is already
The arrangement refers to a contract of provided.
subpartnership, which is a partnership within a
partnership, distinct and separate from the main Exceptions: In special and unusual cases under
partnership [De Leon (2010)]. The associate is Article 1809, formal accounting may be demanded
sometimes referred to as a subpartner. even before dissolution.
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upon the dissolution when the final accounting is (b) Dissolution by judicial decree [Article 1831].
done [Fue Leung v. IAC (1989)]. (2) A partner's right in such property is not
assignable, except when all the partners assign
NATURE OF ACTION their rights in the same property.
The action for accounting is an action in personam, (3) The right is not subject to attachment or
regardless of the incidental fact that some of the execution, except on claim against the
assets of the partnership are real property [Emnace v. partnership. Also, in case of such attachment, the
CA (2001)]. partners, or any of them, or the representatives of
a deceased partner, cannot claim any right under
PROPERTY RIGHTS OF PARTNERS the homestead or exemption laws;
IN GENERAL (4) The right is also not subject to legal support
The property rights of a partner are: under Article 291 [Article 1811].
(1) Rights in specific partnership property;
(2) Interest in the partnership; and A partner's right in specific property cannot be
(3) Right to participate in the management [Article separately assigned, since it is impossible to
1810]. determine the extent of his beneficial interest in the
property until after the liquidation of partnership
PARTNERSHIP PROPERTY AND PARTNERSHIP CAPITAL affairs.
Capital Property
It is also not subject to support precisely because it is
With constant value Value varies with market a property of the partnership and not of the
conditions individual partners.
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(4) Wrongful act or omission of any partner acting for (2) A person admitted as a partner into an existing
partnership affairs makes the partnership liable partnership is liable for all the obligations of the
[Article 1822]. partnership arising before his admission, except
(5) Partnership is bound to make good losses for that his liability shall be satisfied only out of
wrongful acts or misapplications of partners partnership property, unless there is a stipulation
[Article 1823]. to the contrary.
Upon exhaustion of its assets, all partners are liable LIABILITY OF PARTNERS FOR PARTNERSHIP
pro rata with all their property. CONTRACTS
ACTS APPARENTLY FOR THE CARRYING ON OF USUAL
Any partner may enter into a separate obligation to BUSINESS
perform a partnership contract [Article 1816]. General rule: Every partner is an agent of the
partnership for the purpose of its business and any
NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL LIABILITY act of a partner which is apparently for the carrying
The pro-rating should be understood to mean on of the usual business of the partnership binds the
equally or jointly, not proportionally [De Leon (2010), latter, including the execution of any instrument in
citing Article 1839(4); note, however, that this the partnership name [1st par., Article 1818].
conclusion does not find textual support in Article
1816]. Exception: The partnership is not bound when:
(1) The partner has in fact no authority to act; AND
The fact that a partner has left the country and the (2) The person with whom he deals has knowledge of
payment of his share of the liability cannot be such fact.
enforced [Co-Pitco v. Yulo (1907)] or his liability is
condoned by the creditor [Island Sales v. United ACTS NOT APPARENTLY FOR CARRYING ON OF THE USUAL
Pioneers (1975)] cannot increase the liability of the BUSINESS
other partners. General rule: Acts of a partner which is not apparently
for carrying on of the usual business does not bind
The liability is subsidiary or secondary. It only arises the partnership.
upon exhaustion of partnership assets. However,
they may be joined as party defendants in the action Exception: The partnership is bound if the other
against the partnership, subject to their right to prior partners authorized him to do the act.
exhaustion of partnership assets [Cia. Maritima v.
ACTS OF STRICT DOMINION
Muoz (1907)].
General rule: One or some of the partners have no
authority to do the following acts of strict dominion:
General rule: The partners are liable pro-rata and (a) Assign the partnership property in trust for
subsidiarily, with all their property. creditors or on the assignee's promise to pay the
debts of the partnership;
Exceptions: (b) Dispose of the goodwill of the business;
(1) A third person who transacted with the (c) Do any other act which makes it impossible to
partnership can hold the partners solidarily liable carry on the ordinary business of the partnership;
for the whole obligation if the case falls under (d) Confess a judgment;
Articles 1822 or 1823 [Muasque v. CA (1985)]. (e) Enter into a compromise concerning a
partnership claim or liability;
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The partnership may recover it if the act does not LIABILITY IN CASE OF PARTNERSHIP BY
bind it under 1st par., Article 1818, unless the ESTOPPEL
purchaser or his assignee is: PARTNER BY ESTOPPEL
(1) A holder for value; AND A person, not a partner, may become a partner by
(2) Without knowledge that the act exceeded estoppel, and be liable as a partner, when, by words,
authority. spoken or written, or conduct, he:
(1) Directly represents himself to anyone as a partner
TITLE IN THE NAME OF ONE OR MORE OR ALL THE in an existing or non-existing partnership; or
PARTNERS, (2) Indirectly represents himself by consenting to
OR IN A THIRD PERSON IN TRUST FOR THE PARTNERSHIP another representing him as such partner. [Article
A partner may convey equitable title in the 1825]
partnership name or in his own name, when the act
is authorized under 1st par., Article 1818. LIABILITY OF PARTNER BY ESTOPPEL
A partner by estoppel is liable:
TITLE IN THE NAMES OF ALL THE PARTNERS (1) To any person who extended credit to the
The conveyance must be executed by all of them to partnership, actual or apparent, relying on his
pass all their rights in the property [Article 1819]. representation; and
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(2) In case the representation was made publicly, to the plaintiff might have learned of the truth or
any person, who extended such credit, whether or untruth of the representations.
not the communication to said creditor was made
with the knowledge of the partner. Persons who knowingly assume to act as a
corporation without authority to do so are liable as
NATURE OF LIABILITY general partners for all debts, liabilities and
He is liable in the following manner: damages incurred. [Section 21, Corporation Code] A
(1) When there is an existing partnership and all the partnership de facto is created.
partners consented to the representation, a
partnership liability results, and the partner by LIABILITY OF INCOMING PARTNER
estoppel is liable as though he were a partner; A person admitted as a partner is liable as the other
(2) When there is an existing partnership and not all partners for obligations subsequent to his admission.
the partners consented, or when there is no
existing partnership and all those represented as He is also liable for obligations incurred before his
partners consented to the representation, he is admission, but will be satisfied only out of the
liable jointly and pro rata with those who partnership property, unless otherwise stipulated.
consented to the representation; (Article 1826)
(3) When there is an existing partnership but none of
the partners consented, or when there is no Ratio:
existing partnership and not all of those (1) The new partner partakes of the benefits of the
represented as partners consented to the partnership property and an already established
representation, he is liable separately. business.
(2) He has every means of obtaining full knowledge
EFFECTS OF ACTS OF PARTNER BY ESTOPPEL of the debts of the partnership and remedies that
The acts of a partner by estoppel have the following amply protect his interest [De Leon (2010)].
effects:
(1) A person, thus representing himself as a partner However, an incoming partner may fully assume the
of other persons, becomes an agent of the latter, obligations of a retiring partner.
in the same manner as though he were a partner
in fact, with respect to persons who rely upon the NOTICE TO OR KNOWLEDGE OF THE
representation. PARTNERSHIP
(2) When all the members of the existing partnership The following operate as notice to or knowledge of
consent to the representation, a partnership act the partnership:
or obligation results. (1) Notice to any partner of any matter relating to
(3) In all other cases, only a joint act or obligation partnership affairs;
results. [Article 1825] (2) Knowledge of the partner acting in the particular
matter acquired while a partner;
No real partnership is created by estoppel. It is only (3) Knowledge of the partner acting in the particular
with respect to third persons that partnership by matter then present to his mind; and
estoppel is recognized. (4) Knowledge of any other partner who reasonably
could and should have communicated it to the
ESTABLISHING LIABILITY acting partner.
The basic elements in connection with establishment
of liability as a partner if based on the doctrine of These do not apply in case of fraud on the
estoppel must encompass: partnership committed by or with the consent of the
(1) Proof by plaintiff that he was individually aware of partner [Article 1821].
the defendant's representations as to his being a
partner or that such representations were made PREFERENCE OF PARTNERSHIP CREDITORS
by others and not denied or refuted by the Partnership creditors are preferred over personal
defendant; creditors of the partners with respect to partnership
(2) Reliance on such representations by the plaintiff; property.
and
(3) Lack of any denial or refutation of the statements However, personal creditors may ask the attachment
by the defendant; such denial need not precede and public sale of the share of the partner debtor in
plaintiff's acting therein if the denial was the partnership assets. [Article 1827]
forthcoming promptly upon hearing of the
representations, and if, by prudence and diligence
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Ratio: The partnership, as a legal entity distinct from or after the termination of any specified term or
its members, should apply its property to the particular undertaking;
payment of its debts in preference to the claim of any (4) By the expulsion of any partner from the business
partner or his individual creditors. bona fide in accordance with such a power
conferred by the agreement between the
partners.
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any degree due to his connection with it. [Article (3) The person or partnership continuing the
1834] business.
CASES WHERE PARTNERSHIP IS NOT BOUND Such agreement may be inferred from the course of
Any act of a partner after dissolution in no case binds dealing between the creditor having knowledge of
the partnership in the following cases: the dissolution and the person or partnership
(1) Where the partnership is dissolved because it is continuing the business.
unlawful to carry on the business, unless the act
is appropriate for winding up partnership affairs; In case of dissolution by death, the individual
(2) Where the partner has become insolvent; or property of a deceased partner is liable for
(3) Where the partner has no authority to wind up obligations of the partnership incurred while he was
partnership affairs, except by a transaction with a partner, after payment of his separate debts.
one who: [Article 1835]
(a) Had extended credit to the partnership prior to
dissolution and had no knowledge or notice of his WINDING UP PARTNERS
want of authority; or WHO MAY WIND UP
(b) Had not extended credit to the partnership prior The following partners have the right to wind up the
to dissolution, and, having no knowledge or partnership affairs:
notice of his want of authority, the fact of his want (1) Those designated in an agreement;
of authority has not been advertised. (2) Those who have not wrongfully dissolved the
partnership; or
PARTNERSHIP BY ESTOPPEL AFTER DISSOLUTION (3) The legal representative of the last surviving
Article 1834 does not affect the liability under Article partner, who was not insolvent.
1825 of any person who, after dissolution, represents
himself or consents to another representing him as a However, any partner or his legal representative or
partner in a partnership engaged in carrying on assignee may obtain winding up by the court, upon
business [Article 1834]. cause shown. [Article 1836]
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partners [referred to as the right under 1st par., Article Where a partnership contract is rescinded on such
1837]. grounds, the party entitled to rescind, without
prejudice to any other right, is entitled:
In case of dissolution by bona fide expulsion of a (1) After satisfying partnership liabilities to third
partner, and the expelled partner is discharged from persons, to a lien on, or right of retention of, to
all partnership liabilities, either by payment or the surplus of the partnership property:
agreement to that effect (Article 1835), he shall (a) For any sum of money paid by him for the
receive only the net amount due him from the purchase of an interest in the partnership; and
partnership. (b) For any capital or advances contributed by
him.
DISSOLUTION IN CONTRAVENTION OF THE AGREEMENT (2) After satisfying partnership liabilities to third
Rights of partner who has not caused the dissolution persons, to stand in the place of partnership
wrongfully: creditors for any payments made by him in
(a) To demand the right under 1st par., Article 1837; respect of the partnership liabilities; and
(b) To be indemnified for damages for breach of the (3) To be indemnified by the person guilty of the
agreement against the partner who caused the fraud or making the representation against all
dissolution wrongfully; debts and liabilities of the partnership. [Article
(c) To continue the business in the same name, by 1838]
themselves or jointly with others, during the
agreed term for the partnership and for that SETTLING OF ACCOUNTS BETWEEN PARTNERS
purpose may possess the partnership property Subject to any agreement to the contrary, the
provided they: following rules shall be observed in settling accounts
(i) Secure the payment by bond approved by the between partners after dissolution.
court; or
(ii) Pay any partner who has caused the COMPOSITION OF PARTNERSHIP ASSETS
dissolution wrongfully the value of his interest The assets of the partnership are:
in the partnership, less any damages (1) The partnership property; and
recoverable, and indemnity against all present (2) The contributions of the partners necessary for
or future partnership liabilities. the payment of all the liabilities.
Rights of partner who has caused the dissolution In accordance with the subsidiary liability of the
wrongfully: partners, the partnership property shall be applied
(a) If the business is not continued, all the rights 1st first to satisfy any liability of the partnership.
par., Article 1837, subject to liability for damages;
(b) If the business is continued, the right, as against AMOUNT OF CONTRIBUTION FOR LIABILITIES
his co-partners and all claiming through them, to: The rules on distribution of losses [Article 1979] shall
(i) Ascertainment, without considering the value determine the contributions of the partners. As such:
of the goodwill of the business, and payment to (1) The contribution shall be in conformity with the
him in cash the value of his partnership agreement.
interest, less any damage, or have the (2) If only the share in profits has been stipulated, the
payment secured by a bond approved by the contribution shall be in the same proportion.
court; and (3) In the absence of any stipulation, the contribution
(ii) Be released from all existing liabilities of the shall be in proportion to the capital contribution.
partnership. [Article 1837]
ENFORCEMENT OF CONTRIBUTION
The goodwill of a business may be defined to be the The following persons have the right to enforce the
advantage which it has from its establishment or contributions:
from the patronage of its customers, over and above (1) An assignee for the benefit of creditors;
the mere value of its property and capital. The (2) Any person appointed by the court; or
goodwill (which includes the firm name) is part of the (3) To the extent of the amount which he has paid in
partnership assets and may be subject of sale. [De excess of his share of the partnership liability, any
Leon (2010)] partner or his legal representative.
RIGHTS OF PARTNERS IN CASE OF RESCISSION The individual property of a deceased partner shall
A partner, induced by fraud or misrepresentation to be liable for the contributions.
become a partner, may rescind the contract.
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ORDER OF APPLICATION OF ASSETS with the consent of the retired partner or the
The partnership liabilities shall rank, in order of representative of the deceased partner, without
payment, as follows: assignment of their rights to partnership
(a) Those owing to creditors other than partners; property.
(b) Those owing to partners other than for capital (3) When the cause of dissolution is the assignment
and profits; by all the partners or their representatives of their
(c) Those owing to partners in respect of capital; rights in partnership property to one or more third
(d) Those owing to partners in respect of profits. persons who promise to pay the debts and who
continue the business of the partnership.
DOCTRINE OF MARSHALING OF ASSETS
When partnership property and the individual LIABILITY OF A NEW PARTNER
properties of the partners are in possession of a court The liability to the creditors of the dissolved
for distribution: partnership of a new partner in the partnership
(1) Partnership creditors shall have priority on continuing the business shall be satisfied out of the
partnership property; and partnership property alone. However, he may,
(2) Separate creditors on individual property, saving through agreement, assume individual liability.
the rights of lien of secured creditors.
(3) Anything left from either shall be applied to PRIORITY OF CREDITORS OF DISSOLVED PARTNERSHIP
satisfy the other. The creditors of dissolved partnership have prior
right to any claim of the retired partner or the
DISTRIBUTION OF PROPERTY OF INSOLVENT PARTNER representative of the deceased partner against the
Where a partner has become insolvent or his estate person or partnership continuing the business.
is insolvent, the claims against his separate property
shall rank in the following order: Nothing in this article shall be held to modify any
(1) Those owing to separate creditors; right of creditors to set aside any assignment on the
(2) Those owing to partnership creditors; ground of fraud.
(3) Those owing to partners by way of contribution.
[Article 1839] EFFECT OF CONTINUING USE OF PARTNERSHIP NAME
The use by the person or partnership continuing the
RIGHTS OF CREDITORS OF DISSOLVED business of the partnership name, or the name of a
PARTNERSHIP deceased partner as part thereof, shall not of itself
CREDITORS OF DISSOLVED PARTNERSHIP make the individual property of the deceased partner
AS CREDITORS OF NEW PARTNERSHIP liable for any debts contracted by such person or
In the following cases, creditors of the dissolved partnership. [Article 1840]
partnership are also creditors of the person or
partnership continuing the business: RETIRED OR REPRESENTATIVE OF DECEASED
(1) When the business is continued without PARTNER
liquidation, and the cause of dissolution is: Unless otherwise agreed upon, when any partner
(a) Admission of a new partner into the existing retires or dies, and the business is continued without
partnership; any settlement of accounts as between him or his
(b) Retirement or death of any partner, and his estate and the person or partnership continuing the
rights to partnership property are assigned to: business, he or his legal representative as against
(i) Two or more of the partners; or such person or partnership, subject to the prior rights
(ii) One or more of the partners and one or of creditors of the dissolved partnership:
more third persons. (1) May have the value of his interest at the date of
(c) Retirement of all but one partner, and their dissolution ascertained; and
rights to partnership property are assigned to (2) Shall receive as an ordinary creditor:
the remaining partner, who continues the (a) An amount equal to the value of his interest in
business, either alone or with others; the dissolved partnership with interest; or
(d) Wrongful dissolution by any partner, and the (b) At his option or at the option of his legal
remaining partners continue the business, representative, in lieu of interest, the profits
either alone or with others; attributable to the use of his right in the property of
(e) Expulsion of a partner, and the remaining the dissolved partnership. [Article 1841]
partners continue the business, either alone or
with others. RIGHT TO AN ACCOUNT
(2) When the cause of dissolution is the retirement or The right to an account of his interest shall accrue to
death of any partner, and business is continued any partner, or his legal representative, at the date of
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General Partner Limited Partner A limited partnership is formed if there has been
substantial compliance in good faith with the
Not assignable Assignable requirements.
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MANAGEMENT OF LIMITED PARTNERSHIP The acts enumerated are acts of strict dominion.
A limited partner shall not become liable as a
general partner unless, in addition to the exercise of OBLIGATIONS OF A LIMITED PARTNER
his rights and powers as a limited partner, he takes OBLIGATIONS RELATED TO CONTRIBUTION
part in the control of the business [Article 1848]. The contributions of a limited partner may be cash or
property, but not services [Article 1845].
MANAGEMENT BY GENERAL PARTNERS
Only the general partners have the right to manage A limited partner is liable for partnership obligations
the partnership. The limited partners are not so when he contributes services instead of only money
entitled. or property to the partnership [De Leon (2010)].
LIABILITY OF LIMITED PARTNER FOR PARTICIPATING IN A limited partner is liable to the partnership:
CONTROL (1) For the difference between his actual contribution
A limited partner is liable as a general partner (i.e., and that stated in the certificate as having been
subsidiarily liable) for the obligations of the made;
partnership if he takes part in the control of the (2) For any unpaid contribution which he agreed in
business. The control contemplated is active the certificate to make in the future at the time
participation in the management of the business. It and on the conditions stated in the certificate. [1st
does not contemplate mere giving of advice to par., Article 1858]
general partners which may be followed or not.
He holds as trustee for the partnership:
The abstinence of the limited partner from (1) Specific property stated in the certificate as
participation in the transaction of the business of the contributed by him, but which was not
firm is essential to his exemption from personal contributed or which has been wrongfully
liability. [De Leon (2010)]. returned; and
(2) Money or other property wrongfully paid or
POWERS OF GENERAL PARTNER conveyed to him on account of his contribution.
General rule: A general partner shall have the rights [2nd par., Article 1858]
and powers and be subject to all restrictions and
liabilities of a partner in a partnership without The liabilities under Article 1858 can be waived or
limited partners. compromised only by the consent of all members.
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General rule: A limited partner, irrespective of the RIGHT TO ASK FOR DISSOLUTION
nature of his contribution has only the right to A limited partner may have the partnership dissolved
demand and receive cash in return for his and its affairs wound up:
contribution. (1) When his demand for the return of his
contribution is denied although he has a right to
Exceptions: He may receive his contribution in a form such return;
other than cash when: (2) When he has such right, but his contribution is
(1) There is a statement in the certificate to the not paid because the partnership property is
contrary; or insufficient to pay its liabilities. [Article 1857]
(2) All the members of the partnership consent.
CAUSES OF DISSOLUTION OF LIMITED
PREFERENCE OF LIMITED PARTNERS PARTNERSHIP
General rule: The limited partners stand on equal A limited partnership is dissolved in much the same
footing as to their: way and causes as an ordinary partnership [De Leon
(1) Compensation by way of income; (2010)].
(2) Return of contribution; or
(3) Any other matter. General rule: The retirement, death, insolvency,
insanity or civil interdiction of a general partner
Exception: By an agreement of all the partners dissolves the partnership.
(general and limited) in the certificate, priority or
preference may be given to some limited partners Exception: It is not so dissolved when the business is
over others with respect to the matters enumerated. continued by the remaining general partners:
[Article 1855] (1) Under a right to do so stated in the certificate; or
(2) With the consent of all members. [Article 1860]
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On the death of a limited partner, his executor or (3) An additional limited partner is admitted;
administrator shall have: (4) A person is admitted as a general partner;
(1) All the rights of a limited partner for the purpose (5) A general partner retires, dies, becomes insolvent
of settling his estate; and or insane, or is sentenced to civil interdiction and
(2) The power to constitute an assignee as a the business is continued;
substituted limited partner, if the deceased was (6) There is a change in the character of the business
so empowered in the certificate. of the partnership;
(7) There is a false or erroneous statement in the
The estate of a deceased limited partner shall be certificate;
liable for all his liabilities as a limited partner. [Article (8) There is a change in the time as stated in the
1861] certificate for the dissolution of the partnership or
for the return of a contribution;
SETTLEMENT OF ACCOUNTS (9) A time is fixed for the dissolution of the
ORDER OF PAYMENT partnership, or the return of a contribution, no
In settling accounts after dissolution, the liabilities of time having been specified in the certificate; or
the partnership shall be entitled to payment in the (10) The members desire to make a change in any
following order: other statement in the certificate in order that it
(1) Those to creditors, including limited partners shall accurately represent the agreement among
except those on account of their contributions, in them.
the order of priority as provided by law;
(2) Those to limited partners in respect to their share REQUIREMENTS FOR AMENDMENT OR CANCELLATION
of the profits and other compensation by way of To amend or cancel a certificate:
income in their contributions; (1) The amendment or cancellation must be in
(3) Those to limited partners in respect to the capital writing;
of their contributions; (2) It must be signed and sworn to by all the
(4) Those to general partners other than for capital members including the new members, and the
and profits; assigning limited partner in case of substitution
(5) Those to general partners in respect to profits; or addition of a limited or general partner; and
(6) Those to general partners in respect to capital. (3) The writing to amend (with the certificate, as
amended) or to cancel must be filed for record in
Note: In settling accounts of a general partnership, the SEC.
those owing to partners in respect to capital enjoy
preference over those in respect to profits. From the moment the amended certificate/writing or
a certified copy of a court order granting the petition
SHARE IN THE PARTNERSHIP ASSETS for amendment has been filed, such amended
The share of limited partners in respect to their certificate shall thereafter be the certificate of
claims for capital, profits, or for compensation by way partnership. [Article 1865]
of income, is in proportion of their contribution,
unless:
(1) There is a statement in the certificate as to their
share in the profits; or Contract of agency
(2) There is a subsequent agreement fixing their
share. [Article 1863] DEFINITION
By the contract of agency, a person binds himself to
AMENDMENT OR CANCELLATION OF render some service or to do something in
CERTIFICATE representation or on behalf of another, with the
WHEN CERTIFICATE IS CANCELLED consent or authority of the latter [Article 1868].
The certificate shall be cancelled when:
(1) The partnership is dissolved; or Agency may refer to both a contract, as defined in
(2) All limited partners cease to be such. the provision, and the representative relation
created.
WHEN CERTIFICATE IS AMENDED
A certificate shall be amended when: As a relation, agency is fiduciary (based on trust and
(1) There is a change in the name of the partnership confidence), which implies a power in an agent to
or in the amount or character of the contribution contract with a third person on behalf of a principal.
of any limited partner;
(2) A person is substituted as a limited partner;
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The basis of agency is representation [Victorias Ratio: One who acts through an agent in law does
Milling v. CA (2000)]. the act himself. As such, the capacity to act by an
agent depends in general on the capacity of the
In an agent-principal relationship, the personality of principal to do the act himself as if he were present.
the principal is extended through the facility of the
agent. In so doing, the agent, by legal fiction, INTENTION OF PARTIES
becomes the principal, authorized to perform all acts On the part of the principal, there must be an actual
which the latter would have him do. Such a intention to appoint or an intention naturally
relationship can only be effected with the consent of inferable from his words or actions; and on the part of
the principal, which must not, in any way, be the agent, there must be an intention to accept the
compelled by law or by any court. [Orient Air v. CA appointment and act on it. [Victorias Milling v. CA
(1991)] (2000)]
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PRESUMPTION OF EXISTENCE
In other cases between persons who are absent, General rule: It [agency] must exist as a fact. The law
acceptance cannot be implied from the silence of the makes no presumption thereof. The person alleging
agent. [Article 1872] it has the burden of proof to show, not only the fact
of its existence, but also its nature and extent.
POWER OF ATTORNEY [People v. Yabut (1977)]
A power of attorney is an instrument in writing by
which one person, as principal, appoints another as Exceptions: A presumption of agency may arise:
his agent and confers upon him the authority to (1) Where an agency may arise by operation of law
perform certain specified acts of kinds of acts on his (e.g., all the partners being considered agents of
behalf. The written authorization itself is the power the partnership when the manner of
of attorney. It has also been called a "letter of management has not been agreed upon); or
attorney." (2) To prevent unjust enrichment. [De Leon (2010)]
Its primary purpose is not to define the authority of COMMUNICATION OF EXISTENCE OF AGENCY
the agent, but to evidence the authority of the agent There are two ways of giving notice of agency (that a
to third parties with whom the agent deals. The person has given a power of attorney to a third
person holding the power of attorney is designated person), with different effects:
as an "attorney-in-fact." (1) If a person specially informs another (e.g., by
letter), the person appointed as agent is
FORM OF CONTRACT considered such with respect to the person
General rule: There are no formal requirements specially informed;
governing the appointment of an agent. (2) If a person states by public advertisement, the
person appointed as agent is considered such
Exceptions: with regard to any person.
(1) When the law requires a specific form [2nd par.,
Article 1869]; In either case, the power of the agent continues in
(2) When a sale of piece of land or any interest full force until the notice is rescinded in the same
therein is through an agent, in which case the manner in which it was given. [Article 1873]
authority shall be in writing; otherwise the sale is
void [Article 1874]; DUTY OF THIRD PERSON
(3) When the law requires a special power of attorney The person dealing with the agent must act with
[Article 1878]. ordinary prudence and reasonable diligence.
Obviously, if he knows or has good reason to believe
DESIGNATION BY THE PARTIES that the agent is exceeding his authority, he cannot
The manner in which the parties designate the claim protection. [Keeler Electric v. Rodriguez (1922)]
relationship is not controlling. The use of this term
("agent") in one clause of the contract cannot EFFECT
dominate the real nature of the agreement as EXTENSION OF PERSONALITY
revealed in other clauses, no less than in the caption It bears stressing that in an agent-principal
["agency agreement"] of the agreement itself. relationship, the personality of the principal is
[Albadejo y Cia v. Phil. Refining (1923)] extended through the facility of the agent. In so
doing, the agent, by legal fiction, becomes the
ACTS DELEGATED principal, authorized to perform all acts which the
General rule: What a person may do in person, he latter would have him do. [Litonjua v. Eternit Corp.
may do through another. (2006)]
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(2) Notice must pertain to a matter of fact and not of Agency Independent Contractor
law;
(3) The fact must be within the scope of the agent's Control
authority.
An agent acts under the An independent
Thus, it is only logical that the agent is required to control and instruction of contractor is not subject to
notify the principal of all matters that came to his the principal control, except insofar as
attention that are material to the subject matter of the result of the work is
the agency. concerned
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Ownership of goods
Ownership is acquired in Ownership is transferred
behalf of the principal to the buyer
Changes in price
Kinds of agency
Generally, any change in A buyer cannot adjust the KINDS OF AGENCY, IN GENERAL
the price is borne by the price already agreed upon AS TO MANNER OF ITS CREATION
principal (1) Express;
(2) Implied.
Payment
AS TO CAUSE OR CONSIDERATION
Price is paid in behalf of Price is paid by the buyer (1) Gratuitous; or
the principal (2) Compensated or onerous.
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An agency by estoppel, which is similar to the doctrine Qualification: The exception only applies if the agent
of apparent authority, requires proof of reliance upon contracts with the properties of the principal within
the representations, and that, in turn, needs proof the scope of his authority [PNB v. Agudelo (1933)].
that the representations predated the action taken in
reliance. [Litonjua v. Eternit Corp. (2006)] AGENCY BY OPERATION OF LAW
An agency may exist by operation of law, such as in
Implied Agency Agency by Estoppel the following cases:
(1) Every partner is an agent of the partnership for
Principal is liable Person who is in bad faith the purpose of its business [Article 1818];
is liable (2) When the principal's actions would reasonably
lead a third person to conclude that an agency
exists, an agency by estoppel is created by
One who clothes another with apparent authority as
operation law [Black's Law Dictionary (9th)];
his agent, and holds him out to the public as such,
(3) In case of certain necessity or emergency, an
cannot be permitted to deny the authority of such
agency by necessity may arise.
person to act as his agent, to the prejudice of
innocent third parties dealing with such person in
IRREVOCABLE AGENCY
good faith.
Article 1927 (on agency coupled with an interest)
mentions three instances where the sole will of the
Note: Article 1911 states that: "Even when the agent
principal cannot terminate (revoke) an agency:
has exceeded his authority, the principal is solidarily
(1) A bilateral contract depends upon it;
liable with the agent if the former allowed the latter
(2) It is the means of fulfilling an obligation already
to act as though he had full powers." In this case,
contracted; or
there is a duly formed agency and estoppel only
(3) A partner is appointed manager of a partnership
applies to the excess of authority. This is an
in the contract of partnership and his removal
application of the doctrine of apparent authority
from the management is unjustifiable.
Under the doctrine of apparent authority, the
Qualifications:
question in every case is whether the principal has, by
(1) Coupled with interest or not, the authority
his voluntary act, placed the agent in such a situation
certainly can be revoked for a just cause, such as
that a person of ordinary prudence, conversant with
when the attorney-in-fact betrays the interest of
business usages and the nature of the particular
the principal, xxx. It is not open to serious doubt
business, is justified in presuming that such agent
that the irrevocability of the power of attorney
has authority to perform the particular act in
may not be used to shield the perpetration of acts
question. [Professional Services v. Agana (2008)]
in bad faith, breach of confidence, or betrayal of
trust, by the agent for that would amount to
In agency by estoppel, there is no agency. The alleged
holding that a power coupled with an interest
agent seemed to have apparent or ostensible
authorizes the agent to commit frauds against
authority, but not real authority to represent another.
the principal. [Coleongco v. Claparols (1964)]
AGENCY WITH UNDISCLOSED PRINCIPAL
(2) A mere statement in the power of attorney that it
General rule: If an agent acts in his own name (the
is coupled with an interest is not enough. In what
principal is undisclosed), the agent is the one directly
does such interest consist must be stated in the
bound in favor of the person with whom he has
power of attorney. [Del Rosario v. Abad (1958)]
contracted, as if the transaction were his own.
(3) An agency couple with an interest cannot affect
Ratio: There is no representation of the principal
third persons. They are obligatory only on the
when the agent acts in his own name. The third
principal who executed the agency. [New Manila
person cannot allege that he was misled by any
Lumber v. Republic (1960)]
representation since he did not know of the existence
of the undisclosed principal.
KINDS OF AGENTS
AS TO NATURE AND EXTENT OF AUTHORITY
Exception: The principal is bound when the contract
According to the nature and extent of their authority,
involves things belonging to him [Article 1883]. In this
agents have been classified into:
case, the contract is considered as one between the
(1) Universal agents are authorized to do all acts for
principal and the third person.
his principal which can lawfully be delegated to
an agent. So far as such a condition is possible,
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according to an understanding between the principal demands that the agent look out for the best
and the agent. [Article 1901] interests of the principal as against his own or those
of third parties. [See Article 1889]
While third persons are bound to inquire into the
extent or scope of the agents authority, they are not Thus, an act of the agent which tends to violate his
required to go beyond the terms of the written power fiduciary duty is not only invalid as to the principal,
of attorney. Third persons cannot be adversely but is also against public policy.
affected by an understanding between the principal
and his agent as to the limits of the latters authority. Presumption: Until proven otherwise, however, the
In the same way, third persons need not concern presumption arises that an agent has performed his
themselves with instructions given by the principal to duty in good faith, and the principal, until notice is
his agent outside of the written power of attorney. received of a breach of relational duties, may rely
[Siredy Enterprises v. CA (2002)] upon his agent's faithfulness.
POWER TO BIND THE PRINCIPAL Exception: The presumption does not arise when
Requisites: there is no relation of trust or confidence between
(1) The agent must act within the scope of his the parties (e.g., the agent is bound merely as an
authority; and instrument/servant, or there is no agency
(2) The agent must act in behalf of the principal. relationship). [De Leon (2010)]
Even when the agent acts in his own name, however, OBEDIENCE TO PRINCIPAL'S INSTRUCTIONS
the principal is still bound, when the contract General rule: An agent must obey all lawful orders
involves things belonging to the principal [Article and instructions of the principal within the scope of
1883] or when the principal ratifies the contract, the agency. If he fails to do so, he becomes liable for
expressly or tacitly [Article 1910]. any loss the principal incurs even though he can
show that he acted in good faith or exercised
EFFECTS OF ACTS OF AN AGENT reasonableness. [See Article 1887]
In summary, when the agent acts:
(1) With authority of the principal: EXERCISE OF REASONABLE CARE
(a) If done in the name of the principal, the By accepting an employment whose requirements he
principal is bound to comply with the knows, without stipulating otherwise, the agent
obligations contracted [Article 1910] and the impliedly undertakes that he possesses a degree of
agent is not personally liable to the party with skill reasonably and ordinarily competent for the
whom he contracts [Article 1897]; performance of the service, and that in performing
(b) If done in the name of the agent, the agent is his undertaking, he will exercise reasonable care,
the one directly bound in favor of the person skill and diligence. [De Leon (2010)]
with whom he has contracted, except when
the contract involves things belonging to the The specific obligations of the parties to each other
principal; are merely specific applications of the general
(2) Without authority or beyond the authority granted fiduciary obligation [De Leon (2010)].
by the principal:
(a) If done in the name of the principal, it is OBLIGATION TO CARRY OUT AGENCY
unenforceable against him, unless he ratifies General rule: The agent is:
it expressly or tacitly [Article 1910]. (1) Bound by his acceptance to carry out the agency;
(b) If done in the name of the agent, he is (2) Liable for damages, which the principal may
personally liable. suffer, in case of non-performance;
(3) Bound to finish the business already begun on
the death of the principal should delay entail
danger. [Article 1884]
Obligations of the agent Exception: An agent shall not carry out an agency if
its execution would manifestly result in loss or
OBLIGATIONS, IN GENERAL damage to the principal [Article 1888].
GOOD FAITH AND LOYALTY TO HIS TRUST
The duty of good faith is also called the fiduciary OBLIGATION IN CASE HE DECLINES AGENCY
duty, which imposes upon the agent the obligation of In case a person declines an agency, he is bound to
faithful service. The duty to be loyal to the principal observe the diligence of a good father of a family in
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The case treated in this provision is different from Binds third parties Does not bind third
withdrawal. In this case, no agency was formed. parties
Withdrawal presupposes an existing agency.
Note: Insolvency of the principal is also a ground for BASIS OF THE RULE
extinguishment. The underlying basis of the rule, which precludes an
agent from engaging in self-dealing, is to shut the
OBLIGATION TO ACT IN ACCORDANCE WITH door against temptation and keep the agent's eye
INSTRUCTIONS single to the rights and welfare of the principal.
In the execution of the agency, the agent shall act in
accordance with the instructions of the principal. APPLICATION
(1) A specific application of this subordination of
In the absence of such instructions, he shall do all interests is found in Article 1890: If the agent has
that a good father of a family would do, as required been empowered to borrow money, he may
by the nature of the business. [Article 1887] himself be the lender at the current rate of
interest. If he has been authorized to lend money
Note: The limits of the agent's authority shall not be at interest, he cannot borrow it without the
considered exceeded should it have been performed consent of the principal.
in a manner more advantageous to the principal (2) An agent authorized to sell merchandise cannot
than that specified by him [Article 1882]. bind the principal by selling to himself directly or
indirectly, unless the principal consented or
Authority Instructions ratified the purchase.
Sum total of the powers Private rule of guidance to OBLIGATION TO ACCOUNT AND TO DELIVER
committed or permitted to the agent THINGS RECEIVED
the agent Every agent is bound to:
(1) Render an account of his transactions; and
(2) Deliver to the principal whatever he may have
received by virtue of the agency, even though it
may not be owing to the principal.
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(1) The non-fulfillment of agency, even when the (4) The party with whom the agent contracted is
fellow agents acted beyond the scope of their aware of the limits of the powers granted by the
authority; and principal.
(2) The fault or negligence of his fellow agents,
except when the fellow agents acted beyond their The agent, however, is liable if he undertook to
authority. secure the principal's ratification.
Note: If the agent acts in his own name, he is directly A principal may not accept the benefits of a
bound in favor of the person with whom he transaction and repudiate its burdens. Thus, a
contracted, as if the transaction were his own, except principal who seeks to enforce a sale made by the
when the contract involves things belonging to the agent cannot ordinarily allege that the agent
principal. exceeded his authority.
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whereof he himself was, or ought to have been, SALE OF GOODS ON CREDIT WITHOUT AUTHORITY
aware. [Article 1899] General rule: The commission agent cannot sell on
credit. Should he do so, the principal may:
Thus, if the principal appoints an agent who is (1) Demand from him payment in cash, in which case
ignorant, the fault is his alone. He is bound by the the commission agent shall be entitled to any
acts of the agent. The agent is not liable to third interest or benefit, which may result from such
persons in this case. sale [Article 1905]; or
(2) Ratify the sale on credit, in which case the
OBLIGATIONS OF COMMISSION AGENT principal will have all the risks and advantages to
FACTOR OR COMMISSION AGENT him [De Leon (2010)].
A factor or commission agent is one whose business
is to receive and sell goods for a commission (also Exception: The commission agent can sell on credit
called factorage) and who is entrusted by the with the express or implied consent of the principal.
principal with the possession of goods to be sold,
and usually selling in his own name. SALE OF GOODS ON CREDIT WITH AUTHORITY
If the commission agent was authorized to sell on
He may act in his own name or in that of the credit and should he so sell on credit, he shall inform
principal. the principal of such sale, with a statement of the
names of the buyers.
An ordinary agent need not have possession of the
goods of the principal, while the commission agent Should he fail to inform the principal, the sale is
must be in possession. [De Leon (2010)] deemed to have been made for cash as far as the
principal is concerned. [Article 1906] As such, as to
Ordinary Agent Commission Agent the buyer, the sale may be on credit, but the principal
may demand the payment in cash from the agent.
Acts for and in behalf of Acts in his own name or
the principal that of his principal Should the commission agent receive a guarantee
commission (del credere commission) on a sale, in
Need not have possession Must have possession of addition to the ordinary commission, he shall:
of the goods the goods (1) Bear the risk of collection; and
(2) Pay the principal the proceeds of the sale on the
terms agreed upon with the purchaser.
Broker Commission Agent In case of a sale on credit, the commission agent is
Has no custody of the Has custody or possession obliged to collect the credits of his principal when
thing to be disposed of, of the things to be sold they become due and demandable.
only acts as intermediary
between seller and buyer General rule: Failing to so collect, the agent shall be
liable for damages
Maintains no relations Maintains relations with
with things to be the thing, the buyer and Exception: He is not liable if he proves that he
sold/bought the seller exercised due diligence for that purpose.
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The principal is solidarily liable if quasi-delict was The effects of ratification are:
committed by the agent while performing his duties (1) With respect to the agent, it relieves him of
in furtherance of the principal's business. liability. He may thus recover compensation from
the principal.
(2) With respect to the principal, he assumes
responsibility for the unauthorized act as fully as
if the agent had acted under an original authority.
Obligations of the principal But he is not liable for acts outside the authority
affirmed by his ratification.
OBLIGATIONS, IN GENERAL (3) With respect to third persons, they are bound by
In addition to his duties specified under the contract the ratification and cannot set up the fact that the
itself, the principal is under obligation to deal fairly agent has exceeded his powers [Article 1901].
and in good faith with his agent, who owes the same
to his principal. SEPARATE CONTRACTS WITH PRINCIPAL AND AGENT
When two persons contract with regard to the same
OBLIGATION TO COMPLY WITH OBLIGATIONS thing, one of them with the agent and the other with
CONTRACTED the principal, and the two contracts are incompatible
General rule: The principal must comply with all the with each other, that of prior date shall be preferred,
obligations which the agent may have contracted subject to the rules on double sales [Article 1916].
within the scope of his authority. As for any obligation
where in the agent has exceeded his power, the The rules on double sales (Article 1544) provide:
principal is not bound. (1) If the same movable property is sold to different
persons, ownership is transferred to whoever first
Exceptions: The principal is: took possession in good faith.
(1) Bound by the obligation entered into by the (2) If it be immovable:
agent in excess of his power, when he ratifies it (a) Ownership belongs to the person who in good
expressly or tacitly [Article 1910]; faith first recorded it in the Registry of
(2) Solidarily liable with the agent if the principal Property.
allowed the agent to act as though he had full (b) If there is no inscription, ownership shall
powers [Article 1911]. belong to the person who, in good faith was
first in possession; and in the absence of such,
Note: If the agent acts in his own name, but the to the one who presents the oldest title,
contract involves things belonging to the principal, provided there is good faith.
the contract must be considered as entered into
between the principal and the third person [Sy-Juco The liability for damages suffered by the third person
and Viardo v. Sy-Juco (1920)]. whose contract must be rejected shall be borne by:
(1) The principal, if the agent acted in good faith; or
RATIFICATION
(2) The agent, if he acted in bad faith. [Article 1918]
Ratification is the adoption or affirmance by a person
of a prior act which did not bind him, but which was WHEN PRINCIPAL NOT LIABLE, IN SUMMARY
done or professed to be done on his account, thus (1) Void or inexistent contracts [Article 1409];
giving effect to the acts as if originally authorized. (2) Sale of a piece of land or any interest therein
when the authority of the agent is not in writing
Aside from the intent to ratify, the following [Article 1874];
conditions must be fulfilled for ratification to be (3) Acts of the substitute appointed against the
effective: prohibition of the principal [Article 1892];
(1) The principal must have the capacity and power (4) Acts done in excess of the scope of the agent's
to ratify; authority [Articles 1898 and 1910];
(2) He must have had knowledge or had reason to (5) When the agent acts in his own name, except
know of material or essential facts about the when the contract involves things belonging to the
transaction; principal [Article 1883];
(3) He must ratify the acts entirely; (6) Unenforceable contracts [Article 1403].
(4) The act must be capable of ratification; and
(5) The act must be done in behalf of the principal. OBLIGATION FOR COMPENSATION OF AGENT
[De Leon (2010)] Agency is presumed to be for a compensation, unless
there is proof to the contrary [Article 1875].
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AMOUNT OF COMPENSATION (b) Provided that the agent is free from all fault.
The principal must pay the agent the compensation [Article 1912]
agreed upon, or the reasonable value of the agent's
services if no compensation was specified. The reimbursement shall include the interest on the
sums advanced from the day the advances were
This obligation presupposes that the agent complied made.
with his obligation to the principal.
WHEN PRINCIPAL NOT LIABLE FOR EXPENSES
COMPENSATION OF BROKER The principal is not liable for the expenses incurred
A broker is entitled to the usual commissions by the agent in the following cases:
whenever he brings to his principal a party who is (1) If the agent acted in contravention of the
able and willing to take the property and enter into a principal's instructions, unless the latter should
valid contract upon the terms named by the wish to avail himself of the benefits derived from
principal, although the terms may be arranged and the contract;
the matter negotiated and consummated between (2) When the expenses were due to the fault of the
the principal and the purchaser directly. agent;
(3) When the agent incurred them with knowledge
A broker is never entitled to commission for that an unfavorable result would ensue, if the
unsuccessful efforts. principal was not aware thereof;
(4) When it was stipulated that:
The governing rule is that the agent must prove that (a) The expenses would be borne by the agent; or
he was the procuring cause of the transaction. (b) That the latter would be allowed only a
Otherwise, he is not entitled to the stipulated certain sum. [Article 1918]
broker's commission [Inland Realty v. CA (1997)].
DAMAGES
Procuring cause refers to a cause originating a series The principal must also indemnify the agent for all
of events which, without break in their continuity, the damages which the execution of the agency may
result in the accomplishment of the prime objective have caused the latter, without fault or negligence or
of the employment of the broker producing a his part. [Article 1913]
purchaser ready, willing and able to buy on the
RIGHT OF RETENTION BY AGENT
owner's terms.
The agent may retain in pledge the things which are
the object of the agency until the principal effects:
Since the brokers only job is to bring together the (1) Reimbursement of necessary funds advanced;
parties to a transaction, it follows that if the broker and
does not succeed in bringing the mind of the (2) Payment of indemnity for damages. [Article 1914]
purchaser and the vendor to an agreement with
reference to the terms of a sale, he is not entitled to This is a case of legal pledge. However, the agent is
a commission [Rocha v. Prats (1922)]. not entitled to the excess in case the things are sold
to satisfy his claims.
If the principal breaks off from negotiations with a
buyer brought by the agent in order to deliberately MULTIPLE PRINCIPALS
deal later with the buyer personally, this is evident If there are two or more principals who appointed the
bad faith. In such case, justice demands agent for a common transaction or undertaking, they
compensation for the agent. [Infante v. Cunanan shall be solidarily liable for all the consequences of
(1953)] the agency [Article 1915].
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DEATH OF AGENT
If the agent dies, his heirs must:
(1) Notify the principal thereof; and
(2) In the meantime adopt such measures as the
circumstances may demand in the interest of the
latter. [Article 1932]
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Credit Transactions Upon delivery of the object of the contract of loan (in
this case the money received by the debtor when the
MEANING AND SCOPE OF CREDIT checks were encashed) the debtor acquires
TRANSACTIONS ownership of such money or loan proceeds and is
Credit transactions include all transactions involving bound to pay the creditor an equal amount. [Garcia
the purchase or loan of goods, services, or money in v. Thio, G.R. No. 154878]
the present with a promise to pay or deliver in the
future. COMMODATUM V. MUTUUM
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(2) To refund extraordinary expenses for the General Rule [1]: Bailee is liable for deterioration of
preservation of the thing loaned provided bailor is thing loaned.
notified before the expenses were incurred. [Art.
1949] Exception [1]: The deterioration of the thing is due
(a) Exception: Urgent need such that reply to the only to the use thereof and without his fault [Art.
notification cannot be awaited without 1943]
danger, hence no notice is necessary.
General Rule [2]: Bailee has no right of retention of
(3) To bear 50% of the extraordinary expenses the thing loaned, on the ground that the bailor owes
arising from actual use of bailee of the thing him something. [Art. 1944]
loaned [Art. 1949]
(a) Exception: Contrary stipulation Exception [2]: Bailee has a right of retention for
damages for known hidden flaws mentioned in Art
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Principals liability may exceed guarantors Note: Surety is not entitled to exhaustion
obligations
The amount specified in a surety bond as the (1) The undertaking is to the creditor, not the debtor
suretys obligation does not limit the extent of the The surety makes no covenant or agreement with
damages that may be recovered from the the principal that it will fulfill the obligation
principal, the latters liability being governed by guaranteed for the benefit of the principal. The
the obligations he assumed under his contract suretys undertaking is that the principal shall
fulfill his obligation and that the surety shall be
(10) The existence of a guaranty is not presumed relieved of liability when the obligation secured is
[2055] performed.
Guaranty requires the expression of consent on
the part of the guarantor to be bound. It cannot Exception: Unless otherwise expressly provided.
be presumed because of the existence of a
contract or principal obligation. (2) Prior demand by the creditor upon principal not
required. Surety is not exonerated by neglect of
Rationale: creditor to sue principal.
(a) There be assurance that the guarantor had
the true intention to bind himself; Strictissimi juris rule applicable only to
(b) To make certain that on making it, the accommodation surety
guarantor proceeded with consciousness of Reason: An accommodation surety acts without
what he was doing. motive of pecuniary gain and hence, should be
protected against unjust pecuniary impoverishment
(11) Contract of guaranty is covered by the Statute of by imposing on the principal, duties akin to those of
Frauds [See Art. 1403(2)(b)] a fiduciary. This rule will apply only after it has been
Guaranty must not only be expressed but must so definitely ascertained that the contract is one of
be reduced into writing. Hence, it shall be suretyship or guaranty.
unenforceable by action, unless the same or
some note or memorandum thereof be in writing, Strictissimi juris rule NOT applicable to compensated
and subscribed by the party charged, or by his sureties
agent; evidence, therefore, of the agreement Reasons:
cannot be received without the writing, or a (1) Compensated corporate sureties are business
secondary evidence of its contents. However, it associations organized for the purpose of
need not appear in a public document assuming classified risks in large numbers, for
profit and on an impersonal basis.
(2) They are secured from all possible loss by
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before he can be compelled to pay. (8) Co-guarantors are entitled to the benefit of division
Exception: The creditor may, prior thereto, secure [2065]
a judgment against the guarantor, who shall be The benefit of division applies only when there
entitled, however, to a deferment of the execution are several guarantors and one debtor for a
of said judgment against him, until after the single debt. Except when solidarity has been
properties of the principal debtor shall have been stipulated, a co-guarantor is liable only to the
exhausted, to satisfy the latters obligation. extent of his share in the obligation as divided
among all the co-guarantors.
(3) The creditor has the duty to make prior demand for
payment from the guarantor 2060) EFFECTS OF GUARANTY BETWEEN THE DEBTOR AND THE
(a) The demand is to be made only after GUARANTOR
judgment on the debt (1) The guarantor who pays has the right to be
(b) Joining the guarantor in the suit against the subrogated to the rights of the creditor [2067]
principal debtor is not the demand intended A guarantor who pays the debt is entitled to every
by law. Actual demand has to be made. remedy which the creditor has against the
principal debtor, to enforce every security and all
(4) The guarantor has the duty to set up the benefit of means of payments; to stand in the place of the
excussion [2060] creditor not only through the medium of the
As soon as he is required to pay, guarantor must contract, but even by means of the securities
also point out to the creditor available property entered into w/out the knowledge of the surety;
(not in litigation or encumbered) of the debtor having the right to have those securities
within the Philippines. transferred to him though there was no
stipulation for it, and to avail himself of all
(5) The creditor has the duty to resort to all legal securities against the debtor
remedies [2058, 2061]
After the guarantor has fulfilled the conditions The need to enforce the provisions on indemnity
required for making use of the benefit of in Article 2066 forms the basis for the
excussion, it becomes the duty of the creditor to: subrogation clause of Article 2067. The
(a) Exhaust all the property of the debtor pointed assumption, however, is that the guarantor who is
out by the guarantor; subrogated to the rights of the creditor, has the
(b) If he fails to do so, he shall suffer the loss for right to be reimbursed for his answering for the
the insolvency of the debtor, but only to the obligation of the debtor. Absent this right of
extent of the value of the said property reimbursement, subrogation will not be proper.
(6) The creditor has the duty to notify the guarantor in (2) The guarantor has the duty to notify the debtor
the action against the debtor [2062] before paying the creditor [2068].
Notice to the guarantor is mandatory in the
action against the principal debtor. The Should payment be made without notification,
guarantor, however, is not duty bound to appear and supposing the debtor has already made a
in the case, and his non- appearance shall not prior payment, the debtor would be justified in
constitute default, w/ its consequential effects. setting up the defense that the obligation has
already been extinguished by the time the
Rationale: To give the guarantor the opportunity guarantor made the payment. The guarantor will
to allege and substantiate whatever defenses he then lose the right of reimbursement and
may have against the principal obligation, and consequently the right of subrogation.
chances to set up such defenses as are afforded
him by law (3) The guarantor cannot demand reimbursement for
payment made by him before the obligation has
(7) A compromise shall not prejudice the person not become due [2069].
party to it [2063]
(a) A compromise between creditor and principal General Rule: Since a contract of guaranty is only
debtor benefits the guarantor but does not subsidiary, the guarantor cannot be liable for the
prejudice him. obligation before the period on which the
(b) A compromise between guarantor and the debtors Liability will accrue. Any payment made
creditor benefits but does not prejudice the by the guarantor before the obligation is due
principal debtor. cannot be indemnified by the debtor.
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For purposes of proportionate reimbursement, the Bondsman a surety offered in virtue of a provision
other guarantors may interpose such defenses of law or a judicial order.
against the paying guarantor as are available to the
debtor against the creditor, except those that are QUALIFICATIONS OF PERSONAL BONDSMAN [2082 IN
personal to the debtor [Art. 2074] RELATION TO ART. 2056]
(1) He possesses integrity;
Requisites for the applicability of Art. 2073: (2) He has capacity to bind himself;
(1) Payment has been made by one guarantor; (3) He has sufficient property to answer for the
(2) The payment was made because obligation which he guarantees.
(a) Of the insolvency of the debtor, or
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PLEDGE OR MORTGAGE IN LIEU OF BOND [2083] (6) Creditor has the right to retain the thing in his
(a) Guaranty or suretyship is a personal security. possession or in that of a third person to whom it
(b) Pledge or mortgage is a property or real security. has been delivered, until the debt is paid [2098].
If the person required to give a legal or judicial (7) Special Laws apply to pawnshops and
bond should not be able to do so, a pledge or establishments engaged in making loans secured
mortgage sufficient to cover the obligation shall by pledges. Provisions of the Civil Code shall
be admitted in lieu thereof. apply subsidiarily to them.
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the debt and its interest, with expenses in a EFFECT OF THE SALE OF THE THING PLEDGED [Art 2115]
proper case [2105]. (1) Extinguishes the principal obligation, whether the
proceeds of the sale is more or less than the
Yuliongsiu vs. PNB: There is authority supporting the amount due.
proposition that the pledgee can temporarily entrust (2) If the price of sale is more than amount due, the
the physical possession of the chattels pledged to debtor is not entitled to the excess unless the
the pledgor without invalidating the pledge. In such contrary is provided.
a case, the pledgor is regarded as holding the (3) If the price of sale is less, the creditor is not
pledged property merely as trustee for the pledgee. entitled to recover the deficiency. A contrary
The type of delivery will depend upon the nature and stipulation is void.
the peculiar circumstances of each case.
PLEDGE BY OPERATION OF LAW ART. 2121-
PNB vs. Atendido: according to law, a pledgee cannot 2122
become the owner of, nor appropriate to himself, the LEGAL PLEDGES/PLEDGE BY OPERATION OF LAW [Art.
thing given in pledge. If by the contract of pledge the 2121]
pledgor continues to be the owner of the thing (1) Necessary expenses shall be refunded to every
pledged during the pendency of the obligation, it possessor, but only a possessor in good faith may
stands to reason that in case of loss of the property, retain the thing until he has been reimbursed.
the loss should be borne by the pledgor. (a) Useful expenses shall be refunded only to the
possessor in good faith with the same right of
(3) Subject to the right of the pledgee under article retention, the person who has defeated him in
2108, pledgor is allowed to substitute the thing the possession having the option of refunding
which is in danger of destruction or impairment the amount of the expenses or of paying the
without any fault on the part of the pledgee with increase in value which the thing may have
another thing of the same kind and quality [2107]. acquired and by reason thereof [Art. 546]
(4) May require that the thing be deposited with a (2) He who has executed work upon a movable has a
3rd person, if through the negligence or willful right to retain it by way of pledge until he is paid.
act of the pledgee the thing is in danger of being This is called the mechanics lien. [Art. 1731]
lost or impaired [2106]. (3) The agent may retain the things which are the
objects of agency until the principal effects the
PERFECTION ARTS. 2093, 2096 reimbursement and pays the indemnity. This is
REQUISITES FOR PERFECTION called the agents lien. [Art. 1914]
(1) The thing pledged is placed in the possession of (4) The laborers wages shall be a lien on the goods
the creditor or a third person [2093] manufactured or the work done. [Art. 1707]
(2) For the pledge to take effect as against third
persons, a description of the thing pledged and Note:
the date of the pledge should appear in a public (1) In legal pledges, the remainder of the price of the
instrument [2096] sale shall be delivered to the obligor.
(2) Public auction of legal pledges may only be
FORECLOSURE ARTS. 2112, 2115 executed after demand of the amount for which
REQUIREMENTS IN SALE OF THE THING PLEDGED BY A the thing is retained. It shall take place within one
CREDITOR, IF CREDIT IS NOT PAID ON TIME (ART 2112) month after the demand, otherwise the pledgor
(1) Debt is due and unpaid. may demand the return of the thing pledged,
(2) Sale must be at a public auction. provided s/he is able to show that the creditor did
(3) Notice to the pledgor and owner, stating the not cause the public sale without justifiable
amount due. grounds. [Article 2122]
(4) Sale must be made with the intervention of a
notary public. DISTINGUISHED FROM CHATTEL MORTGAGE
(5) If at the first auction the thing is not sold, a ARTS. 2140, 1484
second one with the same formalities shall be Chattel Mortgager Pledge
held.
(6) If at the second auction, there is no sale either, Delivery of Personal Property
the creditor may appropriate the thing pledged
but he shall give an acquittance (release) for his Not required Delivery is required for the
entire claim. validity of the pledge
Registration in the Chattel Mortgage Register
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KINDS
Real Mortgage (1) Voluntary constituted by the will of the owner of
the property on which it is created
DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
Mortgage is a contract whereby the debtor secures to (2) Legal required by law to be executed in favor of
the creditor the fulfillment of a principal obligation, certain persons:
immediately making immovable property or real (a) Persons in whose favor the law establishes a
rights answerable to the principal obligation in case mortgage have no other right than to demand
it is not complied with at the time stipulated. the execution and recording of the document
in which the mortgage is formalized [Article
OBJECTS OF REAL MORTGAGE [Art. 2124] 2125]
(1) Immovables (b) The bondsman who is to be offered in virtue of
(2) Alienable real rights over immovables. a provision of law or of a judicial order shall
(a) Future property cannot be an object of have the qualifications prescribed in Art 2056
mortgage; however, a stipulation subjecting to (integrity, capacity to bind himself, and
the mortgage improvements which the sufficient property to answer for the
mortgagor may subsequently acquire, install obligation), and in other laws [Article 2082]
or use in connection with real property already (c) If the person bound to give a bond should not
mortgaged belonging to the mortgagor is be able to do so, a pledge or mortgage
valid. considered sufficient to recover his obligation
shall be admitted in lieu thereof [Article 2083]
CHARACTERISTICS
(1) As a general rule, the mortgagor retains (3) Equitable One which, although lacking the
possession of the property. He may deliver said proper formalities of a mortgage, shows the
property to the mortgagee without altering the intention of the parties to make the property a
nature of the contract of mortgage. security for the debt.
(2) It is not an essential requisite that the principal of (a) lien created through equitable mortgage
the credit bears interest, or that the interest as ought not to be defeated by requiring
compensation for the use of the principal and the compliance with formalities necessary to the
enjoyment of its fruits be in the form of a certain validity of a voluntary real estate mortgage.
percentage thereof. Ex.: Pacto de retro
(3) Mortgage creates an encumbrance over the (b) provisions governing equitable mortgage:
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Arts. 1365, 1450, 1454, 1602, 1603, 1604 and (4) Cannot exist without a valid obligation.
1607. (5) Debtor retains the ownership of the thing given
as a security.
(6) When the principal obligation becomes due, the
PRINCIPLE OF INDIVISIBILITY OF PLEDGE/MORTGAGE thing pledged or mortgaged may be alienated for
[ART. 2089 TO 2090] the payment to the creditor. [Art. 2087]
(a) Dayrit v. CA: A mortgage directly and immediately (7) Must be recorded in the Registry of Property in
subjects the property upon which it is imposed. It order to be validly constituted.
is indivisible even though the debt may be Note: The mortgage would still be binding
divided, and such indivisibility is likewise between the parties even if the instrument is not
unaffected by the fact that the debtors are not recorded.
solidarity liable.
(b) Central Bank v. CA: Where only a portion of the FORECLOSURE
loan is released, the mortgage becomes FORECLOSURE OF MORTGAGE
enforceable only as to the proportionate value of It is the remedy available to the mortgagee by which
the loan he subjects the mortgaged property to the
satisfaction of the obligation secured by the
Indivisibility applies only as to pledgors/mortgagors mortgage.
who are themselves debtors in the principal (a) In General: An action for foreclosure of a
obligation, and not to accommodation pledgors/ mortgage is limited to the amount mentioned in
mortgagors the mortgage, EXCEPT when the mortgage
contract intends to secure future loans or
"When several things are pledged or mortgaged, advancements
each thing for a determinate portion of the debt, the (b) BLANKET mortgage/DRAGNET mortgage that
pledges or mortgage, are considered separate from subsumes all debts of past or future origin
each other. But when the several things are given to (c) Mortgage may be used as a continuing security
secure the same debt in its entirety, all of them are which secures future advancements and is not
liable for the debt, and the creditor does not have to discharged by the repayment of the amount in
divide his action by distributing the debt among the the mortgage
various things pledged or mortgaged. Even when (d) Alienation or assignment of mortgage credit is
only a part of the debt remains unpaid, all the things valid even if it is not registered
are still liable for such balance." [Tolentino]
Acceleration Clause, or the stipulation stating that on
The question is whether or not the written the occasion of the mortgagors default, the whole
instrument in controversy was a mortgage OR a sum remaining unpaid automatically becomes due
conditional sale. The correct test, where it can be and demandable, is ALLOWED
applied, is the continued existence of a debt or
liability between the parties. If such exists, the KINDS OF FORECLOSURE
conveyance may be held to be merely a security for (1) Judicial Foreclosure
the debt or an indemnity against the liability. (Reyes (2) Extrajudicial Foreclosure
v. Sierra, 93 SCRA 473)
JUDICIAL FORECLOSURE
ESSENTIAL REQUISITES Rule 68, ROC:
ESSENTIAL REQUISITES COMMON TO PLEDGE AND (a) May be availed of by bringing an action in the
MORTGAGE proper court which has jurisdiction over the area
(1) Constituted to secure the fulfillment of a principal wherein the real or personal (in case of chattel
obligation. mortgage) property involved or a portion thereof
(2) Pledgor or mortgagor must be the absolute is situated.
owner of the thing pledged or mortgaged. (b) If the court finds the complaint to be well-
(3) The persons constituting the pledge or mortgage founded, it shall order the mortgagor to pay the
have the free disposal of their property, and in the amount due with interest and other charges
absence thereof, that they be legally authorized within a period of not less than 90 days nor more
for the purpose. than 120 days from the entry of judgment. If the
Note: Third persons who are not parties to the mortgagor fails to pay at the time directed, the
principal obligation may secure the latter by court, upon motion, shall order the property to be
pledging or mortgaging their own property. [Art. sold to the highest bidder at a public auction.
2085] (c) Upon confirmation of the sale by the court, it
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shall operate to divest the rights of all parties to to the buyer, which is similar to the equity of
the action and to vest their rights to the redemption. The TCT must be registered
purchaser subject to such rights of redemption as within THREE MONTHS after the foreclosure.
may be allowed by law. (b) The mortgagor can only legally transfer the
(d) Before the confirmation, the court retains control right to redeem and the use of the property
of the proceedings during the period of redemption.
(e) Execution of judgment subject to APPEAL but not (7) Remedy of party aggrieved by foreclosure is a
annulment petition to set aside sale and the cancellation of
(f) The foreclosure of the property is completed only writ of possession. However, if the mortgagee is a
when the sheriffs certificate is executed, bank, the mortgagor is required to post a bond
acknowledged and recorded equal to the value of the mortgagees claim.
(8) Republication of the notice of sale is necessary for
The Proceeds of the Sale shall be applied to the the validity of the postponed extrajudicial sale
Payment of the: (9) In foreclosure of real estate mortgage under Act
(a) Costs of the sale; 3135, the buyer at auction may petition the land
(b) Amount due the mortgagee; registration court for a writ of possession pending
(c) Claims of junior encumbrancers or persons the one-year period of redemption of the
holding subsequent mortgages in the order of foreclosed property.
their priority; and
(d) Balance, if any shall be paid to the mortgagor. Nature of Power of Foreclosure by Extrajudicial Sale
(1) Conferred for mortgagees protection.
Nature of Judicial Foreclosure Proceedings (2) An ancillary stipulation.
(1) Quasi in rem action. Hence, jurisdiction may be (3) A prerogative of the mortgagee.
acquired through publication.
(2) Foreclosure is only the result or incident of the Note:
failure to pay debt. (a) Both should be distinguished from execution sale
(3) Survives death of mortgagor. governed by Rule 39, ROC.
(b) Foreclosure retroacts to the date of registration of
EXTRAJUDICIAL FORECLOSURE [ACT NO. 3135] mortgage.
(1) Applies to mortgages where the authority to (c) A stipulation of upset price, or the minimum price
foreclose is granted to the mortgagee. at which the property shall be sold to become
(2) Authority is not extinguished by death of operative in the event of a foreclosure sale at
mortgagor or mortgagee. This is an agency public auction, is null and void.
coupled with interest.
(3) Public sale should be made after proper notice to Right of mortgagee to recover deficiency
the public, otherwise it is a jurisdictional defect (1) Mortgagee is entitled to recover deficiency.
which could render the sale voidable. (2) If the deficiency is embodied in a judgment, it is
(4) There is no need to notify the mortgagor, where referred to as deficiency judgment.
there is no contractual stipulation therefor. (3) Action for recovery of deficiency may be filed even
during redemption period.
Proper notice consists of: (4) Action to recover prescribes after 10 years from
(a) posting notice in three public places and/or the time the right of action accrues.
(b) publication in newspaper of general
circulation Effect of inadequacy of price in foreclosure sale
(1) Where there is right to redeem, inadequacy of
Purpose of notice is to obtain the best bid for the price is immaterial because the judgment debtor
foreclosed property may redeem the property.
(a) Exception: Where the price is so inadequate as
(5) Surplus proceeds of foreclosure sale belong to to shock the conscience of the court, taking
the mortgagor. into consideration the peculiar circumstances.
(6) Debtor (who must be a NATURAL PERSON) has (2) Property may be sold for less than its fair market
the right to redeem the property sold within 1 year value, upon the theory that the lesser the price
from and after the date of sale. the easier it is for the owner to redeem.
(a) If the mortgagee is a bank and the debtor is a (3) The value of the mortgaged property has no
juridical person, then there is no right of bearing on the bid price at the public auction,
redemption. However, it may redeem the provided that the public auction was regularly
property BEFORE the registration of the TCT and honestly conducted.
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(c) Each mortgagor and mortgagee or, in the does not within ten days after being requested
absence of the mortgagee, his agent or attorney, thereto by any person entitled to redeem, discharge
shall make and subscribe an affidavit in the form the mortgage in the manner provided by law, the
prescribed by law, which affidavit, signed by the person entitled to redeem may recover of the person
parties to the mortgage and the two witnesses whose duty it is to discharge the same, twenty pesos
and the certificate of the oath signed by the for his neglect and all damages occasioned thereby
person authorized to administer an oath shall be in an action in any court having jurisdiction of the
appended to such mortgage and recorded subject-matter thereof. [Sec. 8]
therewith. [Sec. 5, Act 1508]
When the condition of the chattel mortgage is
DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTY broken, a mortgagor or person holding a subsequent
The mortgaged property should be described such mortgage, or a subsequent attaching creditor may
as to enable the parties to the mortgage, or any redeem the same by paying or delivering to the
other person, after reasonable inquiry and mortgagee the amount due on such mortgage and
investigation, to identify the same. the reasonable costs and expenses incurred by such
breach of condition before the sale thereof. An
Large cattle as chattel mortgage attaching creditor who so redeems shall be
The description in the mortgage shall contain the subrogated to the rights of the mortgagee and
brands, class, sex, age, knots of radiated hair entitled to foreclose the mortgage in the same
commonly known as remolinos or cowlicks, and manner that the mortgagee could foreclose it
other marks of ownership as described and set forth Foreclosure
in the certificate of ownership of said animal/s, The mortgagee, his executor, administrator or assign
together with the number and place of issue of such may cause the mortgaged property or any part
certificates of ownership. thereof to be sold at a public auction by a public
officer:
Growing crops as chattel mortgage (1) After 30 days from the time of condition broken
The mortgage may contain an agreement stipulating (2) At a public place in the municipality where the
that the mortgagor binds himself properly to tend, mortgagor resides, or where the property is
care for and protect the crop while growing, and situated
faithfully and without delay to harvest the same, and (3) Provided at least 10 day-notice of the time, place,
that in default of the performance of such duties, the and purpose of such sale has been posted at 2 or
mortgagee may enter upon the premises, take all the more public places in such municipality, and
necessary measures for the protection of said crop, (4) The mortgagee, his executor, administrator, or
and retain possession thereof and sell the same, and assign shall notify the mortgagor or person
from the proceeds of such sale pay all expenses holding under him and the persons holding
incurred in caring for, harvesting, and selling the subsequent mortgages of the time and place of
crop and the amount of the indebtedness or sale at least 10 days previous to the sale:
obligation secured by the mortgage, and the surplus, (a) either by notice in writing directed to him or
if any, shall be paid to the mortgagor or those left at his abode, if within the municipality, or
entitled to the same. (b) sent by mail if he does not reside in such
municipality
PROPERTY COVERED BY CM
It is deemed to cover only the property described DISPOSITION OF PROCEEDS
therein and not like or substituted property The proceeds of the sale shall be applied to the
thereafter acquired by the mortgagor and placed in payment:
the same depository as the property originally (1) first, to the costs and expenses of mortgage
mortgaged, anything in the mortgage to the contrary (2) the residue shall be paid to persons holding
notwithstanding. [Sec. 8, Act 1508] subsequent mortgages in their order
(3) the balance, after paying the mortgages, shall be
Breaches paid to the mortgagor or person holding under
Failure of mortgagee to discharge the mortgage him on demand
If the mortgagee, assign, administrator, executor, or
either of them,
(1) after performance of the condition before or after
the breach thereof, or
(2) after tender of the performance of the condition,
Quasi-Contracts
at or after the time fixed for the performance,
A quasi-contract is that juridical relation resulting
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from a lawful, voluntary and unilateral act, and (5) Be personally liable for contracts which he
which has for its purpose the payment of indemnity entered into with third persons, even though he
to the end that no one shall be unjustly enriched or acted in the name of the owner, and there shall
benefited at the expense of another [Art. 2142] be no right of action between the owner and third
persons.
NEGOTIORUM GESTIO
(UNAUTHORIZED MANAGEMENT) The gestor shall not be personally liable for such
This takes place when a person voluntarily takes contracts, provided:
charge of anothers abandoned business or property (a) The owner has expressly or tacitly ratified the
without the owners authority [Art. 2144]. management, or
Reimbursement must be made to the gestor (i.e. one (b) When the contract refers to things pertaining
who carried out the business) for necessary and to the owner of the business. [Art. 2152]
useful expenses, as a rule.
Note: The responsibility of two or more gestors
THE OBLIGATION DOES NOT ARISE: shall be solidary, unless the management was
(1) When the property or business is not neglected or assumed to save the thing or business from
abandoned; imminent danger.
(2) If in fact the manager has been tacitly authorized
by the owner. OBLIGATIONS OF THE OWNER OF THE PROPERTY OR
BUSINESS
In the first case, the provisions of Articles 1317, 1403, Although the management was not expressly
No. 1, and 1404 regarding unauthorized contracts ratified, the owner who enjoys the advantages of the
shall govern. same shall:
(a) Be liable for the obligations incurred in his
In the second case, the rules on agency in Title X of interest
this Book shall be applicable. [Art. 2144] (b) Reimburse the gestor for the necessary and
useful expenses and for the damages the latter
OBLIGATIONS OF A GESTOR may have suffered in the performance of his
(1) Perform his duties with all the diligence of a good duties
father of a family
(2) Pay the damages which through his fault and The above obligations shall be incumbent upon the
negligence may be suffered by the owner of the owner if the management had for its purpose the
property/business under his management [Art. prevention of an imminent and manifest loss,
2145] although no benefit may have been derived. [Art.
(3) Be liable for the acts of the persons to whom he 2150]
delegated all or some of his duties. This is
without prejudice to the direct obligation of the If the owner did not derive any benefit and there was
delegate to the owner of the business. [Art. 2146] no imminent and manifest danger to the property or
(4) Be liable for any fortuitous event under the business, the owner would still be liable for the
following conditions: abovementioned obligations and expenses,
(a) If he undertakes risky operations which the provided:
owner was not accustomed to embark upon (a) The gestor has acted in good faith; AND
(b) If he has preferred his own interest to that of (b) The property or business is intact, ready to be
the owner returned to the owner. [Art. 2151]
(c) If he fails to return the property or business
after demand of the owner EFFECT OF RATIFICATION
(d) If he assumed management in bad faith [Art. The ratification of the management by the owner of
2147] the business produces the effects of an express
(e) If he is manifestly unfit to carry on the agency, even if the business may not have been
management successful. [Art. 2149]
(f) If by his intervention he prevented a more
competent person from taking up the EXTINGUISHMENT OF MANAGEMENT
management. [Art. 2148] (1) When the owner repudiates or puts an end
thereto
Note: The gestor shall not be liable for e and f (2) When the gestor withdraws from the
if the management was assumed to save the management, subject to [Art. 2144]
property or business from imminent danger.
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(3) By the death, civil interdiction, insanity or (2) For the return of the price or assign the action to
insolvency of the owner or the gestor. [Art. 2153] collect the sum if he has alienated the same. [Art.
2160]
SOLUTIO INDEBITI (UNDUE PAYMENT)
This takes place when something is received when EXEMPTION FROM THE OBLIGATION TO RESTORE THE
there is no right to demand it, and it was unduly PAYMENT UNDULY MADE
delivered through mistake. The recipient has the A person who, believing in good faith that the
duty to return it [Art. 2154]. payment was being made of a legitimate and
subsisting claim,
This situation covers payment by reason of a mistake (1) destroyed the document, or
in the construction or application of a doubtful or (2) allowed the action to prescribe, or
difficult question of law [Art. 2155] (3) gave up the pledges, or
(4) cancelled the guaranties for his right shall be
WHEN DEBT NOT YET DUE exempt from the obligation to restore.
If the payer was in doubt whether the debt was due,
he may recover if he proves that it was not due. [Art. The person who paid unduly may proceed only
2156] against the true debtor or the guarantors with regard
to whom the action is still effective. [Art. 2162]
RESPONSIBILITY OF TWO OR MORE PAYEES
When there has been payment of what is not due, PRESUMPTION OF PAYMENT BY MISTAKE, DEFENSE
their responsibility is solidary. The presumption arises if something which had
never been due or had already been paid was
WHEN MONEY OR THING DELIVERED IS OWNED BY THIRD delivered; but he from whom the return is claimed
PERSON may prove that the delivery was made out of
The payee cannot demand that the payor prove his liberality or for any other just cause.
ownership of the thing delivered.
Nevertheless, should he discover that the thing has OTHER QUASI-CONTRACTS
been stolen and who its true owner is, he must (1) When, without the knowledge of the person
advise the latter. obliged to give support, it is given by a stranger,
the latter shall have a right to claim the same
If the owner, in spite of such information, does not from the former, unless it appears that he gave it
claim it within the period of one month, the payee out of piety and without intention of being repaid.
shall be relieved of all responsibility by returning the [Art. 2164]
thing deposited to the payor. (2) When funeral expenses are borne by a third
person, without the knowledge of those relatives
If the payee has reasonable grounds to believe that who were obliged to give support to the
the thing has not been lawfully acquired by the deceased, said relatives shall reimburse the third
payor, the former may return the same. [Art. 2158] person, should the latter claim reimbursement.
[Art. 2165]
LIABILITY OF PAYEE (3) When the person obliged to support an orphan,
If in bad faith, he shall be liable: or an insane or other indigent person unjustly
(1) For legal interest if a sum of money is involved, or refuses to give support to the latter, any third
(2) For the fruits received or which should have been person may furnish support to the needy
received if the thing produces fruits individual, with right of reimbursement from the
AND person obliged to give support. The provisions of
(3) For any loss or impairment of the thing for any this article apply when the father or mother of a
cause, and child under eighteen years of age unjustly refuses
(4) For damages to the person who delivered the to support him. [Art. 2166]
thing, until it is recovered. [Art. 2159] (4) When through an accident or other cause a
person is injured or becomes seriously ill, and he
If in good faith, he shall be liable: is treated or helped while he is not in a condition
(1) For the impairment or loss of the thing certain to give consent to a contract, he shall be liable to
and determinable or its accessories and pay for the services of the physician or other
accessions insofar as he has thereby been person aiding him, unless the service has been
benefited. rendered out of pure generosity. [Art. 2167]
(5) When during a fire, flood, storm, or other
calamity, property is saved from destruction by
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another person without the knowledge of the (2) Claims arising from misappropriation, breach of
owner, the latter is bound to pay the former just trust, or malfeasance by public officials
compensation. [Art. 2168] committed in the performance of their duties, on
(6) When the government, upon the failure of any the movables, money or securities obtained by
person to comply with health or safety them;
regulations concerning property, undertakes to
do the necessary work, even over his objection, he (3) Claims for the unpaid price of movables sold, on
shall be liable to pay the expenses. [Art. 2169] said movables, so long as they are in the
(7) When by accident or other fortuitous event, possession of the debtor, up to the value of the
movables separately pertaining to two or more same; and if the movable has been resold by the
persons are commingled or confused, the rules debtor and the price is still unpaid, the lien may
on co-ownership shall be applicable. [Art. 2170] be enforced on the price; this right is not lost by
(8) The rights and obligations of the finder of lost the immobilization of the thing by destination,
personal property shall be governed by Articles provided it has not lost its form, substance and
719 and 720. [Art. 2171] identity; neither is the right lost by the sale of the
(9) The right of every possessor in good faith to thing together with other property for a lump
reimbursement for necessary and useful sum, when the price thereof can be determined
expenses is governed by Article 546. [Art. 2172] proportionally;
(10) When a third person, without the knowledge of
the debtor, pays the debt, the rights of the former (4) Credits guaranteed with a pledge so long as the
are governed by Articles 1236 and 1237. [Art. 2173] things pledged are in the hands of the creditor, or
(11) When in a small community a nationality of the those guaranteed by a chattel mortgage, upon
inhabitants of age decide upon a measure for the things pledged or mortgaged, up to the value
protection against lawlessness, fire, flood, storm thereof;
or other calamity, any one who objects to the plan
and refuses to contribute to the expenses but is (5) Credits for the making, repair, safekeeping or
benefited by the project as executed shall be preservation of personal property, on the
liable to pay his share of said expenses. [Art. 2174] movable thus made, repaired, kept or possessed;
(12) Any person who is constrained to pay the taxes
of another shall be entitled to reimbursement (6) Claims for laborers' wages, on the goods
from the latter. [Art. 2175] manufactured or the work done;
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leased and on the fruits of the same, but not on (9) Claims of donors or real property for pecuniary
money or instruments of credit; charges or other conditions imposed upon the
donee, upon the immovable donated;
(13) Claims in favor of the depositor if the depositary
has wrongfully sold the thing deposited, upon the (10) Credits of insurers, upon the property insured,
price of the sale. for the insurance premium for two years.
In the foregoing cases, if the movables to which the PREFERRED CREDITS ON OTHER PROPERTY,
lien or preference attaches have been wrongfully REAL AND PERSONAL [ART. 2244]
taken, the creditor may demand them from any With reference to other property, real and personal,
possessor, within thirty days from the unlawful of the debtor, the following claims or credits shall be
seizure. preferred in the order named:
(2) For the unpaid price of real property sold, upon iii. Expenses during the last illness of the debtor or
the immovable sold; of his or her spouse and children under his or her
parental authority, if they have no property of
(3) Claims of laborers, masons, mechanics and other their own;
workmen, as well as of architects, engineers and
contractors, engaged in the construction, iv. Compensation due the laborers or their
reconstruction or repair of buildings, canals or dependents under laws providing for indemnity
other works, upon said buildings, canals or other for damages in cases of labor accident, or illness
works; resulting from the nature of the employment;
(4) Claims of furnishers of materials used in the v. Credits and advancements made to the debtor
construction, reconstruction, or repair of for support of himself or herself, and family,
buildings, canals or other works, upon said during the last year preceding the insolvency;
buildings, canals or other works;
vi. Support during the insolvency proceedings, and
(5) Mortgage credits recorded in the Registry of for three months thereafter;
Property, upon the real estate mortgaged;
vii. Fines and civil indemnification arising from a
(6) Expenses for the preservation or improvement of criminal offense;
real property when the law authorizes
reimbursement, upon the immovable preserved viii. Legal expenses, and expenses incurred in the
or improved; administration of the insolvent's estate for the
common interest of the creditors, when properly
(7) Credits annotated in the Registry of Property, in authorized and approved by the court;
virtue of a judicial order, by attachments or
executions, upon the property affected, and only ix. Taxes and assessments due the national
as to later credits; government, other than those mentioned in
Articles 2241, No. 1, and 2242, No. 1;
(8) Claims of co-heirs for warranty in the partition of
an immovable among them, upon the real x. Taxes and assessments due any province, other
property thus divided; than those referred to in Articles 2241, No. 1, and
2242, No. 1;
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xi. Taxes and assessments due any city or thereof [Art. 2247]
municipality, other than those indicated in Articles (3) Those credits which enjoy preference in relation
2241, No. 1, and 2242, No. 1; to specific real property or real rights exclude all
others to the extent of the value of the
xii. Damages for death or personal injuries caused by immovable or real right to which the preference
a quasi-delict; refers [Art. 2248].
(4) If there are 2 or more credits with respect to the
xiii. Gifts due to public and private institutions of same specific real property or real rights, they shall
charity or beneficence; be satisfied pro rata, after the payment of the
taxes and assessment of the taxes and
xiv. Credits which, without special privilege, appear in assessments upon the immovable property or
(a) a public instrument; or (b) in a final judgment, real right [Art. 2249].
if they have been the subject of litigation. These (5) The excess, if any, after the payment of the
credits shall have preference among themselves credits which enjoy preference with respect to
in the order of priority of the dates of the specific property, real or personal, shall be
instruments and of the judgments, respectively. added to the free property which the debtor may
have, for the payment of other credits [Art.
EXEMPT PROPERTY 2250].
(1) Present property: (6) Those credits which do not enjoy any preference
(a) Family home. [Arts. 152, 153 and 155, CC] with respect to specific property, and those
(b) Right to receive support, as well as money or which enjoy preference, as to the amount not
property obtained by such support, shall not paid, shall be satisfied according to the
be levied upon on attachment or execution. following rules:
[Art. 205, CC] (a) Order established by Art 2244
(c) Sec. 13, Rule 39, ROC. (b) Common credits referred to in Art 2245 shall
(d) Sec 118, Public Land Act. [CA 141, as be paid pro rata regardless of dates [Art.
amended] 2251].
(2) Future property:
A debtor who obtains a discharge from his debts
on account of insolvency, is not liable for the
unsatisfied claims of his creditors with said
property. [Sec. 68 and 69, Insolvency Law, Act
1956]
(3) Property in custodia legis and of public dominion.
CLASSIFICATION OF CREDITS
(1) Special preferred credits. [Art. 2241 and 2242, CC]
(a) Considered as mortgages or pledges of real or
personal property or liens within the purview
of legal provisions governing insolvency.
(b) Taxes due to the State shall first be satisfied.
(2) Ordinary preferred credits [Art. 2244] Preferred
in the order given by law.
(3) Common credits [Art. 2245] Credits of any other
kind or class, or by any other right or title not
comprised in Arts. 2241- 2244 shall enjoy no
preference.
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Torrens System with the delay, uncertainty, and expense of the old
conveyancing system.
THE TORRENS SYSTEM: By "Torrens" system generally are meant those
A system for registration of land under which, upon systems of registration of transactions with interest
landowners application, the court may, after in land whose declared object is, under
appropriate proceedings, direct the issuance of a governmental authority, to establish and certify to
certificate of title. (Blacks Law Dictionary) the ownership of an absolute and indefeasible title to
realty, and to simplify its transfer. (Grey-Alba v. Dela
The underlying principle of the Torrens system is Cruz, GR No. L-524)
security with facility in dealing with land. This is
made possible by defining the absolute status of a CERTIFICATE OF TITLE
given property in a certificate of title with a
governmental and universal guaranty. This ORIGINAL CERTIFICATE OF TITLE OR OCT
certificate of title should better be known as It is the first certificate of title issued in the name of a
certificate of title and encumbrances. In the words of registered owner by the Register of Deeds covering a
torrens himself the main objects are to simplify, parcel of land which had been registered under the
quicken, and cheapen the transfer of real estate and Torrens System, by virtue of judicial or administrative
to render title safe and indefeasible. (The Philippine proceedings.
Torrens System by Florencio Ponce 1964)
TRANSFER CERTIFICATE OF TITLE OR TCT
PURPOSE: The subsequent certificate of title pursuant to any
The real purpose of that system is to quiet title to deed of transfer or conveyance to another person.
land; to put a stop forever to any question of the The Register of Deeds shall make a new certificate of
legality of the title, except claims which were noted title and given him an owners duplicate certificate.
at the time of registration, in the certificate, or which The previous certificate (need not be an OCT) shall
may arise subsequent thereto. (Legarda v Saleeby, be stamped cancelled.
GR No. 8936)
Avoid possible conflicts of title in and to real property PATENTS
ADVANTAGES:
PD 1529, Sec. 103. Certificates of title pursuant to
(a) Secures title patents. Whenever public land is by the Government
(b) Protection against fraud alienated, granted or conveyed to any person, the
(c) Simplified dealings same shall be brought forthwith under the operation
(d) Restoration of the estates to its just value, whose of this Decree.
depreciation is cause by some blur, technical
defect It shall be the duty of the official issuing the
(e) Barred the recurrence of faults in the title (See instrument of alienation, grant, patent or conveyance
Legarda v. Saleeby) in behalf of the Government to cause such
instrument to be filed with the Register of Deeds of
BACKGROUND:
the province or city where the land lies, and to be
The boldest effort to grapple with the problem of there registered like other deeds and conveyance,
simplification of title to land was made by Mr. whereupon a certificate of title shall be entered as in
(afterwards Sir Robert) Torrens, a layman, in South other cases of registered land, and an owner's
Australia in 1857. . . . In the Torrens system title by duplicate issued to the grantee.
registration takes the place of "title by deeds" of the
system under the "general" law. A sale of land, for The deed, grant, patent or instrument of conveyance
example, is effected by a registered transfer, upon from the Government to the grantee shall not take
which a certificate of title is issued. The certificate is effect as a conveyance or bind the land but shall
guaranteed by statute, and, with certain exceptions, operate only as a contract between the Government
constitutes indefeasible title to the land mentioned and the grantee and as evidence of authority to the
therein. Under the old system the same sale would Register of Deeds to make registration.
be effected by a conveyance, depending for its
validity, apart from intrinsic flaws, on the correctness It is the act of registration that shall be the operative
of a long series of prior deeds, wills, etc. . . . The act to affect and convey the land, and in all cases
object of the Torrens system, them, is to do away under this Decree, registration shall be made in the
office of the Register of Deeds of the province or city
where the land lies. The fees for registration shall be
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paid by the grantee. After due registration and been held prior the Spanish conquest and never to
issuance of the certificate of title, such land shall be have been public land.
deemed to be registered land to all intents and
purposes under this Decree. EFFECTS
All lands of public domain belong to the state, and
Note: that the State is the source of any asserted right to
(a) Patents only involve public lands which are ownership in land and charged with the conservation
alienated by the Government, pursuant to the of such patrimony (Republic v IAC, GR No. 71285)
Public Land Act.
(b) The patent (even if denominated as deed of Any applicant for judicial confirmation of an
conveyance) is not really a conveyance but a imperfect title has the burden of proving, by
contract between the grantee and the incontrovertible evidence, that the (a) land applied
Government and evidence of authority to the for is alienable and disposable public land; and, (b)
Register of Deeds to make registration. the applicant, by himself or through his
(c) The act of registration is the operative act to affect predecessors-in-interest had occupied and
and convey the land. possessed the land, in the concept of owner, openly,
continuously, exclusively, and adversely since June
General Rule: A Torrens Certificate of Title is valid 12, 1945, or earlier. (Pelbel Manufacturing Corp. v. CA,
and enforceable against the whole world. GR No. 141325)
A Torrens title, once registered, cannot be defeated, CONCEPT OF NATIVE TITLE, TIME IMMEMORIAL
even by adverse, open and notorious possession. A POSSESSION
registered title under the Torrens system cannot be A recognized exception to the theory of jura regalia,
defeated by prescription. The title, once registered, the ruling in Carino v Insular Government
is notice to the whole world. All persons must take institutionalized the recognition of the existence of
notice. No one can plead ignorance of the native title to land, or ownership of land by Filipinos
registration. (Egao vs. CA, 1989) by virtue of possession under a claim of ownership
since time immemorial and independent of any grant
from the Spanish Crown (Agcaoli)
Regalian Doctrine Lands under native title are not part of public
domain, lands possessed by an occupant and his
predecessors since time immemorial, such
A western legal concept that was first introduced by possession would justify the presumption that the
the Spaniards into the country through the laws of land had never been part of the public domain or
the Indies and the Royal Cedulas. Whereby the that it had been private property even before the
Philippines passed to Spain by virtue of discovery Spanish conquest (Republic v CA, GR No. 130174)
and conquest. Consequently, all lands became the
exclusive patrimony and dominion of the Spanish
Crown. (Agcaoli)
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The 1935 Constitution reserved the right xxx for Where the land is Owned in common, all the
Filipino citizens or corporations at least sixty percent co-owners shall file the application jointly.
of the capital of which was owned by Filipinos.
Aliens, whether individuals or corporations, have Where the land has been sold under Pacto de
been disqualified from acquiring public lands; hence retro, the vendor a retro may file an
they have also been disqualified from acquiring application for the original registration of the
private lands. (Krivenko v ROD, GR No. L-630: Ong land, provided, however, that should the
Ching Po v CA, GR. No. 113427) period for redemption expire during the
pendency of the registration proceedings and
Non-Filipinos cannot acquire or hold title to private ownership to the property consolidated in the
lands of public domain, except only by way of legal vendee a retro, the latter shall be substituted
succession (Halili v CA, GR No. 113539); BASIS Sec 2, for the applicant and may continue the
5 Art XII Constitution proceedings.
Private corporations may not hold alienable lands of Lands acquired by an American citizen prior the
the public domain except by lease for a period not proclamation of Philippine Independence on July 4,
exceeding twenty-five years, renewable for not more 1946 but after the passage of the 1935 Constitution
than twenty-five years, and not to exceed one may be registered, based on the ordinance
thousand hectares in area. (1987 Constitution, Art. XII, appended to the 1935 Constitution (See: Moss v
Sec. 3) Director of Lands, GR No. L-27170)
Private lands may be owned for as long as the Land sold to an alien which is now in the hands of a
corporation is at least 60% Filipino: naturalized citizen can no longer be annulled (De
(a) Provided that at the time the corporation Castro v Tan, GR No. L-31956). The litigated property
acquired the land, it is under private ownership. is now in the hands of a naturalized Filipino. It is no
(b) Additional Requirements: (OCEN-PAAL) longer owned by a disqualified vendee. The purpose
(1) Those who by themselves or through their of the prohibition ceases to be applicable. (Barsobia v
predecessors-in-interest have been in Open, Cuenco, GR No. L-33048)
continuous, exclusive and notorious
possession and occupation of alienable and
disposable lands of the public domain under a
bona fide claim of ownership since June 12,
1945, or earlier.
Original Registration
(2) Those who have acquired ownership of private
WHO MAY APPLY
lands by Prescription under the provision of
existing laws.
(3) Those who have acquired ownership of private under pd 1529
lands or abandoned river beds by right of The following persons may file an application for
Accession or accretion under the existing laws. registration of title to land:
(4) Those who have acquired ownership of land in
any other manner provided for by Law. (1) Those who by themselves or through their
predecessors-in-interest have been in open,
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continuous, exclusive and notorious possession slope of eighteen percent (18%) or more, are hereby
and occupation of alienable and disposable lands classified as alienable and disposable agricultural
of the public domain under a bona fide claim of lands.
ownership since June 12, 1945, or earlier.
The option granted under this Section shall be
(2) Those who have acquired ownership of private exercised within twenty (20) years from the approval
lands by prescription under the provision of of this Act.
existing laws.
Sec. 51. Delineation and Recognition of Ancestral
(3) Those who have acquired ownership of private Domains. Self-delineation shall be the guiding
lands or abandoned river beds by right of principle in the identification and delineation of
accession or accretion under the existing laws. ancestral domains. As such, the ICCs/IPs concerned
shall have a decisive role in all the activities pertinent
(4) Those who have acquired ownership of land in thereto. The Sworn Statement of the Elders as to the
any other manner provided for by law. Scope of the territories and agreements/pacts made
with neighboring ICCs/IPs, if any, will be essential to
UNDER CA 141
the determination of these traditional territories. The
Sec. 12. Any citizen of the Philippines over the age of Government shall take the necessary steps to
eighteen years, or the head of a family, who does not identify lands which the ICCs/IPs concerned
own more than twenty-four hectares of land in the traditionally occupy and guarantee effective
Philippines or has not had the benefit of any protection of their rights of ownership and
gratuitous allotment of more than twenty-four possession thereto. Measures shall be taken in
hectares of land since the occupation of the appropriate cases to safeguard the rights of the
Philippines by the United States, may enter a ICCs/IPs concerned to land which may no longer be
homestead of not exceeding twenty-four hectares of exclusively occupied by them, but to which they have
agricultural land of the public domain. traditionally had access for their subsistence and
traditional activities, particularly of ICCs/IPs who are
UNDER RA 8371 still nomadic and/or shifting cultivators.
Sec. 11. Recognition of Ancestral Domain Rights. The
rights of ICCs/IPs to their ancestral domains by Sec. 52. Delineation Process.- The identification and
virtue of Native Title shall be recognized and delineation of ancestral domains shall be done in
respected. Formal recognition, when solicited by accordance with the following procedures:
ICCs/IPs concerned, shall be embodied in a (a) Ancestral Domains Delineated Prior to this Act -
Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT), which The provisions hereunder shall not apply to
shall recognize the title of the concerned ICCs/IPs ancestral domains/lands already delineated
over the territories identified and delineated. according to DENR Administrative Order No. 2,
series of 1993, nor to ancestral lands and
Sec. 12. Option to Secure Certificate of Title under domains delineated under any other
Commonwealth Act 141, as amended, or the Land community/ancestral domain program prior to
Registration Act 496. Individual members of cultural the enactment of his law. ICCs/IPs enactment of
communities, with respect to individually-owned this law shall have the right to apply for the
ancestral lands who, by themselves or through their issuance of a Certificate of Ancestral Domain
predecessors-in -interest, have been in continuous Title (CADT) over the area without going
possession and occupation of the same in the through the process outlined hereunder;
concept of owner since time immemorial or for a (b) Petition for Delineation - The process of
period of not less than thirty (30) years immediately delineating a specific perimeter may be initiated
preceding the approval of this Act and uncontested by the NCIP with the consent of the ICC/IP
by the members of the same ICCs/IPs shall have the concerned, or through a Petition for Delineation
option to secure title to their ancestral lands under filed with the NCIP, by a majority of the
the provisions of Commonwealth Act 141, as members of the ICCs/IPs;
amended, or the Land Registration Act 496. (c) Delineation Paper - The official delineation of
ancestral domain boundaries including census
For this purpose, said individually-owned ancestral of all community members therein, shall be
lands, which are agricultural in character and immediately undertaken by the Ancestral
actually used for agricultural, residential, pasture, Domains Office upon filing of the application by
and tree farming purposes, including those with a the ICCs/IPs concerned. Delineation will be
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done in coordination with the community publication: Provided, That in areas where no
concerned and shall at all times include genuine such newspaper exists, broadcasting in a radio
involvement and participation by the members station will be a valid substitute: Provided,
of the communities concerned; further, That mere posting shall be deemed
(d) Proof required - Proof of Ancestral Domain sufficient if both newspaper and radio station
Claims shall include the testimony of elders or are not available;
community under oath, and other documents (h) Endorsement to NCIP - Within fifteen (15) days
directly or indirectly attesting to the possession from publication, and of the inspection process,
or occupation of the area since time immemorial the Ancestral Domains Office shall prepare a
by such ICCs/IPs in the concept of owners which report to the NCIP endorsing a favorable action
shall be any one (1) of the following authentic upon a claim that is deemed to have sufficient
documents: proof. However, if the proof is deemed
(1) Written accounts of the ICCs/IPs customs insufficient, the Ancestral Domains Office shall
and traditions; require the submission of additional evidence:
(2) Written accounts of the ICCs/IPs political Provided, That the Ancestral Domains Office
structure and institution; shall reject any claim that is deemed patently
(3) Pictures showing long term occupation such false or fraudulent after inspection and
as those of old improvements, burial verification: Provided, further, That in case of
grounds, sacred places and old villages; rejection, the Ancestral Domains Office shall
(4) Historical accounts, including pacts and give the applicant due notice, copy furnished all
agreements concerning boundaries entered concerned, containing the grounds for denial.
into by the ICCs/IPs concerned with other The denial shall be appealable to the NCIP:
ICCs/IPs; Provided, furthermore, That in cases where there
(5) Survey plans and sketch maps; are conflicting claims, the Ancestral Domains
(6) Anthropological data; Office shall cause the contending parties to
(7) Genealogical surveys; meet and assist them in coming up with a
(8) Pictures and descriptive histories of preliminary resolution of the conflict, without
traditional communal forests and hunting prejudice to its full adjudication according to the
grounds; selection below.
(9) Pictures and descriptive histories of (i) Turnover of Areas Within Ancestral Domains
traditional landmarks such as mountains, Managed by Other Government Agencies - The
rivers, creeks, ridges, hills, terraces and the Chairperson of the NCIP shall certify that the
like; and area covered is an ancestral domain. The
(10) Write-ups of names and places derived from secretaries of the Department of Agrarian
the native dialect of the community. Reform, Department of Environment and
(e) Preparation of Maps - On the basis of such Natural Resources, Department of the Interior
investigation and the findings of fact based and Local Government, and Department of
thereon, the Ancestral Domains Office of the Justice, the Commissioner of the National
NCIP shall prepare a perimeter map, complete Development Corporation, and any other
with technical descriptions, and a description of government agency claiming jurisdiction over
the natural features and landmarks embraced the area shall be notified thereof. Such
therein; notification shall terminate any legal basis for
(f) Report of Investigation and Other Documents - A the jurisdiction previously claimed;
complete copy of the preliminary census and a (j) Issuance of CADT - ICCs/IPs whose ancestral
report of investigation, shall be prepared by the domains have been officially delineated and
Ancestral Domains Office of the NCIP; determined by the NCIP shall be issued a CADT
(g) Notice and Publication - A copy of each in the name of the community concerned,
document, including a translation in the native containing a list of all those identified in the
language of the ICCs/IPs concerned shall be census; and
posted in a prominent place therein for at least (k) Registration of CADTs - The NCIP shall register
fifteen (15) days. A copy of the document shall issued certificates of ancestral domain titles and
also be posted at the local, provincial and certificates of ancestral lands titles before the
regional offices of the NCIP, and shall be Register of Deeds in the place where the
published in a newspaper of general circulation property is situated.
once a week for two (2) consecutive weeks to
allow other claimants to file opposition thereto Sec. 53. Identification, Delineation and Certification of
within fifteen (15) days from the date of such
Ancestral Lands.
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(a) The allocation of lands within any ancestral meritorious, shall cause a parcellary survey of the
domain to individual or indigenous corporate area being claimed. The Ancestral Domains office
(family or clan) claimants shall be left to the shall reject any claim that is deemed patently
ICCs/IPs concerned to decide in accordance with false or fraudulent after inspection and
customs and traditions; verification. In case of rejection, the Ancestral
Domains office shall give the applicant due
(b) Individual and indigenous corporate claimants of notice, copy furnished all concerned, containing
ancestral lands which are not within ancestral the grounds for denial. The denial shall be
domains, may have their claims officially appealable to the NCIP. In case of conflicting
established by filing applications for the claims among individual or indigenous corporate
identification and delineation of their claims with claimants, the Ancestral domains Office shall
the Ancestral Domains Office. An individual or cause the contending parties to meet and assist
recognized head of a family or clan may file such them in coming up with a preliminary resolution
application in his behalf or in behalf of his family of the conflict, without prejudice to its full
or clan, respectively; adjudication according to Sec. 62 of this Act. In
all proceedings for the identification or
(c) Proofs of such claims shall accompany the delineation of the ancestral domains as herein
application form which shall include the provided, the Director of Lands shall represent
testimony under oath of elders of the community the interest of the Republic of the Philippines;
and other documents directly or indirectly and
attesting to the possession or occupation of the
areas since time immemorial by the individual or (g) The Ancestral Domains Office shall prepare and
corporate claimants in the concept of owners submit a report on each and every application
which shall be any of the authentic documents surveyed and delineated to the NCIP, which shall,
enumerated under Sec. 52 (d) of this act, in turn, evaluate or corporate (family or clan)
including tax declarations and proofs of payment claimant over ancestral lands.
of taxes;
Sec. 54. Fraudulent Claims.- The Ancestral Domains
(d) The Ancestral Domains Office may require from Office may, upon written request from the ICCs/IPs,
each ancestral claimant the submission of such review existing claims which have been fraudulently
other documents, Sworn Statements and the like, acquired by any person or community. Any claim
which in its opinion, may shed light on the found to be fraudulently acquired by, and issued to,
veracity of the contents of the application/claim; any person or community may be cancelled by the
NCIP after due notice and hearing of all parties
(e) Upon receipt of the applications for delineation concerned.
and recognition of ancestral land claims, the
Ancestral Domains Office shall cause the
publication of the application and a copy of each Sec. 55. Communal Rights.- Subject to Section 56
document submitted including a translation in hereof, areas within the ancestral domains, whether
the native language of the ICCs/IPs concerned in delineated or not, shall be presumed to be
a prominent place therein for at least fifteen (15) communally held: Provide, That communal rights
days. A copy of the document shall also be under this Act shall not be construed as co-
posted at the local, provincial, and regional ownership as provided in Republic Act. No. 386,
offices of the NCIP and shall be published in a otherwise known as the New Civil Code.
newspaper of general circulation once a week for
two (2) consecutive weeks to allow other REGISTRATION PROCESS AND REQUIREMENTS
claimants to file opposition thereto within fifteen (1) Survey
(15) days from the date of such publication: (2) Application
Provided, That in areas where no such newspaper (3) Initial Hearing
exists, broadcasting in a radio station will be a (4) Publication
valid substitute: Provided, further, That mere (5) Opposition
posting shall be deemed sufficient if both (6) Hearing
newspapers and radio station are not available. (7) Judgment
(8) Issuance of Decree
(f) Fifteen (15) days after such publication, the
Ancestral Domains Office shall investigate and WHAT LANDS ARE REGISTRABLE:
inspect each application, and if found to be (a) Private Lands
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APPLICATION PUBLICATION
The application for land registration shall be: The public shall be given notice of the initial hearing
(a) in writing of the application for land registration by means of
(b) signed and sworn to by the applicant/duly (1) publication; (2) mailing; and (3) posting. (PD 1529,
authorized person, and if more than one Sec. 23)
applicant, it shall be signed and sworn to by and
in behalf of each By publication
The Commissioner of Land Registration shall cause
It shall contain: it to be published: once in the Official Gazette
(a) a description of the land (sufficient to confer jurisdiction) and once in a
(b) citizenship and civil status of the applicant newspaper of general circulation in the Philippines
(c) if married, the name of the wife or husband
(d) if the marriage has been legally dissolved, when and The notice is addressed to:
how (a) all persons appearing to have an interest in the
(e) full names and addresses of all occupants and land the adjoining owners so far as known "to all
those of the adjoining owners, if known whom it may concern"
(f) if not known, it shall state the extent of the search
made to find them. (Sec. 15, PD 1529) By mailing
Within 7 days from publication in the OG, the
Note: It must be accompanied by the original tracing Commissioner of Land Registration (CLR) shall mail a
cloth plan, white or blue copies thereof, the original copy of the notice to:
and copies of the technical description and geodetic (a) Every person named in the notice whose address
engineers certification. is known.
(b) the Secretary of Public Highways, to the
Special Cases: Provincial Governor, and to the Mayor of the
(a) If the land bounded by a road, the applicant must municipality or city, in which the land lies, if the
state in his application if he claims any portion of applicant requests to have the line of a public
the land within the limits of the road, or if he likes way or road determined
to have the boundaries determined. (Sec. 20, PD (c) Secretary of Agrarian Reform, the Solicitor
1529) General, the Director of Lands, the Director of
(b) If the applicant is a non-resident, he shall appoint Mines and/or the Director of Fisheries and
an agent or representative who is a Philippine Aquatic Resources, (as appropriate) if the land
resident. (Sec. 16, PD 1529) borders on a river, navigable stream or shore, or
(c) Intestate Estate of Don Mariano San Pedro vs. CA on an arm of the sea where a river or harbor line
(1996): A person claiming ownership of real has been established, or on a lake, or if it
property must clearly identify the land claimed by otherwise appears from the application or the
him. proceedings that a tenant-farmer or the national
(d) In re: Application for Land Registration vs. Republic government may have a claim adverse to that of
(2008, Nachura): An applicant in a land the applicant
registration case must prove the facts and
circumstances evidencing the alleged ownership By posting
of the land applied for. General statements CLR shall cause the sheriff or his deputy to post the
which are mere conclusions of law and not notice at least 14 days before the hearing: in a
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an innocent lessee, mortgagee, or other not among the grounds for forcible entry and
encumbrancer for value.) unlawful detainer, or when possession has been lost
for more than one year and can no longer be
Arguelles vs. Timbancaya (1976): The rule on the maintained under Rule 70 of the Rules of Court.
incontrovertible nature of a certificate of title applies
when what is involved is the validity of the OCT, not The objective of the plaintiffs in accion publiciana is
when it concerns that of the TCT. to recover possession only, not ownership. The
Velascos were able to establish lawful possession of
IMPRESCRIPTIBLE the land when the Padillas occupied the property.
PD 1529, Sec 47. Registered land not subject to The OCT was issued to the original owners who then
prescriptions. No title to registered land in derogation sold the land to Artemio.
of the title of the registered owner shall be acquired
by prescription or adverse possession. From then on, he was in continuous possession of
the land until his death. It was only in 1987, when
the Padillas occupied the property. The argument
Barcelona vs. Barcelona (1956): Prescription is
that the lots are one and the same is a collateral attack
unavailing not only against the registered owner but
on the title over the property which is registered in the
also against his hereditary successors because the
name of Artemio, which cannot be countenanced.
latter merely step into the shoes of the decedent by
operation of law and are merely the continuation of
the personality of their predecessor-in-interest. Remedies of the Aggrieved Party
Motion for New 15 days from notice of judgment
NOT SUBJECT TO COLLATERAL ATTACK Trial
Grounds:
PD 1529, Sec 48. Certificate not subject to collateral
(a) Fraud, accident, mistake,
attack. A certificate of title shall not be subject to
excusable negligence
collateral attack. It cannot be altered, modified, or
(b) Newly discovered evidence
canceled except in a direct proceeding in accordance
(c) Awarded excessive
with law.
damages, or insufficiency of
evidence, or that the
Spouses Padilla vs. Velasco, et. al, G.R. No. 169956 decision is against law
(2009, Nachura) Appeal (d) 15 days from notice
Facts: Velasco et al (respondents) are the heirs of (e) appealable to the CA or to
Artemio who died, leaving a parcel of land. He the SC in the same manner
acquired it by virtue of a deed of sale in his favor. as in ordinary actions
The Padilla sps (petitioners) entered the land as Relief from (f) 60 days after petitioner
trustees by virtue of a deed of sale executed by a Judgment learns of judgment, but not
bank in favor of the Solomon sps. Velascos more than 6 months after
demanded that the Padillas vacate the property. judgment was entered
(g) Grounds: Fraud, accident,
Padillas cut trees, built a house and harvested crops. mistake, excusable
Velascos filed a complaint for accion publiciana negligence
before the RTC. Velascos presented deed of sale in Petition for Requisites: (Walstrom vs. Mapa,
favor of Artemio, while Padillas presented deed of Review 1990)
sale between bank and Solomons. (h) petitioner must have an
estate or interest in the land
The Padillas also argue that the Solomon sps (i) he must show actual fraud
acquired the land in good faith and for value and (j) petition must be filed within
that they argue that Lot 2161 (the one they are one year form the issuance
occupying) and Lot 76-pt (the lot the Solomon of the decree by LRA
spouses bought) are one and the same. (k) property has not yet passed
to an innocent purchaser for
Held: The Velascos have a better right to the land. value.
The instant case is for accion publiciana, or for Grounds:
recovery of the right to possess. (l) extrinsic fraud,
(m)void decision for want of
Accion publiciana is also used to refer to an due process
ejectment suit where the cause of dispossession is (n) lack of jurisdiction
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(d) Leung Yee vs. Strong Machinery, (1918): When party whether such person resides within or without the
concerned has actual knowledge of facts and Philippines, but the court may, in its discretion,
circumstances that would impel a reasonably require further or other notice to be given in any
cautious man to make inquiry. case, if in its opinion the interest of justice so
(e) Jamoc vs. CA, (1991): When purchaser is in bad faith; requires.
e.g. he had full knowledge of a previous sale.
(f) Quiniano vs. CA, (1971): When a person buys land from PD 1529, Sec 56. Primary Entry Book; fees; certified
one whose rights over the land is evidenced only by a copies. Each Register of Deeds shall keep a primary
deed of sale and an annotation in the certificate of entry book in which, upon payment of the entry fee,
title but no TCT. he shall enter, in the order of their reception, all
instruments including copies of writs and processes
VOLUNTARY DEALINGS filed with him relating to registered land.
A similar memorandum shall also be made on the Every deed or other instrument, whether voluntary or
owner's duplicate. The cancellation or involuntary, so filed with the Register of Deeds shall
extinguishment of such interests shall be registered be numbered and indexed and endorsed with a
in the same manner. reference to the proper certificate of title. All records
and papers relative to registered land in the office of
PD 1529, Sec 55. Grantee's name, nationality, etc., to the Register of Deeds shall be open to the public in
be stated. Every deed or other voluntary instrument the same manner as court records, subject to such
presented for registration shall contain or have reasonable regulations as the Register of Deeds,
endorsed upon it the full name, nationality, under the direction of the Commissioner of Land
residence and postal address of the grantee or other Registration, may prescribe.
person acquiring or claiming an interest under such
instrument, and every deed shall also state whether All deeds and voluntary instruments shall be
the grantee is married or unmarried, and if married, presented with their respective copies and shall be
the name in full of the husband or wife. attested and sealed by the Register of Deeds,
endorsed with the file number, and copies may be
If the grantee is a corporation or association, the delivered to the person presenting them.
instrument must contain a recital to show that such
corporation or association is legally qualified to Certified copies of all instruments filed and
acquire private lands. Any change in the residence or registered may also be obtained from the Register of
postal address of such person shall be endorsed by Deeds upon payment of the prescribed fees.
the Register of Deeds on the original copy of the
corresponding certificate of title, upon receiving a Process of registration
sworn statement of such change. All names and (1) File instrument creating or transferring interest
addresses shall also be entered on all certificates. and certificate of title with Register of Deeds
together with:
Notices and processed issued in relation to (a) Owners duplicate
registered land in pursuance of this Decree may be (b) Payment of fees & documentary stamp tax
served upon any person in interest by mailing the (c) Evidence of full payment of real estate tax
same to the addresses given, and shall be binding, (d) Document of transfer 1 copy additional for
city/provincial assessor
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(2) Register of Deeds shall make a memorandum on If there are subsisting encumbrances and annotations
the certificate of title, signed by him They shall be carried over in the new certificate or
(3) TCT shall then be issued certificates; except when they have been
simultaneously discharged.
Note:
(a) If the grantee is a corporation or association, it MORTGAGES AND LEASES
must show that it is qualified to acquire private PD 1529, Sec 60. Mortgage or lease of registered land.
lands. Mortgage and leases shall be registered in the
(b) PNB vs. Fernandez (1935): The issuance of a new manner provided in Section 54 of this Decree.
transfer certificate without presentation of an
owners duplicate is unwarranted and confers no The owner of registered land may mortgage or lease
right on the purchaser it by executing the deed in a form sufficient in law.
(c) RA 456 prohibits registration of documents Such deed of mortgage or lease and all instruments
affecting real property which is delinquent in the which assign, extend, discharge or otherwise deal
payment of real estate taxes. Further, if evidence with the mortgage or lease shall be registered, and
of such payment is not presented with 15 days shall take effect upon the title only from time of
from the date of entry of said document in the registration.
primary entry book of the register of deeds the
entry shall be deemed cancelled. No mortgagee's or lessee's duplicate certificate of
(d) Pay fees and DST (government is exempt) title shall hereafter be issued by the Registers of
(e) The instruments are regarded as registered from Deeds, and those issued prior to the effectivity of this
the time ROD enters them in his book. Decree are hereby deemed canceled and the holders
thereof shall immediately surrender the same to the
REGISTRATION OF DEEDS OF SALE AND TRANSFERS Register of Deeds concerned.
If entire property is subject (PD 1529, Sec 57)
(a) Owner executes and registers the deed which
must be sufficient in form. PD 1529, Sec 61. Registration. Upon presentation for
(b) A new certificate of title is issued and Register of registration of the deed of mortgage or lease
Deeds prepares and delivers to grantee his together with the owner's duplicate, the Register of
owner's duplicate certificate Deeds shall enter upon the original of the certificate
(c) Register of Deeds notes upon the OCT and the of title and also upon the owner's duplicate
duplicate certificate the date of transfer, the certificate a memorandum thereof, the date and
volume and page of the registration book where time of filing and the file number assigned to the
the new certificate is registered deed, and shall sign the said memorandum.
(d) The original and the owner's duplicate of the
grantor's certificate shall be stamped "canceled". He shall also note on the deed the date and time of
(e) The deed of conveyance shall be filed and filing and a reference to the volume and page of the
indorsed with the number and the place of registration book in which it is registered.
registration of the certificate of title of the land
conveyed. Mortgage and leases shall be registered in the
manner provided for in Section 54.
If only a portion of property is subject (PD 1529, Sec When a deed of mortgage or lease is presented, ROD
58) will enter upon the OCT and upon the owners
(a) Include a plan which shows all the portions duplicate a memorandum thereof and shall sign.
already subdivided with verified and approved
technical description. POWERS OF ATTORNEY; TRUSTS
(b) That plan with the certified copy of the technical PD 1529, Sec 64. Power of attorney. Any person may,
descriptions shall be filed with the Register of by power of attorney, convey or otherwise deal with
Deeds for annotation in the TCT. registered land and the same shall be registered
(c) Register of Deeds shall issue a TCT and cancel with the Register of Deeds of the province or city
the grantor's certificate partially OR it may be where the land lies. Any instrument revoking such
canceled totally and a new one issued describing power of attorney shall be registered in like manner.
therein the remaining portion
PD 1529, Sec 65. Trusts in registered land. If a deed or
other instrument is filed in order to transfer
registered land in trust, or upon any equitable
condition or limitation expressed therein, or to create
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or declare a trust or other equitable interests in such claim doesnt affect the title of a purchaser for
land without transfer, the particulars of the trust, value and in good faith before its registration.
condition, limitation or other equitable interest shall
not be entered on the certificate; but only a INVOLUNTARY DEALINGS
memorandum thereof shall be entered by the words
"in trust", or "upon condition", or other apt words, ATTACHMENT
and by a reference by number to the instrument A writ issued at the institution or during progress of
authorizing or creating the same. an action commanding the sheriff to attach the
property, rights, credits or effects of the defendant to
A similar memorandum shall be made upon the satisfy demands of the plaintiff
original instrument creating or declaring the trust or
other equitable interest with a reference by number Kinds
to the certificate of title to which it relates and to the (a) Preliminary
volume and page in the registration book in which it (b) Garnishment
is registered. (c) Levy on execution
PD 1529, Sec 66. Trust with power of sale, etc., how Registration of attachment/other liens
expressed. If the instrument creating or declaring a (a) Copy of writ in order to preserve any lien, right or
trust or other equitable interest contains an express attachment upon registered land shall be filed
power to sell, mortgage or deal with the land in any with the Register of Deeds where the land lies,
manner, such power shall be stated in the certificate containing number of certificate of title of land to
of title by the words "with power to sell", or "power to be affected or description of land (PD 1529, Sec
mortgage", or by apt words of description in case of 69)
other powers. (b) Register of Deeds to index attachment in names
of both plaintiff & defendant or name of person
No instrument which transfers, mortgages or in any whom property is held or in whose name stands
way deals with registered land in trust shall be in the records
registered, unless the enabling power thereto is (c) If duplicate of certificate of title is not presented:
expressly conferred in the trust instrument, or unless (1) Register of Deeds shall within 36 hours send
a final judgment or order of a court of competent notice to registered owner by mail stating that
jurisdiction has construed the instrument in favor of there has been registration & requesting him
the power, in which case a certified copy of such to produce duplicate so that memorandum be
judgment or order may be registered. made
(2) If owner neglects or refuses Register of
Deeds shall report matter to court.
PD 1529, Sec 68. Implied, trusts, how established. (3) Court after notice shall enter an order to
Whoever claims an interest in registered land by owner to surrender certificate at time & place
reason of any implied or constructive trust shall file to be named therein.
for registration with the Register of Deeds a sworn (d) Although notice of attachment is not noted in
statement thereof containing a description of the duplicate, notation in book of entry of Register of
land, the name of the registered owner and a Deeds produces effect of registration already
reference to the number of the certificate of title.
Such claim shall not affect the title of a purchaser for Effect of registration of attachment
value and in good faith before its registration. (a) Creates real right
(b) Has priority over execution sale
(a) Powers of attorney and revocations shall be (c) But between 2 attachments one that is earlier
registered with the Register of Deeds of the in registration is preferred
province or city where the land lies.
(b) To transfer registered land in trust without Duty of Register of Deeds
transfer, the particulars of the trust shall not be Ministerial but may refuse registration in the
entered on the certificate. Only a memorandum following circumstances:
shall be entered by the words "in trust", or "upon (1) Title to land is not in the name of defendant
condition". (2) No evidence is submitted to show that he has
(c) Power must be expressly conferred in the trust present or possible future interest in land
instrument.
(d) If implied or constructive trust, person claiming Exception: If petitioner is an heir
such must execute a sworn statement. But such
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EXECUTION AND TAX DELINQUENCY SALES sale) is made: cancellation of title & issuance of a
Execution sale new one
(a) To enforce a lien of any description on registered (e) Before cancellation, notice shall be sent to
land, any execution or affidavit to enforce such registered owner: to surrender title & show cause
lien shall be filed with Register of Deeds where why it shall not be cancelled
the land lies
(b) Register in the registration book & memorandum NOTE: Actual knowledge is equivalent to registration.
upon proper certificate of title as adverse claim or
as an encumbrance NOTICE OF LIS PENDENS
(c) To determine preferential rights between 2 liens: PD 1529, Sec. 76. Notice of lis pendens. No action to
priority of registration of attachment recover possession of real estate, or to quiet title
thereto, or to remove clouds upon the title thereof, or
Tax sale for partition, or other proceedings of any kind in court
(a) Sale of land for collection of delinquent taxes and directly affecting the title to land or the use or
penalties due the Government occupation thereof or the buildings thereon, and no
(b) In personam (all persons interested shall be judgment, and no proceeding to vacate or reverse
notified so that they are given opportunity to be any judgment, shall have any effect upon registered
heard) land as against persons other than the parties
(c) Notice to be given to delinquent tax payer at last thereto, unless a memorandum or notice stating the
known address institution of such action or proceeding and the court
(d) Publication of notice must also be made in wherein the same is pending, as well as the date of
English, Spanish & local dialect & posted in a the institution thereof, together with a reference to
public & conspicuous place in place wherein the number of the certificate of title, and an
property is situated & at the main entrance of the adequate description of the land affected and the
provincial building registered owner thereof, shall have been filed and
(e) Sale cannot affect rights of other lien holders registered.
unless they are given the right to defend their
rights: due process must be strictly observed Purpose
(f) Tax lien superior to attachment To keep the subject matter within the power of the
(g) No need to register tax lien because it is court until the entry of final judgment. It therefore
automatically registered once the tax accrues creates merely a contingency & not a lien.
(h) But sale of registered land to foreclose a tax lien
need to be registered. Effect of registration
(a) Impossibility of alienating the property in dispute
PD 1529, Sec 74. Enforcement of liens on registered during the pendency of the suit may be
land. Whenever registered land is solved on alienated but purchaser is subject to final
execution, or taken or sold for taxes or for any outcome of pending suit
assessment or to enforce a lien of any character, or (b) Register of Deeds is duty bound to carry over
for any costs and charges incident to such liens, any notice of lis pendens on all new titles to be issued
execution or copy of execution, any officer's return, or
any deed, demand, certificate, or affidavit, or other Cancellation of lis pendens (PD 1529, Sec. 77)
instrument made in the course of the proceedings to (a) Before final judgment court may order
enforce such liens and required by law to be cancellation after showing that notice is only for
recorded, shall be filed with the Register of Deeds of the purpose of molesting an adverse party or it is
the province or city where the land lies and not necessary to protect the rights of the party
registered in the registration book, and a who caused it to be registered
memorandum made upon the proper certificate of (b) Register of Deeds may also cancel upon verified
title in each case as lien or encumbrance. petition of the party who caused such registration
(c) Deemed cancelled when certificate of clerk of
Procedure of registration of tax sale court stating manner of disposal of proceeding is
(a) Officers return shall be submitted to Register of registered
Deeds together with duplicate title
(b) Register in the registration book Other parties who need to register
(c) Memorandum shall be entered in the certificate Assignee in involuntary proceeding for insolvency
as an adverse claim or encumbrance (a) Duty of the officer serving notice to file a copy of
(d) After the period of redemption has expired & no the notice to the Register of Deeds where the
redemption (2 years from registration of auction property of debtor lies
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(b) Assignee elected or appointed by court shall be thirty days, the claimant may withdraw his adverse
entitled to entry of new certificate of registered claim by filing with the Register of Deeds a sworn
land upon presentment of copy of assignment petition to that effect.
with bankrupts certificate of title (duplicate)
(c) New certificate shall note that it is entered to him When is a claim adverse?
as assignee or trustee in insolvency proceedings When a person claims any part or interest in
registered land adverse to the registered owner, after
Government in eminent domain date of the original registration
(a) Copy of judgment shall be filed in the Register of
Deeds which states description of property, Duration of an adverse claim
certificate number, interest expropriated, nature 30 days from the date of registration. After that the
of public use annotation of adverse claim may be cancelled upon
(b) Memorandum shall be made or new certificate of filing of a verified petition by the party in interest.
title shall be issued When cancelled, no second adverse claim based on
the same ground may be registered by the same
ADVERSE CLAIM claimant.
Sec. 70. Adverse claim. Whoever claims any part or
interest in registered land adverse to the registered Requisites
owner, arising subsequent to the date of the original The adverse claimant must give a statement, signed
registration, may, if no other provision is made in this and sworn before a notary public, of the following in
Decree for registering the same, make a statement in writing:
writing setting forth fully his alleged right or interest, (a) his alleged right or interest
and how or under whom acquired, a reference to the (b) how and under whom such alleged right or
number of the certificate of title of the registered interest is acquired
owner, the name of the registered owner, and a (c) the description of the land in which the right or
description of the land in which the right or interest interest is claimed and
is claimed. (d) the number of the certificate of title
(e) his residence or the place to which all notices may
The statement shall be signed and sworn to, and be served upon him.
shall state the adverse claimant's residence, and a
place at which all notices may be served upon him. NOTE: Non-compliance with the above requisites
This statement shall be entitled to registration as an renders the adverse claim non-registrable and
adverse claim on the certificate of title. The adverse ineffective.
claim shall be effective for a period of thirty days
from the date of registration. After the lapse of said
period, the annotation of adverse claim may be
canceled upon filing of a verified petition therefor by
the party in interest: Provided, however, that after
Non-registrable Properties
cancellation, no second adverse claim based on the NON-REGISTRABLE LANDS
same ground shall be registered by the same
claimant. 1987 Constitution, Art. XII, Sec. 2
All lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal,
Before the lapse of thirty days aforesaid, any party in petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of potential
interest may file a petition in the Court of First energy, fisheries, forests or timber, wildlife, flora and fauna,
Instance where the land is situated for the and other natural resources are owned by the State. xxx
cancellation of the adverse claim, and the court shall
grant a speedy hearing upon the question of the Civil Code, Art. 420
validity of such adverse claim, and shall render The following things are property of public dominion:
judgment as may be just and equitable. If the (1) Those intended for public use, such as roads,
adverse claim is adjudged to be invalid, the canals, rivers, torrents, ports and bridges
registration thereof shall be ordered canceled. constructed by the State, banks, shores,
roadsteads, and others of similar character;
If, in any case, the court, after notice and hearing, (2) Those which belong to the State, without being
shall find that the adverse claim thus registered was for public use, and are intended for some public
frivolous, it may fine the claimant in an amount not service or for the development of the national
less than one thousand pesos nor more than five wealth.
thousand pesos, in its discretion. Before the lapse of
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The following lands cannot be registered: the duplicate of the instrument, with appropriate
(a) Forest or timberlands annotation, certifying that he has recorded the
(b) Lands for public use: roads, ports and bridges, instrument after reserving one copy thereof to be
etc. furnished the provincial or city assessor as
(c) Lands which are owned by the State for public required by existing law.
service or development of national wealth
(d) Tax sale, attachment and levy, notice of lis
pendens, adverse claim and other instruments in
the nature of involuntary dealings with respect to
unregistered lands, if made in the form sufficient
Dealings with in law, shall likewise be admissible to record
under this section.
Unregistered Lands
(e) For the services to be rendered by the Register of
PD 1529, Sec 113. Recording of instruments relating to Deeds under this section, he shall collect the
unregistered lands. No deed, conveyance, mortgage, same amount of fees prescribed for similar
lease, or other voluntary instrument affecting land services for the registration of deeds or
not registered under the Torrens system shall be instruments concerning registered lands.
valid, except as between the parties thereto, unless
such instrument shall have been recorded in the Key points
manner herein prescribed in the office of the Register (1) The system of registration for unregistered land is
of Deeds for the province or city where the land lies. under the Torrens system.
(2) Before: covers voluntary dealings, now includes
(a) The Register of Deeds for each province or city involuntary dealings
shall keep a Primary Entry Book and a (3) Effect if prospective; binds 3rd persons after
Registration Book. The Primary Entry Book shall registration but yields to better rights of 3rd
contain, among other particulars, the entry person prior to registration (limited effect to 3rd
number, the names of the parties, the nature of parties) reason: no strict investigation involved
the document, the date, hour and minute it was (4) Subsequent dealings also valid if recorded
presented and received. The recording of the (5) Register of deeds keeps day book & a register;
deed and other instruments relating to index system is also kept
unregistered lands shall be effected by any of
annotation on the space provided therefor in the Procedure
Registration Book, after the same shall have been (1) Presentment of instrument dealing in
entered in the Primary Entry Book. unregistered land
(2) If found in order registered
(b) If, on the face of the instrument, it appears that it (3) If found defective registration is refused writing
is sufficient in law, the Register of Deeds shall his reason for refusal
forthwith record the instrument in the manner
provided herein. In case the Register of Deeds
refuses its administration to record, said official
shall advise the party in interest in writing of the
ground or grounds for his refusal, and the latter
may appeal the matter to the Commissioner of
Land Registration in accordance with the
provisions of Section 117 of this Decree. It shall be
understood that any recording made under this
section shall be without prejudice to a third party
with a better right.
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Tanjanco v. CA (1966): However, when for one whole negligence of the defendant, the latter shall be liable
year, the plaintiff, a woman of legal age, maintained for indemnity if through the act or event he was
sexual relations with the defendant, with repeated benefited.
acts of intercourse, there is here voluntariness. No
case under Article 21 is made. Art. 2142. Certain lawful, voluntary and unilateral
acts give rise to the juridical relation of quasi-
MALICIOUS PROSECUTION contract to the end that no one shall be unjustly
Malicious prosecution is the institution of any action enriched or benefited at the expense of another.
or proceeding, either civil or criminal, maliciously and
without probable cause.
Art. 2143. The provisions for quasi contracts in this
Chapter do not exclude other quasi-contracts which
ELEMENTS:
may come within the purview of the preceding
(1) The fact of the prosecution and that the
article.
defendant was himself the prosecutor, and that
the action was finally terminated with an
acquittal One person should not be permitted to unjustly
(2) The prosecutor acted without probable cause enrich himself at the expense of another, but should
(3) The prosecutor was impelled by legal malice. be required to make restitution of, or for property or
benefits received, retained, or appropriated where it
is just and equitable that such restitution be made,
Que vs. IAC (1989): To constitute malicious and where much action involves no violation or
prosecution, there must be proof that the frustration of law or opposition to public policy,
prosecution was prompted by a sinister design to vex either directly or indirectly.
and humiliate a person and that it was initiated
deliberately by the defendant knowing that his While neither Art. 22 nor Art. 23 expressly provides
charges were false and groundless. Concededly, the for the effects of unjust enrichment, the Chapter on
mere act of submitting a case to the authorities for Quasi-Contracts (Articles 2159-2163), which
prosecution does not make one liable for malicious complements or supplements and should be so
prosecution. considered in appropriate cases, does.
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BASIS OF LIABILITY
Equity. An involuntary act, because of its character, The Tortfeasor
cannot generally create an obligation; but when by Worcester vs. Ocampo (1958): Tortfeasor refers to all
such act its author has been enriched, it is only just persons who command, instigate, promote,
that he should indemnify for the damages caused to encourage, advise, countenance, cooperate in, aid or
the extent of this enrichment. abet the commission of a tort, or who approve of it
after it is done, if done for their benefit.
SCOPE OF LIABILITY
The indemnity does not include unrealized profits of THE DIRECT TORTFEASOR
the injured party, because the defendants
Art. 2176. Whoever by act or omission causes damage
enrichment is the limit of his liability.
to another, there being fault or negligence, is obliged
to pay for the damage done.
(3) Strict Liability one is liable independent of fault General Rule: proper defense is the exercise of the
or negligence. It only requires proof of a certain diligence of a good father of a family (bonus
set of facts. Liability here is based on the breach paterfamilias)
of an absolute duty to make something safe. It
most often applies to ultra-hazardous activities or Exception: common carriers, and all others subject to
in product liability cases. It is also known as extraordinary diligence.
absolute liability or liability without fault.
Strict liability is imposed by articles 1314, 1711, 1712, BASIS OF VICARIOUS LIABILITY
1723, 2183, 2187, 2189, 2190, 2191, 2192, 2193. The basis of vicarious liability is NOT respondeat
superior; rather, it is the principle of pater familias.
ACCORDING TO SCOPE
GENERAL Respondeat Under American jurisprudence, it
Tort liability is based on any of the three categories: superior means that the negligence of the
intentional, negligent, strict liability servant is conclusively the negligence
of the master.
SPECIFIC
Includes trespass, assault, battery, negligence, Bonus pater Under the principle of pater familias,
products liability, and intentional infliction of familias the basis of the masters liability is
emotional distress the negligence in the supervision of his
subordinates. The master will be
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(1) School
freed from liability if he can prove that
he had observed all the diligence of a (2) Administrators
good father of the family to prevent the (3) Teachers
(4) Individual, entity, or institution engaged in
damage.
child care
PRESUMPTION OF NEGLIGENCE ON PERSONS INDIRECTLY If there is just cause for separation, the responsibility
RESPONSIBLE ceases.
Liability arises by virtue of a presumption juris Note: The responsibility of the father and mother is
tantum of negligence on the part of the persons made not simultaneous but alternate.
responsible under the article, derived from their failure
to exercise due care and vigilance over the acts of the WHEN RESPONSIBILITY CEASES
subordinates to prevent them from causing damage. When parent is not in the position to exercise
authority and supervision over the child
The non-performance of certain duties of precaution
and prudence imposed upon the persons who MEANING OF MINORITY
become responsible by civil bond uniting the actor to Par. 2 and 3 of Art. 2180 speak of minors. Minors
them. here refer to those who are below 21 years of age,
NOT below 18 years. The law reducing the majority
age from 21 to 18 years old did not amend these
Tamargo v. CA (1992): The basis of this vicarious, pars.
although primary, liability is, as in Article 2176, fault
or negligence, which is presumed from that which Art. 236, par. 3 of the FC, as amended by RA 6809,
accompanied the causative act or omission. The provides:
presumption is merely prima facie and may therefore
be rebutted. Nothing in this Code shall be construed to
derogate from the duty or responsibility of
NATURE OF LIABILITY parents and guardians for children and wards
The liability of the vicarious obligor is PRIMARY and below 21 years of age mentioned in the second
DIRECT (solidarily liable with the tortfesor), not and third paragraphs of 2180 of the Civil Code.
subsidiary. His responsibility is not conditioned upon
ADOPTED CHILDREN
the insolvency of or prior recourse against the
negligent tortfeasor. Judicially adopted children are considered legitimate
children of their adopting parents. Thus, adopters
PERSONS VICARIOUSLY LIABLE (ART. 2180) are civilly liable for their tortious/ criminal acts if the
WHO ARE LIABLE FOR MINORS?
children live with them and are below 21 years of
(a) Parents (the father, and in case of his death or age.
incapacity, the mother)
ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN
(b) Adopters
Responsibility is with the mother whom the law vests
(c) Court-appointed guardians
parental authority.
(d) Substitute Parental Authorities
(1) Grandparents REASON FOR VICARIOUS LIABILITY
(2) Oldest qualified sibling over 21 years old
Exconde vs. Capuno (1957): The civil liability which the law
(3) Childs actual custodian, provided he is
qualified and over 21 years old. imposes upon the father and, in case of his death or
(e) Special Parental Authorities incapacity, the mother, for any damages that may be
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caused by the minor children who live with them, is PARENTAL AUTHORITY OVER FOUNDLINGS, ABANDONED,
obvious. This is a necessary consequence of the NEGLECTED OR ABUSED AND OTHER SIMILARLY SITUATED
parental authority they exercise over them which CHILDREN
imposes upon the parents the 'duty of supporting In case of foundlings, abandoned, neglected or
them, keeping them in their company, educating abused children and other children similarly
them in proportion to their means', while, on the situated, parental authority shall be entrusted in
other hand, gives them the 'right to correct and summary judicial proceedings to heads of children's
punish them in moderation.' homes, orphanages and similar institutions duly
accredited by the proper government agency. (FC
Tamargo vs. CA (1992): The basis of parental Art. 217)
authority for the torts of a minor child is the
GUARDIANS
relationship existing between the parents and the
LIABILITY OF GUARDIANS
minor child living with them and over whom, the law
Guardians are liable for damages caused by the
presumes, the parents exercise supervision and
minors or incapacitated persons who are under their
control. To hold that parental authority had been
authority and live in their company. [Art. 2180, par. 3]
retroactively lodged in the adoptive parents so as to
(a) The liability of guardians with respect to their
burden them with the liability for a tortious act that
wards is governed by the same rule as in the
they could not have foreseen and prevented would
liability of parents with respect to their children
be unfair.
below 21 years and who live with them
(b) Incompetent includes
Parental liability is, in other words, anchored upon
(1) those suffering the penalty of civil interdiction,
parental authority coupled with presumed parental
or
dereliction in the discharge of the duties
(2) prodigals,
accompanying such authority. The parental
(3) deaf and dumb who are unable to read and
dereliction is, of course, only presumed and the
write
presumption can be overturned under Article 2180 of
(4) unsound mind, even though they have lucid
the Civil Code by proof that the parents had
intervals
exercised all the diligence of a good father of a
(5) being of sound mind, but by reason of age,
family to prevent the damage
disease, weak mind, and other similar causes,
cannot take care of themselves or manage
(NOTE: Art 2180, par 2 of the Civil Code which holds
their property [Rule 92, ROC]
the father liable for damages has been modified by
the Family Code and PD 603. Art. 211 of the FC
Liability of minor or insane tortfeasor without a parent
declares joint parental authority of the mother and
or guardian
father over common children. The parent(s)
He shall be answerable with his own property in an
exercising parental authority are liable for the torts
action against him where a guardian ad litem shall
of their children.
be appointed. [Art. 2182]
Libi vs. IAC (1992): The parent's liability under 2180 SCHOOL, TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS
should be primary and not subsidiary. If it were Teachers or heads of establishments of arts and
subsidiary, the parents cannot invoke due diligence trades shall be liable for damages caused by their
as a defense. Such interpretation reconciles 2180 pupils and students or apprentices, so long as they
with 2194 which calls for solidary liability of joint remain in their custody. [Art. 2180, par. 7]
tortfeasors.
Requisite for
REQUISITES FOR LIABILITY TO ATTACH Who are liable For whose Acts Liability to
(1) The child is below 21 years old Attach
(2) The child is under the parental authority of the Teacher-in- Pupils and Pupils and
parents charge (the students students
The child is living in the company of the parents one remain in
designated to teachers
exercise custody
supervision regardless of
over students) the age
Head of Apprentices Custody
establishment regardless of
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of employees, whether or not the employer is applicant for employment as to his qualifications, his
engaged in a business or industry, are covered so experience and record of service.
long as they were acting within the scope of their
assigned task, even though committed neither in the Metro Manila Transit vs. CA (1998): The responsibility
service of the branches nor on the occasion of their of employers for the negligence of their employees in
functions. For, admittedly, employees oftentimes the performance of their duties is primary, that is, the
wear different hats. They perform functions which injured party may recover from the employers
are beyond their office, title or designation but which, directly, regardless of the solvency of their
nevertheless, are still within the call of duty. employees. The rationale for the rule on vicarious
liability of the employer for the torts of the
Under the fifth paragraph of Article 2180, whether or employees is that this is a required cost of doing
not engaged in any business or industry, an business. They are placed upon the employer
employer is liable for the torts committed by because, having engaged in the enterprise, which
employees within the scope of his assigned tasks. will on the basis of all past experience involve harm
But it is necessary to establish the employer- to others through the tort of employees, and sought
employee relationship; once this is done, the plaintiff to profit by it, it is just that he, rather than the
must show, to hold the employer liable, that the innocent plaintiff, should bear them; and because he
employee was acting within the scope of his is better able to absorb them, through prices, rates
assigned task when the tort complained of was or liability or insurance, and so to shift them to
committed. It is only then that the employer may find society, to the community at large.
it necessary to interpose the defense of due diligence
in the selection and supervision of the employee. Nature of Employers Liability
th th The employer is PRIMARILY and SOLIDARILY liable
Distinction between 4 and 5 paragraph of 2180 for the tortious act of the employee. The employer
4th paragraph 5th paragraph may recover from the employee, the amount it will
have to pay the offended partys claim.
Liable persons Owners and Employers in
managers of an general, Such recovery, however, is NOT for the entire
establishment or an whether or not amount. To allow such would be as if to say that the
enterprise engaged in employer was not negligent.
business or
industry
Philtranco vs. CA (1997): The liability of the registered
Covered acts Negligent acts of Negligent acts owner and driver is solidary, primary and direct.
employees of employees
committed either in acting within Criminal Negligence
the service of the the scope of Fernando v. Franco: The vicarious liability of the
branches or on the their assigned employer for criminal negligence of his employee is
occasion of their task governed by RPC 103. Conviction of the employee
functions conclusively binds the employer. Defense of due
diligence in the selection and supervision of the
DEFENSE OF DILIGENCE IN SELECTION AND SUPERVISION employee is NOT available. The employer cannot
appeal the conviction.
Metro Manila Transit vs. CA (1993): Due diligence in
the SUPERVISION of employees includes the Soliman v. Tuazon (1992): Liability for illegal or
formulation of suitable rules and regulations for the harmful acts committed by security guards attaches
guidance of employees and the issuance of proper to the employer agency, not to the clients or
instructions intended for the protection of the public customers of such agency.
and persons with whom the employer has relations
through his or her employees and the imposition of Registered Owner Rule
necessary disciplinary measures upon employees in (1) The registered owner of the vehicle is primarily
case of breach or as may be warranted to ensure responsible to the public for whatever damage or
performance of acts as indispensable to the business injury the vehicle may have caused, even if he had
of and beneficial to their employee. already sold the same to someone else. The
policy is the easy identification of the owner who
Due diligence in the SELECTION of employees can be held responsible so as not to
require that the employer carefully examined the
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inconvenience or prejudice the third party injured. private corporation or individual. (Mendoza vs. De
(Cadiente v. Macas, 2008) Leon, 1916)
(2) This rule applies even if the vehicle is leased to The State agencies or subdivisions, in the pursuance
third persons. of proprietary functions, are akin to any other private
corporation. They may be sued for:
Remedy of the registered owner (1) Torts committed by them (Art. 2176) or
His liability is subject to his right of recourse against (2) Torts committed by their employees (art 2180).
the transferee or buyer.
As long as it is performing proprietary functions, it
THE STATE can be held liable for the acts of its employees, both
The State may not be sued without its consent. (Sec regular and special.
3, Art XVI, 1987 Constitution)
Notes:
The State is responsible in like manner when it acts (a) As a governmental entity: Liable only for acts of
through a special agent; but not when the damage its special agents
has been caused by the official to whom the task (b) As a corporate entity: May be held liable just as
done properly pertains, in which case what is any other employer for the acts of its employees
provided in Article 2176 shall be applicable. (Art (c) Special Agent: One duly empowered by a definite
2180, par. 6) order or commission to perform some act or one
charged with some definite purpose which give
Merritt vs. Government of the Philippine Islands (1960): rise to the claim; if he is a government employee
A special agent is one who receives a definite and or official, he must be acting under a definite and
fixed order or commission, foreign to the exercise of fixed order or commission, foreign to the exercise
the duties of his office if he is a special official. of the duties of his office
This concept does not apply to any executive agent JOINT TORTFEASORS
who is an employee of the active administration and The responsibility of two or more persons who are
who on his own responsibility performs the functions liable for quasi-delict is solidary. (Art. 2194)
which are inherent in and naturally pertain to his
DEFINITION OF JOINT TORTFEASORS
office.
Filipinas Broadcasting Network vs. AMEC-BCCM
The responsibility of the state is limited to that which (2005): They are all persons who command,
it contracts through a special agent, duly instigate, promote, encourage, advise, countenance,
empowered by a definite order or commission to cooperate in, aid or abet in the commission of a tort,
perform some act or charged with some definite or who approve of it after it is done, if done for their
purpose which gives rise to the claim. benefit.
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Acts of Omission and its Quezon City vs. Dacara (2005): Proximate cause is
Modalities determined from the facts of each case, upon a
combined consideration of logic, common sense,
Human conduct can be described alternatively as policy or precedent.
acts or omission. In relation to the existence of a
legal duty, conduct may be described in terms of DIFFERENTIATED FROM:
action or inaction, or misfeasance or REMOTE CAUSE
nonfeasance. Manila Electric v. Remonquillo: A prior and remote
cause cannot be made the basis of an action if such
Manresa; liability for personal acts or omission is remote cause did nothing more than furnish the
founded on that indisputable principle of justice condition or give rise to the occasion by which the
recognized by all legislators that when a person by injury was made possible, if there intervened
his act or omission causes damage or prejudice to between such prior or remote cause and the injury a
another, a juridical relation is created by virtue of distinct, successive, unrelated, and efficient cause of
which the injured person acquires a right to be the injury, even though such injury would not have
indemnified and the person causing the damage is happened but for such condition or occasion.
charged with the corresponding duty of repairing the Concurrent Cause Several causes producing the
damage. The reason for this is found in the obvious injury, and each is an efficient cause without which
truth that man should subordinate his acts to the the injury would not have happened. The injury is
precepts of prudence and if he fails to observe them attributed to any or all the causes, and recovery may
and cause damage to another, he must repair the be had against any or all of those responsible.
damage.
Far Eastern Shipping v. CA: Where the concurrent or
successive negligent acts or omissions of two or
more persons, although acting independently, are in
Proximate Cause combination the direct and proximate cause of a
single injury to a third person, it is impossible to
CONCEPT OF PROXIMATE CAUSE determine in what proportion each contributed to
In order that civil liability for negligence may arise, the injury and either of them is responsible for the
there must be a direct causal connection between whole injury. Where their concurring negligence
the damage suffered by the plaintiff and the act or resulted in injury or damage to a third party, they
omission of the defendant. In other words, the act or become joint tortfeasors and are solidarily liable for
omission of the defendant must be the proximate the resulting damage.
cause of the loss or damage of the plaintiff.
INTERVENING CAUSE
DEFINITION
Phoenix Construction v. IAC: If the intervening cause
Bataclan v. Medina:
is one which in ordinary human experience is
PROXIMATE CAUSE: that cause, which, in natural and
reasonably to be anticipated, or one which the
continuous sequence, unbroken by any efficient
defendant has reason to anticipate under the
intervening cause, produces the injury, and without
particular circumstances. The defendant may be
which the result would not have occurred.
negligent, among other reasons, because of failure
to guard against it.
PROXIMATE LEGAL CAUSE: that acting first and
producing the injury, either immediately or by setting
There is an intervening cause combining with the
other events in motion, all constituting a natural and
defendants conduct to produce the result, and the
continuous chain of events, each having a close
defendants negligence consists in failure to protect
causal connection with its immediate predecessor,
the plaintiff against that very risk.
the final event in the chain immediately effecting the
injury as a natural and probable result of the cause
Foreseeable intervening forces are within the scope
which first acted, under such circumstances that the
of the original risk, and hence of the defendants
person responsible for the first event should, as an
negligence.
ordinary prudent and intelligent person, have
reasonable ground to expect at the moment of his
act or default that an injury to some person might
probably result therefrom
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Amonoy vs. Gutierrez (2001): The exercise of a right Art. 33. In cases of defamation, fraud, and physical
ends when the right disappears, and it disappears injuries, a civil action for damages, entirely separate
when it is abused, especially to the prejudice of and distinct from the criminal action, may be
others. The mask of a right without the spirit of brought by the injured party. Such civil action shall
justice which gives it life, is repugnant to the modern proceed independently of the criminal prosecution,
concept of social law. It cannot be said that a person and shall require only a preponderance of evidence.
exercises a right when he unnecessarily prejudices
another xxx. Over and above the specific precepts of
positive law are the supreme norms of justice; and he
who violates them violates the law. For this reason it
is not permissible to abuse our rights to prejudice Intentional Torts
others.
CONCEPT
Under Article 2176, a person is also held liable for
intentional and malicious acts. The liability is
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(1) Prying into the privacy of anothers residence; In intentional infliction of mental distress, the
(2) Meddling with or disturbing the private life or gravamen of the tort is not the injury to plaintiff's
family relations of another; reputation, but the harm to plaintiff's mental and
(3) Intriguing to cause another to be alienated from emotional state. In libel, the gist of the action is the
his friends; injury to plaintiff's reputation. Reputation is the
(4) Vexing or humiliating another on account of his community's opinion of what a person is. In
religious beliefs, lowly station in life, place of intentional infliction of mental distress, the opinion
birth, physical defect, or other personal of the community is immaterial to the existence of
condition. the action although the court can consider it in
awarding damages. What is material is the
The principal rights protected under this provision disturbance on the mental or emotional state of the
are the following: plaintiff who is entitled to peace of mind.
(1) The right to personal dignity
(2) The right to personal security VIOLATION OF PRIVACY
(3) The right to family relations It is the right to be let alone, or to be free from
(4) The right to social intercourse unwarranted publicity, or to live without
(5) The right to privacy unwarranted interference by the public in matters in
(6) The right to peace of mind which the public is not necessarily concerned.
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violation of their own rights regarding the character DISTURBANCE OF PEACE OF MIND
and memory of the deceased. The disturbance of the mental and emotional
tranquility of the plaintiff by the defendant is a legal
Invasion of Privacy injury in itself and, therefore, a sufficient cause of
Types: action for damages, injunction, and other relief.
(1) Publication of embarrassing private facts The
interest here is the right to be free from A person, however, cannot be held liable for
unwarranted publicity, wrongful publicizing of damages for the mental or emotional disturbance of
private affairs and activities, as these are outside the plaintiff which was due to the latters
the ambit of legitimate public concern. susceptibility to such disturbance, where the
defendant had no knowledge of such peculiar
Ayer v. Capulong (1988): Public figures enjoy a limited susceptibility. The tendency of the law is to secure an
right to privacy as compared to ordinary individuals. interest in mental comfort only to the extent of the
ordinary sensibilities of men.
(2) Intrusion upon plaintiffs private affairs This is
not limited to situations where the wrongdoer MALICIOUS PROSECUTION
physically trespasses into ones property. Art. 2219. Moral damages may be recovered in the
(a) Generally, there is no invasion of privacy following and analogous cases:
when journalists report something that xxx
occurs in the public realm, except when the (8) Malicious prosecution
acts of the journalist are to an extent that it
constitutes harassment.
(b) RA 4200: it is illegal for any person not Art. 21. Any person who wilfully causes loss or injury
authorized by both parties to any private to another in manner that is contrary to morals, good
communication to secretly record such customs or public policy shall compensate the latter
communication. for the damage.
(c) Limitations to Right to Information v. Right
to Privacy: Malicious prosecution is the institution of any action
(i) Must be of public interest or proceeding either civil or criminal against another,
(ii) Must not be excluded by law maliciously and without probable cause.
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that his accusation of the person subject to such FRAUD OR MISREPRESENTATION (FORMERLY DECEIT)
malicious prosecution, was false and groundless. Salta vs. De Veyra (1982): Independent civil actions
are permitted to be filed separately regardless of the
xxx Proof and motive that the prosecution or result of the criminal action.
institution of the action was prompted by a sinister
design to vex and humiliate a person and to cast Samson vs. Daway (2004): Unfair competition under
dishonor and disgrace must be clearly and the Intellectual Property Code and fraud under Art.
preponderantly established to entitle the victims to 33 are independent actions. Art. 33 does not operate
damages and other rights granted by law; otherwise, as a prejudicial question to justify the suspension of
there would always be a civil action for damages the criminal cases at bar.
after every prosecution's failure to prove its cause
resulting in the consequent, acquittal of the accused SEDUCTION
therein. Sangco: Seduction is sexual intercourse with an
unmarried woman of chaste character whose
DEFAMATION, FRAUD AND PHYSICAL INJURIES consent was obtained through abuse of confidence
Art. 33. In case of defamation, fraud, and physical or through deceit.
injuries, a civil action for damages, entirely separate
and distinct from the criminal action, may be Seduction under the RPC (criminal seduction) is
brought by the injured party. Such civil action shall different from seduction under the NCC (civil
proceed independently of the criminal prosecution, seduction, Art. 21)
and shall require only a preponderance of evidence. (a) In criminal seduction, either qualified or simple,
the offended woman must be less than 18 years
of age.
DEFAMATION
(b) In civil seduction, the offended woman may be
Cojuangco vs. CA (1991): Separate civil action may be over 18 years of age.
consolidated with the criminal action.
Tanjanco vs. CA (1966): The essential feature is
MVRS vs. Islamic Da'wah (2003): Defamation is that seduction, that in law is more than mere sexual
which tends to injure reputation or diminish esteem, intercourse, or a breach of a promise of marriage; it
respect, good will, or confidence of the plaintiff, or connotes essentially the idea of deceit, enticement,
excite derogatory feelings about him. It must be superior power or abuse of confidence on the part of
personal. (What is definitive is not the level of hurt, the seducer to which the woman has yielded.
but the effect of the statement on the reputation or
standing of the person.) To constitute seduction there must in all cases be
some sufficient promise or inducement and the
Arafiles vs. Philippine Journalists (2004): In actions for woman must yield because of the promise or other
damages for libel, it is axiomatic that the published inducement. If she consents merely from carnal lust
work alleged to contain libelous material must be and the intercourse is from mutual desire, there is no
examined and viewed as a whole. seduction.
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backwages, but on the manner of his dismissal and and not by reason of the wrongful conduct of the
the consequent effects of such dismissal. defendant, there is no liability on the defendant.
However, if the defendant interferes and by his
The case at bar is intrinsically concerned with a civil wrongful conduct prevents a reconciliation
(not a labor) dispute; it has to do with an alleged between the spouses, or destroys the possibility
violation of Quisaba's rights as a member of society, thereof, the defendant is liable for alienation of
and does not involve an existing employee-employer affection.
relation within the meaning of section 2(1) of
Presidential Decree No. 21. The complaint is thus (2) Loss of affection or consortium
properly and exclusively cognizable by the regular
courts of justice, not by the National Labor Relations Note: Complete absence of affection between
Commission. the spouses is not a defense.
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from his or her spouse. This rule has more frequently who seeks to collect indemnity for damages resulting
been applied in the case of advice given to a married from deprivation of her domestic services must prove
daughter, but it is equally applicable in the case of such services.
advice given to a son.
Furthermore, inasmuch as a wife's domestic
LOSS OF CONSORTIUM assistance and conjugal companionship are purely
Lilius vs. Manila Railroad Company (1934): The personal and voluntary acts which neither of the
plaintiff Aleko E. Lilius also seeks to recover the sum spouses may be compelled to render, it is necessary
of P2,500 for the loss of what is called Anglo-Saxon for the party claiming indemnity for the loss of such
common law "consortium" of his wife, that is, "her services to prove that the person obliged to render
services, society and conjugal companionship", as a them had done so before he was injured and that he
result of personal injuries which she had received would be willing to continue rendering them had he
from the accident now under consideration. not been prevented from so doing.
In the case of Goitia vs. Campos Rueda, this court,
interpreting the provisions of the Civil Marriage Law CRIMINAL CONVERSATION (ADULTERY)
of 1870, in force in these Islands with reference to the Interference with the marital relations by committing
mutual rights and obligations of the spouses, adultery with one of the spouses. This is obvious
contained in articles 44-48 thereof, said as follows: enough in the case of rape but also applies where
the adulterous spouse consented to or initiated the
The above quoted provisions of the Law of Civil intercourse. (Prosser and Keeton, p. 917)
Marriage and the Civil Code fix the duties and
obligations of the spouses. The spouses must be SOCIAL RELATIONS
faithful to, assist, and support each other. The
husband must live with and protect his wife. The MEDDLING WITH OR DISTURBING FAMILY RELATIONS
wife must obey and live with her husband and Art. 26. Every person shall respect the dignity,
follow him when he changes his domicile or personality, privacy and peace of mind of his
residence, except when he removes to a foreign neighbors and other persons. The following and
country. . . . similar acts, though they may not constitute a
criminal offense, shall produce a cause of action for
Therefore, under the law and the doctrine of this damages, prevention and other relief;
court, one of the husband's rights is to count on his xxx
wife's assistance. This assistance comprises the 2) Meddling with or disturbing the private life or
management of the home and the performance of family relations of another;
household duties, including the care and education
of the children and attention to the husband upon Developed as an offshoot of the action for enticing
whom primarily devolves the duty of supporting the away a servant and depriving the master of the
family of which he is the head. When the wife's proprietary interest in [the servants] services until
mission was circumscribed to the home, it was not there has been a gradual shift of emphasis away
difficult to assume, by virtue of the marriage alone, from services and toward a recognition of more
that she performed all the said tasks and her intangible elements in the domestic relations, such
physical incapacity always redounded to the as companionship and affection. (Prosser and
husband's prejudice inasmuch as it deprived him of Keeton, p. 916)
her assistance. However, nowadays when women, in
their desire to be more useful to society and to the INTRIGUING TO CAUSE ANOTHER TO BE ALIENATED FROM
nation, are demanding greater civil rights and are HIS FRIENDS
aspiring to become man's equal in all the activities of A person who committed affirmative acts intended to
life, commercial and industrial, professional and alienate the existing friendship of one with his
political, many of them spending their time outside friends is liable for damages. A man is a social being
the home, engaged in their businesses, industry, and for being so, he needs friends to socialize with
profession and within a short time, in politics, and and to depend upon in case of need. To alienate him
entrusting the care of their home to a housekeeper, wrongfully or with malice from his friends is to cause
and their children, if not to a nursemaid, to public or him suffering for which he is entitled to damages.
private institutions which take charge of young
children while their mothers are at work, marriage
has ceased to create the presumption that a woman
complies with the duties to her husband and
children, which the law imposes upon her, and he
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Prohibited competition
Gilchrist vs. Cuddy (1915): Everyone has a right to In order to qualify as unfair, it must have 2
enjoy the fruits of his enterprise. He has no right to characteristics:
be protected from competition, but he has the right (1) It must involve an injury to a trade or rival
to be free from malicious and wanton interference. If (2) It must involve acts which are characterized as
the injury is a result of competition, it is a case of contrary to good conscience, or shocking to
damnum absque injuria, unless superior right by judicial sensibilities, or otherwise unlawful
contract is interfered with.
Note:
Injunction is the proper remedy to prevent wrongful Jarencio: Unfair competition dealt with in Art. 28 is
interference with contracts by strangers, where other different from the unfair competition under Sec. 29
legal remedies are insufficient and the resulting of RA 166. Unfair competition under Sec. 29 of Rep.
injury is irreparable. Act 166 consists in giving the same general
appearance to the goods manufactured or dealt in or
So Ping Bun vs. CA (1999): Bad faith/Malice is the services rendered by one person as the goods or
required to make the defendant liable for DAMAGES services of another who has already acquired a
in cases of tortuous interference. public goodwill for such goods or services. Unfair
competition under Art. 28 of the Civil Code refers to
Elements of Interference unfair competition in agricultural, commercial or
(1) Existence of a valid contract; industrial enterprises or in labor through the use of
(2) Knowledge of the third person of the existence force, intimidation, deceit, machination or any other
of such contract; and unjust, oppressive or high- handed method. Unfair
(3) Interference without legal justification or excuse. competition under the Civil Code covers a broader
area than Rep. Act 166.
Lagon vs. CA (2005): If there is no bad faith, there is
no tortious interference; Actual knowledge of the POLITICAL RELATIONS
contract is not required so long as there are facts
leading one to investigate. VIOLATION OF RIGHT TO SUFFRAGE (NCC, ART. 32)
Art 32. Any public officer or employee, or any private
Proper business interest provides a legal justification individual, who directly or indirectly obstructs,
to negate the presence of the third element. defeats, violates or in any manner impedes or
impairs any of the following rights and liberties of
UNFAIR COMPETITION another person shall be liable to the latter for
damages:
Art. 28. Unfair competition in agricultural,
(1) Freedom of religion
commercial or industrial enterprises or in labor
(2) Freedom of speech
through the use of force, intimidation, deceit,
(3) Freedom to write for the press or to maintain a
machination or any other unjust, oppressive or
periodical publication
highhanded method shall give rise to a right of
(4) Freedom from arbitrary or illegal detention
action by the person who thereby suffers damage.
(5) Freedom of suffrage
(6) The right against deprivation of property without
Free competition in agricultural, commercial or due process of law
industrial enterprises and in labor is essential in a (7) The right to just compensation when property is
democracy and should be encouraged. Monopolies, taken for public use
generally speaking, are prejudicial to public interest. (8) The right to equal protection of the laws
However, the right of free competition is not (9) The right to be secure in ones person, house,
unlimited. papers and effects against unreasonable
searches and seizures
(10) The liberty of abode and of changing the same
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(11) The right to privacy of communication and required. If the violation of the civil or political rights
correspondence constitutes a crime and a criminal action is instituted
(12) The right to become a member of associations the civil action is also deemed instituted with the
and societies for purposes not contrary to law criminal action unless the same is reserved.
(13) The right to take part in a peaceable assembly
and petition the government for redress of Cojuangco vs. CA (1999): The purpose of article 32 is
grievances to remind us that basic rights are immutable. Thus,
(14) The right to be free from involuntary servitude in absence of bad faith or malice is not a defense.
any form
(15) The right of the accused against excessive bail Vinzons-Chato vs. Fortune (2007): A public officer
(16) The right of the accused to be heard by himself may be sued under Art. 32 even if his acts were not
and counsel, to be informed of the nature and so tainted with malice, as long as there is a violation
the cause of the accusation against him, to have of a constitutional right. Its precise object is to put an
a speedy and public trial, to meet the witnesses end to official abuse, done on the plea of good faith.
face to face, to have compulsory process to
secure the attendance of witnesses on is behalf;
(17) Freedom form being compelled to be a witness
against ones self, or from being forced to
confess his guilt, or from being induced by a
Negligence
promise of immunity or reward to make such
confession, except when the person confessing Art. 1173. The fault or negligence of the obligor
becomes a State witness. consists in the omission of that diligence which is
(18) Freedom from excessive fines, or cruel and required by the nature of the obligation and
unusual punishment, unless the same is corresponds with the circumstances of the persons,
imposed or inflicted in accordance with a statute of the time and of the place. When negligence shows
which has not been judicially declared bad faith, the provisions of Articles 1171 and 2201,
unconstitutional; paragraph 2, shall apply.
(19) Freedom of access to the courts
If the law or contract does not state the diligence
In any of the cases referred to in this article, whether which is to be observed in the performance, that
or not the defendants act or omission constitutes a which is expected of a good father of a family shall
criminal offense, the aggrieved party has a right to be required.
commence an entirely separate and distinct civil
action for damages, and for other relief. Such civil ELEMENTS
action shall proceed independently of any criminal (1) Legal duty
prosecution (if the latter be instituted) and may be (2) Breach
proved by a preponderance of evidence. (3) Causation
(4) Damages
The indemnity shall include moral damages.
Exemplary damages may also be adjudicated. Layugan vs. IAC (1988): Negligence is the omission to
do something which a reasonable man, guided by
The responsibility herein set forth is not demandable those considerations which ordinarily regulate the
from a judge unless his act or omission constitutes a conduct of human affairs, would do, or the doing of
violation of the Penal code or any other penal something which a prudent and reasonable man
statute. would not do.
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state of the profession at the time of treatment or selection or supervision of the plaintiffs fellow-
the present state of medical science. worker.
IN CASE OF INSANE PERSONS Amedo vs. Rio (1954): By jumping into the sea, the
Art. 2180. Guardians are liable for damages caused employee failed to exercise even slight care and
by the minors or incapacitated persons who are diligence and displayed a reckless disregard of the
under their authority and live in their company safety of his person. His death was caused by his
notorious negligence. Notorious negligence has
Art. 2182. If the minor or insane person causing been held to be tantamount to gross negligence
damage has no parents or guardian, the minor or which is want of even slight care and diligence.
insane person shall be answerable with his own
property in an action against him where a guardian EVIDENCE
ad litem shall be appointed. QUANTUM OF PROOF IN QUASI-DELICT VS. QUANTUM OF
PROOF IN BREACH OF CONTRACT
US vs. Baggay (1911): A lunatic or insane person who, Calalas vs. CA: In quasi-delict, the negligence or fault
in spite of his irresponsibility on account of the should be clearly established because it is the basis
deplorable condition of his deranged mind, is still of action, whereas in breach of contract, the action
reasonably and justly liable with his property for the can be prosecuted merely by proving the existence of
consequences of his acts. a contract and the fact that the obligor, in this case a
common carrier, failed to transport his passenger
safely to his destination.
EMERGENCY RULE OR SUDDEN PERIL DOCTRINE
Valenzuela vs. CA (1996): An individual, who suddenly PRESUMPTION OF NEGLIGENCE
finds himself in a situation of danger and is required
to act without much time to consider the best means Art. 2184. In motor vehicle mishaps, the owner is
that may be adopted to avoid the impending danger, solidarily liable with his driver, if the former, who was
is not guilty of negligence if he fails to undertake in the vehicle, could have, by the use of due
what subsequently and upon reflection may appear diligence, prevented the misfortune. It is disputable
to be a better solution, unless the emergency was presumed that the driver was negligent, if he had
brought by his own negligence. been found guilty of reckless driving or violating
traffic regulations at least twice within the next
preceding two months.
UNREASONABLE RISK OR HARM
Art 1711. Owners of enterprises and other employers
are obliged to pay compensation for the death of or Art. 2185. Unless there is proof to the contrary, it is
injuries to their laborers, workmen, mechanics or presumed that a person driving a motor vehicle has
other employees even though the event may have been negligent if at the time of the mishap, he was
been purely accidental or entirely due to fortuitous violating any traffic regulation.
cause, if the death or personal injury arose out of and
in the course of employment. The employer is also Art. 2188. There is prima facie presumption of
liable for compensation if the employee contracts negligence if the death or injury results from his
any illness or disease caused by such employment or possession of dangerous weapons or substances,
as a result of the nature of the employment. If the such as firearms and poison, except when the use or
mishap was due to the employees own notorious possession thereof is indispensable in his occupation
negligence, or voluntary act, or drunkenness, the or business.
employer shall not be liable for compensation.
When the employees lack of due care contributed to Art. 1735. In all cases other than those mentioned in
his death or injury, the compensation shall be Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the preceding article
equitably reduced (calamity, act of public enemy in war, act of owner of
the goods, character of the goods, order of
Art. 1712. If the death or injury is due to the competent public authority), if the goods are lost
negligence of a fellow-worker, the latter and the destroyed or deteriorated, common carriers are
employer shall be solidarily liable for compensation. presumed to have been at fault or to have acted
If a fellow-workers intentional or malicious act is the negligently, unless they prove that they observed
only cause of the death or injury, the employer shall extraordinary diligence as required under Art. 1733.
not be answerable, unless it should be shown that
the latter did not exercise due diligence in the
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PRESUMED NEGLIGENCE OR NEGLIGENCE PER SE accident or has the best opportunity of ascertaining
Teague vs. Fernandez (1973): Violation of a statute or it and that the plaintiff has no such knowledge, and
ordinance constitutes negligence as a matter of law therefore is compelled to allege negligence in
or negligence per se because non-observance of general terms and to rely upon the proof of the
what the law provides as a suitable precaution is happening of the accident in order to establish
failure to observe that care which an ordinarily negligence.
prudent man would observe.
Note: For the res ipsa loquitur doctrine to apply, it
When the standard of care is fixed by law, failure must appear that the injured party had no
conform to such standard is negligence, negligence knowledge as to the cause of the accident, or that
per se or negligence in and of itself, in the absence of the party to be charged with negligence has superior
a legal excuse. knowledge or opportunity for explanation of the
accident.
RES IPSA LOQUITUR
The doctrine of res ipsa loquitur (the thing speaks DEFENSES
for itself) is a rule of evidence (not of substantive DUE DILIGENCE
law) peculiar to the law of negligence. Art. 2180. The obligation imposed by Article 2176 is
demandable not only for ones own acts or
3 conditions for applicability: omissions, but also for those of persons for whom
F.F. Cruz vs. CA (1988): Res ipsa loquitur is applicable one is responsible.
when: xxx
(1) The thing causing the injury is under the control Par. 8. The responsibility treated of in this article
of the defendant or his servant; shall cease when the persons herein mentioned
(2) In the ordinary cause of things, the accident does prove that they observed all the diligence of a good
not happen if those who have control used proper father of a family to prevent damage.
care;
(3) In the absence of explanation from the
defendant, a presumption of negligence results. Ramos vs. PEPSI (1967): The presumption of
negligence on the part of the master or employer,
either in the selection of servant/employee or in the
Layugan vs. IAC 1988): Where the thing which causes supervision, when an injury is caused by the
injury is shown to be under the management of the negligence of a servant/employee may be rebutted if
defendant, and the accident is such as in the the employer shows to the satisfaction of the court
ordinary course of things does not happen if those that in the selection and supervision, he has
who have the management use proper care, it exercised the care and diligence of a good father of a
affords reasonable evidence, in the absence of an family
explanation by the defendant, that the accident
arose from want of care.
Metro Manila vs. CA (1993): The defense of due
diligence is plausible when defendant has presented
Ramos vs. CA (1999): The injury itself, taken together enough evidence to overcome the presumption of
with the circumstances, raises the presumption of negligence. It is not enough that it is alleged.
negligence that the defendant must meet with an
explanation.
ACTS OF PUBLIC OFFICERS
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responsible for those events which, could not injury, the damage is regarded as damnum absque
foreseen, or which, though foreseen, were inevitable. injuria.
In order that the law will give redress for an act Requisites
causing damage, that act must be not only hurtful, (1) That the plaintiff had actual knowledge of the
but wrongful. There must be damnum et injuria. If, danger;
as may happen in many cases, a person sustains (2) That he understood and appreciated the risk from
actual damage, that is, harm or loss to his person or the danger
property, without sustaining any legal injury, that is, (3) That he voluntarily exposed himself to such risk
an act or omission which the law does not deem an
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Consolidated Bank vs. CA (2003): This is a case of Art. 1171. Responsibility arising from fraud is
culpa contractual where neither contributory demandable in all obligations. Any waiver of an
negligence nor last clear chance will exonerate action for future fraud is void.
defendant from liability. (NOTE: This means that
Last Clear Chance is not a defense in culpa DOUBLE RECOVERY NCC ART. 2177
contractual.) Art. 2177. Responsibility for fault or negligence under
the preceding article is entirely separate and distinct
PRESCRIPTION NCC, ART. 1144, 1146, AND 1150 from the civil liability arising from negligence under
Art. 1144. The following actions must be brought the Penal Code. But the plaintiff cannot recover
within ten years from the time the right of action damages twice for the same act or omission of the
accrues: defendant.
(1) Upon a written contract;
(2) Upon an obligation created by law; Art. 100 (RPC). Civil liability of a person guilty of
(3) Upon a judgment. felony. - Every person criminally liable for a felony is
also civilly liable.
Art. 1146. The following actions must be instituted
within four years: Art. 2177 distinguishes 2 kinds of negligence:
(1) Upon an injury to the rights of the plaintiff; (1) Civil and
(2) Upon a quasi-delict; (2) Criminal.
The same negligence causing damage may produce
However, when the action arises from or out of any liability arising from crime, if the act or omission is
act, activity, or conduct of any public officer involving punished by the RPC, or may create an action for
the exercise of powers or authority arising from quasi-delict under the NCC.
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The only limitation is that the injured party cannot (a) Is it necessary for X to reserve his right to institute
recover twice for the same act or omission. a civil action for damages against both taxicab
owners before he can file a civil action for damages
EFFECT OF ACQUITTAL OF THE ACCUSED ON HIS CIVIL against them? Why?
LIABILITY
Art. 29. When the accused in a criminal prosecution (b) May both taxicab owners raise the defense of due
is acquitted on the ground that his guilt has not been diligence in the selection and supervision of their
proved beyond reasonable doubt, a civil action for drivers to be absolved from liability for damages to
damages for the same act or omission may be X? Reason.
instituted. Such action requires only a
preponderance of evidence. Upon motion of the Suggested Answer:
defendant, the court may require the plaintiff to file a It depends. If the separate civil action is to recover
bond to answer for damages in case the complaint damages arising from the criminal act, reservation is
should be found to be malicious. necessary. If the civil action against the taxicab
owners is based on culpa contractual or on quasi-
The acquittal of the accused in the criminal case will delict, there is no need for reservation.
not necessarily exonerate him from civil liability.
It depends. If the civil action is based on quasi-delict,
The judgment of acquittal does not necessarily the taxicab owners may raise the defense of
extinguish the civil liability of the accused EXCEPT: diligence of a good father of a family in the selection
(1) When it declares that the facts from which the and supervision of the driver; if the action against
civil liability might arise did not exist; them is based on culpa contractual or civil liability
(2) When it declares that the accused is not the arising from a crime, they cannot raise the defense.
author of the crime;
(3) When the judgment expressly declares that the Alternative Answer:
liability is only civil in nature; No such reservation is necessary. Under Section 1
(4) Where the civil liability is not derived or based on Rule 111 of the 2000 Rules on Criminal Procedure,
the criminal act of which the accused was what is deemed instituted with the criminal action
acquitted; is only the action to recover civil liability arising from
(5) Where the acquittal is based on reasonable the crime or ex delicto. All the other civil actions
doubt; under Articles 32, 33, 34, 2176 of the New Civil Code
(6) Where the civil action has prescribed. are no longer deemed instituted, and may be filed
separately and prosecuted independently even
NO RESERVATION IS REQUIRED IN THE CRIMINAL CASE FOR
without any reservation in the criminal action
THE FILING OF CIVIL ACTION ARISING FROM QUASI-DELICT
(Section 3, Rule 111, 2000 Rules on Criminal
Procedure). The failure to make a reservation of the
Rule 111, Sec. 3, ROC. When civil action may criminal action is not a waiver of the right to file a
proceeded independently. In the cases provided separate and independent civil action based on
for in Articles 32, 33, 34 and 2176 of the Civil Code of these articles of the New Civil Code (Casupanan vs.
the Philippines, the independent civil action may be Laroya, G.R. No. 145391, August 26, 2002)
brought by the offended party. It shall proceed
independently of the criminal action and shall
require only a preponderance of evidence. In no case,
however, may the offended party recover damages
twice for the same act or omission charged in the Special Liability in Particular
criminal action.
Cases
In some cases tort law imposes liability on
defendants who are neither negligent nor guilty of
intentional wrongdoing. Known as Strict Liability, or
liability without fault, this branch of torts seeks to
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regulate those activities that are useful and (n) "Consumer" means a natural person who is a
necessary but that create abnormally dangerous purchaser, lessee, recipient or prospective purchaser,
risks to society. lessor or recipient of consumer products, services or
credit.
PRODUCTS LIABILITY
Art. 2187. Manufacturers and processors of (as) "Manufacturer" means any person who
foodstuffs, drinks, toilet articles and similar goods manufactures, assembles or processes consumer
shall be liable for death or injuries caused by any products, except that if the goods are manufactured,
noxious or harmful substances used, although no assembled or processed for another person who
contractual relation exists between them and the attaches his own brand name to the consumer
consumers. products, the latter shall be deemed the
manufacturer. In case of imported products, the
Under the foregoing provision, liability is not made to manufacturer's representatives or, in his absence, the
depend upon fault or negligence of the importer, shall be deemed the manufacturer.
manufacturer or processor. The provision likewise
dispensed with any contractual relation between the Article 92. Exemptions. If the concerned
manufacturer and the consumer, thereby clearly department finds that for good or sufficient reasons,
implying that liability is imposed by law as a matter full compliance with the labeling requirements
of PUBLIC POLICY. otherwise applicable under this Act is impracticable
or is not necessary for the adequate protection of
Proof of negligence under this provision is not public health and safety, it shall promulgate
necessary; as such, traditional contract and warranty regulations exempting such substances from these
defenses as (1) lack of privity; (2) lack of reliance on a requirements to the extent it deems consistent with
warranty; (3) lack of notice to the defendant of the the objective of adequately safeguarding public
breach of warranty; and (4) disclaimer of implied health and safety, and any hazardous substance
warranties are INAPPLICABLE. which does not bear a label in accordance with such
regulations shall be deemed mislabeled hazardous
REQUISITES OF LIABILITY
substance.
(1) Defendant is a manufacturer or possessor of
foodstuff, drinks, toilet articles and similar Article 93. Grounds for Seizure and Condemnation of
goods; Mislabeled Hazardous Substances.
(2) He used noxious or harmful substances in the (a) Any mislabeled hazardous substance when
manufacture or processing of the foodstuff, introduced into commerce or while held for sale
drinks or toilet articles consumed or used by the shall be liable to be proceeded against and
plaintiff; condemned upon order of the concerned
(3) Plaintiffs death or injury was caused by the department in accordance with existing
product so consumed or used; and procedure for seizure and condemnation of
(4) The damages sustained and claimed by the articles in commerce: Provided, That this Article
plaintiff and the amount thereof. shall not apply to a hazardous substance
intended for export to any foreign country if:
BURDEN OF PROOF
(1) it is in a package labeled in accordance with
The burden of proof that the product was in a the specifications of the foreign purchaser;
defective condition at the time it left the hands of the (2) it is labeled in accordance with the laws of
manufacturer and particular seller is upon the the foreign country;
INJURED PLAINTIFF. (3) it is labeled on the outside of the shipping
package to show that it is intended for
WHO MAY RECOVER
export; and
Although the article used the term consumer, such (4) it is so exported,
term includes a user and purchaser of the
injuriously defective food product or toilet article. The (b) any hazardous substance condemned under this
person who may recover NEED NOT BE THE Article shall after entry of order of condemnation
PURCHASER of the foodstuff or toilet article. be disposed of by destruction or sale as the
concerned department may direct, and the
CONSUMER ACT RA 7394, SECS. 92-107 (CH. 1)
proceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal cost and
charges, shall be paid into the treasury of the
Consumer Act Provisions Philippines; but such hazardous substance shall
Article 4. Definition of Terms. not be sold under any order which is contrary to
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against the other responsible parties, in The consumer may make immediate use of the
accordance with their part or responsibility in the alternatives under the second paragraph of this
cause of the damage effected. Article when by virtue of the extent of the
imperfection, the replacement of the imperfect parts
Article 99. Liability for Defective Services. The may jeopardize the product quality or characteristics,
service supplier is liable for redress, independently of thus decreasing its value.
fault, for damages caused to consumers by defects
relating to the rendering of the services, as well as If the consumer opts for the alternative under sub-
for insufficient or inadequate information on the paragraph (a) of the second paragraph of this Article,
fruition and hazards thereof. and replacement of the product is not possible, it
may be replaced by another of a different kind, mark
The service is defective when it does not provide the or model: Provided, That any difference in price may
safety the consumer may rightfully expect of it, result thereof shall be supplemented or reimbursed
taking the relevant circumstances into consideration, by the party which caused the damage, without
including but not limited to: prejudice to the provisions of the second, third and
(a) the manner in which it is provided; fourth paragraphs of this Article.
(b) the result of hazards which may reasonably be
expected of it; Article 101. Liability for Product Quantity
(c) the time when it was provided. Imperfection. Suppliers are jointly liable for
imperfections in the quantity of the product when, in
A service is not considered defective because of the due regard for variations inherent thereto, their net
use or introduction of new techniques. content is less than that indicated on the container,
packaging, labeling or advertisement, the consumer
The supplier of the services shall not be held liable having powers to demand, alternatively, at his own
when it is proven: option:
(a) that there is no defect in the service rendered; a) the proportionate price
(b) that the consumer or third party is solely at b) the supplementing of weight or measure
fault. differential;
c) the replacement of the product by another of
Article 100. Liability for Product and Service the same kind, mark or model, without said
Imperfection. The suppliers of durable or imperfections;
nondurable consumer products are jointly liable for d) the immediate reimbursement of the amount
imperfections in quality that render the products paid, with monetary updating without prejudice
unfit or inadequate for consumption for which they to losses and damages if any.
are designed or decrease their value, and for those
resulting from inconsistency with the information The provisions of the fifth paragraph of Article 99
provided on the container, packaging, labels or shall apply to this Article.
publicity messages/advertisement, with due regard
to the variations resulting from their nature, the The immediate supplier shall be liable if the
consumer being able to demand replacement to the instrument used for weighing or measuring is not
imperfect parts. gauged in accordance with official standards.
If the imperfection is not corrected within thirty (30) Article 102. Liability for Service Quality Imperfection.
days, the consumer may alternatively demand at his The service supplier is liable for any quality
option: imperfections that render the services improper for
a) the replacement of the product by another of consumption or decrease their value, and for those
the same kind, in a perfect state of use; resulting from inconsistency with the information
b) the immediate reimbursement of the amount contained in the offer or advertisement, the
paid, with monetary updating, without prejudice consumer being entitled to demand alternatively at
to any losses and damages; his option:
c) a proportionate price reduction. a) the performance of the services, without any
additional cost and when applicable;
The parties may agree to reduce or increase the term b) the immediate reimbursement of the amount
specified in the immediately preceding paragraph; paid, with monetary updating without prejudice
but such shall not be less than seven (7) nor more to losses and damages, if any;
than one hundred and eighty (180) days. c) a proportionate price reduction.
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Article 105. Legal Guarantee of Adequacy. The Art. 697. The abatement of a nuisance does not
legal guarantee of product or service adequacy does preclude the right of any person injured to recover
not require an express instrument or contractual damages for its past existence.
exoneration of the supplier being forbidden.
Art. 698. Lapse of time cannot legalize any nuisance,
Article 106. Prohibition in Contractual Stipulation. whether public or private.
The stipulation in a contract of a clause preventing,
exonerating or reducing the obligation to indemnify
LIABILITY FOR NEGLIGENCE VS. LIABILITY FOR NUISANCE
for damages effected, as provided for in this and in
Negligence Nuisance
the preceding Articles, is hereby prohibited, if there is
Basis
more than one person responsible for the cause of
Liability is based on lack Liability attaches
the damage, they shall be jointly liable for the
redress established in the pertinent provisions of this of proper care and regardless of the skill
diligence exercised to avoid the
Act. However, if the damage is caused by a
injury
component or part incorporated in the product or
service, its manufacturer, builder or importer and the Condition of the Act
person who incorporated the component or part are Act complained of is There is continuing harm
jointly liable. already done which being suffered by the
Article 107. Penalties. Any person who shall violate caused injury to the aggrieved party by the
any provision of this Chapter or its implementing plaintiff maintenance of the act
rules and regulations with respect to any consumer or thing which
product which is not food, cosmetic, or hazardous constitutes the nuisance
substance shall upon conviction, be subject to a fine Remedy
of not less than Five thousand pesos (P5,000.00) Action for damages Abatement
and by imprisonment of not more than one (1) year or
both upon the discretion of the court. NUISANCE PER SE
It is recognized as a nuisance under any and all
In case of juridical persons, the penalty shall be circumstances because it constitutes a direct menace
imposed upon its president, manager or head. If the to public health and safety and, for that reason, may
offender is an alien, he shall, after payment of fine be abated summarily under the undefined law of
and service of sentence, be deported without further necessity.
deportation proceedings.
To become a nuisance per se, the thing must, of
itself, because of its inherent qualities, without
complement, be productive of injury, or, by reason of
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the matter of its use or exposure, threaten or be breach of the peace, or doing unnecessary injury. But
dangerous to life or property. it is necessary:
(1) That demand be first made upon the owner or
NUISANCE PER ACCIDENCE possessor of the property to abate the nuisance;
It becomes a nuisance depending upon certain (2) That such demand has been rejected;
conditions and circumstances, and its existence (3) That the abatement be approved by the district
being a question of fact, it cannot be abated without health officer and executed with the assistance
due hearing thereon in a tribunal authorized to of the local police; and
decide whether such a thing does in law constitute a (4) That the value of the destruction does not
nuisance. exceed three thousand pesos.
Art. 702. The district health officer shall determine Del Rosario vs. Manila Electric Co. (1932): It is doubtful
whether or not abatement, without judicial whether contributory negligence can properly be
proceedings, is the best remedy against a public imputed to the deceased, owing to his immature
nuisance. years and the natural curiosity which a child would
feel to do something out of the ordinary, and the
mere fact that the deceased ignored the caution of a
Art. 703. A private person may file an action on companion of the age of 8 years does not, in our
account of a public nuisance, if it is specially injurious opinion, alter the case.
to himself.
Hidalgo Enterprises vs. Balandan (1952): One who
Art. 704. Any private person may abate a public maintains on his premises dangerous
nuisance which is specially injurious to him by instrumentalities or appliances of a character likely
removing, or if necessary, by destroying the thing to attract children in play, and who fails to exercise
which constitutes the same, without committing a ordinary care to prevent children from playing
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therewith or resorting thereto, is liable to a child of (18) Freedom from excessive fines, or cruel and
tender years who is injured thereby, even if the child unusual punishment, unless the same is
is technically a trespasser in the premises. imposed or inflicted in accordance with a statute
which has not been judicially declared
The principle reason for the doctrine is that the unconstitutional;
condition or appliance in question although its (19) Freedom of access to the courts
danger is apparent to those of age, is so enticing or
alluring to children of tender years as to induce them In any of the cases referred to in this article, whether
to approach, get on or use it, and this attractiveness or not the defendants act or omission constitutes a
is an implied invitation to such children criminal offense, the aggrieved party has a right to
commence an entirely separate and distinct civil
VIOLATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS action for damages, and for other relief. Such civil
VIOLATION OF CIVIL LIBERTIES action shall proceed independently of any criminal
Art 32. Any public officer or employee, or any private prosecution (if the latter be instituted) and may be
individual, who directly or indirectly obstructs, proved by a preponderance of evidence.
defeats, violates or in any manner impedes or
impairs any of the following rights and liberties of The indemnity shall include moral damages.
another person shall be liable to the latter for Exemplary damages may also be adjudicated.
damages:
(1) Freedom of religion The responsibility herein set forth is not demandable
(2) Freedom of speech from a judge unless his act or omission constitutes a
(3) Freedom to write for the press or to maintain a violation of the Penal code or any other penal
periodical publication statute.
(4) Freedom from arbitrary or illegal detention
(5) Freedom of suffrage Aberca, et al. vs. Ver, et al. (1988): It is obvious that
(6) The right against deprivation of property without the purpose of the above codal provision (Art. 32) is
due process of law to provide a sanction to the deeply cherished rights
(7) The right to just compensation when property is and freedoms enshrined in the Constitution. Its
taken for public use message is clear; no man may seek to violate those
(8) The right to equal protection of the laws sacred rights with impunity. In times of great
(9) The right to be secure in ones person, house, upheaval or of social and political stress, when the
papers and effects against unreasonable temptation is strongest to yield borrowing the
searches and seizures words of Chief Justice Claudio Teehankee to the
(10) The liberty of abode and of changing the same law of force rather than the force of law, it is
(11) The right to privacy of communication and necessary to remind ourselves that certain basic
correspondence rights and liberties are immutable and cannot be
(12) The right to become a member of associations sacrificed to the transient needs or imperious
and societies for purposes not contrary to law demands of the ruling power. The rule of law must
(13) The right to take part in a peaceable assembly prevail, or else liberty will perish.
and petition the government for redress of
grievances VIOLATIONS OF RIGHTS COMMITTED BY PUBLIC OFFICERS
(14) The right to be free from involuntary servitude in Art. 27. Any person suffering material or moral loss
any form because a public servant or employee refuses or
(15) The right of the accused against excessive bail neglects, without just cause, to perform his official
(16) The right of the accused to be heard by himself duty may file an action for damages and other relief
and counsel, to be informed of the nature and against the latter, without prejudice to any
the cause of the accusation against him, to have disciplinary administrative action that may be taken.
a speedy and public trial, to meet the witnesses
face to face, to have compulsory process to Art. 32, supra.
secure the attendance of witnesses on is behalf;
(17) Freedom form being compelled to be a witness
Dereliction of Duty
against ones self, or from being forced to
Amaro vs. Samanguit: Requisites:
confess his guilt, or from being induced by a
(1) Defendant is a public officer charged with a
promise of immunity or reward to make such
performance of a duty in favor of the plaintiff;
confession, except when the person confessing
(2) He refused or neglected without just cause to
becomes a State witness.
perform the duty;
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(3) Plaintiff sustained material or moral loss as a defective roads or streets belong to the province, city
consequence of such non-performance; or municipality. What said article requires is that the
(4) The amount of such damages, if material. province, city or municipality have either "control or
supervision" over said street or road.
Coverage
Applies only to acts of nonfeasance or the OWNERS OF MOTOR VEHICLES
nonperformance of some acts which a person is Art. 2184. In motor vehicle mishaps, the owner is
obliged or has responsibility to perform. solidarily liable with his driver, if the former, who was
in the vehicle, could have, by the use of the due
The duty of the public servant must be ministerial in diligence, prevented the misfortune. It is disputably
character. If the duty is discretionary, he is not liable presumed that a driver was negligent, if he had been
unless he acted in a notoriously arbitrary manner. found guilty of reckless driving or violating traffic
regulations at least twice within the next preceding
Defense of Good Faith is not available two months.
The reason of its unavailability is that an officer is
under constant obligation to discharge the duties of If the owner was not in the motor vehicle, the
his office, and it is not necessary to show that his provisions of article 2180 are applicable.
failure to act was due to malice or willfulness.
Art. 2185. Unless there is proof to the contrary, it is
Art. 34. When a member of a city or municipal police presumed that a person driving a motor vehicle has
force refuses or fails to render aid or protection to been negligent if at the time of the mishap, he was
any person in case of danger to life or property, such violating any traffic regulation.
peace officer shall be primarily liable for damages,
and the city or municipality shall be subsidiarily
responsible therefor. The civil action herein Art. 2186. Every owner of a motor vehicle shall file
recognized shall be independent of any criminal with the proper government office a bond executed
proceedings, and a preponderance of evidence shall by a government-controlled corporation or office, to
suffice to support such action. answer for damages to third persons. The amount of
the bond and other terms shall be fixed by the
Art. 34 covers a situation where: competent public official.
(a) There is danger to the life or property of person;
(b) A member of a city or municipal police force who The owner is SOLIDARILY liable with the driver for
is present in the scene refused or failed to render motor vehicle mishaps when:
aid or protection to the person; and (1) The owner was IN the vehicle at the time, AND
(c) Damages are caused wither to the person and/or (2) The owner could have, by the use of due
property of the victim. diligence, prevented the misfortune.
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third persons and as such is directly and primarily accident. And as far as perception is concerned,
responsible for the consequences incident to its absent a minimum level imposed by law, a maneuver
operation, so that in contemplation of law, such that appears to be fraught with danger to one
owner/operator of record is the employer of the passenger may appear to be entirely safe and
driver, the actual operator and employer being commonplace to another. Were the law to require a
considered merely as his agent. uniform standard of perceptiveness, employment of
professional drivers by car owners who, by their very
The registered owner of a motor vehicle is primarily inadequacies, have real need of drivers' services,
liable for the damage or injury caused to another, would be effectively proscribed.
but he has a right to be indemnified by the real
owner of the amount he was required to pay Duavit vs. CA (1989): An owner of a vehicle cannot be
(Tamayo vs, Aquino) This rule applies both to private held liable for an accident involving the said vehicle if
and to common carriers with respect to their the same was driven without his consent or
passengers. knowledge and by a person not employed by him.
Note: PROPRIETOR OF BUILDING OR STRUCTURE
If the owner was NOT inside the vehicle, Art. 2180
applies. Art. 2190. The proprietor of a building or structure is
responsible for the damages resulting from its total
The presumption is AGAINST the owner of the motor or partial collapse, if it should be due to the lack of
vehicle. He has the burden of proving due diligence. necessary repairs.
Thus, once a driver is proven negligent in causing Art. 2191. Proprietors shall also be responsible for
damage, the law presumes the vehicle owner equally damages caused:
negligent and imposes upon the latter the burden of (1) By the explosion of machinery which has not
proving proper selection of employee as a defense. been taken care of with due diligence, and the
inflammation of explosive substances which
Summary: have not been kept in a safe and adequate
Owner PRESENT in the Owner NOT PRESENT in place;
Vehicle the Vehicle (2) By excessive smoke, which may be harmful to
Owner is liable if he could Owner may be held persons or property;
have prevented the liable under Art. 2180, (3) By the falling of trees situated at or near
mishap by the exercise of par. 5. highways or lanes, if not caused by force
due diligence. majeure;
(4) By emanations from tubes, canals, sewers or
Caedo vs. Yu Khe Tai (1968): Car owners are not held deposits of infectious matter, constructed
to a uniform and inflexible standard of diligence as without precautions suitable to the place.
are professional drivers. In many cases they refrain
from driving their own cars and instead hire other Art. 2192. If damage referred to in the two preceding
persons to drive for them precisely because they are articles should be the result of any defect in the
not trained or endowed with sufficient discernment construction mentioned in article 1723, the third
to know the rules of traffic or to appreciate the person suffering damages may proceed only against
relative dangers posed by the different situations the engineer or architect or contractor in accordance
that are continually encountered on the road. What with said article, within the period therein fixed.
would be a negligent omission under aforesaid
Article on the part of a car owner who is in the prime Ownership of a building imposes on the proprietor
of age and knows how to handle a motor vehicle is thereof the duty to maintain it in good condition at
not necessarily so on the part, say, of an old and all times to the end that it may not collapse either
infirm person who is not similarly equipped. totally or partially as to cause damage or injury to
anothers person or property.
The law does not require that a person must possess
a certain measure of skill or proficiency either in the This duty obtains whether the building is leased or
mechanics of driving or in the observance of traffic held in usufruct.
rules before he may own a motor vehicle. The test of
his negligence, within the meaning of Article 2184, is Considering, however, that the lessee or usufructuary
his omission to do that which the evidence of his own has direct and immediate control of the building, the
senses tells him he should do in order to avoid the law imposes on him the duty to notify the proprietor
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of such urgent or extra-ordinary repairs AND where based on the negligence or on the presumed lack of
the proprietors failure to make the necessary repairs vigilance of the possessor or user of the animal
was due to the failure of the lessee or usufructuary to causing damage. It is based on natural equity and on
notify him, the proprietor is entitled to the principle of social interest that he who possesses
indemnification for damages he may have been animals for his utility, pleasure, or service, must
required to pay to the parties. answer for any damage which such animal may
cause.
Gotesco Investment Corp. vs. Chatto (1992): The
owner or proprietor of a place of public amusement POSSIBLE DEFENSES AGAINST THIS LIABILITY
impliedly warrants that the premises, appliances and (1) Force Majeure
amusement devices are safe for the purpose for (2) Fault of person suffering damage
which they are designed, the doctrine being subject (3) Act of third persons
to no other exception or qualification than that he
does not contract against unknown defects not SCOPE OF PROVISION
discoverable by ordinary or reasonable means. Contention that the defendant could not be
expected to exercise remote control of the animal is
HEAD OF FAMILY
not acceptable. In fact, Art. 2183 holds the possessor
liable even if the animal should escape or be lost
Art 2193. The head of a family that lives in a building and so be removed from his control.
or a part thereof, is responsible for damages caused
by things thrown or falling from the same. It is likewise immaterial that the animal was tame
and was merely provoked by the victim. The law does
Purpose of the law not speak only of vicious animals but covers even
To relieve the injured party of the difficulty of tame ones as long as they cause injury.
determining and proving who threw the thing or
what caused it to fall, or that either was due to the NUISANCE
fault or negligence of any particular individual. Sangco: A person who creates or maintains a
nuisance is liable for the resulting injury to others
Dingcong vs. Kanaan (1941): Lessee is considered as regardless of the degree of care or skill exercised to
the head of the family. It is enough that he lives in avoid the injury. The creation or maintenance of a
and has control over it. nuisance is a violation of an absolute duty.
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reason, it will readily be seen that whether a There can be no doubt that commercial and
particular thing is a nuisance is generally a question industrial activities which are lawful in themselves
of fact, to be determined in the first instance before may become nuisances if they are so offensive to the
the term nuisance can be applied to it. senses that they render the enjoyment of life and
property uncomfortable. It is no defense that skill
Salao and Lucas vs. Santos (1939): Nuisances are of and care have been exercised and the most improved
two kinds: nuisance per se and nuisance per methods and appliances employed to prevent such
accidens. The first is recognized as a nuisance under result.
any and all circumstances because it constitutes a
direct menace to public health or safety and, for that PRODUCTS LIABILITY (SUPRA)
reason, may be abated summarily under the Art 2187. Manufacturers and processors of foodstuffs,
undefined law of necessity. The second is that which drinks, toilet articles and similar goods shall be liable
depends upon certain conditions and circumstances, for death or injuries caused by any noxious or
and its existence being a question of fact, it cannot harmful substances used, although no contractual
be abated without due hearing thereon in a tribunal relation exists between them and the consumers.
authorized to decide whether such a thing does in
law constitute a nuisance. CONSUMER ACT
Consumer Act Provisions (supra)
EASEMENT AGAINST NUISANCE
Art. 682. Every building or piece of land is subject to Coca-Cola v. CA (1993): While it may be true that the
the easement which prohibits the proprietor or pre-existing contract between the parties may, as a
possessor from committing nuisance through noise, general rule, bar the applicability of the law on
jarring, offensive odor, smoke, heat, dust, water, quasi-delict, the liability may itself be deemed to
glare and other causes. arise from quasi-delict if the act which breaks the
contract is also a quasi-delict.
Art. 683. Subject to zoning, health, police and other
laws and regulations, factories and shops may be Summary:
maintained provided the least possible annoyance is Person Strictly For What Defenses or
caused to the neighborhood. Liable Exceptions
Possessor of an For the damage Force majeure
The provisions impose a prohibition upon owners of animal or it may cause Fault of the
buildings of land from committing therein a nuisance whoever makes person who
or using such buildings or lands in a manner as will use of them suffered
constitute a nuisance. It is based on the maxim sic even if the damage
utere tuo ut alienum non laedas (so use your own as animal is lost or
not to injure anothers property). escaped
Owner of Motor Motor vehicle Solidary liability
Velasco vs. Manila Electric Co. (1971): The general rule Vehicle mishaps only if the
is that everyone is bound to bear the habitual or owner was in
customary inconveniences that result from the the vehicle and
proximity of others, and so long as this level is not if he could have
surpassed, he may not complain against them. But if prevented it
the prejudice exceeds the inconveniences that such thru due
proximity habitually brings, the neighbor who causes diligence
such disturbances is held responsible for the If not in vehicle
resulting damage, being guilty of causing nuisance. 2180
Manufacturers Death and Absence on
While no previous adjudications on the specific issue and Processors injuries caused contractual
have been made in the Philippines, our law of of foodstuffs, by any noxious relation NOT a
nuisances is of American origin, and a review of drinks, toilet or harmful defense
authorities clearly indicates the rule to be that the articles and substances used
causing or maintenance of disturbing noise or sound similar goods
may constitute an actionable nuisance. (FDTAS)
Defendant in Death or injury possession or
possession of results from use thereof is
dangerous such possession indispensable in
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Person Strictly For What Defenses or Person Strictly For What Defenses or
Liable Exceptions Liable Exceptions
weapons/ his occupation without
substances or business precautions
such as firearms suitable to the
and poison place
Provinces, Cities The death or Public works Engineer, if damage of
and injuries suffered must be under Architect or building or
Municipalities by any person by their Contractor structure is
reason of the supervisions caused by defect
defective in construction
condition of which happens
roads, streets, within 15 years
bridges, public from
buildings, and construction;
other public action must be
works brought within
Proprietor ofa) Total or partial Responsibility 10 years from
building/ collapse of for collapse collapse
structure building or should be due Head of the Liable for
structure if due to the lack of Family that lives damages
to lack of necessary in a building or caused by
necessary repair repairs any part thereof things thrown or
s falling from the
b) Explosion of same
machinery
which has not
been taken
cared of with
due diligence,
and the
inflammation of
explosive
substances
which have not
been kept in a
safe and
adequate place
c) By excessive
smoke, which
may be harmful
to persons or
property
d) By falling of
trees situated at
or near
highways or
lanes, if not
caused by force
majeure
e) By emanations
from tubes,
canals, sewers
or deposits of
infectious
matter,
constructed
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the best evidence obtainable by the injured party, the VALUE OF LOSS; UNREALIZED PROFIT
actual amount of loss. Art. 2200. Indemnification for damages shall
comprehend not only the value of the loss suffered,
Damages must be proved and cannot be presumed. but also that of the profits which the obligee failed to
It must be established by clear evidence. obtain.
Valencia vs. Tantoco (1956): Damages must be In other words, indemnification for damages is not
proved with reasonable accuracy, even when not limited to damnum emergens (actual loss) but
denied. extends to lucrum cessans (a cession of gain or
amount of profit lost).
DEGREE OF CERTAINTY REQUIRED AS TO: FACT,
CAUSE AND AMOUNT OF DAMAGES ATTORNEYS FEES AND EXPENSES OF
Damages are not rendered uncertain just because LITIGATION
they cannot be calculated with absolute exactness or Art. 2208. In the absence of stipulation, attorney's
because the consequences of the wrong are not fees and expenses of litigation, other than judicial
precisely definite in pecuniary amount. costs, cannot be recovered, except:
(1) When exemplary damages are awarded;
The principle which will disallow recovery of (2) When the defendant's act or omission has
damages when their existence rests solely on compelled the plaintiff to litigate with third
speculation applies both to the fact and cause of persons or to incur expenses to protect his
damages. interest;
(3) In criminal cases of malicious prosecution
(1) The requirement of certainty does not prevent the against the plaintiff;
drawing of reasonable inferences from the fact (4) In case of a clearly unfounded civil action or
and circumstance in evidence. proceeding against the plaintiff;
(2) Events which occur after the wrong complained (5) Where the defendant acted in gross and evident
of may serve to render the damage sufficiently bad faith in refusing to satisfy the plaintiff's
certain. plainly valid, just and demandable claim;
(3) The damages must be susceptible of (6) In actions for legal support;
ascertainment in some manner other than by (7) In actions for the recovery of wages of household
mere speculation, conjecture or surmise and by helpers, laborers and skilled workers;
reference to some fairly definite standard, such as (8) In actions for indemnity under workmen's
market value, established experience or direct compensation and employer's liability laws;
inference from known circumstances. (9) In a separate civil action to recover civil liability
arising from a crime;
Talisay-Silay vs. Associacion: Where, however, it is (10) When at least double judicial costs are awarded;
reasonably certain that injury consisting of failure to (11) In any other case where the court deems it just
realize otherwise reasonably expected profits had and equitable that attorney's fees and expenses
been incurred, uncertainty as to the precise amount of litigation should be recovered.
of such unrealized profits will not prevent recovery or
the award of damages. In all cases, the attorney's fees and expenses of
litigation must be reasonable.
NOT SPECULATIVE
Actual damages to be compensable must be proved General Rule
by clear evidence, a court cannot rely on speculation, Attorneys fees and costs of litigation are recoverable
conjectures or guesswork as to the fact and amount IF stipulated.
of damages, but must depend on actual proof that
damages has been suffered and on evidence of the Exceptions
actual amount. If there is no stipulation, they are recoverable only in
the following cases:
COMPONENTS (1) By reason of malice or bad faith
Actual damage covers the following: (a) When exemplary damages are awarded
(1) Value of loss; unrealized profit (b) In case of a clearly unfounded civil action
(2) Attorneys fees and expenses of litigation (c) Where defendant acted in gross and evident
(3) Interest bad faith
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(d) When at least double judicial costs are No interest may be recovered on unliquidated (not
awarded fixed in amount) claims or damages, except when
(2) By reason of plaintiffs indigence in the demand can be established with reasonable
(a) Actions for legal support certainty at the Courts discretion.
(b) Actions for recovery of wages of laborers,
etc. COMPOUNDING OF INTEREST
(c) Actions for workmens compensation Interest due shall earn legal interest from the time it
(3) By reason of crimes in is judicially demanded, although the obligation may
(a) Criminal cases of malicious prosecution be silent on the point.
(b) Separate actions to recover civil liability
arising from crime Note that interest due can earn only at 6%, whether
(4) By reason of equity the rate of interest of the principal is greater than
(a) Where the defendants act compelled 6%.
plaintiff to litigate with third persons
(b) Where the Court deems it just and equitable DETERMINATION OF LEGAL INTEREST
(1) When an obligation, regardless of its source (i.e.,
Note: law, contracts, quasi-contracts, delicts or quasi-
In all cases, attorneys fees and costs of litigation delicts) is breached, the contravenor can be held
must be reasonable. liable for damages.
(2) With regard particularly to an AWARD OF
Even if expressly stipulated, attorneys fees are INTEREST in the concept of actual and
subject to control by the Courts. compensatory damages, the RATE of interest, as
well as the ACCRUAL thereof, is imposed, as
INTEREST follows (Eastern Shipping Lines vs. CA, 1994):
Art. 2209. If the obligation consists in the payment of
a sum of money, and the debtor incurs in delay, the
indemnity for damages, there being no stipulation to Base Rate Accrual
the contrary, shall be the payment of the interest
agreed upon, and in the absence of stipulation, the (a) When the (a) That which to be computed
legal interest, which is six per cent per annum. obligation is may have from default, i.e.,
breached, and it been from JUDICIAL or
consists in the stipulated in EXTRAJUDICIAL
Art. 2210. Interest may, in the discretion of the court, PAYMENT OF A writing. demand under
be allowed upon damages awarded for breach of SUM OF b) In the and subject to the
contract. MONEY, i.e., a absence of provisions of
loan or stipulation, Article 1169 of the
Art. 2211. In crimes and quasi-delicts, interest as a forbearance of the rate of Civil Code.
part of the damages may, in a proper case, be money, the interest shall
adjudicated in the discretion of the court. interest due be 12% per
should be annum (legal
Art. 2212. Interest due shall earn legal interest from interest)
the time it is judicially demanded, although the (b) Furthermore, legal interest from the time it is
obligation may be silent upon this point. the INTEREST JUDICIALLY
DUE shall itself demanded.
earn
Art. 2213. Interest cannot be recovered upon (c) When an at the rate of If claim or
unliquidated claims or damages, except when the obligation, NOT 6% per damages are
demand can be established with reasonable constituting a annum. LIQUIDATED,
certainty. loan or from default, i.e.,
forbearance of from judicial or
INTEREST ACCRUES WHEN: money, is extrajudicial
(1) The obligation consists in the payment of a sum breached, an demand. (Art.
of money interest on the 1169, Civil Code)
(2) Debtor incurs in delay AMOUNT OF
(3) There being no stipulation to the contrary DAMAGES If UNLIQUIDATED,
awarded may from the time the
be imposed at demand can be
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(1) All damages which may be reasonably damages were foreseen, or reasonably foreseeable
attributed to the non-performance of the by the defendant.
obligation, whether foreseen or not
(2) Exemplary or corrective damages Algarra vs. Sandejas: Actual damages for a negligent
act or omission are confined to those which "were
Note: foreseen or might have been foreseen," or those
Interest may be allowed on damages awarded, in the which were "the natural and probable
discretion of the court. consequences" or "the direct and immediate
consequences" of the act or omission.
Daywalt vs. Recoletos et al.: The damages
recoverable upon breach of contract are, primarily, Note:
the ordinary, natural and in a sense the necessary Damages are to be increased or decreased (in case of
damages resulting from the breach. Other damages, crimes only) according to aggravating or mitigating
known as special damages, are recoverable where it circumstances present.
appears that the particular conditions which made
such damages a probable consequence of the Interest, as part of damages, may be adjudicated in a
breach were known to the delinquent party at the proper case, in the Courts discretion.
time the contract was made.
Contributory negligence of the plaintiff, in case of
IN CRIMES AND QUASI-DELICTS quasi-delicts, shall reduce the damages to which he
may be entitled.
Art. 2202. In crimes and quasi-delicts, the defendant
shall be liable for all damages which are the natural
Note:
and probable consequences of the act or omission
In crimes, no mitigation for contributory negligence.
complained of. It is not necessary that such damages
have been foreseen or could have reasonably been
foreseen by the defendant.
Art. 2206. The amount of damages for death caused Moral Damages
by a crime or quasi-delict shall be at least three
thousand pesos, even though there may have been Art. 2217. Moral damages include physical suffering,
mitigating circumstances. In addition: mental anguish, fright, serious anxiety, besmirched
(1) The defendant shall be liable for the loss of the reputation, wounded feelings, moral shock, social
earning capacity of the deceased, and the humiliation, and similar injury. Though incapable of
indemnity shall be paid to the heirs of the latter; pecuniary computation, moral damages may be
such indemnity shall in every case be assessed recovered if they are the proximate result of the
and awarded by the court, unless the deceased defendant's wrongful act for omission.
on account of permanent physical disability not
caused by the defendant, had no earning
Art. 2218. In the adjudication of moral damages, the
capacity at the time of his death;
sentimental value of property, real or personal, may
(2) If the deceased was obliged to give support
be considered.
according to the provisions of article 291, the
recipient who is not an heir called to the
decedent's inheritance by the law of testate or Visayan Sawmill vs. CA: Moral damages are
intestate succession, may demand support from emphatically not intended to enrich a complainant
the person causing the death, for a period not at the expense of the defendant. Its award is aimed
exceeding five years, the exact duration to be at the restoration, within the limits of the possible, of
fixed by the court; the spiritual status quo ante, and it must be
(3) The spouse, legitimate and illegitimate proportional to the suffering inflicted.
descendants and ascendants of the deceased
may demand moral damages for mental Bagumbayan Corp. vs. IAC (1984): Mental suffering
anguish by reason of the death of the deceased. means distress or serious pain as distinguished from
annoyance, regret or vexation.
Defendant is liable for all damages which are the
Mental anguish is intense mental suffering.
natural and probable consequences of the act or
Generally, damages for mental anguish are limited
omission complained of; it is not necessary that such
to cases in which there has been a personal physical
injury or where the defendant willfully, wantonly,
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physical suffering and mental anguish, which can be (1) A criminal offense resulting in physical injuries;
experienced only by one having a nervous system. (2) Quasi-delicts causing physical injuries;
The statement in People vs. Manero and Mambulao (3) Seduction, abduction, rape, or other lascivious
Lumber Co. vs. PNB that a corporation may recover acts;
moral damages if it "has a good reputation that is (4) Adultery or concubinage;
debased, resulting in social humiliation" is an obiter (5) Illegal or arbitrary detention or arrest;
dictum. (6) Illegal search;
(7) Libel, slander or any other form of defamation;
NAPOCOR vs. Philipp Brothers: While it is true that (8) Malicious prosecution;
besmirched reputation is included in moral (9) Acts mentioned in article 309;
damages, it cannot cause mental anguish to a (10) Acts and actions referred to in articles 21, 26, 27,
corporation, unlike in the case of a natural person, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, and 35.
for a corporation has no reputation in the sense that
an individual has, and besides, it is inherently The parents of the female seduced, abducted, raped,
impossible for a corporation to suffer mental or abused, referred to in No. 3 of this article, may
anguish. also recover moral damages.
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(1) Prying into the privacy of another's residence: (7) The right to a just compensation when private
(2) Meddling with or disturbing the private life or property is taken for public use;
family relations of another; (8) The right to the equal protection of the laws;
(3) Intriguing to cause another to be alienated from (9) The right to be secure in one's person, house,
his friends; papers, and effects against unreasonable
(4) Vexing or humiliating another on account of his searches and seizures;
religious beliefs, lowly station in life, place of (10) The liberty of abode and of changing the same;
birth, physical defect, or other personal (11) The privacy of communication and
condition. correspondence;
(12) The right to become a member of associations
or societies for purposes not contrary to law;
Art. 27. Any person suffering material or moral loss
(13) The right to take part in a peaceable assembly
because a public servant or employee refuses or
to petition the government for redress of
neglects, without just cause, to perform his official
grievances;
duty may file an action for damages and other relief
(14) The right to be free from involuntary servitude in
against he latter, without prejudice to any
any form;
disciplinary administrative action that may be taken.
(15) The right of the accused against excessive bail;
(16) The right of the accused to be heard by himself
Art. 28. Unfair competition in agricultural, and counsel, to be informed of the nature and
commercial or industrial enterprises or in labor cause of the accusation against him, to have a
through the use of force, intimidation, deceit, speedy and public trial, to meet the witnesses
machination or any other unjust, oppressive or face to face, and to have compulsory process to
highhanded method shall give rise to a right of secure the attendance of witness in his behalf;
action by the person who thereby suffers damage. (17) Freedom from being compelled to be a witness
against one's self, or from being forced to
Art. 29. When the accused in a criminal prosecution confess guilt, or from being induced by a
is acquitted on the ground that his guilt has not been promise of immunity or reward to make such
proved beyond reasonable doubt, a civil action for confession, except when the person confessing
damages for the same act or omission may be becomes a State witness;
instituted. Such action requires only a (18) Freedom from excessive fines, or cruel and
preponderance of evidence. Upon motion of the unusual punishment, unless the same is
defendant, the court may require the plaintiff to file a imposed or inflicted in accordance with a statute
bond to answer for damages in case the complaint which has not been judicially declared
should be found to be malicious. unconstitutional; and
(19) Freedom of access to the courts.
If in a criminal case the judgment of acquittal is
based upon reasonable doubt, the court shall so In any of the cases referred to in this article, whether
declare. In the absence of any declaration to that or not the defendant's act or omission constitutes a
effect, it may be inferred from the text of the decision criminal offense, the aggrieved party has a right to
whether or not the acquittal is due to that ground. commence an entirely separate and distinct civil
action for damages, and for other relief. Such civil
action shall proceed independently of any criminal
Art. 32. Any public officer or employee, or any private prosecution (if the latter be instituted), and mat be
individual, who directly or indirectly obstructs, proved by a preponderance of evidence.
defeats, violates or in any manner impedes or
impairs any of the following rights and liberties of The indemnity shall include moral damages.
another person shall be liable to the latter for Exemplary damages may also be adjudicated.
damages: The responsibility herein set forth is not demandable
(1) Freedom of religion; from a judge unless his act or omission constitutes a
(2) Freedom of speech; violation of the Penal Code or other penal statute.
(3) Freedom to write for the press or to maintain a
periodical publication;
(4) Freedom from arbitrary or illegal detention; Art. 34. When a member of a city or municipal police
(5) Freedom of suffrage; force refuses or fails to render aid or protection to
(6) The right against deprivation of property without any person in case of danger to life or property, such
due process of law; peace officer shall be primarily liable for damages,
and the city or municipality shall be subsidiarily
responsible therefor. The civil action herein
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recognized shall be independent of any criminal Art. 2221. Nominal damages are adjudicated in order
proceedings, and a preponderance of evidence shall that a right of the plaintiff, which has been violated
suffice to support such action. or invaded by the defendant, may be vindicated or
recognized, and not for the purpose of indemnifying
Art. 35. When a person, claiming to be injured by a the plaintiff for any loss suffered by him.
criminal offense, charges another with the same, for
which no independent civil action is granted in this Art. 2222. The court may award nominal damages in
Code or any special law, but the justice of the peace every obligation arising from any source enumerated
finds no reasonable grounds to believe that a crime in article 1157, or in every case where any property
has been committed, or the prosecuting attorney right has been invaded.
refuses or fails to institute criminal proceedings, the
complaint may bring a civil action for damages
Art. 2223. The adjudication of nominal damages
against the alleged offender. Such civil action may
shall preclude further contest upon the right
be supported by a preponderance of evidence. Upon
involved and all accessory questions, as between the
the defendant's motion, the court may require the
parties to the suit, or their respective heirs and
plaintiff to file a bond to indemnify the defendant in
assigns.
case the complaint should be found to be malicious.
If during the pendency of the civil action, an General Rule: One does not ask for nominal
information should be presented by the prosecuting damages, and it is in lieu of the actual, moral,
attorney, the civil action shall be suspended until the temperate, or liquidated damages.
termination of the criminal proceedings.
Nominal damages are incompatible with: actual,
temperate and exemplary damages.
Please refer to previous discussions on the
provisions.
Armovit vs. CA: Nominal damages cannot co-exist
with actual or compensatory damages.
IN CASES OF MALICIOUS PROSECUTION
Mijares vs. CA: Moral damages cannot be recovered Francisco v. Ferrer: No moral or exemplary damages
from a person who has filed a complaint against was awarded. Nevertheless, when confronted with
another in good faith, or without malice or bad faith. their failure to deliver on the wedding day the
If damage results from the filing of the complaint, it wedding cake ordered and paid for, petitioners gave
is damnum absque injuria. the lame excuse that delivery was probably delayed
because of the traffic, when in truth, no cake could
Castillo vs. Castillo: The adverse result of an action be delivered because the order slip got lost. For such
does not per se make the act wrongful and subject prevarication, petitioners must be held liable for
the actor to the payment of moral damages. The law nominal damages for insensitivity, inadvertence or
could not have meant to impose a penalty on the right inattention to their customer's anxiety and need of
to litigate; such right is so precious that moral the hour.
damages may not be charged on those who may
exercise it erroneously.
Temperate Damages
Nominal Damages Art. 2224. Temperate or moderate damages, which
are more than nominal but less than compensatory
Nominal damages consist in damages awarded, not damages, may be recovered when the court finds
for purposes of indemnifying the plaintiff for any loss that some pecuniary loss has been suffered but its
suffered, but for the vindication or recognition of a amount cannot, from the nature of the case, be
right violated by the defendant. provided with certainty.
REQUISITES AND CHARACTERISTICS
(1) Invasion or violation of any legal or property right. Art. 2225. Temperate damages must be reasonable
(2) No proof of loss is required. under the circumstances.
(3) The award is to vindicate the right violated.
WHEN AWARDED
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These damages are awarded for pecuniary loss, in an Liquidated damages are those damages agreed
amount that, from the nature of the case, cannot be upon by the parties to a contract to be paid in case of
proved with certainty. breach thereof.
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PNB vs. CA: However, the award of P1,000,000 plaintiff must show that he would be entitled to
exemplary damages is also far too excessive and moral, temperate or compensatory damages were it
should likewise be reduced to an equitable level. not for the stipulation for liquidated damages.
Exemplary damages are imposed not to enrich one
party or impoverish another but to serve as a Art. 2235. A stipulation whereby exemplary damages
deterrent against or as a negative incentive to curb are renounced in advance shall be null and void.
socially deleterious actions.
Requisites to recover exemplary damages and
liquidated damages agreed upon
The plaintiff must show that he/she is entitled to
moral, temperate or compensatory damages:
WHEN RECOVERABLE
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to exercise the diligence of a good father of a family Cangco vs. Manila Railroad Co. (1918): In determining
to minimize the damages resulting from the act or the question of contributory negligence in
omission in question. One who is injured then by the performing such act that is to say, whether the
wrongful or negligent act of another should exercise passenger acted prudently or recklessly the age,
reasonable care and diligence to minimize the sex, and physical condition of the passenger are
resulting damage. Anyway, he can recover from the circumstances necessarily affecting the safety of the
wrongdoer money lost in reasonable efforts to passenger, and should be considered.
preserve the property injured and for injuries incurred
in attempting to prevent damage to it. PLAINTIFFS NEGLIGENCE
Manila Electric vs. Remonquillo (1956): Even if Manila
BURDEN OF PROOF Electric is negligent, in order that it may be held
The DEFENDANT has the burden of proof to liable, its negligence must be the proximate and
establish that the victim, by the exercise of the direct cause of the accident.
diligence of a good father of a family, could have
mitigated the damages. In the absence of such Bernardo vs. Legaspi (1914): Both of the parties
proof, the amount of damages cannot be reduced. contributed to the proximate cause; hence, they
cannot recover from one another.
Note:
The victim is required only to take such steps as an IN CONTRACTS, QUASI-CONTRACTS AND QUASI-DELICTS
ordinary prudent man would reasonably adopt for Art. 2215 In contracts, quasi-contracts, and quasi-
his own interest. delicts, the court may equitably mitigate the
damages under circumstances other than the case
RULES referred to in the preceding article, as in the
following instances:
IN CRIMES
(1) That the plaintiff himself has contravened the
Art. 2204. In crimes, the damages to be adjudicated terms of the contract;
may be respectively increased or lessened according (2) That the plaintiff has derived some benefit as a
to the aggravating or mitigating circumstances. result of the contract;
(3) In cases where exemplary damages are to be
IN QUASI-DELICTS awarded, that the defendant acted upon the
advice of counsel;
Art. 2214. In quasi-delicts, the contributory (4) That the loss would have resulted in any event;
negligence of the plaintiff shall reduce the damages (5) That since the filing of the action, the defendant
that he may recover. has done his best to lessen the plaintiff's loss or
injury.
CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE
INSTANCES OF GROUNDS FOR MITIGATION OF DAMAGES
Genobiagon vs. CA (1989): The alleged contributory
negligence of the victim, if any, does not exonerate (a) For Contracts:
the accused in criminal cases committed through (1) Violation of terms of the contract by the
reckless imprudence, since one cannot allege the plaintiff himself;
negligence of another to evade the effects of his own (2) Obtention or enjoyment of benefit under the
negligence. contract by the plaintiff himself;
(3) Defendant acted upon advice of counsel in
cases where exemplary damages are to be
Rakes vs. Atlantic (1907): If so, the disobedience of
awarded such as under Articles 2230, 2231,
the plaintiff in placing himself in danger contributed
and 2232;
in some degree to the injury as a proximate,
(4) Defendant has done his best to lessen the
although not as its primary cause.
plaintiffs injury or loss.
(Supreme Court in this case cited numerous foreign (b) For Quasi-Contracts:
precedents, mostly leaning towards the doctrine that (1) In cases where exemplary damages are to
contributory negligence on the part of the plaintiff be awarded such as in Art. 2232;
did not exonerate defendant from liability, but it led (2) Defendant has done his best to lessen the
to the reduction of damages awarded to the plantiff.) plaintiffs injury or loss.
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NOMINAL DAMAGES
Art. 2223. The adjudication of nominal damages
shall preclude further contest upon the right
involved and all accessory questions, as between the
parties to the suit, or their respective heirs and
assigns.
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